Sociology of Education

Chapter 1

Learning unit 1

What is sociology of education?

Sociology of Education (S.o.E): It is the study of educational structures, processes and

practices from a sociological perspective- also part of discipline of education. It defines the
scientific analysis of social processes and social patterns involved in the educational
system.

Functions of sociology of education:

 Assimilation and transmission of cultures and traditions

 Development of new social patterns (mass media and technology)
 Activation of constructive and creative forces

1. Assimilation and transmission of cultures and traditions

- Must be done consciously and selectively
- Clear moral principles and values
- Ability to think creatively
- Respect for others, physical environment
- Capacity to live a fulfilling life

2. Development of new social patterns (technology, mass media)

- Cultivation of a global mindset
- Provision and training in problem solving to evaluate different situations
- Formation of citizens who are aware of their social responsibility

3. Activation of constructive and creative forces

- Ensure that learners are able to make a living by giving them a adequate vocational
education
- Develop the mental and physical skills
- Produce adaptable people who can cope with change in the social environment
- Create individuals who are able to make a contribution to the development in
society
- Create people who can make good use of leisure time
- Teach students to adapt to change

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There are three major theories in sociology of education, namely:

 Functionalism (Macro)
 Conflict theory (Macro)
 Symbolic interactionism (Micro)

Sociology: It is the study of social groups and individuals and their interrelationships with
social structures. It helps us to engage with a broader view of our lives and helps us to
explain why we act as we do. (It is the study of society, patterns of social relationships,
culture and social interaction that surround our everyday life.)

Education: Is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing

the powers of reasoning and judgement and preparing individuals intellectually for mature
life. Education is not a static phenomenon but dynamic and is a ever changing process. It
serves as a form of socialization.

Macro and Micro level sociological approaches

At macro level researchers seek to identify how variations of school practices lead to
differences in student performance (teaching methods). Macro level focuses on long term-
processes within society such as the development of modern, industrialized societies
(Economy, political system)

At micro level sociologists work to identify how social forces such as politics, economics
and culture create variation in schools as organizations. Micro level focuses on small,
everyday situations and incorporates our face-to face interactions with other humans
(school, family, work)

Theorists in the S.o.E:

Theory Author
Functionalist  Durkheim
 Parsons

Conflict theory  Marx

 Weber
 Mills

Symbolic interactionism  Weber

 Mead
 Blumer
 Waller

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Learning unit 2

Functionalism (macro sociological)

Main ideas of the three theories:

Functionalism

 Social order
 Consensus
 Social systems
 Socialization
 Norms and values
 Manifest and latent functions

Conflict theory (macro sociological)

 Conflict
 Change
 Social class
 Inequalities
 Power

Symbolic interactionism (micro sociological)

 Capacity for thought

 Meaning
 Interaction
 Interpretation
 Self and agency

Two types of solidarity:

 Mechanical solidarity
 Organic solidarity

Mechanical solidarity: Society is held together y a shared belief system.

Organic solidarity: Reflects the specialization of tasks found in modern, industrialized

society.

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Manifest and latent functions by Robert Merton:

Manifest: Are intentional and obvious, they are apparent to participants who take part in
social activity. (Teach learners subject relevant to workplace, computer skills)

Latent: Are unintentional and not obvious. It may help members to learn to distinguish
personal values from institutional values. It cannot be seen but has certain affects on
participants. Outcomes that going to school, interacting with peers and adults and
following the rules ingrained to you, without anyone really intending it for it to happen.
(Punctuality, courtesy, meeting of deadlines)

AGIL model by Parsons:

Adaptation

Goal attainment

Integration and

Latency

Critique of Functionalism

 Schools try to provide individuals with skills and knowledge needed to participate in
society.
 Schools teach learners norms and values.
 How can children from non-affluent parts in the stratification system, compete with
children from more-affluent backgrounds. (Giddens 2006:835)

 Active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will
compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.
 Departs from the observation that most modern societies are multicultural.
 Modern industrial capitalist societies are highly socially stratified in terms of class,
status, ethnicity, gender, etc.

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Learning unit 3

Conflict theory or Marxism (Macro sociological)

Marx is seen as the father of social conflict theory, he sees the state as using property and
material conditions to gain political power. He believed that the source of conflict is the
fact that all things that humans value are gained through labor of the workers, not owners.
Workers are exploited through labor, yet they do not receive equal share in what they have
worked for. Karl Marx focused on the development of capitalism.

Weber however, disagrees with Marx’s emphasis on the struggle between owners and
workers. He claimed that social conflict, which is found in all aspects of society, is likely to
originate in discrepancies between the amount of power, prestige and property held by
different groups or individuals.

Mills is regarded as the founder of modern conflict theory. He developed his own ideas
about how social structures are created and their relationship to conflict. He argued that if
people have different interests and resources, they create their own social structure.
(Social structure refers to social institutions and norms of society that shape the behavior
of the people within those systems.)

Generally, conflict theory argues that there are inequalities amongst the dominant group
and other groups in every society- evident when we look at structures of wealth, power and
status in a society; these are the same structures that maintain the social, economic,
political and coercive power of one group at the expense of others.

Families play the dominant role as a vehicle to maintain patriarchy and social inequality in
society.

More info:

 Conflict theory is rooted in MARXISM.

 Focus is how inequalities contribute to social differences.
 Proletariat- working class / Bourgeoisie capitalists.
 Education is seen as maintaining power structures.
 Public, secondary schools are funded to maintain inequality.

Critique of conflict theory

 Social forces control who we are.

 Criticized for the presumption that everything benefits ruling class only.
 Does not explain how individuals are affected.

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Learning unit 4

Symbolic interactionism (Micro sociological)

Uses micro sociological perspective as it focuses on the self/ individual within society.
Symbolic interactionism argues that humans make meanings which are derived from
social interaction. These meanings are dependent on and modified by interpretation.

Focuses on how individual people behave in particular social settings. Humans act on the
basis of the meanings that it has for them.

Social
Meaning Interpretation
interaction

The human ability to think and act is referred to as human agency.

Symbol: Represents an idea, object or relationship (flags represent countries) languages

can also be seen as symbols because that is how we interact with one another.

Critique of symbolic interactionism:

Focuses on small interactions in society too much and not considering the bigger issues of
power and social structure.

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 Chapter 2

Learning unit 5

Social institutions, ecology and the role of the school in society

Social institutions:

 Family
 School
 Religion
 Economy
 Government and state institutions

Ecology of the school:

Bronfenbrenner’s theory of ecological systems

 Micro system (Family, school, peers, workplace)

 Mesosystem (Family  school  peers  religious affiliation 
Workplace  neighborhood)
 Exosystem (economic system, political system, education system, government
system, religious system)
 Macrosystem (Overarching beliefs and values)
 Chronosystem (Dimensions of time)

Meritocracy: Learners achieve status according to merit (how hard they work).

Hidden curriculum: Not in the formal timetable (discipline).

Class consciousness: An awareness of being a member of a group based on economic

status.

False consciousness: Any belief/idea that prevents a person from understanding the true
nature of his/her situation.

Hegemony: When a dominant class succeeds in establishing its own mode of thinking
amongst members of subordinate class.

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Role of the school - theories in the S.o.E:

Functionalism  Schools play an important role in the

functioning and in the survival and
perpetuation of society. They perform
manifest and latent functions
-(see unit 2)
 Schools teach learners to become
part of society. Socialise students to
become part of the economy,
political institutions.
Conflict theory  Maintaining social inequality and
preserving the power of those who
dominate society.
 Power is unequally divided, social
order is based on control by
dominant groups.
Symbolic interactionism  Focuses on social interaction in the
classroom. Contributes to gender role
socialisation.
 Humans act toward things/people
that have meaning  Meaning is
derived from interaction  Meaning
is shaped by interpretation.

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 Chapter 3

Learning unit 6

Citizenship Education

In the South African democracy, being a citizen means to have a legal status (to be a
citizen) and citizenship as a practice (to act as a citizen) Citizenship education aims to
prepare South African learners to act locally, but think globally. It is not limited to the
formal school curriculum but requires active community engagement.

Democracy: A political system in which the citizens are expected to participate in decision-
making processes and running of affairs in a group, society or nation (voting in elections). A
maximal concept of democracy emphasizes the broad participation (decision-making) of
‘the people’ in government, that is so to say, direct government.

Active citizenship: Companies/ organizations have roles and responsibilities to the society
as well as the environment.

Curriculum: Refers to the lesson and academic content taught in a school or in a specific
course program.

Cosmopolitanism: a belief in a world state to which all human beings belong

Ancient and modern concepts of citizenship

Ancient and modern conceptions of citizenship encourage active participation- local,

national or international affairs. The concept of citizenship is generally seen as originating
from ancient Greek city-state of Athens. The Athenian democracy had three essential and
complementary dimensions:

 Status (relationship of individual to the state)

 feeling (as a sense of belonging to a community of citizens)
 practice (involving active participation in public affairs or the life of the community)

Three main points of Pericles’s affirmation of the value of Athenian democracy citizenship:

 A democracy, the personal and public dimensions of citizenship are not

incompatible, but are rather intimately and reciprocally linked.
 Encourages more citizens to participate in collective self-government-citizens have
human agency (capacity to think and act independently)
 Shows that citizens’ active participation in democracy is likely to be educational.

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History of South African Citizenship from 1910 to 1996

Year Event Act

1910 No South African citizens, only British subjects and Union nationals

1913 Natives land act which set up ‘homelands for black people. Whites were Act no 26 of
not allowed to buy more native land from natives and vice versa. 1913

1923 Separating native locations from towns administratively –segregating Act no 20 of

black and white people socially (had already been separated territorially 1923
already)
Blacks had to carry pass books when going outside their designated
areas.

1949 Repealed the South African citizenship aimed to make provision for Act no 44 of
South African Citizenship for matters thereto. 1949

1950 Population Registration act classified South African citizens into four Act no 30 of
different race groups (Europeans (Whites), Coloreds, Indians and Africans 1950
(Blacks)
1959 Prime minister Verwoerd (who was in power between 1958 and 1966) Act no 45 of
got parliament to agree to the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act 1959
45 of 1959-
Which provided for the establishment of ten independent or autonomous
Black states.

1970 Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act attested to the national party’s Act no 26 of
commitment to race-and-ethnicity-based notions of citizenship. 1970

1986 Restoration of South African Citizenship Act to provide for certain citizens Act no 73 of
of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei (with effect of 1 Jan 1986
1994)

1993 Restoration and Extension of South African Citizenship Act Act no 169 of
1993
1994 First democratic elections in South Africa

1995 Repeal various pieces of homelands citizenship education formally and Act no 88 of
to create a unified citizenship regime. To provide for the acquisition, loss 1995
and resumption of South African Citizenship and for matters thereto.

1996 Emphasized common citizenship was to support above act.

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Citizenship education in the United Kingdom, United States of America and South Africa

What is citizenship education?

It is different ways of developing members of society or a nation, such as education can, in

general, involve teaching people formally/informally about the values, norms, practices,
duties and obligations that they need to adopt in order to function optimally in a society. In
South Africa, it includes the teaching about the Constitution, the Bill of Rights and the Bill
of Responsibilities, the National School Pledge and the democratic goals of the country. It
is taught in schools as an academic subject similar to politics or sociology.

Citizenship education in the United Kingdom:

Soft: Refers to learning that relies entirely on the school curriculum to teach learners.

Hard: Learning refers to learning by doing, involving learning opportunities within as well as
outside the formal school curriculum.

 Supports both ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ notions of community participation and learning.
 Citizenship is caught and taught. Citizenship was first introduced as a compulsory
subject in the English national curriculum in 1999.
 The new curriculum was introduced in September 2002. The new curriculum begins
with cross curricular, non-statutory (compulsory) guidelines at key stages one and
two which are foundation and intermediate phase (Learners between ages of 5 and
11) the statutory responsibilities and guidelines at level two in the senior phase.

The newly introduced citizenship education is defined as fostering the development of the
following:

 Social and moral responsibility

 Community involvement
 Political literacy

Citizenship education in the United States of America

The United States does not have a formal curriculum. United States has 50 member states
that have their own educational system with its own curricula that differ on a wide scale.
Civic education or Social studies is used to characterize the American approach to
citizenship education. Social studies is the preferred term.

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CIVITAS is a book that stressed the following goals:

 Civic virtue (goal is to instill amongst citizens those habits that will contribute
positively to the functioning of a democratic system as well as to develop in them
the principles required for responsible citizenship)
 Civic participation (to develop citizens with those skills that will enable them to
participate in monitoring, formulating, implementing and enforcing public policy as
well as to volunteer in programmes aiming at solving neighbourhood and
community problems)
 Civic knowledge (goal is to empower citizens with knowledge and intellectual skills
needed to monitor and influence the formation, implementation and enforcement
of public policy as well as to participate in voluntary efforts to solve neighbourhood
and community problems)

Citizenship education in post-apartheid South Africa

A ‘child’ means any person under the age of 18 (South African Constitution). Equal
citizenship is emphasized: ‘all citizens, including children, are equally entitled to rights,
privileges and benefits of citizenship and equally subject to duties and responsibilities of
citizenship. South African education policy and curriculum development promote
participatory democracy and active citizenship in schools.

CAPS (Curriculum And Policy Statement) was implemented during 2012-2014.General

aims of CAPS (2012) is to equip learners, irrespective or their socioeconomic background,
race, gender, physical ability and intellectual ability, with the knowledge, skills, and values
necessary for self-fulfillment, and meaningful participation in society as a free country. The
CAPS document makes provision for citizenship education through subjects, namely social
science (history and geography) and life orientation.

History as a subject, support citizenship within a democracy by:

 Explaining and encouraging the values of the South African Constitution

 Encouraging civic responsibility and responsible leadership, including raising current
social and environmental concerns
 Promoting human rights and peace by challenging prejudices involving race, class,
gender, ethnicity and xenophobia
 Preparing young people for local, regional and continental and global
responsibilities

Xenophobia: Dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries

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The study of geography also aims to develop learners who are ‘informed citizens of their
own country and the world’. While life orientation focuses on democracy and human rights
intends to develop ‘responsible citizens and expose them to their constitutional rights and
responsibilities’

Summary of citizenship education in the UK, USA and SA:

United Kingdom United States South Africa

Crick report CIVITAS CAPS

Social and moral Civic Virtue Rights and responsibilities of

responsibility South African citizenship

Community involvement Civic participation Meaningful participation as

citizen of a free country
Political literacy Civic knowledge and Knowledge of human rights,
intellectual skills environmental justice and
social justice

Future of citizenship education in South African schools

RCL: Representative Council of Learners

Representative Council of Learners must be established in schools with learners from

grade 8 and higher (between 14 and 18) It guides competition amongst learners to
become representatives rather than the involvement of all in form of school participatory
democracy. It is a race for leadership for power and prestige amongst learners.

Bill of Responsibilities: Sets out the duties and responsibilities of a citizen in society

Bill of Rights: Rights of all people in the country and affirms the democratic values of
human dignity, equality and freedom

Brighouse’s four cornerstones of Bill of Responsibilities:

 Reminds South African learners of their obligation, namely duties and

responsibilities to themselves and fellow learners
 Responsibility to build solidarity (a sense of belonging and national pride)
 Right to Citizenship expects learners to be good and loyal SA citizens
 To bring prosperity and secure individual liberties

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Two points worth noting about Osler and Starkey’s examination of cosmopolitan
citizenship:

 Cosmopolitan citizenship is likely to give South African learners a local and

universal sense of belonging as well as awareness of their common humanity
 Examination is useful in distinguishing a programme of universal compulsory
schooling and compulsory citizenship education that promotes democratic
universalism in SA schools

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 Chapter 4

Learning unit 7

Diversity and culture in education

Diversity: Refers to the unlikeness or to being of a different kind. The state of being
diverse/different.

Culture: Culture is the way of life of a people, more specifically, the human-created
strategies for adjusting the environment on things like dress, food, dance, sports,
language, and religion.

Race: Grouping of people according to their shared physical characteristics as well as

historical, cultural and economic factors into categories like White, Black, Asian, etc.

Social class: A division of society based on economic status like power, prestige and
wealth.

In sociology, there is a strong belief that all human behavior occurs in a social context,
meaning our families, peers, schools, media, and culture around us shape who we are and
what we do and how we think.

Socialization integrates people into society. A person’s or group’s identity always emerges
in a context, and if that context is one marked by different opportunities for different
groups, then one’s identity will be shaped by that fact. Identity is constantly reconstructed
as people act within their social environments. According to sociologists, our lives are
socially constructed (in other words, who we become is based on the result of our social
experiences rather than our inborn traits)

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Diversity

Refers to the unlikeness or to being of a different kind. The state of being diverse/different.
The study of diversity includes:

 Learning about group differences in the opportunities that are presented by society
 Addressing how different social factors influence social institutions
 Development of group and individual identity
 Process of social change

The sources of diversity are:

 Identity
 Gender
 Race
 Class
 Access to education
 Culture

What arises from diversity?

 Race
 Culture
 Class
 Gender

Our identities are guided by factors such as:

 Race
 Gender
 Class
 Religion
 Disabilities and is shaped by inputs such as:

 Family
 Media
 Peers
 Religion
 Sports
 Schools

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Culture

Dress

Food Religion

Sports Language

‘Culture is the way of life of a people, human created strategies for adjusting to the
environment’ - Ferrante (2008:60) Elements of culture include: dress, religion, dance, food,
sports and language. Traditional definitions of culture include culture as cultivation, which
involves the enhancement of skills and abilities through effort and discipline.

Culture as tradition

Society strives to pass culture on to new generations. Culture also determines the way in
which a group carries out important rituals.

Culture as symbol system

Languages and dress are symbols used by different ethnic groups in SA.

Culture as motive and emotion

People are attached to their countries, despite difficult times such as political instability
and economic problems.

Culture as distributed along lines of power in society

Decisions should be based on three things: what you want to achieve, power in society and
social conflict. Elders are allocated responsibilities to solve problems such as family and
community disputes and to act as advisors and counselors for members in society. In some
parts of the world, the elders play a major role as advisors in their family.

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Social stratification

Is a process of categorizing people according to their ranks within the family and society.
Societies have different ways in which they categorize their people. Generally, the following
should be considered: hair color and texture, eye color, physical attractiveness, weight,
height, occupation, sexual preference, age, grade point average and test scores.

There are two major criteria which are used as a basis of social stratification

 Ascribed characteristics: are attributes people have at birth (skin color, sex and hair
color) other attributes such as height, weight, baldness, grey hair, wrinkles and
reproductive capacity are developed over time.
 Achieved characteristics: are attributes that are learnt through hard work, choice
and perseverance. These characteristics may include marital status, occupation,
level of education and income level.

Stratification systems

 Caste/ closed system: Based on ascribed characteristics which people have no

control over and have no way of moving to a higher caste. It remains fixed for life.
 Class/open system: Ranking is based on merit, talent ability or past performance.
People can move to a higher caste. Describes society with mobility to social classes.

Gender

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Gender refers to distinctive qualities of men and women. Sex refers to the biological and
anatomical differences between males and females. Sociologists believe that gender is a
social fact- we become men and women determined by cultural and social expectations.

Gender by sociologists:

Sociologists How they ‘see’ gender

Functionalist Gender differentiation contributes to overall
stability in society.
Ex: man-breadwinner and woman-emotionally
supportive
Conflict Theory Regard gender differences as a reflection of the
suppression of woman and men
Ex: salary differences
Symbolic interactionist Gender is constantly constructed and
reproduced through social interaction. Education
has become a site where sexual domination
operates (active and affirmative/teacher’s role
is for pupils to ‘break free’ from stereotypes)

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Gender fair teaching:

 Should be continuous and integral to daily instruction

 Direct attention toward stereotypes and problems that affect boys and girls
 Concerned with discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity religion, class and
disability
 Must be a partnership between teachers, parents and other members of the
community
 Must involve all aspects of the classroom
 Include both affective and cognitive domains
 Must be active and affirmative

Race

Race is socially constructed by physical characteristics as well as cultural, historical and

economic factors. Society assigns people to racial categories such as white, black, asian,
colored, indian, etc.

Biologically, race refers to a genetically isolated group with distinctive gene frequencies.

Sociological perspectives of race

Functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic

interactionism
Racial order Has social stability Is intricately Is based on a social
when diverse racial intertwined with class construction that assigns
and ethnic groups stratification groups of people to
are assimilated into diverse racial and ethnic
society categories
Minority groups Are assimilated into Life chances that Form their identity as the
the dominant culture result from the result of socio-historical
as they adopt the opportunities formed change
cultural practices by the intersection of
and beliefs of the class, race and
dominant group gender
Social change Slow and gradual Result of organized Dependent on the
process as groups social movements different forms of
adapt to the social and other forms of interaction that
system resistance to characterize intergroup
opression relations

Assimilation: refers to the blending or fusing of minority groups into the dominant society.

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Class

Is a large scale grouping of people who share common economic resources that influence
their types of lifestyles.

 Class is generally fluid with the boundaries between classes blurred

 Generally achieved and not simply given at birth
 Depend on economic differences

Sociologist How they ‘see’ class

Conflict theorist Class inequality arises out of the unequal distribution of power and
resources. The major role of education in capitalist societies is the
reproduction of labor power. The hidden curriculum shapes the
following;
 Produces a subservient workforce of uncritical, passive and
docile workers
 Encourages the acceptance of hierarchy
 Motivates learners through external rewards
 Causes fragmentation of school subjects
Functionalist Sees inequality in class as necessary, as it motivates people to fill
functionally important positions. Is essential to smooth running of the
society.

Karl Marx’s view of stratification in society

Capitalists: own and control means of production and they achieve

wealth through capital.

Vs.

Workers: work for wages and are vulnerable to displacement by

machines of cheap labor.

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Access to education

Functionalists see access to education by all children as central to maintaining the stability
of a society.

Conflict theorists argue that access to schooling is limited and is influenced by one’s class,
gender, and race.

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Sources:

Oxford Sociology of education by Peggy Siyakwazi textbook

UNISA S.o.E Study Guide 2020

Tutorial letter 101

http://courses.lumenlearning.com

https://en.m.wikipedia.org.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org.

www.livescience.com

www.cliffsnotes.com

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