IMOmath - Functional Equations - Problems With Solutions
IMOmath - Functional Equations - Problems With Solutions
Functional Equations: Problems with Solutions
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Functional equations (Table of contents)
Functional Equations: Problems with Solutions
The following problems are related to functional equations. Many of the problems were given at national and
international mathematical competitions and olympiads, and thus are challenging. You may want to read first an
introductory text to Functional equations.
Problem 1
Find all functions f : Q → Q such that f (1) = 2 and f (xy) = f (x)f (y) − f (x + y) + 1 .
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This is a classical example of a problem that can be solved using mathematical induction. Notice that if we
set x = 1 and y = n in the original equation we get f (n + 1) = f (n) + 1 , and since f (1) = 2 we have
f (n) = n + 1 for every natural number n . Similarly for x = 0 and y = n we get
1 1
f (1) = (n + 1)f ( ) − f (n + ) + 1. (1)
n n
Furthermore for x = 1 and y = m +
1
n
we get f (m + 1 + 1
n
) = f (m +
1
n
) + 1 , hence by the
mathematical induction f (m + 1
n
) = m + f(
1
n
) . From (1) we now have
1 1
f( ) = + 1,
n n
n
we get f ( m
n
) =
m
n
+ 1 , i.e.
f (r) = r + 1 , for every positive rational number r . Setting x = −1 and y = r we get
f (−r) = −f (r − 1) + 1 = −r + 1 as well hence f (x) = x + 1 , for each x ∈ Q.
Problem 2 (Belarus 1997)
Find all functions g : R → R such that for arbitrary real numbers x and y :
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Hide solution.
equation.
Problem 3
The function f : R → R satisfies x + f (x) = f (f (x)) for every x ∈ R . Find all solutions of the equation
f (f (x)) = 0 .
Hide solution.
The domain of this function is R , so there isn′t much hope that this can be solved using mathematical
induction. Notice that f (f (x)) − f (x) = x and if f (x) = f (y) then clearly x = y . This means that the
function is injective. Since f (f (0)) = f (0) + 0 = f (0) , because of injectivity we must have f (0) = 0 ,
implying f (f (0)) = 0 . If there were another x such that f (f (x)) = 0 = f (f (0)) , injectivity would imply
f (x) = f (0) and x = 0 .
Problem 4
Find all injective functions f : N → R that satisfy:
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Let us emphasize that this is one standard idea if the expression on one side is symmetric with respect to the
variables while the expression on the other side is not. Now we have
f (f (n)) = f (n) − f (1) + f (f (1)) = f (n) − 2 + f (2) = f (n) + 2 . From here we conclude that
at odd numbers (except 1) the function has to take odd values. Let p be the smallest natural number such
that for some k f (k) = 2p + 1 . We have f (2p + 2s + 1) = 2p + 2s + 3 for s ≥ 0 . Therefore the
numbers 3, 5, … , 2p − 1 are mapped into 1, 3, … , 2p + 1 . If f (t) = 1 for some t , then for m = n = t
4 = f (2) = f (f (t) + f (t)) = f (f (t)) + f (t) = 3 , which is a contradiction. If for some t such that
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Problem 5 (BMO 1997, 2000)
Solve the functional equation
2
f (xf (x) + f (y)) = y + f (x) , x, y ∈ R.
Hide solution.
In probelms of this type it is usually easy to prove that the functions are injective or surjective, if the functions
are injective/surjective. In this case for x = 0 we get f (f (y)) = y + f (0) 2 . Since the function on the right
hand side is surjective the same must hold for the function on the lefthand side. This implies the surjectivity
of f . Injectivity is also easy to establish. Now there exists t such that f (t) = 0 and substitution x = 0 and
y = t yields f (0) = t + f (0) . For x = t we get f (f (y)) = y . Therefore
2
2
f (f (x)x + f (y)) = x + y,
Problem 6 (IMO 1979, shortlist)
Given a function f : R → R, if for every two real numbers x and y the equality
f (xy + x + y) = f (xy) + f (x) + f (y) holds, prove that f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for every two real
numbers x and y .
Hide solution.
This is a clasical example of the equation that solution is based on a careful choice of values that are plugged
in a functional equation. Plugging in x = y = 0 we get f (0) = 0 . Plugging in y = −1 we get
f (x) = −f (−x) . Plugging in y = 1 we get f (2x + 1) = 2f (x) + f (1) and hence
Hence it follows that 2f (uv) + 2f (u) + 2f (v) + f (1) = f (u) + 2f (v) + f (1) + f (2uv + u) , i.e.,
Plugging in v = −1/2 we get 0 = 2f (−u/2) + f (u) = −2f (u/2) + f (u) . Hence, f (u) = 2f (u/2)
and consequently f (2x) = 2f (x) for all reals. Now (1) reduces to f (2uv + u) = f (2uv) + f (u) .
Plugging in u = y and x = 2uv, we obtain f (x) + f (y) = f (x + y) for all nonzero reals x and y . Since
f (0) = 0 , it trivially holds that f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) when one of x and y is 0 .
Problem 7
Does there exist a function f : R → R such that f (f (x)) = x
2
− 2 for every real number x?
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After some attempts we can see that none of the first three methods leads to a progress. Notice that the
function g of the righthand side has exactly 2 fixed points and that the function g ∘ g has exactly 4 fixed
points. Now we will prove that there is no function f such that f ∘ f = g . Assume the contrary. Let a, b be
the fixed points of g , and a, b, c, d the fixed points of g ∘ g . Assume that g(c) = y. Then
c = g(g(c)) = g(y) , hence g(g(y)) = g(c) = y and y has to be on of the fixed points of g ∘ g . If y = a
Problem 8
Find all functions f : R
+
→ R
+
such that f (x)f (yf (x)) = f (x + y) for every two positive real numbers
x, y .
Hide solution.
f (x)f (yf (x)) = f (x + y) = f (yf (x) + x + y − yf (x)) = f (yf (x))f (f (yf (x))(x + y − yf (x))),
1
f (y) = ,
1 + αz
1−f (a)
where α = , and according to our assumption α > 0 .\\ It is easy to verify that f (x) =
1
1+αx
, for
af (a)
α ∈ R
+
, and f (x) ≡ 1 satisfy the equation.
Problem 9
(IMO 2000, shortlist) Find all pairs of functions f : R → R and g : R → R such that for every two real
numbers x, y the following relation holds:
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a − k
g(x) = f (x) + k.
b
Problem 10 (IMO 1992, shortlist)
Find all functions f : R+ → R+ which satisfy
Hide solution.
This is a typical example of a problem that is solved using recurrent equations. Let us define xn inductively
as xn = f (xn−1 ) , where x0 ≥ 0 is a fixed real number. It follows from the given equation in f that
x n+2 = −ax n+1 + b(a + b)x n . The general solution to this equation is of the form
n n
x n = λ1 b + λ2 (−a − b) ,
Problem 11 (Vietnam 2003)
Let F be the set of all functions f : R+ → R+ which satisfy the inequality f (3x) ≥ f (f (2x)) + x , for
every positive real number x. Find the largest real number α such that for all functions f ∈ F : f (x) ≥ α ⋅ x
.
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We clearly have that x2 ∈ F , hence α ≤
1
2
. Furthermore for every function f ∈ F we have f (x) ≥
x
3
.
The idea is the following: Denote 3 1
= α1 and form a sequence {αn } for which f (x) ≥ αn x and which will
(hopefully) tend to 2 . This would imply that α
1
≥
1
2
, and hence α =
1
2
. Let us constract a recurrent relation
for αk . Assume that f (x) ≥ αk x , for every x ∈ R
+
. From the given inequality we have
2
2α n +1
This means that αn+1 =
3
. Let us prove that limn→+∞ αn =
1
2
. This is a standard problem. It is
easy to prove that the sequence αk is increasing and bounded above by 12 . Hence it converges and its limit
2
2α +1
α satisfies α =
3
, i.e. α =
1
2
(since α < 1 ).
Problem 12
Find all functions f , g, h : R → R that satisfy
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Our first goal is to express f and g using h and get the equation involving h only. First taking y = x and
substituting g(0) = a we get f (2x) = 4h(x) − a. Furthermore by putting y = 0 we get
g(x) = 2h(x) + 2b − 4h(
x
2
) + a , where h(0) = b . Now the original equation can be written as
x + y x − y
2 [h( ) + h( )] + h(x − y) + b = h(x) + h(y). (1)
2 2
x − y x + y
2 [He ( ) + He ( )] + He (x − y) = He (x) + He (y). (2)
2 2
Ho (x + y) + Ho (x − y) = 2Ho (x).
It is easy to verify that these functions satisfy the given conditions.
Problem 13
Find all functions f : Q → Q for which
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Solve the same problem for the case f : R → R .
Hide solution.
and y = −1 gives f (−1) = f (1)f (−1) , hence f (−1) = 0 or f (1) = 1 . We will separate this into two
cases:
1
∘
Let f (−1) = 0 . In this innocentlooking problems that are resistent to usual ideas it is sometimes
successful to increase the number of variables, i.e. to set yz instead of y :
Although it seems that the situation is worse and running out of control, that is not the case. Namely
the expression on the lefthand side is symmetric, while the one on the righthand side is not. Writing
the same expression for x and equating gives
we don′t have a solution.
problem.
Problem 14
(IMO 2003, shortlist) Let R denote the set of positive real numbers. Find all functions f that
+ + +
: R → R
satisfy the following conditions:
−− −− −−
(i) f (xyz) + f (x) + f (y) + f (z) = f (√xy )f (√yz )f (√zx )
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First notice that the solution of this functional equation is not one of the common solutions that we are used to
work with. Namely one of the solutions is f (x) = x + x which tells us that this equality is unlikely to be
1
n
g(t ) = g(t) for every integer n , and therefore g(tq ) = g(t) q for every rational q . Consequently, if t > 1
n
such that tk = a , we have
k −k
f (x) = x + x for every x ∈ R.
Problem 15
Find all functions f : [1, ∞) → [1, ∞) that satisfy:
(ii)xf (x + 1) = f (x)
2
− 1 for every x ∈ [1, ∞) .
Hide solution.
f (x) = x + 1 we will use the same method for lowering the upper bound. Similarly we get
2 1/4 2
f (x) = xf (x + 1) + 1 ≤ x(√2(x + 1)) + 1 < 2 (1 + x) .
Now it is clear that we should use induction to prove
k
1/2
f (x) < 2 (1 + x),
for every k. However this is shown in the same way as the previous two inequalities. Since 2 → 1 as
1/2
f (x) ≥ x + 1 −
1
, and passing to the limit we get the required inequality f (x) ≥ x + 1 .
k
2
Problem 16 (IMO 1999, probelm 6)
Find all functions f : R → R such that
Hide solution.
2
c + 1 x
f (x) = − ,
2 2
2
x
= f (y1 ) + f (y2 ) + y1 y2 − 1 = c − .
2
the given equation.
Problem 17
Given an integer n , let f : R → R be a continuous function satisfying f (0) = 0 , f (1) = 1 , and
(x) = x , for every x ∈ [0, 1] . Prove that f (x) = x for each x ∈ [0, 1] .
(n)
f
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Hide solution.
First from f (x) = f (y) we have f (n) (x) = f (n) (y) , hence f is injective. The idea for what follows is clear
once we look at the graphical representation. Namely from the picture it can be easily deduced that the
function has to be strictly increasing. Let us prove that formally. Assume the contrary, that for some two real
numbers x1 < x2 we have f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) . The continuity on [0, x1 ] implies that there is some c such that
f (c) = f (x 2 ) , which contradicts the injectivity of f . Now if x < f (x) , we get f (x) < f (f (x)) etc.
we must have f (x) = x.
Problem 18
Find all functions f : (0, +∞) → (0, +∞) that satisfy f (f (x) + y) = xf (1 + xy) for all
x, y ∈ (0, +∞) .
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since it is monotone it is constant. However we then conclude that the lefthand side of the original equation
constant and the righthand side is not. Thus we must have f (1) = 1 . Let us prove that f (x) = x for
1
f (f (x) −
1
x
+ 1) ≥ f (1) = 1 , and xf (x) < 1 . Hence f (x) =
1
x
. If x < 1 , plugging y =
1
x
we get
1 x
f (f (x) + ) = xf (2) = ,
x 2
x
=
2
x
, i.e. f (x) =
1
x
in this case, too. This means that f (x) =
1
x
for
all positive real numbers x.
Problem 19 (Bulgaria 1998)
Prove that there is no function f such that f (x) 2 for every two
+ +
: R → R ≥ f (x + y)(f (x) + y)
positive real numbers x and y .
Hide solution.
obviously decreasing. Also from the given equality we can conclude that
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f (x)y
f (x) − f (x + y) ≥ .
f (x) + y
k 1
f (x + )
k k + 1 n n 1
f (x + ) − f (x + ) ≥ ≥ ,
n n k 1 2n
f (x + ) +
n n
Problem 20
Let f : N → N be a function satisfying
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This is a typical problem in which the numbers should be considered in some base different than 10. For this
situation the base 3 is doing the job. Let us calculate f (n) for n ≤ 8 in an attempt to guess the solution.
Clearly the given equation can have only one solution.
Problem 21 (BMO 2003, shortlist)
Find all possible values for f ( 2003 ) if f is the function satisfying the conditions:
2004
: Q → [0, +∞)
(iii) f ( 2002 ) .
2003
= 2
Hide solution.
that ap + bq = 1 implying f (1) = f (ap + bq) ≤ max{f (ap), f (bq)}. Now we must have f (bq) = 1
implying that f (q) = 1 for every other prime number q . From (iii) we have
2003 f (2003)
f( ) = = 2,
2002 f (2)f (7)f (11)f (13)
2
2004 f (2) f (3)f (167)
2
f( ) = = f (2) .
2003 f (2003)
4
, otherwise it is 1 .
It remains to construct one function for each of the given values. For the first value it is the multiplicative
function taking the value 1/2 at the point 2 , and 1 for all other prime numbers; in the second case it is a the
multiplicative function that takes the value 1/2 at, for example, 7 and takes 1 at all other prime numbers. For
these functions we only need to verify the condition (ii), but that is also very easy to verify.
Problem 22
Let I = [0, 1] , G = I × I and k ∈ N . Find all f : G → I such that for all x, y, z ∈ I the following
statements hold:
Hide solution.
The function of several variables appears in this problem. In most cases we use the same methods as in the
case of a singlevariable functions. From the condition (ii) we get f (1, 0) = f (0, 1) = 0 , and from (iii) we
get f (0, x) = f (x, 0) = xk f (1, 0) = 0 . This means that f is entirely defined on the edge of the region
G . Assume therefore that 0 < x ≤ y < 1 . Notice that the condition (ii) gives the value for one class of pairs
k
x k−1
f (x, y) = f (y, x) = y f (1, ) = y x.
y
2
≤ y < 1 . From the condition (i), and the already obtained results we get
k−1
1
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k−1
1 1 1 1 k−1
f (f (x, ), y) = f (x( ) , y) = f (x, f ( )) = f (x, y ).
2 2 2 2
k−1
y
Let us now consider x ≤ 2
k−1
y in order to simplify the expression to the form f (x, 1
y
k−1
) = x( ) ,
2 2
Problem 23 (APMO 1989)
Find all strictly increasing functions f : R → R such that
where g is the inverse of f .
Hide solution.
Clearly every function of the form x + d is the solution of the given equation. Another useful idea appears in
this problem. Namely denote by Sd the the set of all numbers x for which f (x) = x + d . Our goal is to
prove that Sd = R . Assume that Sd is nonempty. Let us prove that for x ∈ Sd we have x + d ∈ Sd as
well. Since f (x) = x + d , according to the definition of the inverse function we have g(x + d) = x , and
the given equation implies f (x + d) = x + 2d , i.e. x + d ∈ Sd . Let us prove that the sets Sd are empty, ′
can′t be a member of Sd . However this is a contradiction with the previously established properties of the
′
Problem 24
Find all functions h : N → N that satisfy
h(h(n)) + h(n + 1) = n + 2.
Hide solution.
1
∘
h(2) = 1 . Then h(h(1)) . Plugging n = 2 in the given equality gives
= 2
contradiction. This means that there are no solutions in this case.
2
∘
h(2) = 2 . Then h(h(1)) = 1 . From the equation for n = 2 we get h(3) = 2 . Setting
n = 3, 4, 5 we get h(4) = 3, h(5) = 4, h(6) = 4, and by induction we easily prove that h(n) ≥ 2 ,
h(n) = ⌊nα⌋ + 1,
−1+√5
where α = 2
(this constant can be easily found α2 + α = 1 ). Proof that this is a solution uses
some properties of the integer part (although it is not completely trivial).
Problem 25 (IMO 2004, shortlist)
Find all functions f : R → R satisfying the equality
2 2 2
f (x + y + 2f (xy)) = f (x + y) .
Hide solution.
2 2 2
f (z + g(t)) = (f (z)) for all t, z ∈ R with z ≥ 4t. (1)
2 2
f (z + c) = (f (z)) for all z ∈ R. (2)
2
u+√u +d
−−
f (x) = f (y) . Since this holds for any x, y ≥ 2√M with y 2 − x2 ∈ [δ, 2δ] , it follows that f (x) is
−−
eventually constant, say f (x) = k for x ≥ N = 2√M . Setting x > N in (2) we obtain k2 = k , so k = 0
or k = 1 .
To sum up, the solutions are f (x) ,
= x f (x) = 0 and all functions of the form
1, x ∉ X,
f (x) = {
−1, x ∈ X,
Functional equations (Table of contents)
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