ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

CENTRE MURSHIDABAD

A PROJECT ON

GLOBAISATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA

SOCIOLOGY

END-SEMESTER PROJECT

SESSION :- 2020-2021

SUBMITTED TO :- SUBMITTED BY :-

Mr. ASIF MOHD. DANIYAL SIRAJ

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR 18BALLB55

DEPARTMENT OF LAW GL0749

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to begin with acknowledging our Professor Mr. ASIF who gave me this
opportunity to work on a project work, giving us full autonomy to choose our topics as well as
guidance where ever needed.

Also, I would like to extend my gratefulness to my seniors, batch mates and parents who have
supported me throughout in this endeavour.

Mohd Daniyal Siraj

18B.A.LL.B.55

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................................................... 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 4

GLOBILIZATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL CULTURE.................................................................................................................. 7

GLOBALISATION AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY........................................................................................................ 8

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON INDIA............................................................................................................... 9

SOCIOLOGY OF GLOBALISATION....................................................................................................................... 12

SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA................................................................................................................................ 14

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL CHANGE................................................................................................................... 16

FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE........................................................................................................................... 22

CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................................... 28

BIBLOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................................. 29

3
 INTRODUCTION

No discussion on social change in the twenty-first century can take place without some
reference to globalisation. The effect of globalisation is far reaching. It affects us all but
affects us differently. Thus, while for some it may mean new opportunities, for others the loss
of livelihood. we study social change in India as Social change in India may be considered as
a process through which definite alterations in the structures and functions of a particular
social system result.

Factors of Social Change –

 Physical Environment

 Demographic (biological) Factor

 Cultural Factor

 Ideational Factor

 Economic Factor

 Political Factor

4
 GLOBALISATION

 Globalisation refers to both the compression as well as an intensification of the world

as a whole, which is currently operationalised as the global-local nexus'. Therefore, it
incorporates a dual identity of the global in the local' and 'the local in the global'. In
broad sense, the term 'globalization' means combination of economies and societies
through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services,
capital, finance and people. Globalization is described by theorists as the process
through which societies and economies are integrated through cross border flows of
ideas, communication, technology, capital, people, finance, goods, services and
information.

 Globalisation came to India through the economic reform and is gradually

transforming our culture and self image. Capital worked hard at promotion of
neoliberal policies and finally succeeded. The structural shifts within the World
economy had implications on the process and the nature of India‟s integration to this
global system. Contemporary globalisation became a neo-liberal project. It is a
political project characterized by the dominance of neo-liberal capitalism, by which
the speed and intensity of global flows have increased.

 The theories and discourses on social change and transformation till 1970s and 1980s
were largely associated with industrialisation and the gaps between the rich and poor
nations. Marx and many other scientists discussed the Industrial and French
Revolutions and their social ramifications.

 The recent history of liberalisation in India can be located within the longer history of
global capitalism. The Great Depression of the 1930s and the destruction during
Second World War were followed by a new phase of capitalism. The Depression
marked the end of British economic power. America defined the terms of post-war
reconstruction. By the 1970s the post-war boom was over, the American economy
faced a crisis. The United States had sustained its military expenditure and
international commitments through monetary expansion, and which led to inflationary

5
 pressures. Subsequent efforts at monetary regulation, that is, increasing of interest
rates and restriction of money supply to curb inflation slowed economic activity.
While the recession of the 1930s destroyed British hegemony over the world
economy, politico-economic developments during the 1970s and early 1980s
questioned the basis of American power. The 1980s became a period of re-negotiation
of international economic order. These shifts in the structure of world economy and
the trends towards globalisation crucially affected the third world. International
finance, an important mechanism of global integration, came to define the cycles and
rhythms of the new international order. The multinational corporations and the
financial institutions, like the IMF and the World Bank, started playing a major role in
defining the shape of the global order and the internal economy of the debtor
countries like India.

 Economic reforms in India accelerated flows and connectedness of people, goods,

technology, information and capital. At the same time, globalisation has intensified
exclusion, marginalisation and disconnections among different class of people,
regions and city and countryside. Different people are looking at the reforms from
their own perspectives. The upper class is very happy with the ongoing reform
process. They have more televisions, more channels on cables, more imported goods
and so on. Nobody is any longer ashamed of conspicuous consumption. The middle
class is seeing this as an opportunity of its advancement to the upper class. Many feel
making money one way or the other will get them into the high consumption
category. The lower classes want jobs and less inflation. The economic reforms have
created mutually opposed tendencies like universalisation and particularisation,
homogenisation and differentiation, integration and hybridisation in India. They
transformed ailing developing economy into a market economy, attracting foreign
direct investment but far away from self-reliant and indigenous development.

6
 UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL CULTURE

While trying to understand the global culture, Appadurai (1996) talks about „ethnoscape ‟,
that is, landscape of persons who constitute the shifting world in which we live: tourists,
immigrants, refugees, exiles and other moving groups and persons. He talks about
„technoscape‟, that is, the global configuration of technology that moves at high speeds
across various kinds of previously impervious boundaries. He also talks about „ mediascape
‟, which refers to the distribution of electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate
information, are now available throughout the world. Ideoscape means flow of ideas and
ideologies.

The point that Appadurai wants to make is that the combination of ethnoscape, technoscape,
mediascape and ideoscape lead to the globalisation of culture. Appadurai considers
globalisation as disjuncture, where global cultural system produced a vision of cultural
confusion and chaos. I argue that it is not disjuncture or disorder but continuity in the form of
creolisation and change of cultural identities. Mingling of cultures leads to fusion and new
products (Hannerz, 1992). Take the example of Hinglish, a language formed by the mixing of
English and Hindi languages. This is an example of cultural hybridization in Indian context.
The internet, the mass media and ICT in India have dissolved boundaries and got people
closer and changed the social interaction pattern, now based more on capital and symbols.
They have produced new virtual and electronic relationships on social networking sites.
Technological advances have altered the social and economic life.

7
 GLOBALISATION AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Reasons to think that globalization might undermine cultural diversity:

• multinational corporations promote a certain kind of consumerist culture, in which
standard commodities, promoted by global marketing campaigns exploiting basic material
desires, create similar lifestyles--"Coca-Colanization"
• backed by the power of certain states, Western ideals are falsely established as
universal, overrriding local traditions--"cultural imperialism"
• modern institutions have an inherently rationalizing thrust, making all human
practices more efficient, controllable, and predictable, as exemplified by the spread of fast
food-- "McDonaldization"
• the United States exerts hegemonic influence in promoting its values and habits
through popular culture and the news media--"Americanization"

Reasons to think that globalization will foster diversity:

• interaction across boundaries leads to the mixing of cultures in particular places and
practice--pluralization
• cultural flows occur differently in different spheres and may originate in many
places-- differentiation
• integration and the spread of ideas and images provoke reactions and resistance--
contestation
• global norms or practices are interpreted differently according to local tradition; the
universal must take particular forms--glocalization
• diversity has itself become a global value, promoted through international
organizations and movements, not to mention nation-states--institutionalization

8
To some extent, the issue of diversity is now the subject of global cultural politics, and
therefore unlikely to be settled by argument and evidence. Scholars can offer some cautions:
• whether diversity diminishes depends on what yardstick you use (e.g., linguistic
diversity may be more threatened than culinary diversity)
• homogenization and heterogenization may actually operate in tandem or even
reinforce each other

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON INDIA

Many theorists asserted that change in environment has both positive and negative aspects
(Harris, 2002). These stimulate driving or resisting forces toward the change of the status
quo. This is most obvious relative to both globalization, and the resulting spread of the global
organization.
India was main mover of globalization. The government of India made major modifications
in its economic policy in 1991 by which it allowed direct foreign investments in the country.
As a result of this, globalization of the Indian Industry occurred at large scale. In India,
economic expansion was observed in nineteenth century due to major crisis led by foreign
exchange. The liberalization of the domestic economy and enhanced incorporation of India
with the global economy helped to step up gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates which
made good position in global scale. Effects of globalization in Indian Industry are observed
as this process brought in large amounts of foreign investments into the industry especially in
the BPO, pharmaceutical, petroleum, and manufacturing industries. As a result, they boosted
the Indian economy quite significantly. The benefits of the effects of globalization in the
Indian Industry are that many foreign companies set up industries in India, especially in the
pharmaceutical, BPO, petroleum, manufacturing, and chemical sectors and this helped to
offer great opportunities for employment to Indian people. Also this helped to reduce the
level of unemployment and poverty in the country. It is observed that the major forces of
globalization in India has been in the development of outsourced IT and business process
outsourcing services. Since last many years, there is an increase of skilled professionals in
India employed by both local and foreign companies to service customers in the US and
Europe. These countries take advantage of India's lower cost but highly talented and English-
speaking work force, and utilizes global communications technologies such as voice-over IP
(VOIP), email and the internet, international enterprises have been able to lower their cost

9
base by establishing outsourced knowledge-worker operations in India. The foreign
companies brought in highly advanced technology with them and this made the Indian
Industry more technologically advanced. Globalization in India has been beneficial for
companies that have ventured in the Indian market. It is recommended by researchers that
India has to focus on five important areas to enhance its economic status. The areas include
technological entrepreneurship, new business openings for small and medium enterprises, the
importance of quality management, new prospects in rural areas and privatization of financial
institutions.
In terms of export and import activities, Many Indian companies have expanded their
business and became famous at global level such as fast food, beverages, and sportswear and
garment industries. Records indicated that Agriculture exports account for about 13 to 18% of
total annual export of the country. In 2000-01, agricultural products valued at more than
US$6 million were exported from the country of which 23% was contributed to the marine
products alone. Marine products in recent years have emerged as the single largest
contributor to the total agricultural export form the country accounting for over one fifth of
the total agricultural exports. Cereals (mostly basmati rice and non-basmati rice), oil seeds,
tea and coffee are the other prominent products each of which accounts for nearly 5 to 10%
of the countries' total agricultural exports. Globalization speeded export of food items in
India in the form of increased consumption of meat, western fast food, sodas and cool drinks,
which may result in public health crisis. The rich biodiversity of India has yielded many
healthy foods prepared from locally available entities.
There is immense effects observed in educational sector due to globalization such as literacy
rate become high and Foreign Universities are collaborating with different Indian
Universities. The Indian educational system faces challenges of globalization through
Information technology and it offers opportunities to evolve new paradigms shifts in
developmental education. The distinction between formal, non-formal and informal education
will vanish when move from industrial society to information society takes place.
Globalization promotes new tools and techniques such as E-learning, Flexible learning,
Distance Education Programs and Overseas training.
It is observed in current Indian society that through globalization, women have gained certain
opportunities for job options and to recognize women's rights as a part of the human rights.
Their empowerment has given considerable opportunities and possibilities of improving
employment conditions through global solidarity and co-ordination. It is found that the

10
growth of computer and other technologies enabled women with better waged, flex timings,
and capacity to negotiate their role and status in home and at corporate level.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS:

There are some negative impact of globalization such as this process made disparity between
rural and urban Indian joblessness, growth of slum capitals and threat of terrorist activities.
Globalization increased competition in the Indian market between the foreign companies and
domestic companies. With the foreign goods being better than the Indian goods, the
consumer preferred to buy the foreign goods. This reduced the amount of profit of the Indian
Industry companies. This happened mainly in the pharmaceutical, manufacturing, chemical,
and steel industries.
The negative Effects of Globalization on Indian Industry are that with the coming of
technology the number of labour required are decreased and this resulted increasing
unemployment especially in the arena of the pharmaceutical, chemical, manufacturing, and
cement industries. Some section of people in India that are poor do not get benefit of
globalization. There is an increased gap between rich and poor that lead to some criminal
activities. Ethical responsibility of business has been reduced. Another major negative effect
of globalization in India is that youngsters of India leaving their studies very early and
joining Call centres to earn fast money reducing their social life after getting habituated with
monotonous work. There is an increase of every daily usable commodities. This has an
adverse effect on cultural aspect. The institution of marriage is breaking down at fast rate.
There are more people approaching divorce courts instead of maintaining marital life.
Globalization has considerable impact on the religious situation of India. Globalization has
brought about raising a population who is agnostic and atheist. People visiting places of
worship are reducing with time. Globalization has reduced nationalism and patriotism in
country

11
To summarize, the process of globalization has changed the industrial pattern social life of
global people and it has immense impact on Indian trade system. The globalization of the
economic, social and cultural structures happened in all ages. Previously, the pace of process
was slow. Today with the start of the information technology, new ways of communication
have made the world a very small place. With this process, there is a big market place.
Globalization has resulted in increase in the production of a range of goods.

MNCs have established manufacturing plants all over the world. It has positive effects and
India will overcome many obstacles and adopt global policies to expand business at
international scale. India is gaining international recognition and strengthening in economic
and political areas.

SOCIOLOGY OF GLOBALISATION

The sociology of globalization is a subfield within sociology that focuses on understanding

the structures, institutions, groups, relationships, ideologies, trends, and patterns that are
particular to a globalized world. Sociologists whose research lies within this subfield focus on
how the process of globalization has shifted or changed pre-existing elements of society, new
elements of society that may have evolved in response to globalization, and the social,
economic, political, cultural, and environmental implications of the process. The sociology of
globalization contains the study of economic, political, and cultural globalization, and
importantly, examines the interplay of all three aspects, as they are all mutually dependent on
one another.
When sociologists focus on the economic aspects of globalization, they examine how the
capitalist economy has evolved from a pre-globalization state. They research legal changes in
the regulations of production, finance, and trade that either facilitated or are responses to the
globalization of the economy; how the processes and relations of production are different in a
globalized economy; how conditions and experiences of labor, and the value of labor, are
particular to a globalized economy; how globalization changes patterns of consumption and
distribution; and what may or may not be particular to the business enterprises that operate in
a global economy.
Sociologists have found that the deregulation of the economy that allowed for its
globalization have led to a rise in insecure, low-wage, and unsafe work around the world, and

12
that corporations have amassed unprecedented levels of wealth during capitalism’s global
epoch.
When studying political globalization, sociologists focus on understanding what has
changed or is new about political institutions, actors, forms of government and governance,
the practice of popular politics, modes of political engagement, and the relationships between
them in a global context. Political globalization is intimately connected to economic
globalization, as it is within the political realm that decisions about how to globalize and run
the economy were and are made. Sociologists have found that the global era has wrought
entirely new forms of governance that are global in scope (the transnational state), made up
of organizations of heads of state or high-level representatives from many nations who
determine the rules for global society. Some have focused their research on the implications
of globalization for popular political movements, and have illuminated the role of digital
technology in facilitating globalized political and social
movements that reflect shared ideas, values, and goals of people all over the world (like the
Occupy movement, for example). Many sociologists carve a distinction between
“globalization from above,” which is globalization determined by the leaders of transnational
corporations and the transnational state, versus “globalization from below,” a democratic
form of globalization called for by popular movements.
Cultural globalization is a phenomenon connected to both economic and political
globalization. It refers to the export, import, sharing, repurposing and adapting of values,
ideas, norms, common sense, lifestyles, language, behaviors, and practices on a global scale.
Sociologists have found that cultural globalization occurs via the global trade in consumer
goods, which spreads lifestyle trends, popular media like film, television, music, art, and
material shared online; through the implementation of forms of governance borrowed from
other regions that reshape everyday life and social patterns; the spread of styles of conducting
business and of working; and from the travel of people from place to place. Technological
innovation has a great impact on cultural globalization, as recent advances in travel, media
production, and communication technology have brought wide-scale cultural shifts across the
world.

13
 SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA

If we assess the social changes that have occurred in the Indian society from the middle of the
19th century, we notice the two directions in which such social changes have proceeded.
• Certain changes in the traditional values and conventions have been wholly beneficial
and are the result of the social reform movements which had or marginal influence on the
society during the second half of the 19th century but gathered momentum since 1920’s when
the Indian National Movement became mass based.
• The second set of changes which have been increasing in intensity or coverage
throughout the 20th century particularly after Independence, constitute the disturbing features
of the

• present Indian society and have generally turned out to be serious problems. Such
features are increasing (now explosive) population, increasing disorganization at all levels,
crass materialism coupled with religiosity but without morality, increase in sophisticated
crimes and socio-economic crimes, etc.

Some of the major areas in which social change is significant in the post-Independent India
are the caste system, status of women, the status and role of backward classes, family, etc.
Social change in India may be considered as a process through which definite alterations in
the structures and functions of a particular social system result. A particular social change
may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable, sacred or profane, progressive or regressive
depending upon the views and understanding of the observer. It is to be understood that when

14
a particular social change occurs it will be evaluated in the light of the ideals, goals and
theories of the observer.

The change implies continuity. Only when certain existing conditions, situations or things are
partially modified we use the term ‘change’. So change and continuity coexist. Any social
change may produce discernible and widespread changes in social structures, functions,
behaviour, values, norms, and ways of life, attitudes, roles and status. Regarding social
changes, sociologists have made detailed studies and have formulated various theories on the
direction of change, factors of change and areas of change.
In the Indian context certain terms, Westernization, Sanskritization and Modernization are
used to explain the direction of social change. The various factors of social changes in India
are technology, industrialization, urbanization, legislation, education, economic factors,
planning, religion and mass media.

15
 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL CHANGE

Inspite of the fact that the Indian culture which is based on the caste system is often regarded
as a “closed society”, it isn’t by and large constant. Even within the framework of the caste
system, a large mobility between the classes is observed. Lower classes have often
endeavoured to claim higher status by mirroring the ways of life of upper-positions especially
of Brahmins and Kshatriyas. M.N. Srinivas used the term ‘Sanskritisation'’ to denote such a
type of process.
The upper castes including Brahmins, on the contrary, have started orienting their life-styles
on the model of the Westerners. The term ‘Westernization’ portrayed by M.N. Srinivas
portrays this procedure. Today not only the privileged and white collar class people including
upper caste and intermediary caste people are trying to orient their behaviour, attitudes,
beliefs and life-styles towards those of developed societies; but also the entire mass of people
are involved in this process. Daniel Lerner calls this process ‘modernisation’. It denotes a
process of social change whereby “less developed societies acquire the characteristics
common to more developed societies”. This project will attempt to understand the socio-
cultural changes that have been occurring in India in terms of these processes namely:
Sanskritisation, Westernisation and Modernisation. These three processes reflect an attempt
on the part of the Indian masses to accomplish some amount of mobility both within and
outside the framework of the caste system.

16
A. SANSKRITISATION
The “term “Sanskritisitation” was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof. M.N. Srinivas,
the famous Indian sociologist. He explained the concept of sanskritization in his book
“Religion and society among the coorgs of South India” to describe the cultural mobility in
the traditional caste structure of Indian society. In his study of the coorgs of Mysore, he came
to realize that the lower castes were trying to raise their status in their caste hierarchy by
embracing some cultural ideals of the Brahmins. As a result they left some of their ideals
which are considered to be impure by the Brahmins. To explain this process of mobility,
Srinivas used the term ‘Brahminization’. Later on he called it ‘Sanskritization’ in a broad
sense.
Defining Sanskritization Srinivas writes, “Sanskritization is a process by which a lower caste
or tribe or any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the
direction of a higher or more often twice-born caste.”
This second definition is much broader for it includes ideologies which include ideas such as
‘Karma’ ‘dharma’, ‘papa’ (sin), ‘punya’ ‘moksha’ etc.
Sanskritisation and Brahminisation
(i) Sanskritisation, as a concept is much broader than Brahminisation. M.N. Srinivas
favoured it to Brahminisation for some reasons: Sanskritisation is a broader term
and it can subsume in itself the narrower process of Brahminisation. For instance,
today, though by and large, Brahmins are vegetarians and teetotallers, some of
them such as Kashmiris, Bengalis and saraswath. Brahmins eat non-vegetarian
food. Had the term ‘Brahminisation’ been used, it would have become necessary
to specify which particular Brahmin group was meant.

(ii) Further, the reference groups of Sanskritisation are not always Brahmins. The
process of imitation need not necessarily take place on the model of Brahmins.
Srinivas himself has given the example of the low castes of Mysore who adopted
the way of life of Lingayats, who are not Brahmin but who claim equality with
Brahmins. Similarly, the smiths (one of the lower castes) of Mysore call
themselves Vishwakarma Brahmins and wear sacred threads and have sanskritised
a portion of their customs. (Still, some of them eat meat and drink liquor. For the
same reason, many castes, including some untouchable castes do not accept food
or water from their hands).

17
 (iii) The lower castes imitated Brahmins as well as the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Jats,
Shudras, etc. in various parts of the country. Therefore, the term Brahminisation
does not totally explain this procedure. M.N. Srinivas himself acknowledged this
fact and expressed: “I now realise that, I emphasized unduly the Brahminical
model of Saskritisation and ignored the other models Kshatriya, Vaishyas and
Shudra1”

Effects of Sanskritization:

1. Sanskritization in social field:

The social aspect of sanskritization is much more critical from the view point of change. The

low caste individuals are inclined towards sanskritization because in that way they can

elevate their societal position and get higher status in caste hierarchy.

2. Sanskritization in economic field:

Economic betterment and sanskritization is another related issue. The lower caste people

have given up un-cleaned occupations so that they could raise their economic status because

clean trades are a symbol of social light.

3. Sanskritization in religious field:

Sanskritization can also be observed in the religious field. Like Brahmins many of the lower

castes people put on sacred thread. They also go to their temple regularly and perform rituals

like Arti and Bhajan. They have left prohibited food and un-cleaned occupation. Even they

have specialised in performing ceremonies like Brahmins.

4. Sanskritization in living patterns:

The living patterns of lower castes have likewise Sanskritized. Like higher caste they also get

Pucca houses built for them. Now they sit along with the higher caste on the cots without any

1
(“Social Change in Modern India - 1971).

18
fear or hesitation. Additionally, they keep their houses clean and put on dresses like higher

castes.

B. WESTERNISATION

The role of Westernisation has been a significant in understanding the socio-cultural changes
of modern India. British rule produced radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and
culture. The British brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and
values. These have become the main source of social mobility/or individuals as well as
groups.
Westernization has greatly affected our traditions, customs, our family and our respect and
love for others. The concept of joint families is decreasing and the concept of nuclear
families is on the rise.
Westernization is a process in which societies adopt western cultures in areas such as
industry, technology, law, politics, economies and lifestyles, clothing, language etc.
M.N. Srinivas describes the technological changes, establishment of educational institutions,
rise of nationalism and new political culture, as the by-products of Westernisation or the
British rule of two hundred years in India. Thus, by Westernisation, Srinivas primarily means
the British impact. British brought with them the printing press which led to many-sided
changes. Books and journals made possible the transmission of modem as well as traditional
knolwedge to large number of Indians. Newspapers helped the people living in the remote
corners of the country to realize their common bonds and to understand the events happening
in the world outside.
Srinivas had earlier maintained that sanskritisation is a prelude to westernisation. However,
later on, he changed his view and maintained that it is not necessary for sanskritisation
occurring prior to westernisation. But the two processes are linked with each other. It may not
be possible to understand one without the other. Harold Gould has also said that for Brahmins
and other higher castes, sanskritising is an attempt to maintain distance between them and the
lower castes who are sanskritising. Thus, Brahmins are, in a sense, running away from the
lower groups who are trying to catch up with them.

19
More than any other thing the Western education had an impact on the style of living of the
people. They gave up their inhibition towards meat-eating and consumption of alcohol. They
also adopted Western style of dressing and dining.
As Gandhiji wrote in his “Autobiography”, educated Indians undertook the task of' 'becoming
English gentlemen in their dress, manners, habits, choices, preferences, etc.” It included even
learning to appreciate Western music and participating in ball dancing. Western education
resulted in a big change in the outlook of those educated.
M.N. Srinivas says that it is necessary “to distinguish conceptually between Westernisation
and two other processes usually concouilait with it. - Industrialization and Urbanisation.” He
gives two reasons for this: “'(i) Urbanization is not a simple function of' 'industrialisation'”
and there were cities in Pre-industrial world” also. “'(ii) There are cases of rural people who
are more urbanised than urban people”.

MODERNISATION

The term modernisation does not denote any philosophy or movement, but it only symbolises
a process of change. Modernisation is a process which indicates the adoption of the modern
ways of life and values. The term was being used previously to refer only "to change in
economy and its related effect on social values and practices". It was also described as a
process that changed the society, from primarily agricultural to primarily industrial economy.
As a result of the change in the economy, the society itself underwent changes in values,
beliefs and norms. But, today the term is given a broader meaning.

Today, the term, ‘Modernisation’ is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people,
particularly those who are custom-bound, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions,
styles, and ways in general. It indicates a change in people's food habits, dress habits,
speaking styles, tastes, choices, preferences, ideas, values, recreational facilities and so on. It
is alsb described as “social change involving the elements of science and technology”. The
scientific
and technological inventions have brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of
social relationship and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional ones.

20
M.N. Srinivas, however, criticises the concept of Modernisation, according to him, it is a
value-loaded term. He says that “Modernisation is normally used in the sense that it is good.
He, therefore, prefer to use the term ‘Westernisation’ which characterises the changes
brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule”.

Definition of Modernisation by various sociologists:

1. Daniel Lerner. Daniel Learner who introduced the term "Modernisastion" for the first time
in his study of the middle-Eastern societies—uses it to refer to the changes brought about in a
non- Western country by contract, direct or indirect with a Western country. To quote his
own words : “Modernisation is the current term for an old process of social change whereby
less developed societies acquire the characteristics common to more developed societies”.
2. Smelser. Modernisation refers to “a complex set of changes that take place almost in every
part of society as it attempts to be industrialised. Modernisation involves ongoing change in a
society's economy, politics, education, traditions, and religion”.

As it has already been mentioned, the process of modernisation has distinct dimensions. The
spirit of modernisation is communicated in different areas such as - social organisation,
culture, political field, economy, education, and so forth in different ways., the process of
modernization reveals the following important characteristics:
Modernisation includes – “a sanctuary of science, reason and rationalism, secularism, high
aspiration and achievement orientation, overall transformation of attitudes norms, values and
demeanor, creation of new functional institutions, investment in human resources, a growth
oriented economy, a national interest of family, caste, religion, region or language oriented
interests, an open society, and a versatile individual2”

2
Indian Social System by Ram Ahuja

21
22
 FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

1. Physical Environment:
Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social change. Climate, storms, social
erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc., definitely affect social life and induce social
change. Human life is closely bound up with the geographical conditions of the earth.
Human history is full of examples that flourishing civilisations fell prey to natural calamities.
The distribution of population over various regions, the variations in the population densities,
the agricultural production, flora and fauna, the joys and hardships—all indicate a change
when a change in the physical environment occurs.
What to talk of rise and fall of civilisations, even our day-to-day life—our clothes, eating
material and habits, shelter design etc., all are influenced by the geographical conditions.
Generally, changes in physical environment force migration of people in large numbers and
this brings major changes in social life and cultural values also. Migration itself encourages
change, for it brings a group into a new environment, subject to its new social contacts, and
confronts it with new problems.
Though physical environment is an important factor which deeply affects social life, still it
cannot be regarded as the only factor responsible for the growth of human society. This
extreme approach was laid down by some geographical determinists (Buckle, Huntington,
Miss Sample, J. Huxley etc.), who held that geographical setting ultimately governs the form
of society (family, marriage, economy, religion, government) and explains social change. But
this is not true today.
Now man is in the position to affect change in his physical environment. Men adapt
themselves to their environment but they have the capacity to transform their physical
environment according to their needs and requirements. Bennett and Tumin (1949) aptly
remarked: “It is perhaps as reasonable, if not more so to insist that man modifies his physical
environment rather than the environment modifies man.”

2. Demographic (biological) Factor:

Broadly speaking, demography is concerned with the size and structure of human population.
The social structure of a society is closely related with the changes in the size, composition

23
and distribution of population. The size of the population is based mainly upon three factors
—birth rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration).
The composition of population depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status, literacy
etc. Changes in demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in mortality rates,
will produce changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents.
Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. The size of population affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are born
into a growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we
marry, our ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.
Population analysis shows that there is a relationship between population changes and
economic, social and cultural variables like poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, family structure,
forms of marriage, work etc. Population growth is the most important factor in poverty.
Poverty is related with health and the size of the family also. Nations with large population
(e.g., China and India) are more poverty- stricken than the countries which have not much
population. Sex imbalance affects the forms of marriage (monogamy or polygyny). It is seen
that communities, which have more males than females, resorted to polyandry system.
Polygyny was generally found in such communities where females were in more numbers
than males.
The population of every society is always changing both in numbers as well as in
composition. Population changes have occurred all through human history because of
migration, war, pestilence, changing mores etc. In modern times, adoption of two artificial
ways to population growth, viz., birth control and abortion are also affecting the number and
composition of population structure.
The decline of both the birth rate and the death rate bring social transformation. With changes
in size go changes in composition. While the birth rate is falling, the proportion of younger
people in the proportion of youth’s declines and that elders advances significant social
changes occurs.

3. Cultural Factor:
It is an established fact that there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and social
institutions, our values and social relationships. Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the
basic elements of a culture. Certainly, all cultural changes involve social change.

24
Social and the cultural aspects are closely interwoven. Thus, any change in the culture (ideas,
values, beliefs etc.) brings a corresponding change in the whole social order. Social
institutions cannot live on life shells within which life is extinct.
Social systems are directly or indirectly the creations of cultural values. The history of culture
offers many evidences which confirm the role of culture. A religious doctrine, which
persisted with variations throughout many centuries, has affected the course of society. For
instance, a certain attitude toward sex formulated by the Church Fathers in the early Middle
Ages still hold good in the Catholic sect.
Culture gives speed and direction to social change and determines the limit beyond which
social change cannot occur”. (Dawson and Gettys, 1948). If we choose to travel by a ship, the
direction in which we travel is not predestinated by the design of the ship but it is the culture
that decides the direction and the destination both. The port we sail to remains a cultural
choice. Cultural factor is not only responsive to technological change but also acts back on it
so as to influence its direction and its character.
Cultural change in society has two major aspects:
(a) Cultural change by discovery and invention, and
(b) Cultural change by diffusion and borrowing.
The first comes from within a society and culture, and the second from another culture
outside of the society. A discovery or an invention adds to the fund of our verified knowledge
which later on becomes a factor of social change. Knowledge of bacterial infection brought
about many changes in the behaviour of people in the form of prevention and cure of disease.
Socio-cultural changes are also brought about by people from other cultures all over the
world. Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits or patterns from group to group. Borrowing
refers to the adoption of a cultural trait by people whose culture did not have that cultural
trait. We have borrowed many cultural traits (such as use of knife and fork in eating) from
Western culture.
Culture operates not only directly as a source of change but also indirectly, by its impact on
the utilitarian order. This idea was best exemplified by a German sociologist Max Weber in
his study of sociology of religion.
In his study ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ (1930), he saw that there is a
direct relationship between the practical ethics of a religion and the character of its economic
system, but he refused to accept the position that the letter determines the former as argued
by Karl Marx. (Marx believed that the nature of a society is determined by the manner in

25
which economy is owned and organised.) Though Weber too appreciated the importance of
economic factors, but he did not ascribe to them the importance that they have in Marxian
theory. For Marx economic influences were paramount and determined ell the rest, including
religion, whereas for Weber economic phenomena themselves rest upon a broad ideological
base and particularly upon religion.
In his above mentioned study, Weber asserted that the development of modern capitalism
could be attributed to Protestant reformation, particularly Calvinism. Protestantism
emphasised the autonomy and independence of the individual rather than dependence on the
church, priesthood and ritual. Weber argued that Calvinist Protestantism motivated men to
seek worldly success. It laid emphasis on rational calculation, the willingness to accumulate
for long-term profit and success and the emphasis on entrepreneurial success as a virtue.
Weber maintained that the ideas, ideals and attitudes towards work (work is virtue, time lost,
money lost etc.,), savings and life played an important role in the economic development of
Western Europe and USA Protestanism provided much of the cultural content of early
capitalism—individualism, achievement motivation, hostility to inherited wealth and luxury,
legitimation of entrepreneurial vocations, opposition to tradition and superstition, a
commitment to organisation and calculation in personal and public life.
In brief, Protestanism provided an element in the rationalisation (an important requirement of
capitalism) of Western society. Weber did not simply explained capitalist development in
terms of religious belief, but argued that the religious factor, if combined with others, of a
political,
economic and social nature, can produce a certain type of social change.

4. Ideational Factor:
Among the cultural factors affecting social change in modern times, the development of
science and secularisation of thought have contributed a lot to the development of the critical
and innovative character of the modern outlook. We no longer follow many customs or habits
merely because they have the age-old authority of tradition. On the contrary, our ways of life
have increasingly become on the basis of rationality.
Some writers have interpreted social change at ideational level and asserted that all social
change is ideational. They argued that ideas could influence the course of social change. For
them, ideational changes are important contributory factors to many or most types of social
change. Ideas and ideologies together are powerful motivating forces in social change.

26
For instance, after independence, the directive principles—equality, fraternity, liberty and
justice laid down in our constitution—have not only revolutionised the Indian society but it
has even affected greatly the relations between the members of the family. Social
philosophers, who believed in the force of ideas, argued that no material or social factors can
produce change unless there is also a change in ideas within society or ideas about society
and nature.
In modern times, not only the way we think, but the contents of ideas have also changed.
Ideals of self-betterment, freedom, equality and democratic participation are largely creations
of the past two/ three centuries. Such ideals have served to mobilise processes of social and
political change, including reformation movements and revolutions.

5. Economic Factor:
Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of industrialisation. It has
revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions, organisations and community life. In
traditional production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were geared
to habitual, customary needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of
the technology of production, a process into which science is increasingly drawn.
The impact of industrialisation (science and technology) we can easily see on Indian family
system (joint family) and caste system. (For detailed analysis of the influence of economic
factor, see Marx’s views discussed in Economic Theory of Social Change).

6. Political Factor:
State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social relationships. It has the
power to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to bring social change in the society. Laws
regarding child marriage, widow remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession,
untouchability are some of the examples which have brought many changes in the social
structure of Indian society.
The type of political leadership and individuals in power also influences the rate and direction
of social change. In many societies the political leadership controls the economy also.
Scientific-
technological and non-technological change are also dependent on political development
which indirectly affects social change.

27
There is a direct relationship between the type of political organisation and social change. In
hunting and gathering societies, there were no political organisation capable of mobilising the
community, as such; there were minimum changes in the societies. In all other types of
society, however, the existence of distinct political agencies, such as chiefs, lords, kings and
governments strongly affects the course of development of society takes. A ruler may choose
to channel resources into building up his castle, for example, even when this impoverishes
most of the population.
Political development in the last two or three centuries (in India especially after
independence) has certainly influenced economic change as much as economic change has
influenced politics. Governments now play a major role in stimulating (and sometimes
retarding) rates of economic growth. In all industrial societies there is high level of state
intervention in production.

28
 CONCLUSION

Emile Durkheim’s most famous work, “Suicide: A Study in Sociology” was prepared to flout
common sense and excite the imagination of people. He recognized the pathological effects
of the over-rapid forced nature of the growth of division of labour and the consequent failure
to develop true mutualism. Despite the specific criticisms of his work, it has been greatly
praised by mathematical sociologists for its imaginative use of the available statistics and
more generally for its brilliant linking of theory and empirical data. Thus, Durkheim’s theory
of suicide is still relevant and is one of the most important sociological theories studied even
today.

29
 BIBLOGRAPHY

• Morrison K. (2006), Formation of Modern social thought, (SAGE publication Ltd.)

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_in_India

(Date- 20/08/2017 Time- 2:27 PM)

• http://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/suicide.html

(Date- 25/08/2017 Time- 12:25 PM)

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_(book)

(Date- 28/08/2017 Time- 7:35 PM)

• https://ishitakarra.wordpress.com/2014/10/07/durkheims-theory-of-suicide/

(Date- 1/08/2017 Time- 10:42 PM)

• https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/socsi/undergraduate/introsoc/durkheim6.html

(Date- 4/09/2017 Time- 8:21 AM)

30