Describing the Nature, Elements and Functions of Communication in Multicultural Contexts

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:

        This introductory lesson focuses on activating your prior knowledge on communication. It may sound
repetitive on your part as you might have studied this already in Senor High School English subjects. However, we
would like you to have a smooth transition from high school lesson to college lessons. After all, the key word for
this course is “communication”, so it is just practical to start our discussion with something you are familiar with,
so that you may not find it difficult to adjust to the more complicated topics.

So, just what is communication? Several ideas might be running in your head now, and slowly you are able to recall
what you have learned in high school.

As you read your lessons now through our online platform, as you watch the latest event concerning COVID19, as
you participate in academic discussions through webinars, as you keep in touch with the people close to your heart
through the different social media apps, you might realize that the world has become smaller because of the
accessibility of communication. Even in the midst of lockdown due to the pandemic, people can still have a window
to view what is happening in the outside world.

Lesson Proper

Communication is derived from the Latin

word “communicare” which means “to
impart”, “to share”, “to participate” It is
one of the more essential human
activities that enable us to make
connections, create meanings, and
nurture understanding.

What do we share? What do we impart?

Why do we participate?

When you talk to your family, friends, or

anyone for that matter, you always give
something of yourself. You share your
ideas, your feelings, your aspirations,
your happiness, your anger, your
anxieties. You always have that need to
connect, to participate, to belong… Can
you imagine existing without communication? How would life be? Even for the most introverted people who
prefer “alone moment”, they could not possibly exist with zero communication. Somewhere in the basic needs of
human existence lies the compulsion of people to get connected, because it is what completes us.

Your Thoughts!

 In not more than 10 sentences, share your

insights on this question.

 Why is communication a dynamic process

and a social cement? Consider the analogy
given. What is the role of cement in
 construction? Analyze its meaning in the
context of communication. What does
communication do to human relationships?
What does it do to our society?

 ·    proceed to the discussion forum and post

your response.

·     

Elements of Communication

How do people communicate? Where does communication begin?  The communication model below illustrates
the elements and the communication process or cycle.

1. The Communicators.

      The people involved in the process of communication are categorized into sender  and receiver. You have to
take note though, that in the process of communication,  both communicators take turns in their roles.

1.       sender. The sender is one who initiates the conversation with the intention of passing information and
ideas to others.

      The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the source. The sender has some kind of
information, a command, a request, or idea- that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to get
through the receiving end, the sender must encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as using a
common language that both parties can understand.

                     2. The Receiver. The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. To
comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender’s information
and then decode it or interpret it.

2.   The Message

      The information that the sender wants to convey is called the message. It can come in the form of a question, a
plain statement, a comment or remark.

3.  The Medium

     The medium, also called the channel, is the means by which a message is transmitted. When people
communicate, they use a vehicle or a medium so that the message can get across the receiver. This medium is
called language. Communicators use a language that is common to both.

4. Feedback

      The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted,
received and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. The response is
called the feedback. Response can come in the form of either verbal or non-verbal cues, depending on the
preference of the receiver.

      Notice that there are elements and factors that shape the way a conversation begins, continues and ends. Our
total experience with communication largely depends on the context, the situation, who we are talking to, and
what we are talking about. Whether the conversation is a positive encounter or a negative experience, there are
several factors that account to it.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

Source: Businesstopia.net (2019)

     Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in understanding how
communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general
perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in
order. Communication models can sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit
some major aspects of human communication.

      There are three general types of communication models in which all other communication models are mostly
categorized.

     1. Linear Model

 In linear model, communication is considered one way process where sender is the only one who sends message
and receiver doesn’t give feedback or response. The message signal is encoded and transmitted through channel in
presence of noise. The sender is more prominent in linear model of communication.

       Linear model was founded by Shannon and Weaver which was later adapted by David Berlo into his own model
known as SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of Communication.

Linear model is applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not applicable in general
human communication as general human communication has to have feedback and responses.

Components of Linear Communication

 Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established where

1. Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding.

2.       Encoding is the process of

converting the message into codes
compatible with the channel and
understandable for the receiver.

3.       Decoding is the process of changing

the encoded message into
understandable language by the
receiver.
 4.       Message is the
information sent by the
sender to the receiver.

5.       Channel is the medium

through which the message is
sent.

6.       Receiver is the person

who gets the message after
decoding.

7.       Noise is the disruptions

that are caused in the
communication process in
channel or in
understandability of the message.

  2. Transactional Model

Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver where each
take turns to send or receive messages.

       Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each time in the
communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time.

       The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are taken as communicators in this article to
analyze general communication between humans. The model is mostly used for interpersonal communication and
is also called circular model of communication.

     The transactional model is the most general model of communication. Everyday talk and interactions are also a
form of transactional model communication. It is more efficient for communicators with similar environment and
individual aspects. For instance, communication between people who know each other is more efficient as they
share same social system.

      In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated message also depends on the medium used.
For example, the same message might not be perceived by a person the same way when it is sent through a phone
and when it is provided face to face. It is because of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of
gestures.

  3.  Interactive Model

Interactive model or convergence

model is similar to transactional model
as they are both two way
communication model. But, interactive
model is mostly used for new media,
like internet. Here, people can respond
to any mass communications like
videos, news, etc. People can exchange
their views and ideas.

 
Components of Interactive Model

  Interactive Model of Communication requires different following components for the communication process to
work:

1.     Encoder-Source-Decoder: The person who originates a message is the source. The encoder and decoder
are the same person/source. The second source is also encoder as well as decoder. The source acts as an
encoder while sending the message and as decoder while receiving the message. The second source
decodes the message, then originates another message, encodes it and sends it to the first source. The
source is known to be encoder and decoder during the act of encoding and decoding.

2.      Message: Message is the information sent during the interaction.

3.      Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after receiving the first which is known as feedback.

4.     Field of Experience: Field of experience is the experience and knowledge that the source possesses
which affects the message formation and interpretation. For example, the source’s culture, social
behavior, etc.

Communicating Meaning: Verbal vs Non-Verbal

COMMUNICATING MEANING

When you communicate, what do you usually use as a medium? Do you use only words? Do you use other
means to emphasize your ideas? What are they?

Verbal vs Non-Verbal Communication

      Communicating meaning utilizes verbal and non-verbal expressions. Verbal communication uses words
which can be expressed either written or orally. (It is therefore wrong to say verbal to mean “oral”, like,
“verbalize” you concern, to mean saying it orally). Non-verbal on the other hand is a wordless communication.
Other means are used to convey meaning like facial expressions, proxemics, paralanguage, appearance,
gestures, oculesics, body language and posture, artifacts, haptics and chronemics.

      For better understanding about these different non-verbal cues, let us discuss each of them.

   

Facial Expressions
  Facial expressions are a form of non-verbal communication. They are used by
humans to convey various types of meaning in various contexts. Facial expressions such as a frown, a raised
eyebrow, a smile can send meanings depending on the context.

       Ekman (1992) claimed that there is a set of expressions that are innate, and they mean that the person
making that face is experiencing an emotion. For example, brow raising means. “I feel surprised.” He also
claimed that there are culturally acquired facial expressions used to modulate the innate emotional expressions,
so-called display rules, and others that are used for communication.

      While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions
for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.

    What is important to note is that, facial expressions must be consistent with the meaning that a speaker
intends to convey. Sometimes, communication breakdown happens because of the inconsistency in the facial
expression and the intended meaning. For example, when you say you are happy, but displays a frowning
expression, there comes the confusion. It is expected that when one claims to be happy, a smiling or gleeful
expression accompanies the emotion.

Proxemics

Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term in 1963, defined proxemics as the interrelated
observations and theories of human use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture. (study.com)

Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effect that population density has on bahavior,
communication and social interaction. It refers to an individual’s perception of the use of space, both personal
(how much space do they take up) and social (distance from one another).
Study this illustration. How can proxemics communicate meaning? Can you easily detect people who are
intimately close without them having announce publicly that they are in a certain kind of relationship? When
you see a couple who are normally so close everyday, but suddenly sits apart or does not walk side by side, what
usually is your assumption?

      People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type of nonverbal
communication.5 The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is
influenced by a number of factors including social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality
characteristics, and level of familiarity.

      The amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies
between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of
people is around 10 to 12 feet.

Paralanguage

       Paralanguage is the technical term for the voice cues that accompany spoken words. It is concerned with the
sound of the voice and the range of meanings that people convey through their voices rather than the words
they use

      The meaning of what you express is contained, in part, in the words you say, but how you say it also contains
powerful meanings. For example, the word “Yes”, can completely convey different meanings, even in the exact
same sentence, depending on how it is said—whether it is spoken sincerely or sarcastically. The “how”—you say
something—is referred to as paralanguage, which includes your conscious or unconscious intonation, accent,
pitch Opens in new window, pace, pause, silence, emphasis, word and syllable stress.

Basically, paralanguage is your voice minus the words you speak. Again, it denotes the tone (sound) of your
voice . The sound of your voice communicates, revealing to others your emotional state, attitudes, status,
personality, etc.

The tone of your voice can help you communicate what you mean to convey, or it can reveal thoughts you mean
to conceal. It can reinforce or negate the words you speak. How you speak influences how others interpret your
intentions, as well as how credible, intelligent, or attractive they judge you to be. With this in mind, you may
assess yourself by responding to the following questions:

 Does my voice enhance or detract from the impression I make?

 Does my voice support or contradict my intended meaning?

 If I were interacting with me, would I want to listen to the sound of my voice?

Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common
gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary
and related to culture.

Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. You may wave, point, beckon, or use your hands when
arguing or speaking animatedly, often expressing yourself with gestures without thinking. However, the
meaning of some gestures can be very different across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for
example, conveys a positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as
Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation

1.     Body Language and Posture

Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand, or hold their head. The
way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal
communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and the subtle movements you make.

 6. Oculesics or Eye Gaze

The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things as looking, staring and blinking are
important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking
increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions including hostility,
interest, and attraction.

People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone is being honest. 6 Normal, steady eye contact is
often taken as a sign that a person is
telling the truth and is trustworthy.
Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain
eye contact, on the other hand, is
frequently seen as an indicator that
someone is lying or being deceptive.

7. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a substantial amount
of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.

Harry Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and contact impedes development.
Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch
can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.

In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, author Julia Wood writes that touch is also
often used as a way to communicate both status and power. 7

Researchers have found that high-status individuals tend to invade other people's personal space with greater
frequency and intensity than lower-status individuals. Sex differences also play a role in how people utilize
touch to communicate meaning.

Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurturance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to
use touch to assert power or control over others.

8. Appearance

This non-verbal cue is quite controversial. We're taught not to judge a book by its cover. We can't assess a
person's intelligence or demeanor by the clothes they wear. Yet, in a professional setting, one's appearance
does send a message. This is why we wear suits to interviews or enjoy casual Friday at the workplace.

 Our everyday attire and hairstyle sends a message. Imagine a woman who always wears bright, bold tones.
Perhaps she wears orange suits with red blouses or yellow skirts with royal blue shirts. This is a woman who's
not looking to be a wallflower. You can probably roll the dice on her high level of self-confidence.

 On the other hand, just because someone chooses muted tones or grays, it doesn't mean they're shy. They
might simply prefer a simplistic style. To them, less may be more.

 Either way, how we present ourselves to people and situations tells a story. We're told to take our hats off at
the table, put a comb through our hair, and wear our Sunday best for a reason. It shows we put a little thought
into the interaction.

9. Artifacts
Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an online forum, for
example, you might select an avatar to represent your identity online and to communicate information about
who you are and the things you like.

People often spend a great deal of

time developing a particular image and
surrounding themselves with objects
designed to convey information about
the things that are important to them.

Uniforms, for example, can be used to

transmit a tremendous amount of
information about a person. A soldier
will don fatigues, a police officer will
wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a
white lab coat. At a mere glance, these
outfits tell people what a person does for
a living.

Nonverbal communication plays an

important role in how we convey
meaning and information to others, as
well as how we interpret the actions of
those around us.

The important thing to remember when looking at such nonverbal behaviors is to consider the actions in groups.
What a person actually says along with his or her expressions, appearance, and tone of voice might tell you a
great deal about what that person is really trying to say.

COMMUNICATION FILTERS/ BARRIERS

The communication process may not always result to a positive experience. When the intended meaning is not
perceived by the recipient of the message, miscommunication happens. Sometimes, people misunderstand one
another for a variety of reasons. Specific items that can distort or prevent communication refer
to communication barriers or filters. To further understanding of the communication barriers, the types of
barriers are explained below.

Types of Communication Filters

  Cultural Barriers

Culture refers to the attitudes and beliefs that come from our personal environment and experience. How can
culture be a barrier to communication?  Study the following illustrations:

People grow from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs. How they perceive things therefore differ from
other cultures.

For example, basic pleasantries differ from culture to culture. Filipinos usually greet elders by “pagmamano”;
The Japanese bow their heads as a form of greeting or respect; the Americans shake hands or kiss those who are
relatively close to them. When one is not particular about cultural differences, communication breakdown
happens.

  

What to do about cultural barriers?

1.      Consider the cultural makeup of the intended audience.

2.      Seek to understand where are the differences.

3.      Fashion the message to ensure that it says what you exactly mean.

Language Barrier

Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and the receiver is the greatest barrier to
effective communication.

Examples of language barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication include:

     Dialects - While two people may technically speak the same language, dialectal differences can make
communication between them difficult. Examples of dialectical language barriers exist worldwide.
Chinese, for example, has a variety of dialects that are commonly spoken, including Cantonese and
Mandarin.

     Language Disabilities - Language disabilities are physical impediments to language. Physical language
disabilities that cause language barriers include stuttering, dysphonia or an articulation disorder and
hearing loss.

When a person uses inappropriate words and jargons while conversing or writing, it could lead to
misunderstanding between the sender and the receiver.

Can you think of a specific example or situation or maybe an experience where communication failed or resulted
to hilarious situation because of language differences?

In the classroom, when your teacher uses jargons (technical terms), do you easily understand? Tendency is you
would end the day learning nothing, unless the concepts are simplified and explained further. 

What to do?

      In a work place or in a more formal setting, use visual methods of communication more than audio.
Show more than tell. Explain it with pictures as much as possible. Use pictures in your instruction
manuals rather than words. Almost every step in every process can be described in picture format. Give
your listeners signs, cue cards or other methods to help them learn.

     Use repetition. As with any new concept, most people don't learn something the first time they hear
it. People need to hear the same message over and over before they fully grasp it. Don't expect people
to learn anything after being told once. This is true of all of people whether they have a language
barrier or not.

     Never raise your voice or over-enunciate your words. Talk slower, not louder. Speak clearly, not
forcefully. People of a different language and culture can hear fine. They probably also are intelligent
enough to grasp what you are saying if you intelligently deliver your message without talking down to
them. Don't speak "Pidgin English." Speak correct English the correct way, just more clearly. People
cannot learn the language right if you don't speak it right.
       Use simpler words with fewer syllables. Be aware of the complexities of your words. Use more
common words that convey your message in simpler terms. Again, don't talk down; just use a less
complex vocabulary.

      Minimize the use of slang or idiom.

      Keep it clear

      Use an interpreter whenever possible

(Source: https://guides.co/g/the-seven-barriers-of-communication/37696)

Physical Barriers

Physical barriers are easy to spot : doors that are closed, walls that are erected, and distance between people all
work against the goal of effective communication. 

       Physical barriers can be anything from background noise, distractions, interruptions, equipment, connection 
glitches and the like. When on the phone, and you experience signal interruption, when sending text messages,
but you suddenly run out of load so the message failed to send, when you are talking with somebody in a noisy
environment, when taking a synchronous  online exam and there is a sudden power interruption, those are
considered physical barriers.

 Examples of physical barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication include:

     Environment -Some barriers are due to the existing environment. For example, if you are standing in
adverse weather conditions, your conversation would be hampered because you would not be able to
pay full attention to what the other person is saying.

     Distance -Distance also plays an important part in determining the course of a conversation. For
example, if the staff in an organization are made to sit in different buildings or different floors, they
might have to substitute face to face communication with phone calls or emails.

      Ignorance of Medium -Communication also includes using signs and symbols to convey a feeling or a
thought. However, if there is a lack of ignorance about the medium in which sender is sending the
message, the conversation can be hampered.

Perceptual Barriers
We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life experiences that act as "filters" on our
experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things through the lens of our own unique life
experiences or "conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and misunderstandings of others whose
experiences differ from our own.

Anything that inhibits or prevents us from making accurate perceptions is called a perceptual barrier or a
perceptual error. ... Five of the most common perceptual barriers are selective perceptions, stereotypes, halo
effect, projections, and expectations.

Perceptual barriers are internal. If you go into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to isn't going
to understand or be interested in what you have to say, you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort
to make your point. You will employ language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating
your conversational partner.

Think of movie scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases at a person they believe is deaf. The person
yelling ends up looking ridiculous while failing to communicate anything of substance.

Examples of perceptual barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication include:

      Perceptual Filters -We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life experiences
that act as "filters" on our experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things through the
lens of our own unique life experiences or "conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and
misunderstandings of others whose experiences differ from our own.

      Triggers and Cues -What we say is affected by how we say it (tone, volume) and by our nonverbal
cues, such as body language and facial gestures. For example, you may perceive a situation differently if
the person you are speaking with is smiling or frowning, has body odour and is standing too close or is
not giving you direct eye contact.

What to do?

       To overcome perceptual barriers within the workplace, there are a few things you can do:

      The audience may make assumptions about you or the situation; perhaps you are new to the organization, or
the situation is a challenging one. To get your message past these barriers, provide evidence to support your
claims and enhance your credibility.
     Effective communication relies on being aware of nonverbal aspects of interactions with others. It is equally
important to be aware of one's own nonverbal behaviours and be sensitive to how they may be perceived. For
instance, maintaining eye contact when communicating indicates interest. Staring out the window or around the
room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect.

(Source: https://guides.co/g/the-seven-barriers-of-communication/37756)

Emotional Barriers

Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage in conversations. We are
often taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the phrase "anything you say can and will
be used against you." Overcoming this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in what
you are saying and your qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on insecurity. By believing in yourself
and what you have to say, you will be able to communicate clearly without becoming overly involved in your
emotions.

Examples of emotional barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication include:

     Anger- Anger can affect the way your brain processes information given to you. For example, angry
people have difficulty processing logical statements, limiting their ability to accept explanations and
solutions offered by others

      Pride -The need to be right all the time will not only annoy others, it can shut down effective
communication. For example, you might focus only on your perspective, or you might come up with
ways to shoot down other people before you even listen to their points.

     Anxiousness -Anxiety has a negative impact on the part of your brain that manages creativity and
communication skills. For example, your constant worries can hinder your ability to concentrate on the
information you are giving or receiving.

To overcome emotional barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

      Removing Yourself. Angry people have difficulty processing logical statements, limiting their ability
to accept explanations and solutions offered by others. With this in mind, remove yourself from
communication until you feel you can collect your thoughts, think clearly and hold back potentially
hurtful and undue comments.
       Accepting Imperfections. The drive to win every argument or get the last word often spawns from
overcompensation, or trying to cover emotional insecurities with a sense of superiority. Other people
might find you easier to communicate with when you accept your imperfections from time to time.

     Relaxation Exercises. While a mental health professional should address anxiety disorders such as
post-traumatic stress disorder or phobias -- typical anxiety, like the anxiety you feel before giving a
speech -- can be managed with relaxation exercises.

Gender Barriers

Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the possibility for a man to
misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa.

      Even in a workplace where women and men share equal stature, knowledge and experience, differing
communication styles may prevent them from working together effectively. Gender barriers can be inherent or
may be related to gender stereotypes and the ways in which men and women are taught to behave as children.

      Although not all men or all women communicate the same way as the rest of their gender, several traits that
tend to be more common in one gender or the other have been identified. Understanding these tendencies is
key in creating a work environment that fosters open communication among all employees.

 Examples Of Gender Barriers

According to Heather R. Huhman of Forbes, becoming aware of the following generalizations may help you more
effectively communicate at work:

      Women talk about other people. Men talk about tangible things like business, sports, food and
drinks.

      Women ask questions to gain an understanding. Men talk to give information rather than asking
questions.

     Women are more likely to talk to other women when a problem or conflict arises. Men are often
known for dealing with problems or issues internally

     Women focus on feelings, senses and meaning. They rely on their intuition to find answers. Men
focus on facts, reason and logic. They find answers by analyzing and figuring things out.

     A disagreement between women affects many aspects of their relationship and may take a long time
to resolve. Men can argue or disagree and then move on quickly from the conflict.
Please keep in mind that these are generalizations, and do not necessarily apply to every individual.

Overcoming Gender Barriers

 To overcome gender barriers within

the workplace, here are some helpful
hints:

      Educate Team About

Gender Bias. Bias is
embedded in stereotypes and
organizational practices that
can be hard to detect, but
when people are made aware
of it, they see possibilities for
change.

     Create Safe "Identity

Workspaces". Companies should encourage women to build communities in which similarly positioned
women can discuss their feedback, compare notes, and emotionally support one another's learning.
Identifying common experiences increases women's willingness to talk openly, take risks, and be
vulnerable without fearing that others will misunderstand or judge them.

  Interpersonal Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and opening ourselves up,
not just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the most difficult area to change. Some
people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a poor self-image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices
about their place in the world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too
many false perceptions blocking the way.

Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with others, we learn what our actual strengths
and weaknesses are. This allows us to put forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.

Examples of interpersonal barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication include:

     Desire to Participate -The lack of desire to participate in the communication process is a significant
barrier. There is nothing more frustrating than trying to communicate with an individual that clearly
does not want to.

      Desire to Explore -Unwillingness to explore different ideas, opinions, and priorities create
communication barriers every day of our lives. A clear lack of desire to explore your views, opinions, or
ideas can be extremely frustrating.

To overcome interpersonal barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

     Use simple words to convey the message. To have an effective process of interpersonal
communication, you have to simplify language. Everyone hates to decipher spoken words, reserve the
deciphering to the writing and when speaking, keep it simple and easy to understand.
       Learn the art of listening. A person will always try to get his opinions across first before listening to
the other person's point of view. To improve interpersonal communication, listen both attentively and
proactively.

     Keep composure while communicating. The process of interpersonal communication is more effective
if emotions are kept at bay. Keeping your composure while talking or negotiating with a business
partner will keep you on the right track towards your goal.

    Provide constructive criticism. Constructive criticism is perhaps the best sign that you are
communicating with the other person on a more personal level. Both the sender and receiver of
communications may use feedback for effective interpersonal communication.

Lesson Proper:
 You learned from the previous lessons that different tools can be used to
communicate certain messages. Aside from written texts, communication tools include
audio-visual aids that may be developed through digital means. You may have done
these presentations effectively because you knew your purpose, audience, and context.
 
In the academic context, one way you have learned to communicate is by writing
effective compositions. Aside from sharing your ideas in the written mode, some of your
tasks in school can also be shared through multimedia presentations.
 ‘A multimedia presentation refers to the integration of animation, audio, graphics, text,
and full-motion video through computer hardware and software for education,
entertainment or training” http://www.businessdictionary.com). Bear in mind that you are
not expected to incorporate all of these elements; however, you need to integrate at
least three of them in one presentation. Similar to the process of writing a paper, making
a multimedia oral presentation involves three stages: 1) planning the presentation; 2)
delivering the presentation; and 3) evaluating the presentation. Although this process is
similar in most oral presentations, the contexts that require you to present may vary.
 

Types of Presentations
a) Individual Presentation
            This involves one person who shares relevant information about one’s research
or work. This type of presentation              culminates in an open forum that allows the
audience to ask the presenter certain relevant questions.

 b) Group Presentation
            This involves at least three members who take turns in sharing relevant
information on a single topic that forms                  the group research. This also leads to
an open forum or a Q & A with the audience.
c) Panel Presentation
            This involves around three to six members with a moderator, the members
called panelists, present different                      topics that are based on a similar theme.
Panelists do not necessarily belong to the same research team. At the                 end of
the presentation, the moderator facilitates the discussion between the panelists and the
audience.

d) Workshop Presentation
            This involves one or two members who act as facilitators to give participants a
chance to experience how a                        specific skill, technique or concept can be
employed; this is usually done with a small group.
e) Poster Presentation
            This manner of presentation employs the use of a poster in showing one’s work.
The audience views the posters               on display while the presenter stands next to it
to respond to questions or comments from the viewers.
f).Individual / Group Demonstration
            This involves one or more members who demonstrate how something is done or
how something is used in a specific context.
 
Preparing Audio-Visual Presentation
 
Planning a Presentation
    Knowing Your Purpose:
            What is the objective of the presentation? Why is it relevant? What will your
audience gain by watching the presentation?
 Analyzing Your Audience:
            Who is your target audience? What are their age range? Are they also students
like you? Are they professionals in the field of your study? What are their interests? How
is your                        presentation relevant to them?
 Making Sense of Your Context:
What is the venue of your presentation? What is the occasion? Is it a formal
event? What guidelines have been given, if any? What considerations and
adjustments should you make about the materials, design, content and delivery
of the presentation?
 Constructing Your Presentation slides
The use of slides is crucial in delivering an effective presentation. You can create
slides with the help of software like PowerPoint, Keynote or Prezi. In “How 10
Give an Academic Talk, v5.1,” Paul N. Edwards suggests the following:
  
 
About Presentation Software
            Make slide extremely concise and visually uncluttered. Slides
should be seen as maps not as territories. They are tracking devices that let both you
and your audience follow the flow of the talk. Therefore, hey must not be overfilled. Six
lines of text per slide are plenty. Nine lines is a lot.  Twelve lines are pretty much
unreadable.  Bullet points should be no more than two to six words – and they should
NOT be complete sentence.
            If you need more text, use more slides. One of the beauties of software is
that you can make as many slides as you want. I’ve seen extremely effective
presentations with only one word on most slides, only one image on many others.  Why
cram one slide full of text when you can make two or three uncluttered slides instead.
Use images. People are visual creatures, and the old adage that a picture is
worth a thousand words is especially apropos in presentations. Pictures, graphs, charts,
and other image can be extremely helpful. As with text, keep them simplified and
uncluttered. Also, avoid dark images that won’t show up well on a screen.
            Always choose white or light-colored slide backgrounds. Why? To see
light text on dark slides. You’ll have to turn down the lights, or even turn them off. This
makes it hard to see your notes, the podium, etc. Worse, it will tend to put your
audience to sleep. Really. By contrast, dark text on light –colored slides can usually be
read with lights on and shades open. Don’t let your host or anyone else, manage the
lighting for you- tell them you prefer to leave the lights on. If you can see it, your
audience can probably see it too. If in doubt, work to the back of the room and check.
            Keep the glitz factor low. Fades, transitions, backgrounds, sound effects and
so on can be a real pitfall. Glitzing up your presentations can turn into a serious time
sink, detracting from the far more important time you spend on content. Also, they can
give your audience the impression that you care more about surface than substance.
Finally, they can cause breakdowns during the presentations if they work as you expect them to-
whirl are often. Nothing irritates an audience more than watching somebody fiddle
frantically with a computer in the middle of a talk. So keep everything basic, at least until
you’ve completely mastered the software. Always practice the final version.
            Talk to the audience, not the screen. Everyone else is staring at the screen,
so you may find yourself drawn to stare at it too. If you do this, the audience will be
looking at your back and they won’t be able to hear you. Instead, have your laptop, or a
paper version of your notes in front of you. Speak from that, rather from the slides on
the screen. This takes practice and more practice.
 
Delivering the presentation
            Depending on the type of presentation you will make, you need to know and
understand your role as a speaker. Are you going to be the only speaker who will
present everything and address your audience ‘s queries after? Are you one of several
speakers in a team? If so, are you the man speaker? Are you going to start or end the
presentation? Whatever your role is; you need to remember that you have to own the
stage once you are up there. Here are some tips from Paul N. Edwards (2013)

Some Rule of Thumb

Usually Better Usually Worse

Talk Read

Stand Sit

Move Stand still

Vary the pitch of your voice Speak in a monotone

Speak loudly, facing the audience Mumble, facing downward

make eye contact Stare at your laptop

Focus on main points Get lost in details

Use outlines, images and charts Have no visual aids

Finish within your time limit Run overtime

Summarize your main points at the Start without an overview. Trail off without
beginning and end a conclusion

Notice your audience and respond to its

ignore audience behavior
needs
 Emulate your advisor, even if he/she
Emulate excellent speakers
gives lousy talks.

 
In making effective presentations, Baker (2011) suggests that you take the control of the
material, the audience, and yourself. First, make sure you have sufficient knowledge on
your topic. How well do you know your subject matter? Can you present without reading
your notes? Do you have credible and reliable information from purposeful research? 
Remember that you must demonstrate credibility as a presenter. Aside from knowing
and understanding your topic, you also need to know who your target audience is.
Learn as much as you can about them.  Are they older, younger, or the same age as
you? Are they experts in the field? How can your presentation capture and sustain their
levels of interest and attention?  Lastly you need to take control of yourself. Remember
that although you will use multimedia elements, you are your best visual aid. So you
need to prepare emotionally, psychologically and intellectually for the presentation. To
be an effective communicator, use your voice, eyes and body effectively. Be mindful of
the time allotted for your presentation and stick to it. Avoid doing anything that feels
unnatural to you. Feel comfortable on stage and in front of the audience.  Establish and
maintain eye contact. Make sure you practice as it will go a long way.
 
Evaluating and Reflecting on the Presentation
             Being an effective communicator does not happen overnight. Like any
successful individual, one goes through a process that involves looking back in order to
learn from experience prepare for the next similar task. In the context of oral
presentations, here are some questions to help you evaluate and reflect on your
experience:
 How did | perform as a speaker? Did I fulfill the role effectively?
           How did I communicate my message to my audience? Did my presentation
make any visible impact on them?
           What should I continue to do effectively?
           What should I improve on for next time?

Weeks 9-10. SELLING IDEAS AND CONVINCING

AUDIENCE
The Art of Selling your Ideas and Convincing your Audience
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
            Last week’s lesson familiarized you with the different principles, techniques, and
strategies of persuasion and handling objections. We now live in a world where
communication has seemingly become complicated amidst the advent of technology
with which human communication is somewhat at stake.  Everyone experiences
speaking before an audience; and speaking to a target audience has its primary goal of
convincing the crowd. Speaking may be easy; but convincing may spell out the
difference. Not all speakers and authors may have a successful engagement with the
target audience. Many believe that effective speaking is a talent as many others, too,
believe it to be a skill. Hence, there is a need to acquire and master the art of selling
ideas and convincing audience. BE PATIENT that you may learn the art and skills of
selling ideas and convincing audience through this module; and who knows you will
become one of the great speakers and authors of the time!
              When we speak of the art of selling ideas and convincing audience, it is not just
closing contracts and pushing products; but there is something we mass-market more
than anything else --- the ideas. While intangible ideas are “sold” with nearly every
interaction we have, we persuade people of the merits of our opinions in conversation.
By catering the conversation to your audience, you establish a stronger bond between
what you are selling and what they need. Everyone wants to know what is in it for them
and how your idea is going to deliver value.   
              Stay Connected and Enjoy learning amidst this pandemic!
 
Lesson Proper:

People communicate for a number of

reasons – to teach/educate, to entertain, to inform, to express feelings or emotions, to
elicit reactions from another person, and ultimately to convince/persuade the target
audience.
 You learned from the previous lessons the different means/instruments that are
used to communicate ideas through oral and written discourses. You may have been
very successful and effective with these communication tasks primarily because you
knew well your purpose, target audience, and context.
          Communicating with people or target audience does not end up with just
expressing and sharing your ideas and opinions with them; but how would you sell your
ideas as well as how would your audience buy your ideas may form the greater part of
communication task. Hence, the lesson-discussion on “The art of selling ideas and
convincing audience”.  
 
Lesson 9-10: The Art of Selling Your Ideas and Convincing Your
Audience

        It is crucial to master the art of selling your ideas and convincing your audience.
Hence, your ultimate goal when you communicate with people verbally and non-verbally
as an author or a speaker is to persuade/convince them. But how would you be able to
know if you were able to convince your readers/audience?  
       Your audience must have been convinced when they consider, support, promote,
use, and apply the ideas you are sharing or the products you are selling.
 
 
 
In selling your ideas, remember the following:
1. Know what you are talking about.
Always remember this: “You CANNOT GIVE what you DO NOT HAVE as you
CANNOT BE AN AUTHORITY on a SUBJECT/ISSUE that you DO NOT KNOW.”
2. Prepare
Study all features of your product, proposal, or presentation.
           If you are well prepared, you gain more confidence and it is easier for your
audience to believe you.
3. Anticipate the needs, questions, concerns and expectations of your
audience.
You are well-prepared with the topic you are sharing because you have explored
it; thus, you are ready with solutions and answers to questions/concerns/doubts
 of your audience – that you have already prepared for answers and solutions that
you believe will satisfy your audience.
 

       Sincerity and Honesty: these are two important points in

selling an idea.
 
When selling an idea: 
 

1. Acknowledge the drawbacks to avoid people feel that they are cheated and
shortchanged.
           2. Make them aware of the constraints… As this may have an impact on
your trustworthiness and credibility.
                      
When selling product:

Emphasize the benefits of the product.

            (or what it can do)
Identify the limitations of the product.
            (or what it cannot do)
Apply the principle of integrity
(how credible you are as a promoter of an idea or a product)
 
TAKE NOTE always of this:
“Communication is vital to outstanding service…
And in order to communicate,
you’ll first have to win TRUST.”
Isadore Sharp, Founder of Four Seasons Hotel chain

Be sensitive to Verbal and Non-verbal cues

Examples:
1. Clients giving short, noncommittal responses like “I’ll see” = this means that clients
feel disinterested in what you are talking about.
2. Clients suppressing yawns frequently = it may mean you are boring them with your
speech.
3. Clients asking for more questions regarding the idea = it implies that they may
be engaged in what you are talking about.
 
Maintain respect at all times; hence, when you sell or share your
ideas/thoughts about a topic or an issue, please do take note of the
following:
1. you are not there to argue with your audience but to sell your ideas to them.
2. listen first to their views - see it from their perspective.
3. acknowledge their valid points as they, themselves, have good ideas to share.
4. express empathy with them (audience).
 
         THEN after having listened to your audience, it’s your turn to explain your
side and as you do this, you have to be guided by the following:
 
1. Show your audience your perspective about the issue;
2. explain further your stand/side/point of view about the topic;
3. And encourage audience to see/consider your ideas/opinions  from your
point of view.
 
   IN THAT WAY,
1. You are able to negotiate ideas with your audience;
2. Expand your view about the topic to make your audience get satisfied with your claim;
3. And with such, you would convince your audience in the end.

Know and use the language they are most comfortable with. 

1. take into account the culture of the audience.

2. know and understand who you are talking to and establish rapport with them.
3. find a common ground that will help you create ties with them.
4. Present your ideas persuasively, acknowledge their limitations, give your
audience to weigh the pros and cons and allow them to draw conclusions for
themselves.

 After presenting your ideas, observe the following rules/standards:

1. let your audience breath and think about it.

2. give them time to let the ideas sink in.
3. simply let them know that you are right there if they need further information or
guidance on the matter.
In the previous lessons, you learned about the many ways or means of
presenting/disseminating ideas which include multimedia, power-point, overhead
projector presentation, graphics, etc. Another means of presenting/disseminating
information or ideas is through launching a campaign.
 

Lesson 10: LAUNCHING A CAMPAIGN

What is campaign?
 
            Campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making
progress within a specific group or audience and which may further make the audience
accept your claims/views. It is also with this means where you have the ability to relate
to others in a way that it creates a level of trust and understanding; thus, making the
audience feel comfortable and relaxed… then eventually making the audience
persuaded/convinced of your claim/views.
 
When you launch a campaign, do get focused with the following
elements:
1.Theme or topic – this serves as the basis for developing campaign materials and for
choosing campaign endorsers.
           Example: “Unity in Diversity”
 2.Materials – these are the instruments/media through which the
campaign/presentation of a particular issue, topic, product is
communicated or disseminated.
           Examples: posters, videos, radio broadcast, TV, multimodal materials, etc.
3.Campaign Endorsers – these could be technology or famous persons that have
strong appeal to attract/convince the audience so as to “BUY” the
idea/product you are selling.
           Example: Icons and celebrities who can best represent the campaign
4.Campaign duration – this refers to how long should the campaign be undertaken.
Campaign duration depends on the length of the project and other factors; e.g. is
budget.
            Selling ideas and convincing audience may either be a talent or a skill; though, it
could be both

How to Make a Campaign Poster

1. Launch Canva
Open the Canva app or launch a new web page. If you’re new to Canva, sign up
using your Google or Facebook account. Otherwise, just log in. After that, type
“campaign poster” using the search tool to start designing.
2. Choose a template
Don’t want to start from scratch? No problem. You can browse hundreds of
campaign poster templates for any theme that fit what you’re looking for. Use
the search tool to filter by color scheme, layout, or style.
3. Experiment with features
Access professionally designed stock photos, illustrations, images and other
graphics. Use the drag-and-drop tool to move design elements and layouts and
transform your election, awareness, or environment campaigns.
 4. Customize your design
Personalizing your campaign poster design is easy. Upload your photos, branding
elements, charts, and other graphics to fill out your design. Don’t forget to stick
to your campaign goal or mission!
5. Share or print
Once your campaign posters are finished, it’s time to share them with the world.
You can post them online directly through social media, share them via email or
make high-quality prints with Canva Print.

Example of Poster Campaign

 
Planning a Successful Promotional Campaign
 By Laura Lake/ Updated October 28, 2019

A promotional plan is a valuable marketing tool when it comes to launching a new

service or product or expanding your market reach into new verticals or demographics.
When planning a promotional campaign, keep in mind that a successful campaign
achieves all of the following desired outcomes and goals:
 Your promotional message reaches your intended and targeted audience.
 Your audience understands your message.
 Your message stimulates the recipients, and they take action.
The question is how you achieve these outcomes with your campaign. The process is
natural, but it takes "planning" time. Here are seven steps that will get your campaign off
to the right start.
Assess Marketing Communication Opportunities
It's essential to examine and understand the needs of your target market. Who is your
message going out to? Current users, influencers among individuals, decision-makers,
groups, or the general public?
What Communication Channels Will You Use?
In the first step of planning, you should have defined the markets, products, and
environments. This information will assist you in deciding which communication
channels will be most beneficial. Will you use personal communication channels such
as face to face meeting, telephone contact, or perhaps a personal sales presentation?
Or will the nonpersonal communication such as newspapers, magazines, or direct mail
work better?
Determine Your Objectives
Keep in mind that your objectives in a promotional campaign are slightly different from
your marketing campaign. Promotional objectives should be stated regarding long or
short-term behaviors by people who have been exposed to your promotional
communication. These objectives must be stated, measurable, and appropriate to the
phase of market development.
Determine Your Promotion Mix
This is where you will need to allocate resources to sales promotion, advertising,
publicity, and, of course, personal selling. Don't withhold on either of these areas. You
must create awareness among your buyers for your promotional campaign to succeed.
A well-rounded promotion will use all these methods in some capacity.
Develop Your Promotional Message
You will need to sit down with your team and focus on the content, appeal, structure,
format, and source of the message. Keep in mind that appeal and execution always
work together in promotional campaigns.
Develop the Promotion Budget
You must now determine the total promotion budget. This involves determining cost
breakdowns per territory and promotional mix elements. Take some time to break down
allocations and determine the affordability, percent of sales, and competitive parity. By
breaking down these costs, you will get a better idea of gauging the success potential of
your campaign.
Determine Campaign Effectiveness
After marketing communications are assigned, the promotional plan must be formally
defined in a written document. In this document, you should include situation analysis,
copy platform, timetables for effective integration of promotional elements with elements
in your marketing mix. You will also need to determine how you will measure the
effectiveness once it is implemented. How did the actual performance measure up to
planned objectives? You'll need to gather this information by asking your target market
whether they recognized or recall specific advertising messages, what they remember
about the message, how they felt about the message, and if their attitudes toward the
company were affected by the message.
 

END of LESSON
EXPRESSING AN OPINION AND TAKING A STAND ON AN ISSUE

OBJECTIVES

✗ Explain the importance of expressing one’s opinion;

✗ Describe the process on how to argue logically;

✗ Define critical thinking, logic, and rhetoric; and

✗ Determine sample logical fallacies

1. ARGUMENTATION
- the process of forming reasons, justifying beliefs, and drawing conclusions with the aim
of influencing others.

HOW TO ARGUE LOGICALLY

1. Examine an issue by doing relevant research on its different dimensions.

2. Choose the side you would like to support.
3. Formulate your argumentative thesis by identifying the general subject and the
specific focus or controlling idea.
4. Present your arguments and their corresponding evidence.
5. Listen to your opponents arguments and weigh their evidence. Acknowledge
their valid points and point out the weaknesses in their claims. Rebuild your
arguments based on the counter-claims.
6. Make a summary of the key arguments. Conclude with a call to action.
2. CRITICAL THINKING

✗ Question ideas first before you accept them.

✗ See beyond the information that is given to you.
✗ Open your mind to different possibilities.
✗ Listen to what the others have to say.
✗ Examine and re-examine an issue’s various dimensions before making
conclusions.
✗ Substantiate your conclusions with valid and reliable proofs.

LOGIC AND RHETORIC (ART OF COMMUNICATING)

- Logic refers to the science of thinking methodically

- Rhetoric refers to the art of communicating persuasively.

3. FALLACIES
 Hasty generalization- Making assumptions about a whole group or range of
cases based on a sample that is inadequate
Ex. Two out of three patients who were given green tea before bedtime
reported sleeping more soundly. Therefore, green tea may be used to treat
insomnia.
 MISSING THE POINT - The premises of an argument do support a particular
conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.
Ex. Crimes of theft and robbery are increasing at an alarming rate lately. The
conclusion is obvious: we must reinstate the death penalty immediately.
 Post Hoc, ergo propter hoc - Assuming that an event must have been the cause
of a later event because it happened earlier.
- False cause
Ex. The rooster crows always before the sun
rises, therefore causes the sun to rise
 Non- Sequitur (it does not follow) - A conclusion or reply that doesn’t follow
logically from the previous statement
Ex. Professor Berger has published numerous articles in immunology. Therefore,
she is an expert in complementary medicine.
 SLIPPERY SLOPE - Occurs when someone argues, without providing adequate
evidences, that a certain action will lead to an undesirable outcome via a series
of events
Ex. If we legalize marijuana now, next they will legalize all the other drugs, and
then crime will explode.
 WEAK ANALOGY - Making inferences based on an analogy that is too different
from the argument
Ex. Life is like a box of chocolate – you never know what you’re going to get.
 APPEAL TO AUTHORITY - When an arguer tries to get people to agree with
him/her by appealing to a supposed authority who isn’t much of an expert
Ex. Gun laws should be extremely strict and it should be incredibly difficult to
acquire a gun. Many respected people, such as actor Brad Pit, have expressed
their support on this movement.
 AD POPULUM - Occurs when one assumes that something must be true or good
based on the fact that it is popular
Ex. The majority of people like The Lego Movie so it must be quality film.
 AD HOMINEM - Used to make remarks against your opponent in a personal
capacity rather than to make an attack against his or her argument
Ex. Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that pornography harms
women. But Dworkin is just ugly and bitter, so why should we listen to her?
 AD MISERICORDIAM - Using emotional appeal to convince that the conclusion of
an argument is true, instead of using relevant facts and logic
Ex. If I don’t get at least B in this course my GPA will drop below 2.0. If that
happens I’ll lose my scholarship and have to quit school, so I ought to get a B in
this course.
  APPEAL TO IGNORANCE - Occurs when someone claims that a conclusion must
be true if it hasn’t been proven false, or false if it hasn’t been proven true
Ex. Scientist have not found any evidence of Bigfoot. Therefore, anyone who
claims to have seen Big Foot must be hallucinating.
 STRAWMAN - Ignores a person’s actual position and substitutes a distorted,
exaggerated or misinterpreted version of that position
Ex. Distorting the #blacklivesmatter movement by saying that its supporters
hate all white people.
 RED HERRING FALLACY - Presenting an argument unrelated to your subject in
order to distract the viewer
Ex. In order to really look at the problem of global warming, we must first
consider how the homeless suffer when it is cold.
 FALSE DICHOTOMY - Occurs when a limited number of choices, outcomes or
views are presented as the only options when, in fact, more options exist
Ex. The sign says, “Fine for parking here,” so since it was fine, I parked here.
 BEGGING THE QUESTION - Used as a way to create a argument in which the
conclusion is assumed true through the premise of the claim
Ex. : Clean up this mess!
: But why?
: Because it needs to be cleaned.
 EQUIVOCATION - A word or an expression with multiple meanings is used in a
dissimilar ways in an argument, and those differences are ignored when a
reaching a conclusion

Persuasion and Handling Objections Strategically

Lesson 11: PERSUADING YOUR AUDIENCE AND HANDLING OBJECTIONS
STRATEGICALLY 
 

Topic: Persuasion and Handling Objections Strategically

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 
 1. Familiarize yourself with the different tips/techniques of persuading a target
audience;
2. Acquire skills in convincing a target audience;
3. Use various techniques and strategies to convey ideas effectively;
4. Demonstrate awareness for a target audience and their cultural context when
sharing ideas;
Introduction:
            With the unprecedented event that has happened in the world today which has
tremendously disturbed the semester last school year until now, our university is all
prepared to meet the academic challenges amidst this pandemic for this school year.
Though it may be difficult to convince you about this reality as you may have some, if
not many objections, we cannot do otherwise but to accept the challenges brought
about by this pandemic reality. To persuade/convince people to rally behind you and to
stand with you for a cause without any objection at all is no easy task – that you have
to possess the necessary persuasive skills to do the task. Actually, this is the focus of
this chapter’s lessons. Hence, with these lessons on “persuasion” and “handling
objections”, you will be familiarized with the different tips and techniques on how to
handle objections strategically and on how to become an effective, influential, and
inspiring speaker. So please follow through the discussion of these lessons through this
module very patiently.     
Be ready and Enjoy!
 
Lesson Proper:
You learned from the previous lessons the different means/instruments that are
used to communicate ideas through written texts, communication tools that include
audio-visual aids which may be developed through digital means. You may have been
very successful and effective with these presentations because you knew well your
purpose, target audience, and context.
In the academic context, one form of communication you have learned to
express and share views with other people is through written mode (1.e. writing
effective communication); and other than this, you could also share your opinions and
ideas by way of multimedia presentations.
However, it is not just enough that you were able to express and share your ideas and
opinions with people, what must also be important is you were able to influence or
persuade them. Hence, the lesson on persuasion.
 
What is persuasion?

Persuasion is the act/process by which the speaker aims to convince the target
audience to accept his/her point of view about a particular topic/issue; which may be
either to accept all or part of his/her expressed view. It is to make the target audience
believe in what the speaker says, to stand with the conviction of the speaker, to rally
behind the speaker in support of the speaker’s stand, and lastly to convince the
audience to do something.
 
 
 
How can the speaker be persuasive? Actually, there are 3 types/techniques that could
help the speaker become persuasive in his/her communication presentations. These are
the following:
  Ethos or ethical appeal. It is a means to persuade the target audience with the use
of the author’s/speaker’s character, credibility, or authority.
Examples:

1.
1.
A. Buy my old car because I am Tom Magliozi. (you may search on
“who is Tom Magliozi)
B. A commercial about specific brand of toothpaste says that four out
of five dentists use it.

1.
1.
1.

1.
1.
 Pathos or the emotional appeal. It is a way of persuading the target audience by
appealing to their emotions. It is trying to persuade audience of something.
Examples:
 1.
1.
A. A teenager begging for a brand name jeans so as not to feel left
out by peers.
B. I like very much my friend though many hate him.
 Logos or appeal to logic. It is a means of convincing the target audience by use of
logic or reason.     It uses facts, data, statistics, citations, etc. to back up claims, ideas,
opinions, and views.
Examples:

1.
1.
A. World Health Organization has affirmed that COVID cases have
already been in millions.
B. Based on the data provided, the earnings of the company has gone
beyond 25% as projected in January 2020.
 
Indeed, each of these three principles plays a crucial role in persuading audience and the use of
these three in an argument may make persuasion work better.
 
The author/speaker may have been effective in expressing and sharing ideas or
views with the target audience; undeniably, objections are always expected to be raised
by the audience. This must be a natural phenomenon; but to handle these objections
properly and strategically will surely make the communication task work well toward an
effective and a successful persuasive communication. So please follow through still the
discussion of the topic, “Handling Objections strategically.”
How do you understand “objection”?

Objection is a reason refuting against a premise, an argument, a conclusion,

an idea/an opinion/view about a particular topic/issue with which the audience would
like to be satisfied about by the response of the speaker/author. Objections, if not
handled properly, disturb or distract or impede persuasion goal/objective that will likely
to result to disagreement. Hence, handling objections properly or strategically is
deemed necessary.
 How should objections of the audience be handled?
 
The following are some tips to handle objections strategically:

1. Let the audience feel they are heard. Listen to their ideas as if their ideas were as
brilliant as it is thought of by them – this is giving them (as person) and their ideas
equal importance.
2. Explain to them how your solution helped others. Point out with them how could
they be possibly benefited as others have already been benefited.
3. Do not force them. Do not make them immediately believe you but through the
process they will realize that there is truth in what you say; thereby, influencing them to
support your claim. Explore ideas with them.
4. Highlight strengths. Acknowledge weaknesses. You need to appreciate their
brilliant ideas as well as to empathize with their weaknesses. Learn to respond properly
with all humility and respect.
5. Sell. Don’t Argue. If the audience oppose your ideas, don’t be too defensive;
maintain respect at all times because your purpose is to SELL your ideas; not to ARGUE
with the audience.
6. Start with the end. Let them speak out freely their ideas but not to disrupt them at the
very start of their objections.
7. Prepare for every kind of conversation. You should be able to provide
answers/solutions to every question/objection raised by the audience and be sure they
get satisfied with your responses. This can only be done when you are well-prepared
with the topic/issue to discuss. More importantly, when you are well-prepared with what
you do or say/share, you have the confidence that you can share much even beyond the
expectation of the audience.
8. Establish rapport. It is relating to the audience in a way that it creates a level of
TRUST and understanding; thus, making the audience feel comfortable and relaxed-
 open to suggestions and explanations will eventually make them accept your
claim/ideas/views.
To put everything in a nutshell, the following are the key terms to remember when
handling objections:
   LEARN TO: LISTEN, ACKNOWLEDGE, EXPLORE, RESPOND, PREPARE, BE
CONFIDENT
     With all mentioned above, as an author or speaker, there is no doubt that you
would be able to negotiate ideas, expand views, and eventually persuade/convince your
audience in the end.

Lesson 12: OBTAINING AND DISSEMINATING

INFORMATION
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
               In learning, obtaining information is very significant since it is the first stage
of cognitive or learning process. After obtaining information, a learner can continue the
cognitive process to varying levels.  For instance, he or she may accomplish basic
cognitive processes by taking in information and simply storing it in the memory for
later recall or remembering.
 
            Significantly, providing information plays a vital role in the field of education,
career, life, business, etc.  As educators, one of the most important things is to provide
relevance for students. This would give them a context within which they can develop
into engaged, motivated and self-regulated learners because relevance can help
students realize how useful all knowledge can be.  Similarly, as a speaker, as a person,
as a learner and as a businessman, the information provided should be sufficient,
reliable, valid and accurate.  In this way, the listeners and receivers of the message
would believe the information given which may intellectually direct his or her actions
and decisions.
In like manner, disseminating information is equally important in learning, in life, in
business and in communication. The purpose of dissemination it to influence people’s
behavior so that they will adopt or at least become aware of a new idea, product or
service which is being disseminated. The use of various kinds of methods supporting
each other is important when planning dissemination.
  
Lesson Proper:
Obtaining Information from Available Sources

Obtaini
ng information today using technology grants us access to secondary
sources such as websites, books, television, and radio programs. The
information from these kinds of media may be just too handy. As such, you
have to be responsible and prudent in choosing, using, and spreading the
information you get from these sources.
 
Characteristics of Information
 Relevant information is capable of making a difference in making a decision.
 Valid information is more in-depth information that allows greater insight.
 Reliable information is authentic, consistent, infallible, or information that
suggests dependability of judgement or result.
 Factual information is something documented, established, confirmable,
supportable, sustainable, indisputable, irrefutable, undeniable, unquestionable
and undoubted.
Aside from these, the five characteristics of high-quality information are accuracy,
completeness, consistency, uniqueness and timeliness. Information needs to be of high
quality to be useful and accurate as well.
 
What To Do With Information That We Receive
 
1. Be sure that the sources you rely on are credible and accurate. Effective sources usually
have been reviewed and validated by experts on the topic. The number of relevant
references is also adequate and the author/s belong/s to a trustworthy organization.
While Wikipedia and blogs provide much information online, you cannot always rely on
them because anyone can contribute to the information too easily given their nature.
When in doubt, check the background of the publishers and the authors through online
articles. For instance, there are a lot of online trolls who give misleading information.
Fortunately, there are various fact-checking websites that identify the sources of fake
news or clarify false information:
 snopes.com
 FactCheck.org
 Politifact )             
2. Check that the information you have is current. The date of publication or posting is
significant. If it is dated, then the information you have may no longer be relevant or
accurate, unless you need a historical background or account of a particular subject. For
example, citing archival records of firsthand accounts of the Bataan Death March in
1942 may be effective for a history paper. However, citing a 1942 study on how young
Filipino males talk to their female counterparts to explain relationships today may not
be an accurate or relevant set of information.
 
3. Consider the perspective or worldview of your sources. While some particular
information may seem objective, sources of information tend to have a particular slant.
For instance, when it comes to election surveys, some newspapers may focus on figures
that favor a particular party or candidate, reflecting a hidden bias in their reports. Some
authors may also choose to gloss over significant moments in history. For instance, the
holocaust or genocide committed against the Jews during World War II and the brutal
crimes that were suffered by political prisoners and activities during Martial Law in the
Philippines may be covered up or denied by some writers to provide a one-sided view of
history. The truth has many sides, and, as a reader, viewer, and listener, you have the
duty to look at these various dimensions to evaluate them more carefully and decide
whether they are worth studying further and sharing.
 
4. When you do share the information that you have learned through various media
platforms, you must cite and acknowledge your sources. Identify the author/s, the
publisher/s, and the title of the article, magazine, book, website, periodical, or journal.
Doing this establishes your credibility and indicates your integrity. These original works
warrant recognition, and your readers deserve to know that your ideas came from
various sources.
 
Indeed, you are bombarded with information every day on social media. Often, the
clever use of language and deliberate choice of words lead you to believing all too
readily what you receive from various sites and outlets. Evaluate messages constantly
and diligently. This skill of evaluation is necessary when you need to disseminate
certain information yourself.
 
For starters, beware of chain emails, text messages, and status updates that compel
recipients or addressees to pass them to a bigger group of people. Usually, they are
laced by desirable promises ("If you pass this message, expect a good thing to
happen to you in the next 20 minutes"), dire warnings ("If you do not pass this
message, you will encounter misfortunes next week"), or disturbing messages
("If you don't pass this on, it means you don't care about people who suffer from
depression").
 
 If you do receive chain messages, do not pass it on. There is no scientific or logical
basis for following their hidden coercions. Similarly, avoid online click baits that
lure you with intriguing, controversial, and sensational images and texts that are
only meant to sell you certain products and services. In addition, some
advertisements of these products and services may be misleading or downright
false. Falling into these online traps only dulls the mind and takes away time for
more productive accomplishments.
 
When you are engaged in more constructive and creative activities in school, you
are expected to craft announcements about specific events. You may also hold
positions that require you to disseminate important information. As such, you
have to be accountable for the information you spread.
 
 

Information Dissemination
Information dissemination means spreading of information, knowledge, opinions widely
to a certain person, people or to a bigger group of audience. The purpose of
dissemination is to influence people’s behavior, so that they will adopt or at least
become aware of a new idea, product or service which is being disseminated. The use
of various kinds of methods supporting each other’s is important when  planning
dissemination.
 
Information dissemination is important when lives are affected. For example, public
service announcements during natural calamities such as typhoons can save lives.
When you face an opportunity to help address the general public, you have to use
simple language that readers, listeners, and viewers may grasp right away (Silver
2014).
Ulmer, et al (2015) suggests the following when informing the public in moments of
crisis (58):

1. Inform the community immediately, acknowledge uncertainty, and assure the

public that they will receive regular updates on current and future risks.
2. The public needs useful and practical statements of managing difficulties during
a crisis.
The impact of poor information dissemination may be illustrated in 2009 during the
onslaught of Typhoon Ondoy that resulted in death and devastation in the National
Capital Region. Many government officials learned much from this experience and,
consequently, became more organized and efficient in disaster management. As one
official stated, "The most important thing is communication. We have redundancy of
communication so that down to the lowest level, we will be able to inform these people”
(Howard 2010).
 
When you disseminate information, your message should be correct, clear, and concise.
Accuracy is important. Avoid using vague terminologies that are open to various
interpretations. Moreover, instead of using lengthy paragraphs, use numbers or bullet
points to make it easier and faster to read.
 
Consider also the levels of communication involved in disseminating information. For
instance, there is the barangay or community level, the city level, the regional level,
and the national level. Within these levels are different types of audiences who use
different types of languages and various modes of communication. Point persons and
specific organizations in charge of spreading information should be identified. In
addition, they have to coordinate their messages consistently.
 
Consider the following sample
Sample A:
The University of Knowledge needs student volunteers to help in packing relief goods
for the typhoon victims in Albay. If you would like to give donations, you are welcome
to do so.
Sample B:
The University of St. Louis has organized a help center at Bulwagang Teodulfo Domingo
for reaching out to the typhoon victims in Albay. The help center welcomes donations
(cash, medicine, and relief goods) and student volunteers who would like to help in the
packing of relief goods for the victims. The center will be open for one week for this
purpose from 8am-7pm. You may contact Mr. Cabrido at 09267755553 if you have
questions. Thank you

Message A lacks clarity because it has insufficient details, while Message B provides
specific details that may enable students to respond to the call for help promptly. In
Message B, the 5 Ws (what, where, when, who, why) and H (how) are answered:
 
What: A help center has been organized by the University of St. Louis.
 Where: The help center is at Bulwagang Teodulfo Domingo.
When: The help center is open for one week from 8am-7pm
Who: Mr. Cabrido may be contacted for details.
Why: There is a need to support victims in Albay.
How: Students may give donations and/or do volunteer work.
 
Thus, when you disseminate information, include all the essential details. Conversely, if
you receive a message, evaluate it first based on the guidelines given previously. If you
are not certain about its reliability, trace the source of the message. Consult other
credible sources of information such as school authorities, radio stations, TV networks,
online publications, and newspapers to verify the message you received. Disseminate
only when you are certain of the truthfulness of the message and the credibility of its
source. In addition, in simplifying a message that you wish to share, be sure not to omit
important details nor include additional information that may be inaccurate.
In some events, you may be expected to provide directives or instructions to organize
and mobilize groups of people through public service announcements or PSAs. Public
service announcements (PSAs) inform people about a particular event, raise awareness
for a certain issue, and/or promote a campaign. Campaigns are organized movements
that boost and support a particular cause or advocacy such as the preservation of the
environment, the promotion of children's rights, or gender equality. PSAs may be in
various modes and presented through various media. In developing them, it is
important to consider your audience, context, and purpose.
PSAs promoting awareness campaigns may be shown through videos. These can make
use of powerful words and images to move an audience and encourage them to take
concrete action in support of the advocacy.

Methods in Disseminating Information

Information should be disseminated properly and accurately. Exact and sufficient
information are only the things to be provided to the proper authority or person. The
following are some methods for disseminating information.

1. News release is a written or recorded communication directed at members of the

news media for the purpose of announcing something ostensibly newsworthy.
2. Blog is a regularly updated website or webpage, typically one run by an
individual or small groups, that is written in an informal or conversational style.
3. Emails are messages distributed any electronic means from one computer user
to more recipients via a network.
4. Text messages is a written message, often containing short forms of words, sent
from one mobile phone to another.
 5. Social networking websites or social media in an online platform which people use
to build social networks or social relations with other people who share similar
personal or career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.
6. Public service announcement is a message in a public interest disseminated
without charge, with the objective of raising awareness of, and changing public
attitude and behavior toward a social issue.
7. Door to door is a canvassing technique that is generally used for sales,
marketing, advertising or campaigning in which the person or persons walk from
the door of one house to the door of another trying to inform, announce, sell, or
advertise a product or service to the general public or gather information.

Writing the Informative Essay

How do we convey pieces of information? What are ways in conveying relevant pieces
of information to other people?
 Actually, there are many ways to convey significant information such as writing or
delivering news reports, and conducting a research and publishing the outcomes.
However aside from these, did you know that by just writing an essay we can also
impart information? Yes, writing an informative essay is also a way of conveying
important information to other people.
Informative essays are useful as they impart sensible pieces of information
to the readers. They are different from other types of essays in terms of purpose. The
main purpose of informative essay is to enlighten, inform or educate other people about
a certain topic while other essays such as persuasive essays are used to convince or
persuade readers to believe on their stand.

The Informative Essay

Source: Suarez et al. (2018)
 
The informative essay is written to provide information on topics that are not
known to a vast majority of readers. In this kind of writing, you are expected to do some
research since you need to give facts and evidence on your chosen topic. You are
considered the expert, and your end goal is to make sure your reader will understand
your topic better. Your readers will expectt up-to-date information, as well as
explanations of complex terms.
Since the main purpose of informative essays is to educate others on a certain
topic, these essays will typically include one or more of the five Ws: who, what, when
and why. They can also answer “how”, indicating how to do something (Your
dictionary,n.d.).
 

Features of Informative Essay

1.  Provide concrete and purposeful information
As a writer, you are expected to present information in a straightforward but engaging
way. Ideally, you should not include your own opinion.
      2. Topic must be clear and focused
Topic should be broken down into parts but at the same time narrow enough so that you
will not end up talking about everything related to that topic.
 3. Use of facts about real people and events, and evidence in supporting the
information.
Factual information can be verified by checking other sources about the topic. This
means you need to do research when you write your informative paper.
 4. Use different rhetorical patterns
You will need to define complex terms and ideas. You may explain a process, analyze cause
and effects, define unique terminologies, or compare and contrast certain subjects. All these
patterns for organizing essay will help your reader gain a more informed understanding
of your topic.
 

Writing the Informative Essay

Before you start writing your informative essay, consider the following:
 
1. Make sure you know why you are writing and the context in which you are
writing it.
Why do you want to share this topic? Are you writing the paper to educate your
readers? Is this a final requirement  for you to prove that you know  how to apply
reasearch skills in your writing? Is this part of a forum or information campaign?
 2. Know your audience
How much do they know about your topic? You need to know how much
background information you will need to provide. You also need to determine
what they will do with the information they will get from your paper or
presentation. Knowing your audience will also help you decide on how much
technical information you can include in your paper.
3. Consider how to present the information
Will they understand the facts more if presented in a table, graph, chart, or a
diagram?
 

Steps in Writing an Informative Essay:

1. Choosing or deciding on a topic
 One of the most difficult tasks when writing is coming up with a topic. Here is
some general advice when you are choosing a topic for your essay (Your
Dictionary, n.d.):
 Choose a topic that you are interested in. Your interest in writing on the subject
will make the essay more engaging.
 Choose a topic that can explain something new or in a different way.
 Choose a topic that you can support with facts, statistics, and
 Choose a topic that is relevant to the subject.
2. Once you have decided on a topic, then start by generating ideas about it.
 What do you already know about it? What do you still want to know about it?
What do you think your audience would want to know about it? This will help you
narrow down your focus, most especially if you have been given a very general
topic.
3. Conducting Research
 At this point, you can begin the research process and look for information that will
first address the questions that you asked. The sources that may be useful at the
beginning are general references like encyclopedias, magazine articles, or even
Wikipedia sources just to provide you with a general understanding of the topic
and issues relevant to the topic. Once you have found an angle from which you
want to approach your paper, then you can look for sources that focus on a more
specific discussion of your chosen angle and come from more credible and
specific sources.
4. Building a thesis statement
 Write a thesis statement that generally states what your topic is and what you
want to discuss. Remember that your thesis statement should be broad enough
that it needs to be explained further, but at the same time narrow enough for it to
be manageable.
 Outline the different aspects of your topic that you plan to discuss. Remember to
always go back to your thesis statement to determine if you really need to talk
about the aspects you identified. You may need to do additional research to
clarify a few more things about your topic and to finalize your thesis statement.
5. Planning the structure of Introduction
 Always begin with a “hook” or statement that will grab your reader’s attention and
make them continue reading your paper. This may be in the form of a rhetorical
question, a relevant quote, or a short narrative related to the topic. Ideally, the
introductory paragraph will contain your thesis statement so that readers will
know what to expect in your paper.
 6.  Writing the body of your paper
  As you write the body of your paper, remember to keep referring to your thesis
statement. Whether you are providing background information, defining key
terms, comparing elements, analysing cause and effects, or explaining
processes, check if you are still keeping to the main idea or if you are already
straying far from your thesis statement. Also, consider if you need to translate
some of your information into diagrams, tables or charts-do you have to discuss
the information in detail or can you just give a general picture, and the refer
reader to the specifics in the table or chart? Will photographs help you readers
understand the topic more?
7. Forming a satisfying conclusion
 Finally, make sure you have a clear ending of your paper. You may summarize
the main points you discussed, identify the implications of your paper, or pose a
challenge to your readers.
 8. Reviewing, Revising, Editing

 Once you are done writing your informative essay, it is important to review your
output. Check the grammar, vocabulary, coherence and organization of your
essay. Also, have someone read your essay. You may ask a friend to review it
for you. Then, do the final touch of your output by editing or revising it.
 

Parts of An Informative Essay

Source: Essaypro (2018 & 2020)
Just like the other types of essays, an informative essay also contains the three basic
parts of an essay which are the introduction, body, and conclusion.
 The introduction
 The intro should start with ahook that grabs the reader's attention. A hook is a
short piece of information provided at the very beginning of an essay and is
aimed to attract and hold readers’ attention. Usually, it is no longer than 1-2
sentences, but it should be so intriguing, interesting, or impressive that readers
naturally end up wanting to know more and read further.
 It must contain the thesis statement. A thesis statement serves as the root from
where the rest of your paper grows. A good thesis statement can help make your
 paper more logical and focused, and even simplify the writing process for you.
When you understand the main idea of your paper, you can express it in a clear
and intelligible manner throughout the paper.
Body Paragraphs
 Body paragraphs will be mainly used to support the thesis statement created in
the introduction.
 First of all, each body paragraph must start with a topic sentence. Create a
smooth transition from your introduction by creating a topic sentence that links
the thesis to your first main point. (A smooth transition should also be created for
the second and third body paragraph!)
 With each body paragraph, there must be a main idea sentence (topic sentence)
and supporting details. Main idea sentences are your main points to elaborate or
explain further your thesis statement in the introduction. Supporting details will
explain further your main points.
The Conclusion
 It will wrap up the information and present its significance in the real world. In
other words, explain why the informative writing you just crafted has value and
where this information can be applied. This gives the work “real-world” value.
 In writing your conclusion, avoid presenting new ideas because your goal is to
end your essay already.
Key takeaways in writing an Informative Essay:
  Make sure that the information you gather are factual and accurate by checking
if your sources are credible.
 Use transitional words such as “first, then, finally, lastly..” to ensure coherence
and logical organization of your informative essay.
 Brainstorming about the topic before writing your paper will help you a lot.
 Thesis statement will give direction to the overall content of your informative
essay.
 It is important to catch the interest of the readers in the introductory part to
convince them to read more about your essay.
 Remember your essay must be based on facts not on your opinion since it is an
informative essay.
 
Short Informative Essay on Smoking
Source: Writeawriting (2015)
 
Smoking is regarded as a fashion symbol in young boys. Despite the ill effects of
smoking, people still continue to smoke. Many young boys, who start smoking, feel that
they look broadminded and liberated if they smoke.
Most often, the teenagers adopt this habit just because of the company they enjoy.
Sometimes, they take a puff from their friend’s cigar. Later on, they develop the habit of
smoking as an indispensible part of their lives. With the passage of time, the followers
of this bad habit turn into chain smokers. It must be kept in mind that smoking is a toxic
habit that may develop lungs’ cancer. Moreover, the other toxic chemicals like arsenic,
carbon Monoxide, methane, acetic acid, nicotine, butane and cadmium present in
cigarettes are also highly damaging for health.
Currently, cigarette manufacturing companies are doing very well all over the globe.
Such manufacturing companies also inscribe warnings on the packets of cigarettes; still
people do not pay any heed. On the other hand, every year government increases the
price of cigarettes to discourage people using tobacco. Yet smokers go on smoking and
prove to be slaves of this bad habit.
The active smokers also harm other people around them known as passive smokers.
Here, it is significant on the part of the government to keep a ban on advertisements
that allure people to smoke. Moreover, the family members and close friends of the
smoker should also play their part to aware the smoker about the bad effects of this
habit. Although it requires strong will to stop smoking but once you plan to give up, you
can definitely do.
 
*** END of LESSON 3***

The Personal Reflective Essay

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Recognize the features of personal reflective essay through the text, “The Blind
Man’s Massage”;
2. Identify the steps in writing a personal reflective essay; and
3. Write a personal reflective essay in relation to the question provided.
LEARNING CONTENT
INTRODUCTION

The personal reflective essay presents your insights on a particular subject of life
as you have observed and experienced it. It can include a vivid description of what you
have witnessed and gone through. When you write this type of essay, it is like inviting
your audience to enter your mind as you narrate significant turning points and share
your views with them. The process of reflection entails recalling what happened to you
in the past or looking at your present circumstances, unveiling what this event or
condition means to you, and revealing what you have realized because of this
occurrence. It is meant to enhance your perspective and inspire your readers to explore
their own thoughts about the subject you have presented.
Why do I consider this instance important? How did I feel while it was
happening? Why did I react that way? What lessons have I gained from it? What have I
learned about myself, about other people, and about the world?
These are some points of reflection that you may consider in developing your
piece. The subjects may range from daily incidents to special episodes in your life. It
may be as simple bumping into an old friend from high school on your way to your
college class or as noble as helping out a family in their time of crisis. What is important
is that you consider it as a striking incident or a turning point that made you pause and
think about what it signifies.  
           To help you get started with reflective essay, please read the sample text below.
As you read, take down important details or any observations that you think might be
helpful later on when you will have to finally write your own essay.
 

     R E A D I N G   T E X T
The Blind Man’s Massage
Exie Abola
        He starts with the shoulders. He has just washed his hands with alcohol, pouring it
from a bottle he has in his pants pocket and wiping his hands together vigorously, and
tentatively gropes for my shoulders. My shoulders found, he squares himself against the
chair, neither too near nor far, just beyond the orbit of others like him working on other
customers and circling their plastic chairs.
         He puts both hands on me and begins.
        It is a slow day, only two of us sitting on a monobloc chairs in a row of six men in
black pants and blue sport shirts in this passageway in a mini-mall at Philcoa. I face a
window of Mercury Drug displaying diapers for babies and adults, cans of milk, baby
things. To the left are stairs to the second floor and a passageway. Under the stairs is a
small room where a small man with crossed eyes emerges, clutching a broom and
dustpan. Next to it is Arka Jewelry Shop. Made to order. Gold plating. Repair. At the end
of the passage is the back lot where delivery trucks unload, from which men appear
pushing large carts or grunting under boxes. On the left beyond the payphones are the
restrooms, which I don’t need to see for the smell.
        I look at my watch. It’s five-thirty. The sun has disappeared. I take the watch off
and put it in my pocket.
        The shoulders and back, these go first. The center of one’s exhaustion, then the
periphery. The hands and fingers are strong, they have been doing this for a while, and
they push and knead and squeeze along with the width of shoulders, down the length of
spine, across the breadth of back. I lean forward so the hands can press lower.
        I can smell the alcohol on his hands, and the other things besides that those hands
have held over the long dark years, the hands that try to make up for what is denied the
eyes. The smell of alcohol comes mixed with food too quickly eaten, the leftovers in
wrapper in small knapsacks on the dusty floor. With the alcohol comes the scent of
apology for not being clean enough.
       What else can they no longer clean so well, having lost their sight?
        There is no shortage of feet. They go from left to right, right to left, up the stairs,
down. Trudging or skipping, ambling or striding, sure or uncertain, light or heavy, they
pick up the brown dust on the black-pebbled floor and scatter it, rub it into the ground,
take it elsewhere, thicken it with the surface of other places and their slowly thinning
soles. These people are just passing through – to the photocopiers, to the computer
terminals, to their haircuts, their burgers and Cokes and donuts to their waiting futures –
but their scents stay, the smell of their sweat and cheap perfume, their worries and
sudden glances, the day oozing from their pores.
        The row is full now, and some mean are standing or sitting on the steps, waiting
their turn. One of them has slits for eyes. The man behind me has moved to the left. My
back done, it is time to knead my arm. I glance up at him. He is taller, slim, and
confidently young.
        On this day there are only four men in blue shirts, and the sky is the hazy shade of
afternoons blurring into each other.
         To my right comes a woman’s voice, harsh distinct, probably of someone not old,
a palengkera voice. It is continuous, it cuts through the thick sounds of the street. She is
complaining something to someone, she won’t stop. Once in a while a man tries to hoot
her down, a bellow. She keeps going. It is the kind of talk that leads to fights but
because she is a woman the men let her yap on. Onlookers pause, glance, wondering
what is the fuss about, then go about their business, picking up a momentarily
abandoned thought. Suddenly she is in my line of sight. She looks younger than she
sounds, seated by a cart of bananas, still talking, perhaps to everyone, and no one.
I blink and she is gone. The sidewalk is clear, the stalls peddling fishballs and
               
squidballs and sago gulaman are gone. There is only concrete and dust.
Then the emptiness of the sidewalk under the pedestrian overpass is filled again,
               
this time with fruit carts, crates of yellow and green and orange and brown, umbrellas,
newspapers and magazines, anything to bring away easily when the men in blue arrive
with their clubs and cries.
 The hands move from my arm to my hand and fingers. Fingers on the knuckles,
                  
the meat of the thumb and palm, the wrist. I turn to my right. To my right tiangge stalls
have disappeared. Only a stretch of gray concrete exists, a driveway forbidden to cars.
Do image stored in their brains lose their vividness, like photographs rubbed to
                  
a dullness by the slow fingers of time?
The rain begins suddenly, it slants into the vendors under the pedestrian
                 
overpass, and this passageway fills with a rush of cart and baskets, boxes and crates,
fruits and fruitsellers. The spray of the rain hits us all, even those of us sitting far into the
passageway, almost at the stairs. The infinity of inbetweenness is engulfed by people
waiting for the rain to subside. Smells blossom and mingle. Children have arrived, in
shorts and sandos, others in school clothes, all dirty. The slit-eyed man has bought
small bananas and begins to eat them, careful not to touch the meat with his fingers.
Two street kids ask for money. He gives them bananas. They leave him alone. He sits
on the stairs and shares in the weight of waiting.
Then my right arm. The hands belong to an older man, he has less hair, a
               
protruding belly, looks like someone’s uncle. The couple to my right both get up and pay
the woman on the white T-shirt, the one who looks after the blind men.
Can they feel the weight of a stare? Or are they free of the burden of self-
                
consciousness? Does the fear of being looked at the end when looking has ended?
                 Then the head and the scalp, the last part of the message.
When his hands go to my neck then the back of my head the world is not a place,
                
just the noise of busyness from a distance too indistinct to measure. His fingers gully my
head, he rubs out the heat of the afternoon and the smoke on the street, he pulls the
hair lightly, kneads in the failing light.
         Were his eyes always dark, or did they let in light once, and the light faded as it is
falling now in front of mine? What is the color of evening’s permanent descent?
         Sometimes I see in front of me, in the glass, not diapers but an image of the glass
behind me, the window into Chowking, its bringht fluorescent lights, orange walls, the
shimmer of metal chair legs, the illuminated beings like clothed, wet slugs. A refuge of
white light and clean tables. I close my eyes.
         When I open them the light is harsh, the slap of an early afternoon sun slanting in
from the right. It is Sunday, and there are only two men in blue shirts.
         There are stalls again, but they are different. A rack of meat at a shawarma stand.
Jugs of pink and yellow fluid, plenty of ice. Tiangge stalls are back, and on their metal
fences are dresses and shorts and skirts and blankets and pillowcases. Stalls hawking
cellphones, and accessories, their posters in the vivid colors of consumer bliss.
          There is a gate now, too, a large metal one that probably closes deep in the
evening. I have not imagined this passageway being blocked and closed, the plastic
chairs empty, stacked together, the blind men untimately an apparition.
         Where do they go when they are not here to offer respite from the unrelenting
and pitiless notion of the world?
It is over.
         I stand and fish change in my pocket but find only a large bill. The woman who
attends to them gives me change from the pouch hanging from her neck. She hands
over a fifty to the man who attended to me and utters her thanks. He stands behind his
chair with head bowed, almost tucking his chin into his chest, as if in perpetual apology.
         When the eyes go, does the head go heavy and droop, as the rest of the body
does? Does one stand with gaze averted, perpetually deferential to those from whom
pity is a most difficult gesture?
          I drop a twenty into the wooden donation box, padlocked and wrapped in
Christmas wrapper on a stool. I mutter my thanks to the woman, the man, to the slowly
spilling afternoon, and start the walk home, leaving the passage between light and dark,
between past and possibility, leaving the men to the questions we wish never to have to
answer.
 
It is hoped that as you read the text,  you reflected on the questions asked and you
were able to understand the features of a reflective essay.
 

Something to Ponder:

1. At which points in the essay do we see the writer’s reflections on the event’s significance?
2. What do these reflections reveal about the significance of the event to the writer?
3. Note how, more than just narrating his experience, the writer also describes the surroundings in
great detail. Why do you thin he does this?

FEATURES OF A PERSONAL REFLECTIVE ESSAY

           In your personal reflective essay, you are not just narrating a story or an event
that happened to you, or describing a person or object. You are also reflecting on the
significance of this subject on your life. You want to share your insight/s on this subject
with your audience because you recognize its significance and, in doing so, you are
actually revealing the kind of person you have become.
 A personal reflective essay begins with an intriguing topic – something that
interests you, or stirs something in you.
         In the sample essay, Abola writes about his experience of getting a massage from
a blind man – the ones you see in open public spaces who offer their services at a
much cheaper rate. This is not an earth-shattering or life changing event, and what you
might call an ordinary, everyday experience, but as you have heard, it triggered several
questions in the mind of the writer – questions that initially were about general things
about blind people

What else can they no longer clean so well, having lost their sight?

– to questions that reflect on what life might be like for those who are blind –
 

Can they feel the weight of a stare? Or are they free of the burden of self-
consciousness? Does the fear of being looked at the end when looking has
ended?     

 
 The main body of the essay needs to be interesting to your audience.
It can be structured in various ways, as long as the ideas relate to one another and to
the main insight of the essay.
       Narrative Structure
 the most common structure sued that is told from the perspective of one who
   
has learned or realized something from the subject
You should also include vivid, descriptive details to help your audience visualize
what you are writing about and therefore understand the significance that you
have reflected on.
In the sample essay, Abola narrates his experience of the message but at the
same time describes to us what he sees, smells, and hears around him.

He starts with the shoulders. He has just washed his hands with alcohol, pouring it
from a bottle he has in his pants pocket and wiping his hands together vigorously,
and tentatively gropes for my shoulders. My shoulders found, he squares himself
against the chair, neither too near nor far, just beyond the orbit of others like him
working on other customers and circling their plastic chairs.
 
He puts both hands on me and begins.

Note how such descriptions trigger the questions he asks in different parts of the
essay – questions that reveal thoughts and feelings.

The hands move from my arm to my hand and fingers. Fingers on the knuckles, the meat
of the thumb and palm, the wrist. I turn to my right. To my right tiangge stalls have
disappeared. Only a stretch of gray concrete exists, a driveway forbidden to cars.
 Do image stored in their brains lose their vividness, like photographs rubbed to a
dullness by the slow fingers of time?
Note  as well that his personal reflections have not been explicitly stated nor revealed in
one go – but they are given to us in bits and pieces, implicitly through the questions, so
that toward the end we realize why this event is significant to the writer.

I mutter my thanks to the woman, the man, to the slowly spilling afternoon, and
start the walk home, leaving the passage between light and dark, between past
and possibility, leaving the men to the questions we wish never to have to answer.

 
       Abola’s insight not only gives us a glimpse of what he feels about the entire
experience but also lets us see the larger significance of the event. He makes us realize
how lucky we are that we still have our sense of sight, and invites us to feel empathy for
blind people. By doing this, the narration of the event becomes more than just about
Abola and his experience of the massage. It is actually about us and how little we
understand about the experiences of people with disability.
 
      This is the heart of a personal reflective essay – an expanded, if not better,
understanding of the world through your subject, an insight from pondering and probing,
which you want to share with the rest of the world.

Writing the Personal Reflective Essay

 Purpose and Communication Context
        Would you like to tackle a recent incident in your community or your country and
think about what it means to your personally? Would you like to talk about a childhood
episode in your life that made you who are today? Would you like to enlighten your
audience about the undiscovered features of your personal hobby such as the joys and
paints of watching a telenovela orTV series?
 Audience and Mode of Language
 Will you write primarily for young people from different backgrounds? Will your readers
include a local and international audience? Will your piece be read in class? Will you
submit it to an online publication?
 

STEPS IN WRITING A PERSONAL

REFLECTIVE ESSAY
 
1. Brainstorming
        Consider possible topics you can explore from your bank of experiences. Choose
the one that is closest to your heart so your ideas can flow smoothly. Remember that
writers have different ways of developing their ideas. Some writers come up with an
outline or list down bullet points to help them take off while others go straight to writing
their paragraphs. Consider your writing style when you brainstorm.
2. Writing the draft
        Essay are conventionally structured according to the following order: introduction,
body or discussion, and conclusion.
         Introduction
 provides a brief background of the topic and it is designed to catch your readers’
attention. For example, you may begin with a rhetorical question (e.g., “Do you
control your own life or do your life control you?). The thesis statement or main
idea is stated explicitly, and it is usually written in the introduction (e.g., “While I
cannot control the difficult circumstances in my life, I have the power to overcome
them.”) Sometimes it is written in the conclusion, or sometimes it is implied and
the readers are left to infer it based on the details given in the essay.
        Body
 the thesis statement is elaborated in the body of the essay or the discussion
paragraphs. Examples or illustrations are provided to enable the audience to
understand the main point of the essay.
        Conclusion
 presents a summary of the essay and restates the thesis. It usually ends with a
general statement that persuades the readers to agree with the stance of the
writer.
3. Revising the draft
        After writing the draft, edit your statements in terms of grammar conventions and
mechanics (e.g., spelling, punctuation marks, etc.) to make your work more intelligible
to your intended audience.
4. Presenting your work
        After developing your draft which may entail multiple revisions, finalize your work.
Present it to your teacher, share it with your peers, or submit it to publications that
welcome contributions.
 
*****END of LESSON 4 *****

WRITING A PROBLEM SOLUTION PAPER

 Lesson 1:  Writing a Problem Solution Paper

Topic:  Writing a Problem Solution Paper

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 

1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1. Identify local problems in your respective
communities
2. Distinguish block and chain structures
3. Recognize parts of the Problem Solution Paper
4. Develop civic consciousness thru writing a
Problem Solution Paper
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
#theQUEST
This springboard activity will give you the opportunity to cultivate your civic
consciousness to your immediate community and manifest one of our Louisian core
values “Social Awareness and Responsibility”.
Directions: The table below has 4 columns: situation, problem, solution, evaluation.
Accomplish the table conforming to existing problems in your local community. Provide
at least three.
Outdoor activity is NOT allowed. This may be done thru mere observation or interview
from elders inside your home.
 

Situation Problems Solutions Evaluation

Where is the problem Top three local Suggest atleast two Predict how will the
happening? problems in your solutions per problem proposed solutions
community address the existing
   problem

 
Example:

Situation Problems Solutions Evaluation

With the conduct of

community orientation
Improper Waste Clustered Bins
and presence of
Disposal Community Orientation clustered bins, the
  locals will know how to
 
properly segregate
their waste

With the global

pandemic, locals are
Tuguegarao City afraid of gathering,
conducting online
Declining Spirituality Online Mass & Spiritual masses will be an
  Activities avenue for people to
be closer to God even
without their physical
presence in spiritual
buildings

Increased Crime Rate Curfew & Stringent Visibility of cops will

  Police Patrol tame the offenders.

 
Processing:
Problems are part of life. We all deal with individual problems, families have family
issues, and communities have community problems. Communities must come together
to solve their problems, just like families.
When communities try to solve problems, they start just like individuals do. They must
reflect and analyze the issue to help come to a solution. But, before discussing
solutions, problems must be identified. Problems can arise in any part of a community
and come from any aspect of community life.
Example Community Problems: Adolescent pregnancy, access to clean drinking
water, child abuse and neglect, crime, domestic violence, drug use, pollution,
mismanagement of resources, lack of funding for schools and services, ethnic conflict,
health disparities, HIV/ AIDS, hunger, inadequate emergency services, inequality, jobs,
lack of affordable housing, poverty,  transportation, violence, racism and police
brutality.
Rather than aim for a complete problem list, here are some criteria you may
consider when identifying community problems:

o The problem occurs too frequently (frequency)
o The problem has lasted for a while (duration)
o The problem affects many people (scope, or range)
o The problem is disrupting to personal or community life, and possibly
intense (severity)
o The problem deprives people of legal or moral rights (equity)
o The issue is perceived as a problem (perception)
 
This last criterion, perception, is an important one, and can also help indicate
readiness for addressing the issue within the community.
What is seen as a problem can vary from place to place and group to group in the same
community. Although there's no official definition of a community problem, the above
examples and criteria above should help you begin to name and analyze community
problems.
 
Lesson Proper:
 
A Problem/Solution paper requires you to investigate a problem, examine alternative
solutions, and
propose the most effective solution using supporting evidence.
Problem-solution paper considers the problems of a particular situation, and give
solutions to those problems. They are in some ways similar to cause and effect essays,
especially in terms of structure. Problem-solution paper is actually a sub-type of another
type of essay, which has the following four components:
 Situation
 Problem
 Solution
 Evaluation
As we go through the process, we shall have the three stages of writing:
Starting the Paper

1.
1. Identify the situation. The situation you are going to address in the
problem solution paper should be stated clearly in the prompt for the
paper. You may be assigned a situation to address or be allowed to
choose a situation for the paper. Often the situation will address a
social, cultural, or historical issue in society.[1]
For example, you may have a main situation like, “obesity and poor fitness,” or
“trigger warnings on college campuses.”

If you get to choose the situation, make a list of groups you belong to, such as
“school,” “family,” “race,” “culture”,” or “local community.” Then, identify a
situation or issue you have encountered as a member of one of these groups.

2. In the problem component, you will state the problem or problems and explain
what they are in your own words. Determine the key components of the paper. A
problem-solution paper will contain four main components: the situation, the
problem, the solution, and the evaluation. You should structure your paper so it
addresses these four components.- In the situation component- In the solution
component, you will state your solution or solutions to the problem. You will also
explain how it will address the problem.- In the evaluation component, you will
list the main ideas in the paper and offer a prediction or recommendation based
on your solution to the problem.There will only be one situation presented to you
in the prompt for the paper. You can then have multiple problems and multiple
solutions that link back to the situation.
3. Use the block structure for the outline. One way you can outline the paper is to
use the block structure, where you list the problems first in the paper, followed
by the solutions. You will use the following outline for the block structure:-
Introduction section, where you discuss the situation- Problem 1- Problem 2-
Transition sentence or paragraph- Solution 1- Solution 2- Conclusion section,
 where you discuss the evaluation

4. Try the chain structure for the outline. Another possible structure you can use for
a problem solution paper is the chain structure, where you discuss a problem,
followed by a solution to that problem. The chain structure is used more often
for short problem solution papers. You will use the following outline for the chain
structure:- Introduction section, where you discuss the situation- Problem 1 and
Solution to Problem 1- Problem 2 and Solution to Problem 2- Problem 3 and
 Solution to Problem 3- Conclusion section, where you discuss the evaluation

The two types of structure, block and chain, are shown in the diagram below. This is for
a short essay, which includes the 'situation' in the introduction and 'evaluation' in the
conclusion. A longer essay, for example one of around 1,000 words, with citations,
would probably have these two sections as separate paragraphs in the main body.
Writing the Paper

1. State the situation in your own words. Start by writing out the situation in your
own words. You can do this in the introduction section of the essay. Focus on a
specific angle or perspective on the situation, especially if the situation is
broad.For example, if the situation in the paper prompt is “obesity and poor
fitness,” you may focus on specific aspects of the situation in the introduction.
You may look at how the consumption of unhealthy food and the overuse of cars
plays into obesity and poor fitness in society.
2. Research the problem or problems. Read as much as you can about the problem,
such as scholarly journals online, print books, and academic texts. Look for
articles at a national or state level that discuss the problem. Check local
publications for discussions about the problem. The more research you do, the
stronger your solutions to the problem will be in the paper.
If you cannot find a lot of outside material on the problem, you can collect your
own data for the paper. Do this by making a survey that you give to people who
are affected by the problem. You can also interview people associated with the
problem, or with possible solutions.
 For example, if you were researching the problem “trigger warnings on college
campuses,” you may interview college representatives at your university or
college. You may also talk to students on campus.

Most problem solution papers written for exams do not require you to cite any
outside sources. You may need to cite your sources if you are writing the
problem solution paper for a class.

3. Create a strong thesis statement. 

For example, if you were writing about the situation “obesity and poor fitness,”
you may have the following thesis statement: “Obesity and poor fitness can lead
to a decrease in life expectancy, and it is essential that individuals and
governments work together to tackle this issue by improving their citizen's diet
and fitness.”

4. Identify your solutions. The best solutions to a problem will be easy to

implement, effectively address the problem, and be cost effective for all involved.
Think about the problem and come up with one to two solutions. You will then
explore these solutions in your paper.

For example, you may come up with a solution that addresses a lack of
resources by adding support, money, or more staff. Or you may come up with a
solution that addresses the problem by changing an existing practice or habit.

5. Support your solutions with specific examples. Avoid simply listing problems and
solutions in the essay in a general way. Use specific examples that allow you to
expand on your solutions. Do not use general or vague language when
discussing the solutions.

For example, if one of your solutions to the problem of obesity and poor fitness
is to encourage people to cook at home, you may list a few specific ways people
can do this. You may suggest that national eating healthy at home campaign is
created, offering recipes online that take less than 30 minutes to prepare at
home.

6. Wrap up the paper with an evaluation. Once you have outlined your solutions in
the body of the paper, you should end with the evaluation in the conclusion
section. The evaluation should discuss your solutions briefly and sum up the goal
of your solution. It can also have a call to action, where you note the value of
your solution.
7.
 For example, you may end up a call to action like, “With rising levels of obesity
in our country, it is essential that we take action now to address this serious
issue.”
Polishing the Paper

1. Confirm the paper follows a clear structure or outline. Review the paper and
confirm it covering the four components of a problem solution paper. Make sure
it addresses the problem and the solution in detail. Check that your thesis
statement appears in the introduction and in the conclusion sections of the
paper.You can create a reverse outline using your paper as a guide, where you
go through each section and confirm it follows the outline you started with.
2. Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Read the paper aloud to yourself
to check for any misspelled words or grammatical errors. Try reading the paper
backward, starting at the end, to check for spelling mistakes. Circle the
punctuation in the paper and confirm you are using all punctuation correctly.You
can also show the paper to a peer, friend, or family member and get them to
proofread it for you.
3. Revise the paper to fit the word count. If you are writing a problem solution paper
for an exam, you will often have a set word count. The word count is usually
very short, around 250-500 words. Make sure the paper falls under or at the
word count. If it doesn't, you may need to revise it by shortening the sentences,
tightening up the language, and making your ideas more concise.If you are
writing the problem solution paper for a class assignment, you may still have a
set word count. Check that your paper falls within this word count.
Thesis
The thesis is an essential part of the introduction of your problem solution essay, but it
doesn’t mean you need to write your paper, including the thesis, in a strict order. In
fact, most students benefit from writing the thesis last. By that time, they have already
developed a thorough understanding of the problem and can form a clear and concise
thesis that will be supported by the rest of the work.
How to Find Solutions to Your Problems
Before you can propose your own solutions to the problems, you need to demonstrate
your prior research on the issue by offering some of the solutions previously designed
by other scholars. Analyze whether they were completely successful, and if not, what
can be changed about them. Then you can move on to proposing your own solutions to
the problems highlighted in the earlier parts of the essay. The work on your solutions
can be divided into three easy steps:
 Offer a plan of action. Your solution needs to be simple and detailed, possibly in
a step-by-step form. Think of the potential criticism of your solution and address
it in the same chapter.
  Support your solution with examples. Whether it’s pictures, statistics, or simply
stories, there needs to be a strong background for your newly designed solution.
Only then will your solution seem feasible to the public.
 Provide a call to action. Instead of simply offering a conclusion to your solution,
be proactive and encourage your audience to take action. If the problem you’ve
described is real and you’ve offered some genuine solutions, the call to action
will be very effective. The projection technique is very effective for this purpose.
Proofreading and Writing Tips
Here is how to make sure your writing meets the highest academic standards:
 After finishing the paper, leave it for one or two days before coming back and
proofreading it with a fresh outlook.
 Check whether your essay covers all four elements of a problem solution paper.
 Make sure the thesis clearly refers to the content of the essay.
 Confirm that you’ve done the most extensive research of the problem.
 Check whether the solutions offered to the problem are realistic and can be
achieved.
 Pay special attention to the conclusion: it needs to not only summarize the text,
but also offer a call to action.
 Use online services like Grammarly to check your spelling and punctuation.
 Ask one of your friends or family members to proofread your paper to make sure
no grammar or logical mistakes spoil your final grade.
Example:
PSYCHOLOGICAL ILLNESS AND TEENAGERS
Psychological illness is very common in today’s era, and especially among teenagers.
Depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and a lot more are common. More than 50%
of teenagers are a victim of mental illness. The question arises that “What is
psychological health?” It is a general misconception that only psychological illness is
reflected in the form of disability. This is not the case. Any unusual or unexpected
response from an individual to very common activities is said to be “psychological
illness.” For example, a boy/girl might show aggression over a casual debate at his
place. Psychological illness is damaging our youth and the major reasons behind such
illnesses are parental involvement, addictions, and traumas that might be due to any
reason.
There are several solutions to this problem among which the following three can be
very easily implemented. Firstly, individuals must be more active by doing exercise.
They should get enough sleep and have a balanced diet. Their stress must be reduced.
Exercise helps in better hormonal secretions that help in reducing stress and anxiety. It
also helps in quitting addictions which most teenagers adopt due to low morale.
Secondly, parents should be better involved in their child’s life. It is the utmost duty of
parents to help their children in facing all the problems with courage rather than leaving
them on their own in such a crucial situation. They should help their child in quitting all
sorts of addictions. Generally, teenagers find drugs very attractive and a symbol of
classiness. Some parents do not focus on their children at all and some parents are
over-involved that annoys children.
Thirdly, parents should cut off the communication gap. They should talk to their
children about their life. If a teen is in depression, it is the duty of parents to talk to
them because talking about the problem releases stress and helps in coming back to
life.
Teenage is a very crucial phase of life and its handling is similar to that of a fragile
good. The above-stated solutions will help you in handling a depressed teenager. The
solutions have no tough schedule. It is all a matter of time. The solutions have worked
for a relative of mine and I hope that these solutions will help you too.
 

PLAGIARISM AND DOCUMENTATION STYLES

Lesson 2: Plagiarism & Documentation Styles
 

Topic:   Plagiarism & Documentation Styles

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
 

1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1. Recognize plagiarism issues
2. Identify forms of plagiarism
3. Develop an in-depth understanding of
plagiarism
4. Distinguish MLA versus APA format
5. Value intellectual honesty in all your academic
endeavors
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
 #GuiltyOrNot
Directions:
In a courtroom, you are acting as a judge and you need to identify whether the
following people are guilty or not in plagiarism. Accomplish the table to state your
verdict and your justification.

1. Thelma saw a photo on Pinterest and a video on YouTube that would look
perfect for her online advertising. She used it without crediting the creator or
asking for permission.
2. Cyrene reproduced substantial chunks of someone else's prose – more than the
"fair use" exception to copyright and took the writing without giving credit.
3. Julius had a marketing breakthrough, but Bryan presented it to the boss as his
own idea.
4. John Paul ripped off someone's architectural design.
Employee Verdict                                         Justification

Thelma    

Cyrene    

Julius    

John Paul    

 
Processing:
Most of us in the academic world were brought up to believe that originality was the
supreme virtue. We looked on plagiarism as the primal sin, as little short of a fall from
grace. Proof of plagiarism used to end professorial careers and warrant the immediate
failure of students in courses and, on occasion, their expulsion from an institution.
Throughout history, plagiarism has always been present, but never more so than in the
current digital age. Where the internet is filled to the brim with content, with more
being posted each and every day, it can be difficult to truly know whether what you are
reading is original content.
However, while most plagiarism cases are dealt with easily or float under the radar,
there are some higher profile cases that certainly haven’t had that benefit!
MELANIA TRUMP
While this one might not be the tip of the ice-burg when it comes to thinking about the
most words plagiarised, it certainly does for one of the worst possible places to do it.
Also taking place in 2016, Melania Trump’s plagiarism scandal came about when she
took to the stage to give a speech on the President’s behalf at the Republican National
Convention. However, as great as the speech may have appeared to some, it pricked
the ears of Obama fans, who quickly realised that Melania’s speech sounded strangely
similar to Michelle Obama’s speech that was given in 2008 at the Democratic National
Convention. Melania’s speech writer was blamed, and while she apologised and went on
to try and resign, Trump refused to accept it anyway.
VLADAMIR PUTIN
1997 brought about Putin’s turn to face public criticism following accusations of
plagiarism. Putin’s 1996 dissertation titled ‘Strategic Planning of Mineral Resources
Replenishment at a Regional Level in Market Economy’ fell under scrutiny when it
appeared to bear unavoidable resemblance to a book written by William Kind and David
Cleland’s book ‘Strategic Planning and Policy’. Granted, no one’s approached Putin to
question it directly, but the accusations have been made all the same.

The gist: Tourism slogan “Pilipinas Kay Ganda” drew criticism a week after its launch in
2010 after its logo had a striking similarity to Poland’s “Polska,” from the font and the
colors to the use of a tree. An application where users can make a personalized name
logo with the tagline “Kay Ganda” then made the rounds on social media sites as
Filipinos made fun of the alleged plagiarism committed by the advertising agency
tapped by DOT.
What DOT did: Then-DOT Undersecretary Vicente “Enteng” Romano III, who was in
charge of DOT’s planning and promotions section, took full responsibility for the
campaign and left his post. He also apologized to then-President Benigno Aquino III,
then-Tourism Secretary Alberto Lim and to the public over the controversy.
What happened next: The “Pilipinas Kay Ganda” campaign was scrapped and eventually
replaced by the “It’s more fun in the Philippines” slogan, which became an Internet hit.

The gist: Just after its launch in January 2012, the Department of Tourism’s (DOT) “It’s
more fun in the Philippines” slogan was criticized for allegedly being a copycat of a
1951 Swiss tourism slogan that read “It’s more fun in Switzerland.”
What DOT did: Tourism Secretary Mon Jimenez took to Twitter to react on the issue,
saying that the similarity is just a coincidence.
What happened next: The plagiarism issue eventually died down, especially after Swiss
Ambassador to Manila Ivo Sieber expressed his support for the “It’s more fun in the
Philippines” campaign.
The gist: Parts of Sotto’s two speeches on his stand on the controversial RH bill were
lifted from different online sources, drawing an online firestorm.
What Sotto did: While Sotto initially denied plagiarizing parts of his first RH bill speech
(saying “blogger lang iyon,” drawing even more flak), his then-chief of staff, Atty.
Hector Villacorta, admitted that they copied the work of American blogger Sarah Pope.
A day later, it was found that Sotto’s staff writers also copied from different websites
for the senator’s second speech. But this time, Villacorta defended the senator and
stressed that “blogs are public domain.”
What happened next: Like Sotto, Villacorta saw himself at the receiving end of criticism,
with netizens calling him “stupid” and “arrogant.”
 The necessity to acknowledge others’ work or ideas applies not only to text, but
also to other media, such as computer code, illustrations, graphs etc. It applies equally
to published text and data drawn from books and journals, and to unpublished text and
data, whether from lectures, theses or other students’ essays. You must also attribute
text, data, or other resources downloaded from websites.
The best way of avoiding plagiarism is to learn and employ the principles of good
academic practice from the beginning of your university career. Avoiding plagiarism is
not simply a matter of making sure your references are all correct, or changing enough
words so the examiner will not notice your paraphrase; it is about deploying your
academic skills to make your work as good as it can be.
This module will enlighten your thoughts about the dreadful word “PLAGIARISM.”
Many would use the terms “inspired” “benchmarked” and “derivative” to justify an
imitated concept or idea. But in this world of uniqueness and duplication, when do you
say that you have actually crossed the line?
Don’t be confused. We’ll be focusing plagiarism in the context of academic writing.
Lesson Proper:
 #CopyCatOrNot?
Plagiarism is a breach of academic integrity. It is a principle of intellectual
honesty that all members of the academic community should acknowledge their debt to
the originators of the ideas, words, and data which form the basis for their own work.
Passing off another’s work as your own is not only poor scholarship, but also means
that you have failed to complete the learning process. Plagiarism is unethical and can
have serious consequences for your future career; it also undermines the standards of
your institution and of the degrees it issues.
According to the University of Oxford, the plagiarism definition is that you're
presenting someone else's ideas as your own, whether deliberately or because you
didn't know any better. Business plagiarism is common, but it's still unethical.
Plagiarism happens when you present someone else's designs, words, code or
visuals as your own without their permission. Even if you do this unintentionally, it's still
unethical and could lead to a lawsuit.
At University of North Carolina, plagiarism is defined as “deliberate or reckless
representation of another’s words, thoughts, or ideas as one’s own without attribution
in connection with submission of academic work, whether graded or otherwise”
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or
without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement.
All published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic
form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or
unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism
is a disciplinary offense.
According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing
source
 In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone
else's work and lying about it afterwards.
 
#CopyCatQuestion1
Can words and ideas really be stolen?
According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is considered
intellectual property and is protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions.
Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are
recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).
 
#CopyCatQuestion2
When do you say that someone has plagiarized?
All of the following are considered plagiarism:
 turning in someone else's work as your own
 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving
credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of
your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply
acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience
with the information necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent
plagiarism.
 
#CopyCatQuestion3
What about images, videos, and music?
Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced without receiving
proper permission or providing appropriate citation is plagiarism. The following activities
are very common in today’s society. Despite their popularity, they still count as
plagiarism.
 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into your
own papers or websites.
 Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted music as
part of the soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another composition.
 Certainly, these media pose situations in which it can be challenging to
determine whether or not the copyrights of a work are being violated.
For example:
 A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using a photograph
of a book cover to represent that book on one’s website)
 Recording audio or video in which copyrighted music or video is playing in the
background.
 Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example: shooting a
photograph that uses the same composition and subject matter as someone
else’s photograph)
 Re-creating a visual work in a different medium (for example: making a painting
that closely resembles another person’s photograph)
 Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if done so in an
original way.
The legality of these situations, and others, would be dependent upon the intent and
context within which they are produced. The two safest approaches to take in regards
to these situations is: 1) Avoid them altogether or 2) Confirm the works’ usage
permissions and cite them properly.
 
#CopyCatQuestion4
Why are my instructors so concerned about plagiarism?
In order to understand plagiarism, it helps to understand the process of sharing and
creating ideas in the university. All knowledge is built from previous knowledge. As we
read, study, perform experiments, and gather perspectives, we are drawing on other
people’s ideas. Building on their ideas and experiences, we create our own. When you
put your ideas on paper, your instructors want to distinguish between the building block
ideas borrowed from other people and your own newly reasoned perspectives or
conclusions. You make these distinctions in a written paper by citing the sources for
your building block ideas. Providing appropriate citations will also help readers who are
interested in your topic find additional, related material to read—in this way, they will
be able to build on the work you have done to find sources.
Think of it this way: in the vast majority of assignments you’ll get in college, your
instructors will ask you to read something (think of this material as the building blocks)
and then write a paper in which you analyze one or more aspects of what you have
read (think of this as the new structure you build). Essentially, your instructors are
asking you to do three things:
 Show that you have a clear understanding of the material you’ve read.
 Refer to your sources to support the ideas you have developed.
 Distinguish your analysis of what you’ve read from the authors’ analyses.
When you cite a source, you are using an expert’s ideas as proof or evidence of a new
idea that you are trying to communicate to the reader. Documentation Styles will be
presented on a latter part.
 
#CopyCatQuestion5
What about “common knowledge”?
In every professional field, experts consider some ideas “common knowledge,” but
remember that you’re not a professional (yet). In fact, you’re just learning about those
concepts in the course you’re taking, so the material you are reading may not yet be
“common knowledge” to you. In order to decide if the material you want to use in your
paper constitutes “common knowledge,” you may find it helpful to ask yourself the
following questions:
 Did I know this information before I took this course?
 Did this information/idea come from my own brain?
If you answer “no” to either or both of these questions, then the information is not
“common knowledge” to you. In these cases, you need to cite your source(s) and
indicate where you first learned this bit of what may be “common knowledge” in the
field.
 
#CopyCatQuestion6
What about paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing means taking another person’s ideas and putting those ideas in your own
words. Paraphrasing does NOT mean changing a word or two in someone else’s
sentence, changing the sentence structure while maintaining the original words, or
changing a few words to synonyms. If you are tempted to rearrange a sentence in any
of these ways, you are writing too close to the original. That’s plagiarizing, not
paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing is a fine way to use another person’s ideas to support your argument as
long as you attribute the material to the author and cite the source in the text at the
end of the sentence. In order to make sure you are paraphrasing in the first place, take
notes from your reading with the book closed. Doing so will make it easier to put the
ideas in your own words. When you are unsure if you are writing too close to the
original, check with your instructor BEFORE you turn in the paper for a grade. So, just
to be clear—do you need to cite when you paraphrase? Yes, you do!
 
#CopyCatQuestion7
How can I tell whether I’ve plagiarized?
If you’ve followed the above guidelines but still aren’t sure whether you’ve plagiarized,
you can double-check your work using the checklist below.
You need to cite your source, even if:
 you put all direct quotes in quotation marks.
 you changed the words used by the author into synonyms.
 you completely paraphrased the ideas to which you referred.
 your sentence is mostly made up of your own thoughts, but contains a reference
to the author’s ideas.
 you mention the author’s name in the sentence.
** When in doubt, give a citation.**
 
#CopyCatQuestion8
What are other forms of plagiarism?

1. Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgementQuotations

must always be identified as such by the use of either quotation marks or
indentation, and with full referencing of the sources cited. It must always be
apparent to the reader which parts are your own independent work and where
you have drawn on someone else’s ideas and language.
2. Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgementInformation
derived from the Internet must be adequately referenced and included in the
bibliography. It is important to evaluate carefully all material found on the
Internet, as it is less likely to have been through the same process of scholarly
peer review as published sources.
3. ParaphrasingParaphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and
changing their order, or by closely following the structure of their argument, is
 plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author whose work
you are using.A passing reference to the original author in your own text may
not be enough; you must ensure that you do not create the misleading
impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely
your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument
in your own words, indicating that you are doing so, than to paraphrase
particular sections of his or her writing. This will ensure you have a genuine
grasp of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without
plagiarizing. You must also properly attribute all material you derive from
lectures.
4. CollusionThis can involve unauthorized collaboration between students, failure to
attribute assistance received, or failure to follow precisely regulations on group
work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are entirely clear about
the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of the work must be your
own.
5. Inaccurate citationIt is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions
of your discipline. As well as listing your sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you
must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a quoted passage
comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references or
bibliography that you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain access to a
primary source you must make it clear in your citation that your knowledge of
the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example, Bradshaw, D.
Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p. 189).
6. Failure to acknowledge assistanceYou must clearly acknowledge all assistance
which has contributed to the production of your work, such as advice from fellow
students, laboratory technicians, and other external sources. This need not apply
to the assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to ordinary
proofreading, but it is necessary to acknowledge other guidance which leads to
substantive changes of content or approach.
7. Use of material written by professional agencies or other personsYou should neither
make use of professional agencies in the production of your work nor submit
material which has been written for you even with the consent of the person
who has written it. It is vital to your intellectual training and development that
you should undertake the research process unaided. Under Statute XI on
University Discipline, all members of the University are prohibited from providing
material that could be submitted in an examination by students at this University
or elsewhere.
8. Auto-plagiarismYou must not submit work for assessment that you have already
submitted (partially or in full), either for your current course or for another
qualification of this, or any other, university, unless this is specifically provided
for in the special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is
citable, ie. it has already been published, you must reference it clearly. Identical
pieces of work submitted concurrently will also be considered to be auto-
plagiarism.
 
#CopyCatQuestion9
Does this mean that I shouldn’t use the work of other authors?
On the contrary, it is vital that you situate your writing within the intellectual debates of
your discipline. Academic essays almost always involve the use and discussion of
material written by others, and, with due acknowledgement and proper referencing, this
is clearly distinguishable from plagiarism. The knowledge in your discipline has
developed cumulatively as a result of years of research, innovation and debate. You
need to give credit to the authors of the ideas and observations you cite. Not only does
this accord recognition to their work, it also helps you to strengthen your argument by
making clear the basis on which you make it. Moreover, good citation practice gives
your reader the opportunity to follow up your references, or check the validity of your
interpretation.
 
#CopyCatQuestion10
What if it’s unintentional plagiarism?
Not all cases of plagiarism arise from a deliberate intention to cheat. Sometimes
students may omit to take down citation details when taking notes, or they may be
genuinely ignorant of referencing conventions. However, these excuses offer no sure
protection against a charge of plagiarism. Even in cases where the plagiarism is found
to have been neither intentional nor reckless, there may still be an academic penalty for
poor practice.
It is your responsibility to find out the prevailing referencing conventions in your
discipline, to take adequate notes, and to avoid close paraphrasing. If you are offered
induction sessions on plagiarism and study skills, you should attend. Together with the
advice contained in your subject handbook, these will help you learn how to avoid
common errors. If you are undertaking a project or dissertation you should ensure that
you have information on plagiarism and collusion. If ever in doubt about referencing,
paraphrasing or plagiarism, you have only to ask your tutor.
 
Plagiarism Hacks: Ways to Avoid Lawsuit Case on Plagiarism
Now that you understand what plagiarism is, you’re ready to employ the following steps
to avoid plagiarizing in your written work.
Step 1: Accentuate the positive. Understand the value of citations.
Do you feel that you use too many citations? Too few? Many students worry that if they
use too many citations their instructors will think that they’re relying too heavily on the
source material and therefore not thinking for themselves. In fact, however, using
citations allows you to demonstrate clearly how well you understand the course material
while  also making clear distinctions between what the authors have to say and your
analysis of their ideas.
Thus, rather than making your paper look less intellectually sophisticated, using
citations allows you to show off your understanding of the material and the assignment.
And instead of showing what you don’t know, citing your sources provides evidence of
what you do know and of the authority behind your knowledge. Just make sure that
your paper has a point, main idea, or thesis that is your own and that you organize the
source material around that point.
Are you worried that you have too few citations? Double-check your assignment to see
if you have been given any indication of the number or kind of source materials
expected. Then share your writing with another reader. Do you have enough evidence
or proof to support the ideas you put forward? Why should the reader believe the
points you have made? Would adding another, expert voice strengthen your argument?
Who else agrees or disagrees with the ideas you have written? Have you paraphrased
ideas that you have read or heard? If so, you need to cite them. Have you referred to
or relied on course material to develop your ideas? If so, you need to cite it as well.
Step 2: How can I keep track of all this information? Improve your note-taking skills.
Once you’ve reconsidered your position on using citations, you need to rethink your
note-taking practices. Taking careful notes is simply the best way to avoid plagiarism.
And improving your note-taking skills will also allow you to refine your critical thinking
skills. Here’s how the process works:
(1) Start by carefully noting all the bibliographic information you’ll need for your works
cited page. (See #3 for more details on how to determine exactly what information
you’ll need for different kinds of sources.) If you’re photocopying an article or section
out of a book or journal, why not photocopy the front pages of the source as well? That
way you’ll have the bibliographic information if you need it later. If you forget to gather
the information for a book, you can usually get it from the library’s online card
catalogue. Simply pull up the entry for the book you used to see the bibliographic
information on that source. If you’re working on an article from a journal, you can
return to the database from which you got the original citation to find the bibliographic
information.
(2) Next, try thinking about your notes as a kind of transitional space between what
you’ve read and what you’re preparing to write. Imagine yourself having a conversation
with the author of the story/novel/play/poem/article/book you’re reading, in which you
repeatedly ask yourself the following questions:
 What is the author trying to explain?
 Why does s/he think these points are important?
 How has s/he decided to construct the argument?
 How does the structure of the argument affect the reader’s response to the
author’s ideas?
  How effective is the author’s argument?
Adopting this “conversational” approach to note-taking will improve your analysis of the
material by leading you to notice not just what the author says, but also how and why
the author communicates his or her ideas. This strategy will also help you avoid the
very common temptation of thinking that the author’s way of explaining something is
much better than anything you could write. If you are tempted to borrow the author’s
language, write your notes with the book closed to ensure that you are putting the
ideas into your own words. If you’ve already taken a step away from the author’s words
in your notes, you’ll find it easier to use your own words in the paper you write.
Step 3: So many details, so little time! Locate the appropriate style manual.
Don’t worry—no one can remember all the different citation conventions used in all the
different university disciplines! Citing your sources appropriately is a matter of:
 determining which style your instructor wants you to use,
 finding the appropriate style manual, and
 copying the “formula” it gives for each type of source you use.
First, carefully read the assignment to determine what citation style your instructor
wants you to use (APA, MLA, Chicago, and CSE are the most common). If s/he doesn’t
specify a citation style in the assignment, check your syllabus, course pack, and/or
Sakai site. If you can’t find the citation style in any of those places, ask your instructor
what style s/he prefers.
Second, academic citation styles follow specific formats, so making an educated guess
about how to structure your citations and works cited page is usually not a good idea.
Instead, find the specified style manual in the reference section of the library, on the
reference shelf in the Writing Center, or online.
Finally, style manuals provide easy-to-follow formulas for your citations. For example,
the MLA handbook provides the following format for citing a book by a single author:
Author’s name. Title of the book. Publication information.
You can use this formula for your own citation by simply plugging in the information
called for, following the format of the formula itself. Here’s an example of how that
might look:
Berlage, Gai Ingham. Women in Baseball: The Forgotten History. Praeger, 1994.
MLA Style
In MLA, in-text citations are inserted in the body of your research paper to briefly
document the source of your information. Brief in-text citations point the reader to
more complete information in the Works Cited list at the end of the paper.
APA Style
APA style is a set of guidelines for writing in psychology and related fields. These
guidelines are set down in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (APA, 2006)
APA style is best thought of as a “genre” of writing that is appropriate for presenting
the results of psychological research—especially in academic and professional contexts.
Journal Articles
For journal articles, the generic format for a reference is as follows:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Journal,
xx(yy), pp–pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
 
Here is a concrete example:
Adair, J. G., & Vohra, N. (2003). The explosion of knowledge, references, and citations:
Psychology’s unique response to a crisis. American Psychologist, 58(1), 15–23. doi:
10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.15
Books
For a book, the generic format and a concrete example are as follows:
Author, A. A. (year). Title of book. Location: Publisher.
Kashdan, T., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2014). The upside of your dark side. New York, NY:
Hudson Street Press.
Book Chapters
For a chapter in an edited book, the generic format and a concrete example are as
follows:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor, B.
B. Editor, & C. C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx–xxx). Location: Publisher.
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Lynn, S. J. (2003). Dissociative identity disorder: Multiple
personalities, multiple controversies. In S. O. Lilienfeld, S. J. Lynn, & J. M. Lohr (Eds.),
Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology (pp. 109–142). New York, NY: Guilford
Press.