EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Irrigation water requirement:

Crop water requirement
Evapotranspiration concepts

Figure. Reference (ET0), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc), and non-standard
conditions (ET c adj)

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Reference crop evapotranspiration (𝐄𝐓𝟎)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference
crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET0 . The reference
surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other
denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their definitions.
The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference
crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET0 . The reference
surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other
denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their definitions.
The only factors affecting ET0 are climatic parameters. Consequently, ET0 is a climatic parameter
and can be computed from weather data. ET0 expresses the evaporating power of the
atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole
method for determining ET0 . The method has been selected because it closely approximates
grass ET0 at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both
physiological and aerodynamic parameters. Moreover, procedures have been developed for
estimating missing climatic parameters.
Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (𝐄𝐓𝐜 )
The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ETc, is the
evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under optimum
soil water conditions, and achieving full production under the given climatic conditions.
The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the cropped field
is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for crop evapotranspiration and crop
water requirement are identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that
needs to be supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost
through evapotranspiration. The irrigation water requirement basically represents the difference
between the crop water requirement and effective precipitation. The irrigation water
requirement also includes additional water for leaching of salts and to compensate for non-
uniformity of water application.
Crop evapotranspiration can be calculated from climatic data and by integrating directly the crop
resistance, albedo and air resistance factors in the Penman-Monteith approach. As there is still a
considerable lack of information for different crops, the Penman-Monteith method is used for
the estimation of the standard reference crop to determine its evapotranspiration rate, i.e., ET0.
Experimentally determined ratios of ETc /ET0, called crop coefficients (𝐾𝑐 ), are used to relate ETc
to ET0 or 𝐄𝐓𝐜 = 𝑲𝑪 𝐄𝐓𝟎
Differences in leaf anatomy, stomatal characteristics, aerodynamic properties and even albedo
cause the crop evapotranspiration to differ from the reference crop evapotranspiration under

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

the same climatic conditions. Due to variations in the crop characteristics throughout its growing
season, 𝐾𝐶 for a given crop changes from sowing till harvest.
Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (𝐄𝐓𝐂 𝐚𝐝𝐣)
The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETC adj) is the evapotranspiration
from crops grown under management and environmental conditions that differ from the
standard conditions. When cultivating crops in fields, the real crop evapotranspiration may
deviate from ETc due to non-optimal conditions such as the presence of pests and diseases, soil
salinity, low soil fertility, water shortage or waterlogging. This may result in scanty plant growth,
low plant density and may reduce the evapotranspiration rate below ETc.
The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions is calculated by using a water stress
coefficient 𝐾𝑠 and/or by adjusting 𝐾𝑐 for all kinds of other stresses and environmental constraints
on crop evapotranspiration.

Determination of Evapotranspiration
ET measurement
Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of
various physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. The methods are often expensive, demanding in terms of accuracy of
measurement and can only be fully exploited by well-trained research personnel. Although the
methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain important for the evaluation
of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Soil water balance
Evapotranspiration can be determined by measuring the various components of the soil water
balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into the crop
root zone over some time period. Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the root zone. Part of
I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation (DP) that will eventually
recharge the water table. Water might also be transported upward by capillary rise (CR) from a
shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in
(𝑆𝐹𝑖𝑛 ) or out of (𝑆𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) the root zone. In many situations, however, except under conditions with
large slopes, 𝑆𝐹𝑖𝑛 and 𝑆𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 are minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop
transpiration deplete water from the root zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET)
can be assessed, the evapotranspiration can be deduced from the change in soil water content
(∆ 𝑆𝑊) over the time period:
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐷𝑃 + 𝐶𝑅 ± ∆𝑆𝐹 ± ∆ 𝑆𝑊
Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table are
difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance method
can usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long or ten-day
periods.
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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Lysimeters
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are
difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled with
either disturbed or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is
directly measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy
of a few hundredths of a millimeter, and small time periods such as an hour can be considered.
In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined by
deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total water
input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the
lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has
historically not been closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in
severely erroneous and unrepresentative 𝐸𝑇𝑐 and 𝐾 𝑐 data.
As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and maintenance
require special care, their use is limited to specific research purposes.
ET computed from meteorological data
Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly computed from
weather data. A large number of empirical or semi-empirical equations have been developed for
assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from meteorological data. Some of the
methods are only valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and cannot be applied
under conditions different from those under which they were originally developed.

Fig. Characteristics of the hypothetical crop

The standard and recommended method for the definition and computation of the reference
evapotranspiration, 𝐸𝑇0 is the FAO Penman-Monteith equation. The ET from crop surfaces

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

under standard conditions is determined by crop coefficients (𝐾 𝑐 ) that relate 𝐸𝑇𝑐 to 𝐸𝑇0 . The ET
from crop surfaces under non-standard conditions is adjusted by a water stress coefficient (K s)
and/or by modifying the crop coefficient.
The equation is derived from Penman-Monteith combination method and modified by defining
a reference crop as a hypothetical crop with an assumed height of 0.12 m having a surface
resistance of 70 𝑠 𝑚−1 and an albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the evaporation of an extension
surface of green grass of uniform height, actively growing and adequately watered. See figure
above for the characteristics of the hypothetical reference crop.
The FAO Penman-Monteith equation:
900
0.408∆(𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺 ) + 𝛾 𝑢 (𝑒 − 𝑒𝑎 )
𝐸𝑇0 = 𝑇 + 273 2 𝑠
∆ + 𝛾(1 + 0.34𝑢2 )
Where:
ET0 = reference evapotranspiration [mm⁄day]
R n = net radiation at the crop surface [ MJ⁄m2 day]
G = soil heat flux density [ MJ⁄m2 day]
T = mean daily airtemperature at 2m height [℃]
u2 = wind speed at 2m height [m⁄s]
es = saturation vapor pressure [kPa]
ea = actual vapor pressure [kPa]
es − ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit [kPa]
∆ = slope of vapor pressure curve [kPa⁄℃]
γ = psychometric constant [kPa⁄℃]
Data requirements
Location
Altitude above sea level (m) and latitude (degrees north or south) of the location should be
specified. These data are needed to adjust some weather parameters for the local average value
of atmospheric pressure (a function of the site elevation above mean sea level) and to compute
extraterrestrial radiation (𝑅𝑎 ) and, in some cases, daylight hours (N). In the calculation
procedures for 𝑅𝑎 and N, the latitude is expressed in radian (i.e., decimal degrees times 𝜋/180).
A positive value is used for the northern hemisphere and a negative value for the southern
hemisphere.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Temperature
The (average) daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in degrees Celsius (℃) are
required. Where only (average) mean daily temperatures are available, the calculations can still
be executed but some underestimation of 𝐸𝑇0 will probably occur due to the non-linearity of the
saturation vapor pressure - temperature relationship. Using mean air temperature instead of
maximum and minimum air temperatures yields a lower saturation vapor pressure 𝑒𝑠 , and hence
a lower vapor pressure difference (𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 ), and a lower reference evapotranspiration estimate.
Humidity
The (average) daily actual vapor pressure, 𝑒𝑎 , in kilopascals (kPa) is required. The actual vapor
pressure, where not available, can be derived from maximum and minimum relative humidity
(%), psychrometric data (dry and wet bulb temperatures in ℃ or dewpoint temperature (℃).
Radiation
The (average) daily net radiation expressed in megajoules per square meter per day
([ MJ⁄m2 day]) is required. These data are not commonly available but can be derived from the
(average) shortwave radiation measured with a pyranometer or from the (average) daily actual
duration of bright sunshine (hours per day) measured with a (Campbell-Stokes) sunshine
recorder.
Wind speed
The (average) daily wind speed in meters per second (m⁄s]) measured at 2 m above the ground
level is required. It is important to verify the height at which wind speed is measured, as wind
speeds measured at different heights above the soil surface differ.

Missing climatic data

Situations might occur where data for some weather variables are missing. The use of an
alternative 𝐸𝑇0 calculation procedure, requiring only limited meteorological parameters, should
generally be avoided. It is recommended that one calculate 𝐸𝑇0 using the standard FAO Penman-
Monteith method after resolving the specific problem of the missing data. Differences between
𝐸𝑇0 values obtained with the FAO Penman-Monteith equation with, on the one hand, a limited
data set and, on the other hand, a full data set, are expected to be smaller than or of similar
magnitude to the differences resulting from the use of an alternative 𝐸𝑇0 equation.

Even where the data set contains only maximum and minimum air temperature it is still possible
to obtain reasonable estimates of ten-day or monthly 𝐸𝑇0 with the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation. Radiation data can be derived from the air temperature difference, or, along with wind
speed and humidity data, can be imported from a nearby weather station. Humidity data can also
be estimated from daily minimum air temperature. After evaluating the validity of the use of data
from another station, ten-day or monthly estimates of 𝐸𝑇0 can be calculated.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

The procedures for estimating missing data should be validated at the regional level. This can be
done for weather stations with full data sets by comparing 𝐸𝑇0 calculated with full and with
limited data sets. The ratio should be close to one. Where the ratio deviates significantly from
one, the ratio can be used as a correction factor for estimates made with the limited data set.
Where the standard error of estimate exceeds 20% of the mean 𝐸𝑇0 , a sensitivity analysis should
be performed to determine causes (and limits) for the method utilized to import the missing data.
A validation should be completed for each month and variable, for the monthly as well as for the
daily estimates.

Assignment:
Refer to FAO paper number 56
In 7 equal groups, read and make summarized notes about the determination and estimation
(when the data are missing) of the data below. Prepare a presentation for the class
A. Meteorological data
1. Solar
2. Air temperature
3. Air humidity
4. Wind speed
B. Atmospheric parameters
5. Atmospheric pressure
6. Latent heat of vaporization
7. Psychometric constant

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Calculation of ET
Using the Penman-Monteith equation
ET0 can be estimated by means of the calculation sheet given below. The calculation sheet refers
to tables in Annex II (FAO Paper no. 56) for the determination of some of the climatic parameters.
Calculation sheet for ET0 using the FAO Penman-Monteith equation

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

For the references to the annex, refer to FAO paper no 56

900
0.408∆(𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺 ) + 𝛾 𝑢 (𝑒 − 𝑒𝑎 )
𝐸𝑇0 = 𝑇 + 273 2 𝑠
∆ + 𝛾(1 + 0.34𝑢2 )
The calculation procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Derivation of some climatic parameters from the daily maximum (𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and minimum
(𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) air temperature, altitude (z) and mean wind speed (𝑢2 ).
2. Calculation of the vapor pressure deficit (𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 ). The saturation vapour pressure (𝑒𝑠 is
derived from 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛, while the actual vapour pressure (𝑒𝑎 ) can be derived from

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

the dewpoint temperature (𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤 ), from maximum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and minimum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
relative humidity, from the maximum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ), or from mean relative humidity (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 ).
3. Determination of the net radiation (𝑅𝑛 ) as the difference between the net shortwave
radiation (𝑅𝑛𝑠 ) and the net longwave radiation (𝑅𝑛𝑙 ). In the calculation sheet, the effect
of soil heat flux (G) is ignored for daily calculations as the magnitude of the flux in this
case is relatively small. The net radiation, expressed in MJ⁄m2 day], is converted to
mm/day (equivalent evaporation) in the FAO Penman-Monteith equation by using 0.408
as the conversion factor within the equation.
4. ET0 is obtained by combining the results of the previous steps.
5.

Using the pan evaporation method

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of radiation,
air temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However, differences in the water
and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water loss from an open water surface
and the crop. The pan has proved its practical value and has been used successfully to estimate
reference evapotranspiration by observing the evaporation loss from a water surface and
applying empirical coefficients (𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝐾𝑝 ) to relate pan evaporation (𝐸0 ) using the
following relationship:
ET0 = 𝐾𝑝 E0

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground cover in
the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions, should be
checked. The siting of the pan and the pan environment also influence the results. This is
particularly so where the pan is placed in fallow rather than cropped fields.
Two cases are commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sited on a short green (grass) cover
and surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sited on fallow soil and surrounded
by a green crop. See the figure below

wind wind
Pan Pan

Green crop Green crop Dry surface

Dry surface

Varies Varies
50 m or more 50 m or more

Case A Case B

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Class A pan Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
RHmean % Low Medium High Low Medium High
<40 40 – 70 >70 <40 40 – 70 >70
Wind Windward side Windward side
km/day distance of green distance of green
crop (m) crop (m)
Light <175 1 0.55 0.65 0.75 1 0.7 0.8 0.85
10 0.65 0.75 0.85 10 0.6 0.7 0.8
100 0.7 0.8 0.85 100 0.55 0.65 0.75
1000 0.75 0.85 0.85 1000 0.5 0.6 0.7
Moderate 1 0.5 0.6 0.65 1 0.65 0.75 0.8
175-425
10 0.6 0.7 0.75 10 0.55 0.65 0.7
100 0.65 0.75 0.8 100 0.5 0.6 0.65
1000 0.7 0.8 0.8 1000 0.45 0.55 0.6
Strong 425- 1 0.45 0.5 0.6 1 0.6 0.65 0.7
700
10 0.55 0.6 0.65 10 0.5 0.55 0.65
100 0.6 0.65 0.7 100 0.45 0.5 0.6
1000 0.65 0.7 0.75 1000 0.4 0.45 0.55
Very strong 1 0.4 0.45 0.5 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.45 0.55 0.6 10 0.45 0.5 0.55
100 0.5 0.6 0.65 100 0.4 0.45 0.5
1000 0.55 0.6 0.65 1000 0.35 0.4 0.45

Pan coefficient (Kp) for colorado sunken pan different groundcover and levels of mean relative
humidity and 24 hour wind
Sunken Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
Colorado
RHmean % Low Medium High Low Medium High
<40 40 – 70 >70 <40 40 – 70 >70
Wind Windward side Windward side
km/day distance of green distance of green
crop (m) crop (m)
Light <175 1 0.75 0.75 0.8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1

10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 0.85 0.85 0.85

100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 0.75 0.75 0.8
1000 0.7 0.7 0.75
Moderate 1 0.65 0.7 0.7 1 0.95 0.95 0.95
175-425
10 0.85 0.85 0.9 10 0.75 0.75 0.75
100 0.95 0.95 0.95 100 0.65 0.65 0.7
1000 0.6 0.6 0.65
Strong 425- 1 0.55 0.65 0.65 1 0.8 0.8 0.8
700
10 0.75 0.75 0.75 10 0.65 0.65 0.65
100 0.8 0.8 0.8 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.5 0.55 0.6
Very strong 1 0.5 0.55 0.6 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.65 0.7 0.7 10 0.7 0.75 0.75
100 0.7 0.75 0.75 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.45 0.5 0.55

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

The Class A Evaporation pan (see figure below) is circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep.
It is made of galvanized iron (22 gauge) or Monel metal (0.8 mm). The pan is mounted on a
wooden open frame platform which is 15 cm above ground level. The soil is built up to within 5
cm of the bottom of the pan. The pan must be level. It is filled with water to 5 cm below the rim,
and the water level should not be allowed to drop to more than 7.5 cm below the rim. The water
should be regularly renewed, at least weekly, to eliminate extreme turbidity. The pan, if
galvanized, is painted annually with aluminum paint.

Fig. Details of a Class A pan

Screens over the pan are not a standard requirement and should preferably not be used. Pans
should be protected by fences to keep animals from drinking. The site should preferably be under
grass, 20 by 20 m, open on all sides to permit free circulation of the air. It is preferable that
stations be located in the center or on the leeward side of large cropped fields.
Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning at the same time that precipitation is measured.
Measurements are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near one edge. The stilling
well is a metal cylinder of about 10 cm in diameter and some 20 cm deep with a small hole at the
bottom.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

𝐄𝐓𝐂 – Single crop coefficient (𝑲𝒄)

ETc is determined by the crop coefficient approach whereby the effect of the various weather
conditions are incorporated into 𝐸𝑇0 and the crop characteristics into the 𝐾𝑐 coefficient:
𝐸𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 𝐸𝑇0
The effect of both crop transpiration and soil evaporation are integrated into a single crop
coefficient. The 𝐾𝑐 coefficient incorporates crop characteristics and averaged effects of
evaporation from the soil. For normal irrigation planning and management purposes, for the
development of basic irrigation schedules, and for most hydrologic water balance studies,
average crop coefficients are relevant and more convenient than the 𝐾𝑐 computed on a daily time
step using a separate crop and soil coefficient.
The calculation procedure:

1. Identify the crop growth stages, determining their lengths, and selecting th corresponding
𝐾𝑐 coefficients
2. Adjust the selected 𝐾𝑐 coefficients for frequency of wetting or climate conditions during
stage
3. Construct the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine 𝐾𝑐 values for any period
during the growing period), and
4. Calculating 𝐸𝑇𝑐 as the product of 𝐸𝑇0 and Kc
Length of growth stages
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 provides general lengths for the four distinct growth
stages and the total growing period for various types of climates and locations. This information
has been supplemented from other sources and is summarized in the following table.
In some situations, the time of emergence of vegetation and the time of effective full cover can
be predicted using cumulative degree-based regression equations or by more sophisticated plant
growth models. These types of models should be verified or validated for the local area or for a
specific crop variety using local observations.
The lengths of the initial and development periods may be relatively short for deciduous trees
and shrubs that can develop new leaves in the spring at relatively fast rates.
The rate at which vegetation cover develops and the time at which it attains effective full cover
are affected by weather conditions in general and by mean daily air temperature in particular.
Therefore, the length of time between planting and effective full cover will vary with climate,
latitude, elevation and planting date. It will also vary with cultivar (crop variety). Generally, once
the effective full cover for a plant canopy has been reached, the rate of further phenological
development (flowering, seed development, ripening, and senescence) is more dependent on
plant genotype and less dependent on weather.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

The end of the mid-season and beginning of the late season is usually marked by senescence of
leaves, often beginning with the lower leaves of plants. The length of the late season period may
be relatively short (less than 10 days) for vegetation killed by frost (for example, maize at high
elevations in latitudes > 40°N) or for agricultural crops that are harvested fresh (for example,
table beets and small vegetables).
High temperatures may accelerate the ripening and senescence of crops. Long duration of high
air temperature (> 35°C) can cause some crops such as turf grass to go into dormancy. If severely
high air temperatures are coupled with moisture stress, the dormancy of grass can be permanent
for the remainder of the growing season. Moisture stress or other environmental stresses will
usually accelerate the rate of crop maturation and can shorten the mid and late season growing
periods.
The values in the previous table are useful only as a general guide and for comparison purposes.
The listed lengths of growth stages are average lengths for the regions and periods specified and
are intended to serve only as examples. Local observations of the specific plant stage
development should be used, wherever possible, to incorporate effects of plant variety, climate
and cultural practices. Local information can be obtained by interviewing farmers, ranchers,
agricultural extension agents and local researchers, by conducting local surveys, or by remote
sensing. When determining stage dates from local observations, the guidelines and visual
descriptions may be helpful.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Table. Lengths of crop development stages* for various planting periods and climatic regions
(days)

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EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

* Lengths of crop development stages provided in this table are indicative of general conditions, but may vary substantially from region to region,
with climate and cropping conditions, and with crop variety. The user is strongly encouraged to obtain appropriate local information.
1 Crucifers include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, and Brussel sprouts. The wide range in lengths of seasons is due to varietal and species
differences.
2 These periods for winter wheat will lengthen in frozen climates according to days having zero growth potential and wheat dormancy. Under
general conditions and in the absence of local data, fall planting of winter wheat can be presumed to occur in northern temperate climates when
the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature decreases to 17° C or December 1, whichever comes first. Planting of spring wheat can
be presumed to occur when the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature increases to 5° C. Spring planting of maize-grain can be
presumed to occur when the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature increases to 13° C.
3 The late season for sweet maize will be about 35 days if the grain is allowed to mature and dry.
4 In climates having killing frosts, growing seasons can be estimated for alfalfa and grass as:
alfalfa: last -4° C in spring until first -4° C in fall (Everson, D. O., M. Faubion and D. E. Amos 1978. Freezing temperatures and growing seasons
in Idaho. Univ. Idaho Agric. Exp. station bulletin 494.18 p)
grass: 7 days before last -4° C in spring and 7 days after last -4° C in fall (Kruse E. G. and Haise, H. R. 1974. "Water use by native grasses in
high altitude Colorado meadows." USDA Agric. Res. Service, Western Region report ARS-W-6-1974. 60 pages)
5 Olive trees gain new leaves in March. See footnote 24 of Table 12 for additional information, where the Kc continues outside of the "growing
period".
Primary source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24 (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977), Table 22.

Crop coefficients
Changes in vegetation and ground cover mean that the crop coefficient Kc varies during the
growing period. The trends in Kc during the growing period are represented in the crop coefficient
curve. Only three values for Kc are required to describe and construct the crop coefficient curve:
those during the initial stage (Kc ini), the mid-season stage (Kc mid) and at the end of the late season
stage (Kc end).

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Tabulated Kc values
The following table lists typical values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end for various agricultural crops. The
coefficients presented are organized by group type (i.e., small vegetables, legumes, cereals, etc.)
to assist in locating the crop in the table and to aid in comparing crops within the same group.
There is usually close similarity in the coefficients among the members of the same crop group,
as the plant height, leaf area, ground coverage and water management are normally similar.
The coefficients in the table integrate the effects of both transpiration and evaporation over
time. The effects of the integration over time represent an average wetting frequency for a
'standard' crop under typical growing conditions in an irrigated setting. The values for Kc during
the initial and crop development stages are subject to the effects of large variations in wetting
frequencies and therefore refinements to the value used for Kc ini should always be made. For
frequent wettings such as with high frequency sprinkler irrigation or rainfall, the values for Kc ini
may increase substantially.
Table. Single (time-averaged) crop coefficients, Kc, and mean maximum plant heights for non-
stressed, well-managed crops in subhumid climates (RHmin is approximatelt 45% and U 2 is
approximately 2 m/s) for use with the FAO Penman-Montheith ET0.

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EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

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EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

1 These are general values for Kc ini under typical irrigation management and soil wetting. For frequent wettings such as with high frequency
sprinkle irrigation or daily rainfall, these values may increase substantially and may approach 1.0 to 1.2.
2 Beans, Peas, Legumes, Tomatoes, Peppers and Cucumbers are sometimes grown on stalks reaching 1.5 to 2 meters in height. In such cases,
increased Kc values need to be taken. For green beans, peppers and cucumbers, 1.15 can be taken, and for tomatoes, dry beans and peas, 1.20.
Under these conditions h should be increased also.
3 The midseason values for cassava assume non-stressed conditions during or following the rainy season. The Kc end values account for dormancy
during the dry season.
4 The Kc end value for potatoes is about 0.40 for long season potatoes with vine kill.
5 This Kc end value is for no irrigation during the last month of the growing season. The Kc end value for sugar beets is higher, up to 1.0, when
irrigation or significant rain occurs during the last month.
6 The first Kc end is for harvested fresh. The second value is for harvested dry.
7 The Kc for asparagus usually remains at Kc ini during harvest of the spears, due to sparse ground cover. The Kc mid value is for following regrowth
of plant vegetation following termination of harvest of spears.
8 Kc for sisal depends on the planting density and water management (e.g., intentional moisture stress).
9 The lower values are for rainfed crops having less dense plant populations.
10 The higher value is for hand-harvested crops.

11 The first Kc end value is for harvest at high grain moisture. The second Kc end value is for harvest after complete field drying of the grain (to about
18% moisture, wet mass basis).
12 If harvested fresh for human consumption. Use Kc end for field maize if the sweet maize is allowed to mature and dry in the field.
13 This Kc mid coefficient for hay crops is an overall average Kc mid coefficient that averages Kc for both before and following cuttings. It is applied
to the period following the first development period until the beginning of the last late season period of the growing season.
14 These Kc coefficients for hay crops represent immediately following cutting; at full cover; and immediately before cutting, respectively. The
growing season is described as a series of individual cutting periods (Figure 35).

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

15 Cool season grass varieties include dense stands of bluegrass, ryegrass, and fescue. Warm season varieties include bermuda grass and St.
Augustine grass. The 0.95 values for cool season grass represent a 0.06 to 0.08 m mowing height under general turf conditions. Where careful
water management is practiced and rapid growth is not required, Kc's for turf can be reduced by 0.10.
16 The pineapple plant has very low transpiration because it closes its stomates during the day and opens them during the night. Therefore, the
majority of ETc from pineapple is evaporation from the soil. The Kc mid < Kc ini since Kc mid occurs during full ground cover so that soil evaporation
is less. Values given assume that 50% of the ground surface is covered by black plastic mulch and that irrigation is by sprinkler. For drip
irrigation beneath the plastic mulch, Kc's given can be reduced by 0.10.
17 Includes the water requirements of the shade trees.
18 These Kc end values represent Kc prior to leaf drop. After leaf drop, Kc end 0.20 for bare, dry soil or dead ground cover and Kc end 0.50 to
0.80 for actively growing ground cover.
19 Refer to footnotes 21 and 22 for estimating Kc for immature stands.
20 Stone fruit category applies to peaches, apricots, pears, plums and pecans.
21 These Kc values can be calculated from Eq. 98 for Kc min = 0.15 and Kc full = 0.75, 0.70 and 0.75 for the initial, mid season and end of season
periods, and fc eff = fc where fc = fraction of ground covered by tree canopy (e.g., the sun is presumed to be directly overhead). The values listed
correspond with those in Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) and with more recent measurements. The midseason value is lower than initial and ending
values due to the effects of stomatal closure during periods of peak ET. For humid and subhumid climates where there is less stomatal control by
citrus, values for Kc ini, Kc mid, and Kc end can be increased by 0.1 - 0.2, following Rogers et al. (1983).
22 These Kc values can be calculated as Kc = fc Kc ngc + (1 - fc) Kc cover where Kc ngc is the Kc of citrus with no active ground cover (calculated as in
footnote 21), Kc cover is the Kc, for the active ground cover (0.95), and fc is defined in footnote 21. The values listed correspond with those in
Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) and with more recent measurements. Alternatively, Kc for citrus with active ground cover can be estimated directly
from Eq. 98 by setting Kc min = Kc cover. For humid and subhumid climates where there is less stomatal control by citrus, values for Kc ini, Kc mid,
and Kc end can be increased by 0.1 - 0.2, following Rogers et al. (1983).
For non-active or only moderately active ground cover (active indicates green and growing ground cover with LAI > about 2 to 3), Kc should be
weighted between Kc for no ground cover and Kc for active ground cover, with the weighting based on the "greenness" and approximate leaf area
of the ground cover.
23 Confers exhibit substantial stomatal control due to reduced aerodynamic resistance. The Kc, can easily reduce below the values presented,
which represent well-watered conditions for large forests.
24 These coefficients represent about 40 to 60% ground cover. Refer to Eq. 98 and footnotes 21 and 22 for estimating Kc for immature stands. In
Spain, Pastor and Orgaz (1994) have found the following monthly Kc's for olive orchards having 60% ground cover: 0.50, 0.50, 0.65, 0.60, 0.55,
0.50, 0.45, 0.45, 0.55, 0.60, 0.65, 0.50 for months January through December. These coefficients can be invoked by using Kc ini = 0.65, Kc mid =
0.45, and Kc end = 0.65, with stage lengths = 30, 90, 60 and 90 days, respectively for initial, development, midseason and late season periods, and
using Kc during the winter ("off season") in December to February = 0.50.
25 These Kc's are for deep water in temperate latitudes where large temperature changes in the water body occur during the year, and initial and
peak period evaporation is low as radiation energy is absorbed into the deep water body. During fall and winter periods (Kc end), heat is released
from the water body that increases the evaporation above that for grass. Therefore, Kc mid corresponds to the period when the water body is
gaining thermal energy and Kc end when releasing thermal energy. These Kc's should be used with caution.
Primary sources: Kc ini: Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) Kc mid and Kc end: Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977); Pruitt (1986); Wright (1981, 1982).
Snyder et al., (1989)

The values for Kc mid and Kc end in Table 3.2 represent those for a sub-humid climate with an average
daytime minimum relative humidity (RHmin) of about 45% and with calm to moderate wind speeds
averaging 2 m/s. For more humid or arid conditions, or for more or less windy conditions, the Kc
coefficients for the mid-season and end of late season stage should be modified as described in FAO
56 Chapter 6.
The values for Kc in Table 3.2 are values for non-stressed crops cultivated under excellent agronomic
and water management conditions and achieving maximum crop yield (standard conditions). Where
stand density, height or leaf area are less than that attained under such conditions, the value for Kc mid
and, for most crops, for Kc end will need to be modified (FAO 56, Chapters 8, 9 and 10).
Construction of the Kc curve
For annual crops
Only three-point values for Kc are required to describe and to construct the Kc curve. The curve
is constructed using the following three steps:
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop phenology
or development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stage),
determine the lengths of the growth stages, and identify the three Kc values that
correspond to Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from earlier Kc values table.

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2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the growth
stages as outlined in the previous section.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four growth
stages. Horizontal lines are drawn through Kc ini in the initial stage and through Kc mid in
the mid-season stage. Diagonal lines are drawn from Kc ini to Kc mid within the course of
the crop development stage and from Kc mid to Kc end within the course of the late season
stage.
Forage crop
Many crops grown for forage or hay are harvested several times during the growing season. Each
harvest essentially terminates a 'sub' growing season and associated Kc curve and initiates a new
'sub' growing season and associated Kc curve. The resulting Kc curve for the entire growing season
is the aggregation of a series of Kc curves associated with each sub-cycle.
Fruit trees
Values for the crop coefficient during the mid-season and end of late season stages are given in
an earlier table of Kc values. As mentioned before, the Kc values listed are typical values for
standard climatic conditions and need to be adjusted where RH min or u2 (i.e. wind speed at 2m
height) differ. As the mid and late season stages of deciduous trees are quite long, the specific
adjustment of Kc to RHmin and u2 should consider the varying climatic conditions throughout the
season. Therefore, several adjustments of Kc are often required if the mid and late seasons cover
several climatic seasons, e.g., spring, summer and autumn or wet and dry seasons. The Kc ini and
Kc end for evergreen non dormant trees and shrubs are often not different, where climatic
conditions do not vary much, as happens in tropical climates. Under these conditions, seasonal
adjustments for climate may therefore not be required since variations in ET c depend mostly on
variations in ETo.
Calculating ETc
From the crop coefficient curve the Kc value for any period during the growing period can be
graphically or numerically determined. Once the Kc values have been derived, the crop
evapotranspiration, ETc, can be calculated by multiplying the Kc values by the corresponding ETo
values.
Graphical determination of Kc
Weekly, ten-day, or monthly values for Kc are necessary when ETc calculations are made on weekly,
ten-day or monthly time steps. A general procedure is to construct the Kc curve, overlay the curve
with the lengths of the weeks, decad or months, and to derive graphically from the curve the Kc value
for the period under consideration. If all decades have a duration of 10 days facilitates the derivation
of Kc and introduces little error into the calculation of ETc.
Example

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An example application for using the Kc procedure is presented for dry bean crop planted on 23rd
May. The development, mid-season and late season stage lengths are given as 25, 25, 30 and 20
days and the values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end are given as 0.15, 1.19, and 0.35. The Kc curve and
the 10-day values for Kc and ETc for the dry bean crop are presented in the following Figure.
For all decades the Kc values can be derived directly from the curve. The value at the middle of
the decade is considered to be the average Kc of that 10-day period. Only the second decade of
June, where the Kc value changes abruptly, requires some calculation.
First five days of that decade, Kc = 0.15, while during the second part of the decade Kc varies from
0.15 to 0.36 at the end of day 10. The Kc for that decade is consequently: 5/10 (0.15) +
5/10(0.15+0.36)/2 = 0.20.

Figure. Kc curve and ten-day values for Kc and ETc for the dry bean crop example
Numerical determination of Kc
The Kc coefficient for any period of the growing season can be derived by considering that during
the initial and mid-season stages Kc is constant and equal to the Kc value of the growth stage
under consideration. During the crop development and late season stage, Kc varies linearly
between the Kc at the end of the previous stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the beginning of the next
stage (Kc next), which is Kc end in the case of the late season stage:

𝑖 − ∑(𝐿𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣 )
𝐾𝑐 𝑖 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣 + [ ] (𝐾𝑐 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐾𝑐 )
𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣

where

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

i day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season], Kci crop coefficient
on day i,
Lstage length of the stage under consideration [days], (Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous
stages [days].
Example: Numerical determination of Kc

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