LOGIC DESIGN r = base

n = digits to the left

Basic Theory of Information m = digits to the right

Introduction 654.5210
One One
All information (such as characters and numerals) is Hundreds Tens Units Total
tenth hundredth
expressed by combinations of 1s and 0s inside Weights 10 2
10 1
10 0
10 -1
10 -2

computers. An expression using only 1s and 0s is called Digits 6 5 4 5 2

a binary number. Weighted
600 50 4 .5 .02 654.52
value

Radix Conversion
Radix is the number that forms unit of weight for each Conversion of Decimal Numbers to Binary Systems
digit in a numeration system such as binary, octal, Example 1
decimal, and hexadecimal notations. The radix in each 1. 62510 🡪 N2
of these notations is 2, 8, 10, and 16, respectively. sum-of-weights Repeated-division-by-2
Binary system: uses 0 and 1.
Octal system: uses 0 through 7.
Decimal system: uses 0 through 9.
Hexadecimal system: uses 0 through 9, A through F.

The table below shows the correspondence among the

decimal, binary, and hexadecimal notations.
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal
0 0000 0
2. 5910 🡪 N2
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
3. 0.5937510 🡪 N2
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F

Bit means the smallest unit of information inside the

computer, expressed by a “0” or a “1”. Data inside the 4. 125.510 🡪 N2
computer is expressed in binary, so a bit represents one
digit in binary notation. The hexadecimal and octal
notations are represented by partitioning binary
numbers as follows:
Octal: 3 bits
Hexadecimal: 4 bits
The least significant bit (LSB) is the rightmost NOTE: There is no guarantee that multiplying the
binary digit which has the lowest binary weight of a fractional part by 2 always produces 0. We can verify
given number. this fact by converting 0.110 into the binary number; it
The most significant bit (MSB) is the leftmost binary becomes a repeating binary fraction. It is always
digit which has the highest binary weight of a given possible to convert a binary fraction to a decimal
number. fraction, but not vise versa. In such a case, we can stop
the conversion at an appropriate place.
Decimal Number System
Binary Number System
❖ is said to be of base or radix 10 because the
❖ is a base 2 system with two digits: 0 and 1.
coefficients are multiplied by the powers of 10
and the system uses 10 distinct digits.
Conversion of Binary Systems to:
General form 🡪 Decimal
Example 2
An-1 r + An-2 r +. . .+ A1 r + A0 r + A-1 r + A-2
n-1 n-2 1 0 -1
1. 110102
r-2 +. . .+ A-m+1 r-m+1 + A-m r-m
where:
An-1 – most significant bit (MSB)
A-m – least significant bit (LSB) 2. 110101.112
m = 0; LSB = A0

1
 🡪 Binary
3. 10111101.110012 Rule: Convert each octal digit into an equivalent 3-bit
binary.

Example 6
4. 0.010112 1. 476.358

2. 275.628
🡪 Octal
Rule: Group the binary digits into 3 starting from LSB.
Convert each group into an equivalent octal digit.
3. 341.268
Example 3
1. 110102

🡪 Hexadecimal
Rule: First, convert each octal digit into an equivalent
2. 110101.112 3-bit binary and group the binary digits into 4
starting from LSB. Convert each group into an
equivalent hexadecimal digit.

3. 10111101.110012 Example 7
1. 476.358

🡪 Hexadecimal
Rule: Group the binary digits into 4 starting from LSB. 2. 275.628
Convert each group into an equivalent
hexadecimal digit.

Example 4
1. 110102 3. 341.268

2. 110101.112
Conversion of Hexadecimal Systems to:
🡪 Decimal
Example 8
3. 10111101.110012 1. 12A16

4. 1110001110.0111012 2. 0.4B16

Octal and Hexadecimal Number Systems 3. B65F16

❖ each octal digit corresponds to 3-bit binary and
each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4-bit
binary.
Conversion of Octal Systems to:
🡪 Binary
🡪 Decimal Rule: Convert each hexadecimal digit into an
Example 5 equivalent 4-bit binary.
1. 127.48
Example 9
1. 2C6B.F0616
Code Name Explanation
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal
2. 275.628 Information Code
Computer code defined by IBM for
general purpose computers 8 bits
represent on character.
ASCII American Standard Code for
3. 341.268 Information Interchange
7-bit code established by ANSI
(American National Standards Institute)

2
 Used in PCs, etc. *A byte is a unit of 8 bits. It is the unit for representing
ISO code ISO646 published as a recommendation characters.
by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), based on ASCII Complement
7-bit code for information exchange. ❖ the complement of a number is the value obtained
Unicode An industry standard allowing by subtracting the given number from a certain fixed
computers to consistently represent number, which is a power of radix or a power of the
characters used in most of the countries radix minus 1.
Every character is represented with 2
bytes. 1’s Complement
EUC Extended UNIX Code
2-byte and 1-byte characters can be ❖ is just the reverse of each bit (0 becomes 1 and
used together on UNIX vise-versa)
Chinese and Hangul characters are also
handled. Example 11
1. 10110002 = 01001112

2. 10110012
2. 12A16
3. 000101002

3. 0.4B16
2’s Complement
4. 3A6.C16 ❖ is 1’s complement plus one.
❖ short cut can be derived by copying the bits
from LSB to the final occurrence of 1. For the
rest of the digit get the 1’s complement.

Example 12
🡪 Octal 1. 10110002 = 01010002
Rule: Convert each hexadecimal digit into an
equivalent 4-bit binary. Group the binary digits
into 3 starting from LSB. Convert each group
into an equivalent octal digit. 2. 10110012

Example 10
1. B795.4516
3. 000101002

2. 12A16 9’s Complement

❖ derived by subtracting each digit of a decimal
number from 9.

3. 0.4B16 Example 13
1. 37610

Character Representations 2. 43910

❖ using n-bit binary numbers, there are 2n types of

codes available, and one-to-one correspondence to
those codes allows us to represent 2n types of 10’s Complement
characters (alphabet characters, numeric
characters, special characters, and various ❖ derived by adding 1i0 to the 9’s complement of
symbols). a decimal number.

Example 14
BCD Code (Binary Coded Decimal Code)
1. 37610
Each digit of decimal number can be represented by
using 4 bits. The following shows such an example.

3 710 🡨 Decimal number 2. 43910

🡫 🡫
0011 0111 🡨 BCD Codes

Standardizations of Character Codes

3
Arithmetic Operations
2. Octal
1. Binary
🡪Addition
🡪Addition
Example 19
02 + 02 = 02
376.238 534.758
02 + 12 = 12
+ 443.678 + 226.448
12 + 02 = 12
12 + 12 = 12

Example 15
🡪Subtraction
1011012 + 111112 =
Example 20
455.318 5348 4558
– 373.568 – 2268 – 3738

🡪Multiplication
🡪Subtraction Example 21
A. 1’s Complement 346.318 2768 7628
i. Convert the subtrahend to 1’s complement. 2.548 258 458
ii. Add the two numbers.
iii. Perform end around carry.

Example 16
1011012 – 0111112 =

3. Hexadecimal
🡪Addition
Example 22
59F16
+ E4616
B. 2’s Complement
i. Convert the subtrahend to 2’s complement.
ii. Add the two numbers.
🡪Subtraction
iii. Drop the MSB.
Example 23
E4616 13E516
Example 17 – 59F16 – E4616
1011012 – 0111112 =

🡪Multiplication
Example 24
2B516 27916
1716 3816

🡪Multiplication
02 02 = 02
02 12 = 02
12 02 = 02
12 12 = 12
Information and Logic
Example 18 Logic Functions
11012 1012 =
1. NOT Function – also known as inverter or logical
negation or simply negation.

Truth Table F=
A B
0 1
1 0

2. AND Function – defines Boolean Multiplication or

logical product.

4
 Truth Table F= 1 1 0
A B F
0 0
7. XNOR Function – defines inequality function

0 Truth Table F=
0 1 0 A B
1 0 0
1 1 1

F
3. OR Function – defines Boolean Addition or logical
0 0 1
sum.
0 1 0
1 0 0
Truth Table F= 1 1 1
A B

F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 Integrated Circuits (IC)
1 1 1
74 Series Logic ICs
7404 – hex NOT gate
4. NAND Function – defines inverted Boolean
7408 – quad AND gate
Multiplication
7432 – quad OR gate

Truth Table F= 7400 – quad NAND gate

A B 7402 – quad NOR gate
7486 – quad XOR gate
7466 – quad XNOR gate
F
0 0 1 Boolean Algebra
0 1 1 ❖ is a systematic algebraic formulation of
1 0 1 mathematical postulates and symbols that can be
1 1 0 used to described and simplify logic functions.
Boolean Theorems, Identities and Rules
5. NOR Function – defines inverted Boolean Addition 1. =A
2. A + A = A
Truth Table F=
A B 3.
4. 0 + A = A
5. 1 + A = 1
F 6. A + A B = A
0 0 1
0 1 0 7.
1 0 0
1 1 0 8. A (A + B) = A

9.
6. XOR Function – defines inequality function or 10. A A=A
exclusive logical sum.
11.
Truth Table F= 12. 0 A=0
A B
13. 1 A=A

14.

F 15.
0 0 0 16. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
0 1 1
1 0 1 17.

5
 For POS Equation:
18.
Boolean Laws
Commutative Law Minterms – the terms of SOP equation.
(a) A + B = B + A Maxterms – the terms in POS equation.
(b) A B = B A
Example
Associate Law
(a) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) 1.
(b) (A B) C = A (B C) = m0 + m2 + m5 + m7
Distributive Law
(a) A (B + C) = A B + A C Where:
(b) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C) Σ – stands for the logical sum or Boolean OR of the
De Morgan's Theorem minterms.

(a)
2.
(b) = m1 + m3 + m4 + m6

Truth Table
- a table showing the input variable combinations and Where:
the expected output for each combination. Π – stands for the logical product or Boolean AND
of the maxterms.
SOP and POS Derivation from the Truth Table
SOP (sum of products) Equation 3.
❖ All combinations with output level 1.
❖ Write the terms in product form.
❖ If the variable is 1 write it in true form.
❖ If the variable is 0 write in complement. Where:
POS (product of sums) Equation j – denotes the decimal equivalent of the binary
❖ All combinations with output level 0. combination.
❖ Write the terms in sum form.
❖ If the variable is 0 write it in true form. Boolean Simplification Exercises
❖ If the variable is 1 write in complement. Simplify the following:

Types of Equation with respect to Output Levels 1.

Logic Low Equation
– an equation whose resulting output value is in
complement.
For SOP: It is derived by using the combinations whose
output is 0.
2.
For POS: It is derived by using the combinations whose
output is 1.
Logic High Equation
– an equation whose resulting output value is the true
value.
3. Given:
Example
Inputs Output
ABC X
000 0 POS A+B+C
001 0 POS A+B+C’
010 1 SOP A’BC’
011 0 POS A+B’+C’
100 1 SOP AB’C’
101 1 SOP AB’C
110 1 SOP ABC’
111 0 POS A’+B’+C’
Find: 1) The SOP equation
For SOP Equation: 2) Simplified equation
3) Circuit diagram of the simplified equation
4) Truth table of the simplified equation

6
Solution: Property
The three variable map is cylindrical in nature.

Example A
1. Given:
Req’d: Simplify using k-map
Sol’n:
F(A,B,C) = Σ(0,1,2,5,7)
AB\C 0 1
00 1 1
01 1
11 1
10 1

Ans.

2. F(A,B,C) = Σ(0,1,4,5,6)
AB\C 0 1
00
01
11
10

KARNAUGH MAPPING 3. F(A,B,C) = Σ(1,2,4,5,6,7)

- is a tool used to simplify logic expression and derive AB\C 0 1
either the simplified SOP or POS form of the 00
expression from the truth table. The specific 01
arrangement of the k-map eliminates the needs for 11
extensive use of Boolean algebra to simplify the 10
equation.

Function Simplification using k-Maps

1. Enter the complete output specification for the logic Four variable k-Map Orientation
function in the k-map for every possible input
AB\CD 00 01 11 10
combination.
00 0 1 3 2
2. Select one output state to group 1’s or 0’s. All 01 4 5 7 6
occurrences of the selected output must be include 11 12 13 15 14
in the groups formed to specify the function. 10 8 9 11 10
3. Group adjacent cells in group of 2n.
Properties
4. The larger the group, the more input variable are
eliminated. For a group containing 2n cells, n 1. All the properties of 3-variable map.
variables are eliminated. 2. It is spherical in nature.
5. The simplified terms contain only the variables
common to all outputs in the group. Example B:

6. Each group represents a term in the function Simplify using k-Map

equation. The fewer number of groups, the fewer 1. F(A,B,C,D) = Σ(0,1,2,4,5,8,9,10,13,15)
terms are needed in the final equation.
AB\CD 00 01 11 10
7. Groups can overlap. 00
8. The first goal in grouping the output is to minimize 01
the number of groups. 11
10
9. The second goal in grouping the output is to
maximize the size of the group in order to minimize
the number of input variables in each term.
2. F(A,B,C,D) = Σ(0,2,5,6,7,8,10,13,14,15)
10. There maybe more than one correct grouping for a
AB\CD 00 01 11 10
given function.
00
01
Three Variable k-Map Orientation
11
AB\C 0 1 10
00 0 1
01 2 3
11 6 7 3. F(A,B,C,D) = Σ(3,5,7,9,11,13,14,15 )
10 4 5
AB\CD 00 01 11 10

7
 00
01
11
10

POS Simplification using k-Map

Steps:
1. Plot the maxterms in the k-Map. Use the symbol “0”
for plotting.
2. Derived the complemented SOP output using the
rules of k-Map simplification.
3. Using the De Morgan’s Theorem, derive the POS
equation.

Examples:
1. F(A,B,C,D) = Π(0,1,2,4,6,8,10,12)
AB\CD 00 01 11 10
00
01
11
10