Chapter 18.

Entropy, Free Energy, and

Equilibrium

What we will learn:

• Three laws of theormodynamic
• Spontaneous processes
• Entropy
• Second law of thermodynamics
• Gibbs free energy
• Free energy and chemical reactions

GCh18-1
Thermodynamics

The scientific discipline that deals with the interconversion of heat and
other forms of energy

First law of thermodynamics

Energy may be converted from one form to another, but cannot be

created or destroyed. (one way to measure: DH)

Second law of thermodynamics

The law explains why chemical processes tend to favor one direction

Third law of thermodynamics

The law is an extension of the second law and only briefly examined
in this course
GCh18-2
Spontaneous Processes and Entropy

Spontaneous processes

• Water runs downhill

• Salt dissolves in water

• Heat moves to colder object

• Iron rusts

• Methane burns (exothermic, DH = -value)

• Acids neutralize bases (exothermic, DH = -value)

• Ice melts at room temperature (endothermic, DH = +value)

• Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) dissolves and solution gets cold (endothermic,

DH = +value)

GCh18-3
Two factors related to spontaneous processes

1. Enthalpy (H)

Amount of heat given or absorbed by a system

Exothermic processes (negative DH) tend to be spontaneous, but not
always

2. Entropy (S)

Degree of disorder or randomness

An ordered state has a low probability of occurring and a small entropy,

while a disordered state has a high probability of occurring and a high
entropy

GCh18-4
Macrostate (distribution) and microstates

Example

Four molecules distributed between two containers

Macrostate (I) S is small

(four molecules in left container)

Macrostate (II) S is big

(three molecules in left container)

Macrostate (III) S is very big

(two molecules in left container)

GCh18-5
Entropy

• Analogies: deck of cards, socks in drawer, molecular motions

• Change in entropy: DS = Sfinal - Sinitial

• For a reaction: DS = Sproducts - Sreactants

• Positive DS means:

• An increase in disorder as reaction proceeds

• Products are more disordered (random) than reactants

Sgas >> Sliquid > Ssolid

Ssolution >> Ssolvent or solute

• Temperature increase – more molecular motions

GCh18-6
 S = k ln W

S - entropy
k - constant (Boltzman constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
W - disorder (how many individual microstates is involved in a macrostate)

DS = Sf - Si

DS = k ln(Wf) - k ln(Wi)

DS = k ln (Wf / Wi)
GCh18-7
Standard entropy

The absolute entropy of a mole of a substance at 1 atm and 25C

The absolute entropy is difficult to determine, because it is difficult to determine

a number of microstates corresponding to a particular macrostate. The standard
entropy of elements and compounds are already determined, and therefore we
usually refer the actual entropy of a substant to its standard value

Substance S0
(J/K mol)
H2O(l) 69.9
H2O(g) 188.7
Br2(l) 152.3
Br2(g) 245.3

GCh18-8
Second law of thermodynamics

• For any spontaneous process, the overall entropy of the universe increases

DSuniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings

• The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and

remains unchanged in an equilibrium process

DSuniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings > 0 (spontaneous)

DSuniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings = 0 (equilibrium)

A spontaneous process can have a negative DS for the system only if the
surroundings have a larger positive DS

GCh18-9
A. Entropy change (DS) in the system

aA + bB g cC + dD

DS0rxn = [ cS0(C) + dS0(D) ] - [ aS0(A) + bS0(B) ]

DS0rxn = S nDS0products - S mDS0reactants

DS0rxn - standard entropy of reaction

n - mole number of products
m - mole number of reactants
S0products - standard entropy of prodcuts
S0reactants - standard entropy of reactants

GCh18-10
Problem

Calculate the standard entropy change for the reaction

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) g 2 NH3 (g)

DS0(N2) = 191.5 J/K mol

DS0(H2) = 131.0 J/K mol
DS0(NH3 ) = 193.0 J/K mol

Solution

DS0rxn = 2 S0(NH3) - [ S0(N2) + 3 S0(H2) ]

= -199 J/K mol

GCh18-11
Problem

Calculate the standard entropy change for the reaction

CaCO3 (s) g CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

DS0(CaCO3) = 92.9 J/K mol

DS0(CaO) = 39.8 J/K mol
DS (CO2) =
0
213.6 J/K mol

Solution

DS0rxn = S0(CaO) + S0(CO2) - S0(CaCO3)

= 160.5 J/K mol

GCh18-12
Problem

Calculate the standard entropy change for the reaction

CaCO3 (s) g CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

DS0(CaCO3) = 191.5 J/K mol

DS0(CaO) = 131.0 J/K mol
DS (CO2) =
0
193.0 J/K mol

Solution

DS0rxn = S0(CaO) + S0(CO2) - S0(CaCO3)

= 160.5 J/K mol

GCh18-13
General Rules

• In the gas phase there are more microstates than in corresponding liquid
and solid phasses

• If a reaction produces more gas molecules in the products than in the

reactants, DS0rxn > 0

• If a reaction produces less gas molecules in the products than in the

reactants, DS0rxn < 0

• If there is no net change in the number of gas molecules, DS0rxn ~ 0

GCh18-14
Problem

Predict the entropy change of the system in each of the following reactions is
positive or negative

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) g 2 H2O (l) DS < 0

Two molecules combine to form a product. There is a net decrease of one

molecule and gases are converted into liquid. The number of microstates of
product that will be smaller, and entropy will be negative

NH4Cl (s) g NH3 (g) + HCl (g) DS > 0

A solid is converted into two gaseous products

H2 (g) + Br2 (g) g 2HBr (g) DS = 0

Two diatomic molecules are involved in reactants and products. All moleculeas
have similar complexity, and therefore we expect similar entropy of reactants and
products

GCh18-15
Third law of thermodynamics and absolute entropy

• The entropy of a pure crystalline substance equals zero at absolute zero

S = 0 at T = 0 K

any substance above 0 K has entropy > 0

any impure crystal has entropy > 0

• Standard Entropy (at 25 C) = S0

entropy at 25 C which is relative to 0 (zero) entropy at absolute zero

At absolute zero all molecular moves are frozen, and therefore there is only one
microstate which forms a particular macrostate.

S = k ln (W) W = 1 ln(1) = 0

S = 0

GCh18-16
Entropy changes in surroundings

For exothermic processes the heat is tranfered from a system to surroundings

increasing the number of microstates in the surroundings, therefore the entropy
of surroundings increases

If the temperature of the surroundings is high, the transfered heat does not
change the number of microstates much, however if the temperature is low, the
transfered heat changes the number of microstates more strongly

DSsurr = -DHsys / T

Example

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) g 2 NH3 (g) -DH0rxn = -92.6 kJ / mol

DSsys = -199 J / K mol

DSsurr = -(-92.6 x 1000 J/mol) / 298 K = 311 J/ K mol

DSuniv = DSsys + DSsurr

GCh18-17
 DSuniv = 112 J / K mol

Because the DSuniv is positive, we expect that the reaction is spontaneous

at 25 C.

GCh18-18
Gibbs free energy (G)

Another thermodynamic function that helps determine whether a reaction is

spontaneous is Gibbs free energy, also known as free energy. Two driving forces
in the nature (one related to the energy change, and another related to the
dissorder change) are combined in one equation

The term “free” meanes that Gibbs free energy is an amount of energy of a
molecular system, which can be used for work (exchanged from a heat to
mechanical work, or in an opposite direction). The rest of the energy, which can
not be convered into work, is related to a molecular dissorder (entropy)

G = H - TS
If a reaction is spontaneous

DSuniv = DSsys + DSsurr > 0

DSsurr = -DHsys / T

DSuniv = DSsys + -DHsys / T > 0

GCh18-19

-TDSuniv = DHsys - TDSsys < 0

-TDSuniv = DG

DG = DH - TDS < 0

• For any spontaneous change, DG is negative

(the free energy decreases)

• G is a state function (like H and S) - independent of pathway

Summary

• DG < 0 reaction is spontaneous in forward direction

• DG > 0 reaction is nonspontaneous or it is

spontaneous in the opposite direction

• DG = 0 at equilibrium

GCh18-20
Standard Free Energy Changes DG0

• Free energy change for a reaction when it occurs under standard-state

conditions (reactants and products are in their standard states)

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

1 atmosphere, solutions at 1 M, DGf = 0 for the elements

• DG0 (at STP) is generally used to decide if a reaction is spontaneous.

It is spontaneous if DG0rxn is negative

• Two ways to obtain DG0rxn for a reaction:

(1) From DH0f and DS0 requires having DH0f and DS0 data for all
reactants and products

DG0 = DH0 - TDS0

DH0 = S DH0f(products) - S DH0f(reactants)

DS0 = S DS0(products) - S DS0(reactants)

GCh18-21
 (2) From standard “Free Energies of Formation” DG0f

DG0rxn = S nDG0f(products) - S mDG0f(reactants)

where DG0f is the free energy change for the formation of one mole of
the compound from its elements

Standard free energy of formation

The free energy change that occurs when 1 mole of the compound is synthesized
from its elements in their standard states

GCh18-22
Example

DG0f for Al2(SO3)3 equals DG0f for the following reaction

2 Al (s) + 3 S (s) + 9/2 O2 (g) D Al2(SO3)3 (s)

As in the case of the standard enthalpy of formation, we define the standard free
energy of formation of any element in its allotropic form at 1 atm and 25 C

Example

DG0f (O2) = 0

DG0f (C, graphite) = 0

GCh18-23
Problem

Calculate the standard free energy changes for the following reactions at 25 C

a) CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) g CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)

DG0rxn = DG0f(CO2) + 2 DG0f(H2O) - DG0f(CH4) - DG0f(O2)

DG0f(O2) = 0 because it is a stable allotropic element at 1 atm and 25 C

DG0rxn = -818.0 kJ / mol

b) 2 MgO (s) g 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g)

DG0rxn = 2 DG0f(Mg) + DG0f(O2) - 2 DG0f(MgO)

DG0rxn = 1139 kJ / mol

GCh18-24
Temperature and chemical reactions

“Ball park” estimates of temperature at which a reaction becomes spontaneous

Procedure:

• Find DH° and DS° at 25 C

• Set DH - TDS = 0

• Solve for T, estimated temperature at which reaction becomes

spontaneous

GCh18-25
Problem

Calcium oxide (CaO) is produced according to the reaction

CaCO3 (s) D CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

What is the temperature at which the reaction favors the products

First we calculate DH0 and DS0 using the standard data of the reactants and
products

DH0 = DH0f(CaO) + DH0f(CO2) - DH0f(CaCO3)

DH0 = 177.8 kJ / mol

DS0 = S0(CaO) + S0(CO2) - S0(CaCO3)

DS0 = 160.5 J / K mol

GCh18-26
 DG0 = DH0 - TDS0

DG0 = 130.0 kJ / mol at 298 K

Because DG0 is a large positive value, we conclude that the reaction is not
favored for products at 25 C (298 K). In order to make DG negative, first we find
the temperature at which DG is zero

0 = DH0 - TDS0

T = DH0 / DS0

T = 1108 K = 835 C

At temperature higher that 835 C DG0 becomes negative indicating that the
reaction now favors the product formation

GCh18-27
Phase Transitions

At a phase transition the system is at equilibrium

• DG = 0 at the temperature of a phase transition

• DG = DH - TDS

• Thus DH - TDS = 0

• So DS = DH / T

GCh18-28
Problem

The molar heat of fusion of water are 6010 J / mol. Calculate the entropy
changes for the ice g water transitions.

The entropy change for melting 1 mole of water at 0 C is

DSice g water = DHfus / Tf

= (6010 J/mol) / (273)K

= 22 J/K mol

Thus when 1 mole of ice melts at 0 C there is an increase in entropy of 22 J/K

mol. The increase in entropy is consistent with the increase in microstates from
solid to liquid. Consequently for the liquid g solid transition the decrease of
entropy is

DSwater g ice = - DHfus / Tf

DSwater g ice = - 22 J/K mol

GCh18-29
Problem

The molar heat of fusion and vaporization of benzene are 10.9 kJ / mol and 31
kJ / mol. Calculate the entropy changes for the solid g liquid and liquid g vapor
transitions. At 1 atm, benzene melts at 5.5 C and boils at 80.1 C.

The entropy change for melting 1 mole of benzene at 5.5 C is

DSfus = DHfus / Tf

= (10.9 kJ/mol) (1000 J/kJ) / (5.5 + 273)K

= 39.1 J/K mol

The entropy change for boiling 1 mole of benzene at 80.1 C is

DSvap = DHvap / Tbp

= (31 kJ/mol) (1000 J/kJ) / (80.1 + 273)K

= 87.8 J/K mol

GCh18-30
Free energy and chemical equilibrium

During a chemical reactions not all reactants and products will be at their
standard states. Under this condition, there is a relationship between DG and
DG0

• For any chemical system:

DG = DG0 + (RT) ln Q
Q - concentration quotient

• If DG is not zero, then the system is not at equilibrium and it will

spontaneously shift toward the equilibrium state

• But, at equilibrium: DG = 0 and Q = K

DG0 = - (RT) ln K

GCh18-31
• Relates equilibrium constant to standard free energy DG0

• Allows the calculation of K if DG0 is known and vice versa, e.g., when K is
very small or large, may be difficult to measure the concentration of a
reactant or product, so it is easier to find DG0 and calculate K

• For gaseous reactions: K = Kp

• For solution reactions: K = Kc

• Units of DG must match those of RT value

GCh18-32
(a) G0prod < G0reac so DG0 < 0 (negative)

(b) G0reac < G0prod so DG0 > 0 (positive)

(c) The actual free energy change (DG) of the system varies as the reaction
progresses and becomes zero at equilibrium. However the standard free
energy (DG0) change is a constant for a particular reaction at a aprticular
temperature

GCh18-33
• Gproducts = Greactants and DG = 0

• Since DG = DH - TDS = 0

• DH = TDS or T = DH / DS

Problem

Given the following, determine the temperature of the normal boiling point of
mercury (Hg)

Hgliq
D Hggas

Data

DHvaporization = 60.7 kJ / mole
S0((liquid) = 76.1 J / mole K
S0(vapor) = 175 J / mole K

GCh18-34
 At equilibrium DG = 0

DH - TDS = 0

T = DH / DS

T = (60.7 x 103 J / mole) / [(175 - 76.1) J / mole K]

T = (60.7 x 103 J / mole) / (273 K) = 614 K

GCh18-35
Problem

Calculate the equilibrium constant, KP, for the reaction shown below at 25 C

2 H2O (l) D 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)

Solution

First we calculate DG0

DG0 = 2DG0f(H2) + DG0f(O2) - 2DG0f(H2O)

= 474.4 kJ/mol

GCh18-36
 DG0 = - (RT) ln Kp

474.4 kJ/mol (1000 J/ kJ) = - (8.314 J/K mol)(298 K) ln(Kp)

ln(Kp) = -191.5

Kp = e-191.5

= 7 x 10-84

GCh18-37
Problem

Calculate the standard free energy change, DG0, of the reaction shown below at
25 C

AgCl (s) D Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

The solubility product Ksp of the reaction is 1.6 x 10-10.

Solution

DG0 = - (RT) ln Ksp

Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-] = 1.6 x 10-10

DG0 = -(8.314 J/K mol) (298 K) ln(1.6 x 10-10)

= 56 kJ/mol

GCh18-38
Problem

The equilibrium constant (Kp) for the reaction

N2O4 (g) D 2 NO2 (g)

is 0.113 at 298 K, which corresponds to a standard free energy change of 5.4 kJ/
mol. The initial pressures are PNO2 = 0.122 atm and PN2O4 = 0.453 atm. Calculate
DG for the reaction at these pressures and predict the direction of the net
reaction toward equilibrium

Solution

DG = DG0 + (RT) ln Qp

Qp = P2NO2 / PN2O4

DG = DG0 + (RT) ln (P2NO2 / PN2O4)

= 5.6 x 103 J/mol + (8.314 J/K mol) (298 K) ln [(0.122)2 / (0.453)]

GCh18-39
 DG = 5.4 x 103 J/mol - 8.46 x 103 J/mol

= -3.06 x 103 J/mol

Because DG < 0, the net reaction proceeds from left to right (from reactants to
products) to reach equilibrium

GCh18-40
Problem

The DG 0 for the reaction

H2 (g) + I2 (g) D 2 HI(g)

is 2.6 kJ/mol at 25 K. The initial pressures are PH2 = 4.26 atm and PI2 = 0.024 atm
and PHI = 0.23. Calculate DG for the reaction at these pressures and predict the
direction of the net reaction toward equilibrium

Solution

DG = DG0 + (RT) ln Qp

Qp = P2HI / (PH2 PI2 )

DG = DG0 + (RT) ln [P2HI / (PH2 PI2)]

= 2.6 x 103 J/mol + (8.314 J/K mol) (298 K) ln [(0.23)2 / (4.26 x 0.024)]

= 0.97 x 103 J/mol = 0.97 kJ/mol

GCh18-41