PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

 Dedication
To our families and friends, through whose
encouragement and understanding we have
been able to undertake this work.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
J S ARCHER AND C G WALL
Imperial College of Science and Technology, London

Graham &> Trotman

A member of Wolters Kluwer Academic Publishers
LONDON/DORDRECHTlBOS1ON
 First published in 1986 by
Graham and Trotman Ltd. Kluwer Academic Publishers Group
Sterling House, 101 Philip Drive
66 Wilton Road, Assinippi Park
London SWIV IDE Norwell, MA02061
UK USA

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Archer, J. S.
Petroleum engineering: principles and practice.
\. Petroleum engineering
I. Title II. Wall, CG.
622'.3382 TN870

ISBN-13: 978-0-86010-715-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-010-9601-0

DOl: 10.1007/978-94-010-9601-0

© J S Archer and C G Wall, 1986

Reprinted 1988. 1992 and 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994

This publication is protected by international copyright

law. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced. stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means. electronic. mechanical.
photocopying. recording or otherwise. without the
permission of the publishers.

Typeset in Great Britain by

Bookworm Studio Services, Salford

Athenaeum Press Ltd. Newcastle-upon-Tyne

 Contents

Preface x

Foreword ix

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.1 Petroleum Engineering: A creative technology 1

CHAPTER 2 Reservoirs
2.1 Conditions for occurrence 7
2.2 Reservoir pressures 10
2.3 Fluid pressures in a hydrocarbon zone 12
2.4 Reservoir temperatures 13
2.5 Nature of reservoir fluids 14
2.6 Reservoir data - sources 14

CHAPTER 3 Oilwell Drilling

3.1 Operations 20
3.2 Costs 23
3.3 Well completions and oilwell casing 23
3.4 Completion 28
3.5 Drilling fluid control 28
3.6 Rheology of well fluids (drilling muds and cements) 29
3.7 Formation breakdown pressures and leak off tests 30
3.8 Data acquisition during drilling 30
3.9 Mud fluids for core recovery 31
3.10 Drilling optimization 32
v
vi PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

3.11 Turbine versus conventional rotary 33

3.12 Special problems in drilling 33
3.13 Completion for production 36

CHAPTER 4 Properties of Reservoir Fluids

4.1 Volumetric and phase behaviour of hydrocarbon 40

systems
4.2 Applications to field systems 41
4.3 Compressibility 42
4.4 Measurement and prediction of reservoir fluid 43
properties
4.5 Formation volume factors, B 49
4.6 Gas-oil ratios 51
4.7 Direct measurements - PVT analysis 52
4.8 Generalized correlations for liquid systems 54

CHAPTER 5 Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

5.1 Data sources and application 62

5.2 Coring decisions 64
5.3 Conventional and oriented coring 66
5.4 Coring mud systems 66
5.5 Core preservation 67
5.6 Well site controls 68
5.7 Core for special core analysis 68
5.8 Core-derived data 68
5.9 Geological studies 68
5.10 Routine core analysis 69
5.11 Porosity 72
5.12 Permeability 78
5.13 Relationships between porosity and permeability 84

CHAPTER 6 Fluid Saturation: influence of wettability and capillary

pressure

6.1 Equilibrium conditions 92

6.2 Laboratory measurements and relationship with
reservoir systems 93
6.3 Pore size distribution 96
6.4 Capillary pressure hysteresis' 97
6.5 Saturation distributions in reservoir intervals 98
6.6 Correlation of capillary pressure data from a
given rock type 99

CHAPTER 7 Relative permeability and multi phase flow in porous media

7.1 Definitions 102

7.2 Fractional flow 104
7.3 Effects of permeability variation 106
CONTENTS vii
7.4 Wettabilityeffects 108
7.5 Laboratory determination of relative permeability data 109
7.6 Residual saturations 111
7.7 In situ wettability control 112
7.8 Relative permeability from correlations 112
7.9 Validation of relative permeability data for use in
displacement calculations 113
7.10 Pseudo-relative permeability in dynamic systems 115
7.11 Static pseudo-relative permeability functions 115

CHAPTER 8 Representation of volumetric estimates and recoverable

reserves

8.1 In-place volume 122

8.2 Areal extent of reservoirs 122
8.3 Thickness maps 124
8.4 Lithofacies representation 125
8.5 Isoporosity maps 125
8.6 Isocapacity maps 126
8.7 Hydrocarbon pore volume maps 126
8.8 Probabilistic estimation 127
8.9 Recovery factors and reserves 128
8.10 Distribution of equity in petroleum reservoirs 130

CHAPTER 9 Radial Flow Analysis of Well Performance

9.1 Radial flow in a simple system 134

9.2 Development of the line source solution 135
9.3 Radial equations in practical units 136
9.4 Application of analytical solutions in well test
methods 136
9.5 Pressure build-up analysis 139
9.6 Skin effect 140
9.7 Pressure drawdown and reservoir limit testing 142
9.8 Gas well testing 143
9.9 Well test procedures 145
9.10 Well testing and pressure analysis 150

CHAPTER 10 Reservoir Performance Analysis

10.1 Recovery from gas reservoirs 157

10.2 Primary recovery in oil reservoirs 159
10.3 Gravity segregation and recovery efficiencies 164
10.4 Material balance for reservoirs with water
encroachment or water injection 165
10.5 Accuracy of the gross material balance equation 168

CHAPTER 11 Secondary Recovery and Pressure Maintenance

11.1 Displacement principles 173

viii PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

11.2 Factors influencing secondary recovery and pressure

maintenance schemes 175
11.3 Quality of injection fluids and disposal of brines 183

CHAPTER 12 Improved Hydrocarbon Recovery

12.1 Targets 191

12.2 The influence of recovery mechanism on residual oil 191
12.3 Permeability improvement 193
12.4 Miscible displacement mechanisms 194
12.5 Miscible flood applications 195
12.6 Chemical flood processes 196
12.7 Heavy oil recovery 200
12.8 Thermal energy 204
12.9 Gas condensate reservoirs 207
12.10 Volatile oilreservoirs 211

CHAPTER 13 Factors Influencing Production Operations

13.1 The production system 218
13.2 Reservoir behaviour in production engineering 220
13.3 Wellbore flow 221
13.4 Field process facilities 224
13.5 Natural gas processing 224
13.6 Crude oil processing 226
13.7 Heavy oil processing 228
13.8 Produced water treatment 228
13.9 Injection water treatment 229
13.10 Crude oil metering 229

CHAPTER 14 Concepts in Reservoir Modelling and Application to

Development Planning
14.1 Models 233
14.2 Equations of multiphase flow 234
14.3 Simulator classifications 235
14.4 Simulator application 235
14.5 Reservoir description in modelling 237
14.6 Application of reservoir models in field
development 248

APPENDIX 1 SPE Nomenclature and Units 257

Units 257
SPE Symbols Standard 259
Symbols alphabetized by physical quantity 267
Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity 300

APPENDIX 2 Solutions to Examples in Text 310

INDEX 357
 PREFACE

The need for this book has arisen from demand for a current text from our students in Petroleum
Engineering at Imperial College and from post-experience Short Course students. It is, however,
hoped that the material will also be of more general use to practising petroleum engineers and
those wishing for aa introduction into the specialist literature.
The book is arranged to provide both background and overview into many facets of petroleum
engineering, particularly as practised in the offshore environments of North West Europe. The
material is largely based on the authors' experience as teachers and consultants and is
supplemented by worked problems where they are believed to enhance understanding.
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks and appreciation to all the people who
have helped in the preparation of this book by technical comment and discussion and by giving
permission to reproduce material. In particular we would like to thank our present colleagues and
students at Imperial College and at ERC Energy Resource Consultants Ltd. for their stimulating
company, Jill and Janel for typing seemingly endless manuscripts; Dan Smith at Graham and
Trotman Ltd. for his perseverence and optimism; and Lesley and Joan for believing that one day
things would return to normality.
John S. Archer and Colin G. Wall
1986

ix
 Foreword

Petroleum engineering has developed as an area of study only over the present century. It now
provides the technical basis for the exploitation of petroleum fluids in subsurface sedimentary
rock reservoirs.
The methodology in petroleum reservoir development requires the testing and evaluation of
exploration and appraisal wells to discover the volume in place and productivity of compressible
hydrocarbon fluids. The knowledge of the reserve-base is always insufficient as natural reservoirs
are heterogeneous in their geometry and character. Petroleum engineers play a leading role in
the design of recovery systems which require flexibility in well placement and the sizing of surface
facilities for export processing to ensure that the products meet the specifications required for
transportation by pipeline or tanker.
Petroleum fluids are complex mixtures of many hydrocarbons and currently prediction of their
behaviour at reservoir pressures of up to 14 500 psi a (1000 bar) and 450 P (230°C) is based on
0

attempts to understand their thermodynamics. The prediction of fluid behaviour in hetero-

geneous reservoirs is aided by sophisticated mathematical modelling using powerful computers.
Indeed, some of the most powerful computers available today are dedicated to the modelling of
reservoir behaviour and a modern petroleum engineer must be capable of making full use of
them. The petroleum engineer's responsibilities are of necessity very wide, and skills are required
to design for data acquisition which will allow updating of reservoir models in the light of
production experience. This may well lead to decisions on variations in the original production
scheme. In all these activities safety and economy are mandatory.
The petroleum engineer is a resource manager, and has an obligation to analyse all the data
available and to interpret it effectively in order to forecast the future performance of the
reservoir, wells and plant. That the oil and gas industry is profitable is largely due to the
emergence of petroleum engineering and the techniques which have been developed for its
application.
The breadth of the interdisciplinary knowledge needed by today's petroleum engineer is ever
increasing, and a study of the current literature shows the vast amount of effort now being
applied to further the understanding and improve predictions of the behaviour of reservoir fluids
and to increase their recovery. These studies and operations require the disciplines of physics,
geology, classical engineering, mathematics and computer science. With such a spread of
disciplines the availability of a text, describing the basics of petroleum engineering, is welcomed.
The authors are the present and past Heads of Petroleum Engineering in the Department of
Mineral Resources Engineering of the Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London and

x
FOREWORD xi
both have had field experience with major oil companies before joining Imperial College. The
College has been a centre for the study of petroleum recovery since the early years of this century
with courses in Oil Technology commencing in 1913. The Petroleum Engineering Section moved
to its present location in the Mineral Resources Engineering Department at the Royal School of
Mines in 1973 and currently runs undergraduate and Master of Sciences courses and has active
post-graduate and post-doctoral research groups.
This book will both give students a good grounding in petroleum engineering and be valuable
to the practising engineer as a comprehensive reference work. Through its extensive bibliography
the reader will also be guided to more specialised branches of the petroleum engineering
literature.

A. H. Sweatman
(ex-Chief Production Engineer, British Petroleum Company
and Visiting Professor
Petroleum Engineering
Imperial College, London, UK)
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: we discuss the representation of 'proven' quantities

A CREATIVE TECHNOLOGY of hydrocarbon in terms of the availability of
information and the existence of the technology to
exploit recovery on commercially attractive terms.
The function of petroleum engineering is to provide The economics of hydrocarbon recovery processes is
a basis for the design and. implementation of inextricably linked with the practice of petroleum
techniques to recover commercial quantities of engineering. On a project basis, a petroleum en-
natural petroleums. It is of necessity a broadly based gineer has a responsibility to present analyses of
technology drawing upon the foundations of en- schemes that are both technically and financially
gineering, geology, mathematics, physics, chemis- attractive.
try, economics and geostatistics. As an engineering In the current climate of deeper reservoir explora-
subject it is a little anomalous, in that design is based tion and increased exploitation of offshore reservoirs
on observation of production performance and on a in the world's sedimentary basins (Fig. 1.1), costs of
representation of the reservoir inferred from very production are significant. For example, in terms of
limited sampling. Unlike many branches of en- pre-tax cost of oil production from a 2000 mSS
gineering, reservoirs cannot be designed to fulfill a onshore well compared with a 3000 mSS offshore
particular task, but rather an ill-defined naturally well, a ratio of 1:10 might be expected. Current
occurring reservoir is induced to produce some exploration in maturing hydrocarbon provinces is
fraction of its contents for as long as is considered centred on more subtle trapping mechanisms than
commercially attractive. With the passage of time structural highs and on smaller accumulations. The
and cumulative production, more information on the further recovery of hydrocarbons from reservoirs
nature of the reservoir can be accumulated and the approaching the end of conventional development
production methods can be modified. Petroleum processes requires the cost-effective application of
engineering can thus represent an exercise in the enhanced (EOR) or improved (IHR) hydrocarbon
application of uncertainty to design. A route to recovery processes. The exploitation of heavy oil
problem solution in petroleum engineering shown as (API) gravity less than 20° API) and of gas conden-
Table 1.1 has been adapted from Timmerman [15J. sate and volatile oil reservoirs (API gravity greater
The terminology of the subject contains varying than 45° API) requires special petroleum engineer-
degrees of confidence in the representation of the ing effort, particularly in high-pressure or offshore
inplace and recoverable resource base. In Chapter 8 reservoirs. Developments in the recovery of hydro-
1
240 0 400 1200 1600

Fig. 1.1 World sedimentary basins.

 1 INTRODUCTION 3

"'0>
Define objective of study ( nature of the problem) -0<=
c=
",'"
o~
I Cl..(I)

Identify economic volue of answer in terms of costs and time in 30

study.

I
Organise data and applicable approaches in solution. Is simple
order of magnitude ordetailed approach required?
I 25 ~
.!:!
-0
0
Pound '.: .....

I 20
40
..........
Prepare outline study plan and evaluate availability, reliability ....
and accuracy of data base.
~0
I ..c
.,... 15
Select preferred approaches to solving the problem models.
.,
Co

I
(.)

~
Define theoretical basis required for each solution and apply 10
in more detail to the problem. Revise ideas, and maybe
I develop more theory. Break down problem into stages
I
I 10 ....... .
I
I I 5
1I Define study flow paths and critical paths. Budget time,
capital- ratIOnalize with rea lity. T
T78 I 79 I 80 I 81 I 82 I 83 I 84 I 85 I
I
I
I I Year
I Upgrade base for study by literature search, project analogy, Fig. 1.2 Variation in price of average Middle East crude
statistical correlation etc. Multidisciplinary involvement oil.
may be needed to express interrelated phenomena.

1
Conduct study- perform intensive analysis of data and results.
by agreement amongst producing nations. Figure 1.2
shows the fluctuation in the average official Middle
Evaluate, think and compare data with expectation and East crude oil price, compiled from figures in
physical behaviour. Apply professional judgement and Petroleum Intelligence Weekly. The effect of the
interpret result in manner that provides best fit of facts.
If appropriate, express result probabilistically. exchange rate fluctuation between the pound ster-
ling and the US dollar is also clearly seen. The
I variations have an effect on exploitation policies of
Make a technically sound, reliable and unbiased conclusion operating companies. The costs of reservoir de-
velopment generally require an operating company
I to raise a substantial quantity of money from loans -
Write summary of facts leading to conclusion and supporting the repayment terms of which are linked to a
the proposed action. Present results of study to win all
necessary approvals to proceed. representation of reservoir production uncertainties.
The cost profile for the development of an offshore
1
Act, implement and monitor result - be prepared to modify.
oil field on the Continental Shelf (UKCS) with some
75 million barrels of recoverable oil is indicated in
Learn from the experience. Fig. 1.3. The investment was over £500 million in
1985 currency, or at mid-1985 exchange rates it was
TABLE 1.1 Problem solving in petroleum engineering
over US$600 million. It is also very clear from this
figure that much of the investment is exposed at least
five years prior to any production revenue. This fact
carbon from oil sands and oil shales requires that alone leads to a petroleum engineering design
petroleum engineering methods are combined with criterion of high initial production rates to shorten
the technologies of mining engineers and chemical payout times. The development of offshore oil fields
engineers. on the UKCS with recoverable reserves less than 100
The current fiscal environment, particularly in million barrels should provide a greater challenge to
NW Europe, has led to an increased economic and petroleum engineers than those under development
political awareness amongst petroleum engineers. at the end of 1983, which averaged some 400 million
The prices of oil in world markets is partly controlled barrels of recoverable reserves for each reservoir.
4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Design and construction

of production facilities Jacket I Frome : £. 75 million
Discovery Topside facilities : £. 150 million
Eng . costs : £. 50 million
140
Installation / Hook up :.£. 125 million

120
~
0 Development
4i
on
IX)
100 ..
drilling

~
'E 80
~
7ii
'">
.!: 60
:E Appraisal
'0. drilling
- ------=-- --
I
u
0 40 Exploration :••
drilling
- :
I

I
20 Seismic I
surveys I

o 5 10 15
Time (years) since discovery

Fig. 1.3 Capital expenditure profile for hypothetical 1985 UKCS offshore oil discovery with
75 million stock tank barrels of recoverable oil.

Fig. 1.4 Offshore exploration using the semi-submersible rig Sea Conquest (Photo courtesy of BP.)
1 INTRODUCTION 5

I Petroleum recovery I
I
I
I Primary processes
(natural reservoir energy)
I Secondary processes and
pressure maintenance IEOR and improved
recovery processes
I I Future trends I
(supplemented drive energy)
Nuclear technology
applications
Solution gas Stimulation
/ \ Mining technology
drive Water injection Acid Froctures applications
/ \ Thermal for
Hot Cold New chemicals
• Pattern Heavy oils
wells
Natural water influx - / \
/ \ Gas injection Gas condensate
Steam
/\
Combustion
/\
Insitu heating
High rate Low rate
/ I Miscible
Immiscible \ .Pad or
platform
and volatile
oils Soa k Drive Wet Dry Oil, water, gas
separation and
Compaction drive - Intermediate
wells / \ handling
Pressure Cycnng
• Updip/downdip Maint. Remote and
Gas cap expansion -
Combination lines frontier areas
Miscible injection facility design
Gravity drainage -
/
C02,N2
\
Hydro f- Chemical processes
Other fluid injection
carbons / \ ~
/ \ Surfactants Polymers Alka lis
Combination drive Non hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon
(C0 2 , N2) (Gas,Liquid) / \ / \ '-----y---J

Immiscible
I I Miscible
'\ Miscible Foams
(water blocking)
Slugs Continuous Visco Shear Wettability
flood elastic thinning control
\ I '----y----.J
Intermediate Miscible and Watercontrel
low IFT
Inflll drilling

Fig. 1.5 Petroleum recovery methods.

References

[1] International Petroleum Engineering Encyclopedia

Pennwell Publish. Co. Tulsa (1983).
[2] British Petroleum Company pIc
BP Statistical Review of World Energy (June 1984).
[3] Department of Energy
Development of the oil and gas resources of the United Kingdom (the Brown Book), Pub. D.En. 1983 and annually.
[4] Esso UK pIc
Opportunities for British Industry (1984).
[5] UK Offshore Operators Association
Potential Oil and Gas Production from the UK Offshore to the Year 2000, Technical Paper (Sept. 1984).
[6] Brush, R.M. and Marsden, S.S.
Bias in engineering estimation, JPT (1982) 433.
[7] Marks, V.E.
Further small offshore oilfield developments, SPE Paper 12988, Proc. Europec (1984), 265.
[8] Underdown, D.l.
The role of taxation in optimising the exploitation of the UK continental shelf, SPE Paper 13008, Proc. Europec
(1984),407.
[9] }\rcher,l.S.
Reservoir definition and characterisation for analysis and simulation, Proc. Ilth World Pet. Cong., London (1983),
Paper PD6(1).
[10] Perrodon, A.
Dynamics of oil and gas accumulations, Elf Aquitaine, Mem 5. Pau 1983.
[11] Master, C.D.
Distribution and quantitive assessment of world petroleum reserves and resources, Proc. Ilth World Pet. Congo
(1983), Paper PD11(l).
6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[12] Hertz, D.B.

Risk analysis in capital investment, Harvard Business Review (Jan. - Feb. 1984) and in Pet. Trans. Reprint Series 3,
SPE of AIME (1970),176.
[13] Northern,I.G.
Investment decisions in petroleum exploration and production, JPT (July 1964), 727.
[14] Attanasi, E.D. and Haynes, J.L.
Economics and appraisal of conventional oil and gas (in the Western Gulf of Mexico), JPT (Dec. 1984),2171.
[15] Timmerman, E.H.
Practical Reservoir Engineering, Pennwell Publishing, Tulsa (1982), 2 vols.
[16] Parra, F.R.
Financial requirements and methods of financing petroleum operations in developing countries. Proc. UN Conf,
Petroleum Exploration Strategies in Developing Countries, The Hague (1981), Graham & Trotman 177-192.
 Chapter 2

Reservoirs

2.1 CONDITIONS FOR OCCURRENCE and permeability of reservoir rocks. Secondary

processes, including compaction, solution, chemical
We may define a reservoir as an accumulation of replacement and diagenetic changes, can act to
hydrocarbon in porous permeable sedimentary modify further the pore structure and geometry.
rocks. The accumulation, which will have reached a With compaction, grains of sediment are subject to
fluid pressure equilibrium throughout its pore increasing contact and pore fluids may be expelled
volume at the time of discovery, is also sometimes from the decreasing pore volume. If the pore fluids
known as a pool. A hydrocarbon field may comprise cannot be expelled the pore fluid pressure may
several reservoirs at different statigraphic horizons increase. It is believed that petroleum originates
or in different pressure regimes. The setting for from the anaerobic decomposition of fats, proteins
hydrocarbon accumulation is a sedimentary basin and carbohydrates in marine or estuarine plant and
that has provided the essential components for animal matter, plankton and algae. This needs rapid
petroleum reservoir occurrence, namely (a) a source sedimentation in organic rich waters and leads to the
for hydrocarbons, (b) the formation and migration accumulation of organic rich clays in an anaerobic
of petroleum, (c) a trapping mechanism, i.e. the environment. Petroleum formation requires that
existence of traps in porous sedimentary rock at the organic source clays become mature by subjection to
time of migration and in the migration path. pressure and temperature. A temperature window in
The origin of sedimentary basins and the genesis, the range 140°F to 300°F, which may be correlatable
migration and entrapment of hydrocarbons is an with burial depth and geological time, seems to be
extensive topic covered in the geological optimal for formation of hydrocarbon mixtures
literature[l-IOj and only the essential details are re- classified as oils, as shown in Figs 2.3 and 2.4.
viewed here. The discovery of oil by exploration well Prolonged exposure to high temperatures, or shorter
drilling in some of the world's sedimentary basins is exposure to very high temperatures, may lead
shown in Figs 2.1 and 2.2 in terms of intensity of progressively to the generation of hydrocarbon
exploration, maturity and exploration effort and mixtures characterized as condensates, wet gases
volume by discovery. The North Sea province is seen and gas. The average organic content of potential
as a relatively young exploration area in a high yield source rocks is about 1 % by weight. The Kimmer-
basin. From a petroleum engineering perspective it idge clay, the principal source rock for North Sea oil
is convenient to think of sedimentary basins as averages about 5% carbon (- 7% organic matter)
accumulations of water in areas of slow subsidence with local rich streaks greater than 40%. The
into which sediments have been transported. The hydrogen content of the organic matter should be
primary depositional processes and the nature of the greater than 7% by weight for potential as an oil
sediments have a major influence on the porosity source. It is a rule of thumb that for each percentage
7
 100
/ /" / /
/ / / /
/ / /
/ • California /
50 - /
/
/
/
/
/
/ / /
/ /
,/ / / Niger Delta
/ /
/
, • Arabian Gulf /
/ /
/ / • .Sirte /
/ / / N.Texas
/ / /
•
.
• Recancava /
10 ...
t:./
Arctic Slope / / • North Sea
/
/
/
/
• Louisiana//
/

.
(.\J
/ / • Alberta • Illinois /
E /
~
Gippsland / • / ' . Wyoming
5- ./ • Libya / /
Oklahoma
, /

.
Q)
Q.
,/ /
//c,U.S.GUlf Coast
(offshore) / /
·15 MiChigan//
,N.E.Sahara /
ro • • Gabon' , /·U.S.A /
E /
/
/
/
Parentis
• /
/
S.W.Texas • /
/
ro / /
S2 / /
1 t::/ Indonesia
• /
/ /
/
/
/
//.w.canada /
/ " Tunisia / /
/ / /
0.5- / /
/ / / . W.Germany /
/ / /
/ / /
/ / /
/ / /
/ / /
/ • France v/
0.11/ I I I I I
1 5 100 10
500 1000 500010000 50
Wildcat wells per 10 4 km 2
Fig. 2.1 Wildcat well success v. exploration yield and discovery (after [18)).
Exploration success (%)
10~ __________________________~~~5~0__~2r5____,10r-__________~

/ Delta/
Niger
/
/
North Sea
" N.E.Sahara

"
5 /. / e
/ / Sirte
/ . '
;;~Slan:////lndoneSla
,
c Tunisia / Gabon
/
'"
.
(offshore) e e New Zealand
:!2
.j
/ ,
"'.
/
• Tunisia
/ / / (onshore)

/// /// /·P:~:::

Q)

.
Q. / Hoiland Reconcavo
"0
0.5 / e.
Q)
Q)
>
0
/ /
'"
I/)

'5 /
/Alberta
e / .W.Texas
·15 // // .'Oklahoma
ro // / • US eN.Dakota
E / • Texas Gulf Coast
/
~ •
:Williston(US)
N. Louisiana
Illinois

500 1000
106 m3 oil discovered per successful wildcat
Fig. 2.2 Historical relationships between exploration intensity and yield (after [18)).
2 RESERVOIRS 9

Hydrocarbon generated __

Diagenesis
100

lJ..

!
01

~;,;l~~-""'" "Geochemical fossils " 200

f
'0" Catagenesis
8. 300
E
{:!.

....
<II
'iii
c:
400
Metamorphism

.
<II

£' "
01

~ o
>-

Fig. 2.4 Variation in the quantity of hydrocarbons

Fig. 2.3 Hydrocarbon generation for normal geothermal contained in fine grained sediments as a function of
gradient (after [18J). temperature (after [1J).

• Oil pool . . Oil migration routes

Surface
® Gas pool tmI» Gas migration routes oil shows

Pre -salt Saliferous basin

rocks soure rock
Fig. 2.5 Migration pattern model for a section of the Congo coastal basin (after [61).

point of organic carbon in mature source rocks, initiation of microfractures which provide an escape
some 1300-5000 cubic metres of oil per km 2 m route into permeable systems such as sedimentary
(10-40 barrels of oil per acre-ft) of sediment could rocks or fault planes . The source rock micro fractures
be generated. It is not, however, necessarily true are believed to heal as pressures are dissipated. The
that all the oil generated wiIl be expeIled or trapped movement of petroleum may have been as a solution
in porous rocks. in water or as distinct oil or gas phases - there is no
Migration of petroleum generated from source consensus on this topic. The migration process
rocks is not weIl understood. Since the generation of involves two main stages, namely through the source
petroleum is accompanied by volume changes which rock and then through a permeable system . In the
can lead to high local pressures, there may weIl be an permeable system the transport occurs under condi-
10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

tions of a fluid potential gradient which may take the In the North Sea and several other sedimentary
hydrocarbon to surface or to some place where it areas, a style of trapping is found which results from
becomes trapped. It might be assumed that less than the truncation of ·inclined permeable beds by an
10% of petroleum generated in source rocks is both impermeable unconformity surface (Fig. 2.9) . It is
expelled and trapped, as shown in the example of debatable whether this trap should be called strati-
Fig. 2.5. graphic because of the trapping by fine grained
The characteristic forms of petroleum trap are sediments, or structural after the geological nature
known as structural and stratigraphic traps, with the of the unconformity.
great majority of known accumulation being in the
former style. Structural traps may be generally Cross section
subdivided into anticlinal and fault traps which are Unconformity
described in terms of the shape of the sedimentary surface
- -- -
-- ~
.' _ -..
beds and their contacts, as shown in Figs 2.6 and 2.7 . ,-

-=-_~ ,. ' 0 _-...

--_ ... -
-===-
-
--
_._-_.-
-_ . _ - - -
.

Cross sect ion

Unconformity trop

Fig. 2.9 Unconformity trap.

Many reservoirs exist as the result of a combina-

tion of structural and stratigraphic features. In the
Viking Graben area of the northern North Sea, the
Fig. 2.6 Anticlinal structure. Brent Sand reservoirs are characteristically faulted
deltaic sands truncated by the Cretaceous uncon-
formity . The seal for the Middle Jurassic is either the
c~r~s~~~~o:
_~ __ clays and shales of the unconformity itself or Upper
Jurassic Kimmeridge shale. The down faulted ma-
W -
_. -=.:.
--- -
-:-:-_
- --- - - ture Kimmeridge shale also provides a source for the
Fault trop oil as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Fig. 2.7 Fault trap.

Impermeable rocks provide seals above and below

the permeable reservoir rocks. At equilibrium con-
ditions the density differences between the oil, gas
and water phases can result in boundary regions
between them known as fluid contacts, i.e. oil-water
and gas-oil contacts.
Stratigraphic traps result when a depositional bed
changes from permeable rock into fine-grain im-
permeable rock (Fig. 2.8). Examples of this process
occur in the more distal regions and in discontinuous Fig. 2.10 Brent Sand trap - UKCS.
sands of river channels, in deeper water dttltaic
sediments and in the enveloping sediments of
limestone reefs.

Cross section Map

...... , ........ . 2.2. RESERVOIR PRESSURES

-<~ -- _. Hydrocarbon reservoirs are found over a wide range

---
-
----_.
----:...
of present day depths of burial , the majority being in
-.- - _ . ' -
-------
the range 500-4000 mSS. In our concept of the
Limit of
petroliferous sedimentary basin as a region of water
Stratigrcpic sond •pinchout' trop
porosity into which sediment has accumulated and hydrocar-
bons have been generated and trapped, we may have
Fig. 2.8 Stratigraphic pinch out trap. an expectation of a regional hydrostatic gradient.
2 RESERVOIRS 11

That is, in a water column representing vertical pore 8000

fluid continuity the pressure at any point is approxi-
mated by the relationship

Px=X· G w 9000

where X is the depth below a reference datum (such

as sea level) and G w is the pressure exerted by unit
height of water. The value of G w depends on the
salinity of the waters and on the temperature in the
.-.. 10000
Cormorant \~
.c
system. Fresh water exhibits a gradient of 9.79 is.
Q)
-0
Ninian \ 3/15-2
kpa/m (0.433 psi/ft) and reservoir water systems are 0
Q)
commonly encountered with gradients in the range CJl
.0
:J 11000
10 kpa/m (0.44 psi/ft) to 12 kpa/m (0.53 psi/ft). In Cfl

reservoirs found at depths between 2000 mSS and

4000 mSS we might use a gradient of 11 kpa/m to
predict pore fluid pressures around 220 bar to 440 12000
bar as shown in Table 2.l.
Under certain depositional conditions, or because
of movement of closed reservoir structures, fluid
pressures may depart substantially from the normal
13000
range (see for example Magara (21 ). One particular
mechanism responsible for overpressure in some
North Sea reservoirs is the inability to expel water
from a system containing rapidly compacted shales. Pore fluid pressure (psi) - -
Abnormal pressure regimes are evident in Fig. 2.11,
which is based on data from a number of Brent Sand Fig. 2.11 Pressure regimes in Brent Sand reservoirs (after [121).
reservoirs in the North Sea. All show similar salinity
gradients but different degrees of overpressure, Pressure_
possibly related to development in localized
basins l121 • \
\
Any hydrocarbon bearing structure of substantial \
\
relief will exhibit abnormally high pressures at the \
\
crest when the pressure at the hydrocarbon-water \
\
contact is normal, simply because of the lower \ Overburden
\
density of the hydrocarbon compared with water. .c
\

There is a balance in a reservoir system between a.

Q)
\
\
\
Cl
the pressure gradients representing rock overburden \

t
\ Groin
(G r ) , pore fluids (Gf ) and sediment grain pressure \ 0( •
(G g ). The pore fluids can be considered to take part Fluid \
of the overburden pressure and relieve that part of \
\
\
the overburden load on the rock grains. A repre- \
sentation of this is
G r = Gf + Gg
and is shown in Fig. 2.12. Fig. 2.12 Equilibrium gradients.

TABLE 2.1

Pore fluid pressure, bar (psi)

Depth m 88 (ft 88) Gradient kPaim (psi/ft): 9.79 (0.433) 10.17 (0.45) 11.3 (0.5)
2000 (6562) 195 (2841) 203 (2953) 226 (3281)
3000 (9843) 293 (4262) 305 (4429) 339 (4921)
4000 (13124) 392 (5683) 406 (5906) 452 (6562)
12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

As fluid pressure is reduced, the rock grains take a

proportionally increasing part of the overburden
load. The magnitude of the overburden gradient is
approximately 22.6 kpa/m (1 psi/ft). Abnormal fluid
pressures are those not in initial fluid equilibrium at
the discovery depth. Magara[2] has described condi-
tions leading to abnormally high and abnormally low
pressures. Some explanations lie in reservoirs being
found at present depths higher or lower than the
depth at which they became filled with hydrocarbon.
This may be the result of upthrust or down thrown
faulting. Overpressure from the burial weight of
glacial ice has also been cited. In Gulf coast and
North Sea reservoirs overpressure is most frequently
attributed to rapid deposition of shales from which
bound water cannot escape to hydrostatic equilib- Fig. 2.14 Multiple fluid contacts showing tested interval
rium. This leads to overpressured aquifer- indication of LKO and HKW.
hydrocarbon systems[12].
At the water-oil contact, Pw is given by the
average temperature-salinity gradient of water from
2.3 FLUID PRESSURES IN A the surface datum of sea level. As an equation of a
HYDROCARBON ZONE straight line this is

We will define a fluid contact between oil and water

as the depth in the reservoir at which the pressure in
the oil phase (Po) is equal to the pressure in the where the constant C 1 can represent any degree of
water phase (Pw). Reference to Fig. 2.13 shows this under- or overpressure.
condition as an equilibrium condition. Strictly At some depth, X owc , we can therefore write
speaking, the position Po = Pw defines the free Pw(owc) = Po(owc). Above the water-oil contact,
water level (FWL), as in some reservoirs a zone of the pressure in the oil phase is the pressure that the
100% water saturation can occur above the free oil had at the water-oil contact less the density head
water level by capillarity. This effect is described of the oil. At any depth X D above the water-oil
further in Chapter 6. In layered sand systems which contact, the pressure in the oil phase will be Po(XD)
do not have equilibrium with a common aquifer, as follows:
multiple fluid contacts can be found as shown in Fig.
2.14. PoX(D) = Po(owc) - [Pog' (Xowc-XD)]

Pressure - - where Po is the local oil density. At the gas-oil

r -- - - e - - - - - -- - - -- contact Po (goc) = Pg(goc). The pressure in the gas
phase at the top of the reservoir X T will therefore
be:
Pg(X(T) = Powc - [Pog' (Xowc - Xgoc)]
- [pgg' (Xgoc - X(T)]
.r::.
a.
01
o Where g' is the ratio of gravitational acceleration g

t Pg > Pw

"'i;;::P Gas
Top reservoir
to the universal constant gc. There can be significant
difference at depth X T between Pg(XT ) and the
calculated P w at the same depth using the equation
Pw = X T Gw + Cj • This difference accounts for
g
.- - - - - - - - GOe
0 .1 gas-kicks encountered sometimes during drilling
owe operations as gas sands are penetrated.
The estimation and recognition of fluid contacts
are essential in evaluating hydrocarbons in place.
Fig. 2.13 Pressure equilibrium in a static system. The placing of fluid contacts often results from
2 RESERVOIRS 13

consideration of information from several sources,

i.e.
Geostatic :---.
(a) equilibrium pressures from RFT or gradient o bottom hole P
temperature /
surveys;
(b) equilibrium pressures from well tests; /

l 7
I
(c) flow of particular fluid from particular mini- Indication _____ /
mum or maximum depth; during micro
(d) fluid densities from formation samples; log run
(e) saturations interpreted from wireline log o -Indication
data;
(f) capillary pressure data from core samples;
~;'::?,"";,
(g) fluid saturations from recovered core.
The proving of an oil-water contact from flow tests
gives rise to the terminology of LKO (lowest known
oil) or ODT (oil down to) depths and HKW (highest
known water) or WUT (water up to) depths. The
combination of uncertainties in fluid properties for
i
V
-60L-~-----------L------~
o_lndication during
induction log run

4 hours after mud

circulation finished

gradient extrapolation and in well test intervals 0.1 0.5 1.0

means that a fluid contact is often represented as a
depth range until data from several wells in a (L I ) ~ =elapsed time since circulation stopped
og sca e t+ 6t drilling time +time since circulation
reservoir have been correlated.
stopped
A particular difficulty in hydrocarbon-water con-
tact evaluation concerns identification in the pre- Fig. 2.15 Geostatic bottom-hole temperature from Horner
sence of increasing shaliness. The effect of shaliness analysis.
is manifest in small pore throats and high threshold
capillary pressure which give high water saturation.
Some of these difficulties may be resolved by
capillary pressure analysis using representative core
Sea bed
samples. ....... \
'''':..\
"'\'
2.4 RESERVOIR TEMPERATURES ~

'-.\ 17
1000 i\
Reservoir temperature may be expected to conform
to the regional or local geothermal gradient. In
many petroliferous basins this is around 0.029 Kim
<J)
<J)
/ ""\':
measurements ...~
:\
+
0 C I
(1.6°FIlOO ft). The overburden and reservoir rock, E
a .\
which have large thermal capacities, together with x ~
... Mean predictive
large surface areas for heat transfer within the L:
Q. .. gradient
reservoir, lead to a reasonable assumption that
'-\/
Q)
0
reservoir condition processes tend to be isothermal.
The temperature profile from surface conditions
will reflect rock property variations and can be 3000
------\:-
Reser~
obtained from maximum reading thermometers used
with logging tools. The local geothermal gradient
can be disturbed around a wellbore by drilling
operations and fluids, and a Horner type analysis[l4],
using a suite of temperatures at a given depth from Fig. 2.16 Geostatic temperature gradient.
successive logging runs, can be used to obtain an
indication of the undisturbed local temperature (Fig. temperature of the North Sea has been taken as
2.15). When temperature gradients are represented 4SC. As shown in Fig. 2.16, a typical geostatic
by a straight line from the surface to the reservoir temperature gradient in the reservoir interval of a
interval, there may be an implied correction for northern North Sea well might be 0.029°Klm
water depth in offshore operations. The mean (0.016°F/ft).
14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

2.5 NATURE OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS and is discussed further in Chapter 4.

In the petroleum industry, oil density has long
Hydrocarbon accumulations are invariably associ- been described using an expanded inverse scale
ated with formation waters which may constitute authorized by the American Petroleum Institute -
extensive aquifers underlying or contiguous to the the API gravity. The usual range starts with water
hydrocarbons, or which may exist only within the density at 10° and rises to volatile oils and straw
hydrocarbon bearing interval as connate or intersti- coloured condensate liquids around 60°-70°.
tial water. The relationship between API gravity and the
If we define a phase as being a physically distinct specific gravity of the liquid (relative to water) at
and physically separable part of a system, then there 60°F (SG60 ) is as follows:
will always be two, and frequently three, phases
present within the reservoir during its producing life °API = 141.5 - 131.5
(oil, gas, water). The proportions, the compositions SG60
and the physical properties of the phases present or
may change as production proceeds, and pressures
change in the essentially isothermal system. All the SG - 141.5
phases are considered compressible, although to 60 - CAPI + 131.5)
different degrees.
The analysis of reservoir performance depends In addition to oil gravity or density, the volume of
upon the prediction of the physical properties of the gas associated with unit volume of stock tank oil is a
coexisting phases at any time and, in some cases, characterization property. Expressed as a gas-oil
may require complete compositional analysis. ratio or GOR, the units at a reference condition of
The volume unit of measurement in the industry is 60°F and 1 atmosphere pressure are commonly
the stock tank unit, conventionally the barrel but SCF/STB and SCM/SCM. Many North Sea oils are
frequently nowadays the cubic metre. Since stock in the region of 37° API with GORs around 600
tank oil is the result of a processing operation (gas SCFISTB.
separation), the volume resulting from unit volume Hydrocarbon reservoir fluids may be roughly
of feed depends on the conditions of processing. As classified as shown in Table 2.2. Although the range
with gases, a volume is meaningless unless accompa- is continuous, the divisions are arbitrary.
nied by a definition of the conditions of measure- Petroleum hydrocarbons consist predominantly of
ment. a series of paraffin hydrocarbons (CnHzn+z) together
By convention, stock tank conditions used in the with some cyclic hydrocarbons (naphthenes CnHzn
industry are 60°F and 1 atmosphere pressure. The and aromatics CnH Zn--6)' but although compositional
volumetric equivalence of one standard barrel of analysis is frequently taken to C 16 or even to Czo , for
fluid (1 BBL) is as follows: most purposes all hydrocarbons heavier than C6 or
C7 are frequently lumped as a composite fraction
1 BBL = 5.615 cubic ft (fe) characterized by molecular weight and boiling point
1 BBL = 0.159 cubic metres (m3 ) range. The compositions of the arbitrary classifica-
tions might typically be as those shown in Table 2.3.
A barrel at stock tank conditions of temperature and
pressure is denoted STB.
The cubic foot at standard conditions of 60°F and 1 2.6 RESERVOIR DATA - SOURCES
atmosphere has found considerable industry usage in
gas volume measurement and is represented as SCF. The determination of hydrocarbon in place and
The cubic metre at standard conditions of 15°C and 1 technically recoverable reserves requires the imple-
bar is represented as SCM or sm3 • The normal mentation of a data acquisition scheme. The degree
condition is sometimes used, at O°C and 1 bar, as of understanding of reservoir continuity and prop-
NCM or nm 3 . In communication of data it is erties should improve with each well drilled but will
inevitable that recourse to unit conversions will always be a subject of uncertainty.
occur. The data collected in the pre-development, reser-
It is most frequently necessary to relate the voir appraisal and delineation stage needs careful
volume of a fluid phase existing at reservoir condi- planning and coordination in order to extract the
tions of temperature and pressure to its equivalent maximum information. The economic justification
volume at standard conditions. The relationship of data acquisition is sometimes a difficult case to
forms a term known as a formation volume factor argue, but since production facility design and peak
2 RESERVOIRS 15

TABLE 2.2 Classification of hydrocarbon reservoir fluids

Fluid API gravity Note

Heavy oil <20 High viscosity, high oil density and negligible gas-oil ratio. May be recently
sourced or degraded black oil. At surface may form tar sands etc. Better
representation with viscosity higher than say 10 cpo

Black oil 30-45 Also known as a dissolved gas oil system and constitutes majority of oil reservoirs.
Critical temperatures are greater than reservoir temperature. No anomalies in
phase behaviour.

Volatile oil 45-70 Very low oil specific gravities. Exists in a two-phase region. The liquid phase has
very high ratios of dissolved gas to oil and the gas phase can yield a substantial
part of the stock tank liquid.

Gas condensate A gas phase at reservoir conditions but can undergo retrograde behaviour to yield
low density oils in the reservoir.

Dry gas Essentially light hydrocarbon mixture existing entirely in gas phase at reservoir
conditions.

TABLE 2.3 Mole fraction compositions of hydrocarbon reservoir fluids

Dry gas Condensate Volatile oil Ught black oil

C1 0.9 0.75 0.60-0.65 0.44
C2 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.04
C3 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04
C4 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.03
C5 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02
C6 + 0.08 0.20-0.15 0.43
Liquid API gravity 50-75 40-60 25-45
GOR 10000 + 3000-6000 2000
After processing:
Tank oil Tank gas Separator gas
0.Q1 0.20 0.82
0.01 0.30 0.12
0.02 0.32 0.04
0.03+ 0.14 0.Q1 +
0.04+ 0.03 0.01
0.90 0.01 0.01

plateau production rates are calculated from reserve tions using petroleum engineering and geological
estimates, the narrowing of estimates in a probabilis- information during hydrocarbon exploitation.
tic sense leads to greater confidence in capital The main sources of reservoir data, which will be
commitment. Figure 2.17 shows the types of interac- amplified in later chapters, are shown in Table 2.4.

Examples

Example 2.1

The volume of Upper Jurassic source rock buried to maturation depth in the United Kingdom Continental
Shelf has been estimated at 12 million km2-m. The source rock has an average carbon content of 5% and an
expected convertibility of 4500 m3 oil per km 2-m of source rock for each percentage point of carbon.
Estimate the oil in place and the technically recoverable oil in the UKCS, stating the assumptions made.
 ...
en

Regional and basin Detailed prognosIS of Design of coring Further analysIs of Review 01 experience >-
Special core analysis
studies. reserVOir geology In programme and appraisal well samples In geological
and laboratory "9
Identlfted exploration collection of samples. mlerpretalmn and
techniques to define 0
areas. ReVISions to geological
ultimate performance. lIJ
Preliminary residual oil saturations
Core slabbing and thin Application of special model on basIs of
interpretation of and evaluate enhanced "
sectlOn study. core analysis to hiSTorical performance
Fil'ld geology. geological model of all recovery methods.
Further development of provide data base for and new well data.
Detailed stratigraphiC reservoirlS). geological model With improved reservoir
SeismiC survey. mterpretation. particular reference to model.
Updates to geological
Confidential or multi- extension and nature of
Structure and data base and revIsIons
client reports. SpeCial and rout me reserxoir(s).
Structl1ral studies. hydrocarbon 10 place to model.
core analYSIS mappmg.

Interpretation of
Biostratigraphy for age ..
dating and environment reservoir environment FlUid displacement
of deposition. and collations with characteristics from
original prognoSIS.
speCial core analySIS.
Refinement of seismic ~ REVISIONS TO Work over design for
>- interpretation. DEVELOPMENT maximum recovery.
. . ,,,,,,",,,,
I"'"'~'" MO,"," Identify areas of" Rock flUid propertieS
~
favourable reservoir ................ , •• 0.. • • •
90" Update of structural Evaluation of enhanced
lIJ
development WEll DRILLING
interpretation. oil recovery alternatives "'tJ
AND INITIAL "z m
" FIELD reservoir performance using mathematical 0::
Recommendations for PRODUCTION ooof
Geochemistry to assess model of the reservoir. lIJ
tests. lIJ :::c
source rock potential. future wells.
Z 0
predicted performance r-
~
and historical Z m
RecommendatIOns for /" lIJ c:
Organisation of FIELD ~ performance. Design of mOnitoring
preliminary seismic dnllmg. DELINEATION / Update of engineering :E 3:
sch6.mes for EOR. =>
survey on single client data base. Model based lIJ m
Selection of work over ..J
or group basis. Evaluation of field on all ge~loglcal and Modification of Infill drillmg appraisals. 0 Z
and in fill well locations. C)
development englneenng data. reservoir deSCription II:
I-
alternatives using and interaction with lIJ Z
Q.
simple or sophisticated geological Submission to m
Development of mathematical model of Ae-evaluation of interpretation. Cons~rvatlOn or
m
reservoIr engineering reservOir. performance
Well performance and Regulatory Bodies
:::c
predlctlons. DeSign of Z
interpretatIOn and revised geological C)
lests to evaluate early
gUidell1les tor held Identification of data Effect of modifications model data used to
production
productIOn facihtles. sensitivity and design to model on expected update reservOir model "'tJ
tests. performance.
of plan for collection field performance and and performance Design of EOR pilot :::c
of required data. subsequent well and predictIOns. tests.
Economic evaluaTIOn of Interpretation of logs, Preliminary model for Z
production faCility Q
Z prospects including taxi cores and test data. performance SubmiSSion 10 DeSign of long term
:E " "'tJ
=> predictIOns. monitoring programme. requirements.
lIJ 0:: Economic evaluation licence conditions and conserV<ltlon and r-
..J lIJ of concessions . Preliminary economiC
lIJ development lOgistiCS Regulatory Bodies. ReView of reserVOlT m
0 Z and engineering Economics of CJ)
II: Economic limit performance m
I- ~ Alsk AnalYSIS. appraisaL UnitisatlOn studies. Project economics. Project economics. Unitisatlon/Arbitration. forecasts. Enhanced Recovery hindsight.
lIJ Z »
Q. lIJ Z
c
"'tJ
Fig. 2.17 Desired types of interaction from initial exploration through field development. :::c
»
0
ooof
(1
m
2 RESERVOIRS 17

TABLE 2.4 Sources of data

Source
Drilling time logs
These represent the earliest information available, and can help in determining
Drill cuttings
) intervals for coring, thicknesses of porous, hydrocarbon bearing layers, the
Mud logging and MWD lithology of the section, and possibly the type of hydrocarbon.
(measurements while drilling)

Sidewall cores Small well-wall samples for lithology control (Fig. 2.18).

Core samples Yield data on lithology pore structure, porosity, permeability, and may help to
determine depositional environments, fluid saturations and hydrocarbon type.
Special core analysis techniques will indicate recovery potential.

Bore-hole surveys: logs, May give gross and net section thicknesses, water contacts, dips and, under
wireline tests etc. favourable conditions, porosities and fluid saturations. Permeable intervals and
movable hydrocarbon may be detected, and velocity data for seismic interpretation
is obtained. The RFT tool can give valuable information on pressures and
zonation. Logs may be open hole or cased hole production logs.

Well tests and fluid sampling Hydrocarbon type and fluid samples are obtained (Fig. 2.19). Initial reservoir
pressure, pressure gradients, permeability - thickness estimates, and well
productivities. Generally conducted in cased hole (Fig. 2.20).

Fig. 2.18 Sidewall core operation. (Photo courtesy of BP.)

18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Fig. 2.19 Riser system on an offshore well allows fluids to

reach surface. (Photo courtesy of BP.)

Fig. 2.20 Well testing on an offshore exploration rig. (Photo courtesy of BP.)
2 RESERVOIRS 19

References

[1] Hunt, J.M.

Distribution of carbon as hydrocarbon and asphaltic compounds in sedimentary rocks, Bull. AAPG 61 (1977), 100.
[2] Magara, K.
Compaction and Fluid Migration, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1978).
[3] Erdman, J.O., Morris, D.A. and Smith, J.E.
Migration, accumulation and retention of petroleum in the earth, Proc. 8th World Pet. Congo (Moscow) 2 (1971),13.
[4] Hubbert, K.
Entrapment of petroleum under hydrodynamic conditions, Bull. AAPG 37 (1953), 1954.
[5] Chapman, R.E.
Petroleum Geology, a Concise Study, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1973).
[6] Chiarelli, A. and Rouchet, J. du
The importance of vertical migration mechanisms of hydrocarbons, Rev. Inst. Fr. Petrole 32 (1977),189.
[7] Le Blanc, R.J.
Distribution and continuity of sandstone reservoirs, 1PT (1977),776.
[8] Jardine, D. et al.
Distribution and continuity of carbonate reservoirs, 1PT (1977),873.
[9] Roberts, W.H. and CorpeI, R.J.
Problems of petroleum migration, Bull. AAPG Studies in Geology 10 (1980).
[10] St. John, B.
Sedimentary basins of the world and giant hydrocarbon accumulations, AAPG (1980), map.
[11] UK Dept. Energy
Brown Book - Annual Report, Development of the oil and gas resources of the United Kingdom, HMSO, London
(1984).
[12] Robertson Research International/ERC Energy Resource Consultants Ltd.
The Brent Sand in the N. Viking Graben, UKCS : A Sedimentological and Reservoir Engineering Study (7 vols),
1980.
[13] Jenkins, D.A.L. and Twombley, B.N.
Review of the petroleum geology of offshore NW Europe, IMM Transactions Special Issue (1980), 6.
[14] Homer, D.R.
Pressure build-up in wells, Proc. 3rd World Pet. Congo Leiden (1951) II, 503.
[15] Grunau, H.R.
Natural gas in major basins world wide attributed to source rock type, thermal history and bacterial origin, Proc.
11th World Pet. Congo (1983), Paper PD12 (3).
[16] Timko, D.J. and Fertl, W.H.
How down hole temperatures and pressures affect drilling, World Oil (Oct. 1972),73.
[17] Simson, S.F. and Nelson, H.P.
Seismic stratigraphy moves towards interactive analysis, World Oil (March 1985), 95.
[18] Perrodon, A.
Dynamics of oil and gas accumulations, Elf Aquitaine, Mem 5, Pau 1983.
[19] Kassler, P.
Petroleum exploration methods, techniques and costs. Proc. UN Conf. Petroleum Exploration Strategies in
Developing Countries, The Hague, (1981) Graham & Trotman, 103-118.
 Chapter 3

Oilwell Drilling

3.1 OPERATIONS offshore system the drilling rig is mounted on a

structure (Fig. 3.2) which may float (a drill ship or
The operation of drilling a well into a potential semi-submersible rig), or may be permanently or
reservoir interval is the only way to prove the temporarily fixed to the sea bed (platform, jacket,
presence of hydrocarbon. Whether a well is drilled
onshore or offshore is immaterial to the fun-
damentals of the process. A classification of wells
can be made as in Table 3.1.
The main components of a well drilling operation
are described with reference to Fig. 3.1. In an

TABLE 3.1 Well classification

Onshore Offshore Hydr.ulic conUol

ho .. rOt welt h.ad

H--i----'==- AI'.' connecto'

Exploration M-i -- - - - II.U or 1I•• lb l. loin'

",cho, _ -
.....
__+-"'·- = ' - - - - 810.-0"t pr.y.nter.
end ... 11 h •• d body

nH-~-~-=-- 1I ~- cal l.9

_ cemented at 1000'

Appraisal/delineation
'~~~~~13~~Clli".
~
+ +
um,'Ued at 3000'

c.m."t --_--
--:
-:::.-=~I It::;;;;~:::==:-
C.II.g--~-~=='\' .,
Development
I
Production Injection
(oil, gas) (gas, water, EOR) NOT TO SCALE
Fig. 3.1 Main components of a well drilling operation .
Observation (Photo courtesy of BP.)

20
3 OILWELL DRILLING 21

Flare tower. incorporat inQ radiol

tel8communica~ons
antennae

- "f::..;!:-------ff~.c..tf- DrillinQ derrick

Standby heli-deck
with divinQ
facilities beneath - - - - -- -----,f---.,/:.J':;J--,

Helicopter dick
.."..,,...-+"/IfI=!FIoi!f'-l-4-- Gas
turbines and
Qenerators

L iving
accommodation -H~o:-:Ii""'~
unit,

Oil/Qas separation ?:~~~t-~f:J~~~rilli!~~

and pracessinQ
plant

Mud disposal equipment--+~IW!II!;2';"".;u,--""

Floatation leQs -----\0-

with Diesel 011 and
waler storaQe tonk.

:tJ~:JC6-~~:::~~i.,~~?--- Pile-drivinQ gUIdes

Fig. 3.2 Offshore system. (Photo courtesy of BP.)

22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Fig. 3.4 Bit types used, including diamond coring bit.

(Photo courtesy of BP.)

Fig. 3.3 Large diameter and hole opening bits. (Photo

courtesy of BP.)

jack-up rig). The drill hole is built using drill bits and
steel casing for lining the drilled sections (Figs 3.3
and 3.4). The drill bits are lubricated during drilling
with a fluid known as drilling mud, which has a
composition engineered to provide (a) a density such Drill coilor
that a pressure greater than the formation fluid
pressure is maintained in the drill hole, (b) that rock
cuttings are carried away from the drill bit to the
surface, (c) that the drill bit is cooled. The mud may Bit
be water-based or oil-based and have components
that provide particular properties needed to control
the drilling. The mud system is a closed loop as can Fig. 3.5 Closed loop mud system. (Note that the mud
be seen in Fig. 3.5. From the mud tank the mud is loop is shown in black.)
3 OILWELL DRILLING 23
ingress. At 3000 m some 1000 tons of cuttings will
have been removed from a typical hole. The mud
circulation system ensilres that fluid emerging at the
bit is brought to the surface carrying the cuttings.
5" drill pipe The effluent passes onto vibrating screens which
(64lb/m) separate the larger solids from the liquid slurry,
which passes to cyclone separators. The emergent
cleaned mud passes into the mud tank where
properties are periodically checked and chemicals
Tension
added as required.
The main power requirements on a drilling rig are
designed to satisfy three major functions, namely
power for the hoist, power for the rotary table and
8" drill collars
power for the mud system.
(5051b/m)

Neutral
"iof .. r-...-.... - 3.2 COSTS
The cost of drilling operations is to a large extent
dependent on well location and depth and whether
9" drill collars
(650 Ib/m)
the well is an exploration or a development well.
Compression The budget for a well is generally presented in a
document known as an AFE (authorization for
expenditure). Such a document (Table 3.2) lists in
12 t" stabiliser great detail all the tangible and intangible compo-
nents of well costs, and guidance on its preparation
12t" bit
Result A5 000 Ib can be found in the literature[I2j. For current UKCS
on bit
wells, a summary comparison in pounds sterling
Fig. 3.6 Design basis for drilling to 3000 mSS. (1984) is as shown in Table 3.3.
As the most expensive phase of exploration data
pumped by a slush pump up the stand pipe and into acquisition, and an expensive element in the de-
the flexible hose. The hose is connected at a swivel velopment expenditure of a field, drilling operations
joint to a hollow heavy-duty hexagonal pipe called a together with well testing and well completions
kelly. The kelly and its attached pipe are held in justify careful planning and close supervision.
tension by a hoist system controlled by the driller. When drilling exploration and appraisal wells,
The drill pipe is connected below the kelly to safety and data acquisition are the pre-eminent
provide a hollow pipe route to the drill bit. The considerations, and fast drilling and minimum cost
weight acting on the drill bit is controlled by use of are subordinate (within reasonable limits).
particularly heavy drill pipes called drill collars and In the case of development wells, safety is still a
by the tension in the upper part of the whole dominant consideration, but operations can be
assembly or drill string. A neutral point in the drill planned with more certainty than for wildcats. Fast
string is defined by the upper part in tension from drilling is important both from the point of view of
the hoist and the lower part in compression on the time-related costs, and of the acceleration of produc-
bit, as shown in Fig. 3.6. Rotation of the drill tion. Data acquisition is required within a reason-
assembly is achieved by clamping the kelly in a ably predictable reservoir zone and so can be
bushing in a rotary table. The table speed of rotation planned economically.
is controlled by the driller. In some drilling opera-
tions some rotation can be achieved by use of a
turbine located below the swivel. Typical drilling 3.3. WELL COMPLETIONS AND OILWELL
into sandstones at a depth of 3000 m would be CASING
achieved with a weight of some 45 000 lb on the bit
and rotation at 100 rpm. In order to get to such a When drilling in relatively unknown areas, it is
depth it is necessary to start with a larger hole near desirable to maintain sufficient of the hole cased and
surface and progressively set and cement in casing, securely cemented so that a blow-out from below the
to protect the drilled hole from caving and pore fluid casing shoe is unlikely to occur (Table 3.4). In
24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 3.2 AFE document

Rig: Water depth: Rotary table elevation:
Total depth target:
Function Siteprep./ Drill to TO Test Abandon! Work over Total
Move on Suspend
Days
Rig rate
Site survey
Tow/Anchor
Markers
Mobilization
Riser tension analysis
Site preparation
Anchors
Guide bases
Wellhead bodies
Wellhead equipment
Conductor
Intermediate casing
Deeper casing
Casing liner
Casing accessories
Rock bits
Diamond/PCD bits
Core head
Drilling consumables
Mud chemicals
Cement and additives
Fuel oil
Lubricants
Catering/Accommodation
Drilling fluid equip hire
Drill string tool rental
Completion tubing
Completion tubing
accessories
Completion valves and
packers
Completion perforating
and fluid
Completion operations
Completion Christmas
trees
Abandonment and
demobilization
Transportation
Standby vessels
Waste disposal
Insurance
Contract payments
(see details below)
Mud engineering
Casing running
Cement services
Mud and drilling logs
Turbine drilling
Directional drilling/Survey
Fishing
Diving and u/w television
Wireline logging
Velocity calibration
DST/Production testing
Core barrel/Operator
rental
Sampling/Fluid analYSis
Acidization/Fracturing
Inspection services
Rig telecommunications
SUB-TOTALS
3 OILWELL DRILLING 25
TABLE 3.3 UKCS well costs (costs in millions pounds sterling, 1984)

Exploration Development

Semi-submersible Land NNorthSea Central North Sea

(3000mSS) (2OOOmSS) (3000mSS) (3000mSS)
Rig 1.7 0.1 1.4 0.5
Transport 0.9
Contracts 0.8 0.2 0.6 0.2
Consumables 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.2
Casing & wellhead 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.4
Site preparation 0.2 0.05
Overheads 0.4 0.05 0.7 0.2
TOTAL 4.6 0.7 3.7 1.5

TABLE 3.4 Reasons for casing in a well

1. Control of well pressure

2. Well bore caving prevention
3. Freshwater sand isolation
4. Pay zone and thief zone isolation
5. Confinement of production to well bore
6. Environment for installation of production tubing

general, this will require from one third to one half

of the remaining distance to the next target depth to
be securely cased. In a well drilled area, knowledge
of formation breakdown and fracture pressure, and
of any local difficult formations - lost circulation Pressure - -
zones, overpressured formations, caving shales etc., i
will enable local practices to be evaluated and i
i
implemented. Pore pressure and fracture pressures i
for a typical well are shown in Fig. 3.7. i
When drilling through shale, the rate of penetra- ~ / " Fracture
"" pressure
i---
i
Gas gradient
(approx.O.l psi/ft)
tion tends to increase with depth. In an abnormally .c \ i
high pressured section of hole, a sudden increase in a.
G> \ i
Cl \ i
drilling rate may occur since cuttings removal in the \
\
i
i
vicinity of the bit is aided by decrease in the \ i
mud-pore pressure differential and, in addition,
shale may be softer. It is common to monitor a term
1 Pore
/\
\
pressure \
i
i
i Minimum setting
\ I
known as the d-exponent while drilling, in order to
, . . . . .] "'''''
depth for gas
obtain an indication of abnormal pressure. A de- T-"~-
crease in the value of d indicates the possibility of
abnormally high pressures. S«"'TD>t~~ ~~h 'e
d= log [R/60N]
log [12W/106 D ] Fig. 3.7 Selection of minimum casing depth for
intermediate strings.
where R = rate of penetration, ftlh; N = rotary
speed, rpm; W = weight on bit, Ib; D = hole
diameter, in.
Figure 3.8, drawn from data on a well in SE Asia,
shows the effect on the d-exponent as the abnormal
pressure zone is entered at 6500 ft 1161 •
26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

In addition, in any difficult drilling situation, i.e. a

new area, highly deviated wells, overpressures or
lost circulation problems, the possibility should
5000
always be considered that well conditions may
require the final planned casing string to be set

-a.
:=:
.J::.
6000
prematurely. It is then essential to be able to
continue drilling to target depth with a smaller
diameter bit, and obtain the data necessary for an
0
Q)

7000 Well entering~ exploration well, or to complete a development well.

abnormally In practice, for deep, potentially high productivity
high pore wells, the smallest diameter of casing which will
pressure zone
8000 allow either for extended continued drilling, or for
moderately high levels of production in a smaller
liner is 9% in. A North Sea well arrangement is
shown in Fig. 3.9.
1.0 This will allow continued drilling with a normal
, d' exponent
4V2-5 in. drill string with bits up to about 81h in.
Fig. 3.8 d-exponent plot. diameter, and eliminates the problems associated
with deep drilling with 31h in. drill pipe and small
(less than 6 in.) bits.
The knowledge of pore pressure is of significance In the largest hole possible through 9% in. casing,
in drilling and in well completion. Consider normal 7 in. casing can be run as a liner, and in this or
pore pressure completion as summarized in Fig. slightly smaller holes, 6% in. casing will provide a
3.7, and the reasons for casing a well as shown in fairly adequate conduit in development wells. The
Table 3.4. completion with a 9% in. casing string to target

Lithology ,.."....,...,.,.,Sea bed 150m

Unconsolidated I 36'hole,30'csg at 210m
surface gravels
and clays
I
I
24" hole ,185/a" csg at 500m

I
Limestone and I
1000m dolomite I
I
(possible lost I
circulation zone) I
I17 lV2' hole,13 3va' csg at 1800m

2000m

Shaley
3000m sand

/ 112V4'hole,95/a"csgat3650m
, I
I
I
. I
Cement
4000m I 8 v2' hole,7'liner csg
at TD,4150m

Pressure gradients,l ithology and

preferred casing seats
10000 15000
Pressure, psi
Fig. 3.9 Pressure gradients, lithology and preferred casing seats.
3 OILWELL DRILLING 27

(a) Burst forces

3500 Surface
psi

131-" J55 6Blb/ft has

effective burst rating 3100 psi

4000
5000ft psi Net burst at shoe 2750 psi

12';''' hole

10000 ft
4500 psi

(b) Collapse forces

Surface
- Collapse load 0 psi

5000ft - Collapse load 2250 psi

9i-" NBO 47lb/ft has

Collapse rating 4750 psi

10000 f t - - Collapse load 4500 psi

(c) Tensile forces

Surface
Max. tensile load
470 000 Ib

9t" NBO 471b/ft has

Tension rating 1 OB6 000 Ibs

Neglect buoyance
effect of mud in
Min. tensile load the hole
o Ib
10000ft

Fig. 3.10 Casing selection. (a) Burst forces, (b) collapse forces, (c) tensile forces, (d) tensile forces.
28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 3.5

Completion Hole Intermediate Hole Surface Hole

string size string size string size
9% 12Y4 13% 17Y2 20 26
7 9% 10% 143,4 18% 24
6% 8% 9% 12Y4 16 20
13% 17%
All sizes are in inches.

depth has become a common standard for the The completions are illustrated in Fig. 3.11 and
highly deviated, highly productive wells of the are summarized below.
North Sea, and meets all requirements of exploration
and appraisal wells. 3.4.1 Barefoot completion
The main design criteria in casing selection
involve consideration of burst, collapse and tension This involves setting a production string in cap-rock,
forces. From calculated values the overdesign and drilling into the reservoir. The advantage is that
safety factors are often as follows: there is no restriction to flow. The disadvantages are
that there is no selectivity in completion, and no
Burst 1.1; Collapse 1.0-0.7; Tension 1.6 fluid control in completion interval.
Conditions in a given well environment require
selection of casing according to burst, collapse and 3.4.2 Uncemented screen liner
tension data in API Bulletin 5C2(S), and are shown This may be adopted for sand control - unconsoli-
for a hypothetical case in Fig. 3.10, which assume a dated sand bridging on a slotted or wire wrapped
0.45 psi/ft pore pressure gradient and a 0.1 psi/ft gas perforated liner.
column.
To a first approximation, this means that a well 3.4.3 Cemented liner
with a target depth of 10000 ft (vertical) should
This may be required when:
have an intermediate casing set at about 5000 ft
(vertical). In drilling to the intermediate target of (a) when the flow string size is larger than can be
5000 ft' a protective casing should be set at about placed in final casing size;
2000 ft. In turn, in drilling to the casing setting point (b) when the emergency string has been run
at 2000 ft, a string should be set at 600-1000 ft. because of drilling difficulties.

3.4 COMPLETION
3.5 DRILLING FLUID CONTROL
The adoption of a particular completion size then
dictates the selection of other hole and casing sizes Drilling fluids (muds) are continuously circulated
and several representative programmes are tabu- down the hollow drill pipe, returning through the
lated in Table 3.5. annulus. The principal purposes of drilling fluids are
Even in exploration and appraisal wells which are to effect a primary control of formation fluid
to be abandoned, the final casing string will be run pressures, and to remove continuously from the hole
and cemented if hydrocarbons worth testing are the drilled rock material.
encountered offshore. The greater reliability and Fluids used in exploration and appraisal wells are
safety of testing in casing more than offsets the cost almost universally water-based, consisting of disper-
of the casing string (unless a zone to be tested lies sions of colloidal clays in fresh or sea water. These
only just below an intermediate casing string). For dispersions are stabilized with peptizing agents, and
development wells, a variety of completion methods density, viscosity and filtration properties are mod-
are possible, the principal variations being: ified and controlled by additives.
Oil-based fluids have some advantages, and are
barefoot; widely used in development drilling where the
screen liner uncemented; problems of mud salvage and re-use, and treatment
gravel packed liner; and disposal of oil contaminated rock cuttings, can
cemented liner; be handled.
cemented casing. In all wells, proper density control is important
3 OILWELL DRILLING 29

Barefoot Open hole Cemented hner Cemented

Completion Screen liner (perforated) Casing
( obsolescent) Completion Completion Completion

Fig . 3.11 Completion practices.

since some excess of mud pressure over formation definition of apparent viscosity /-La as shown in Fig.
pressure is essential for safe control of formation 3.12.
fluids. The excess pressure should be the minimum
consistent with safe control of formation pressures
(i.e . a few hundreds of psi or tens of bars) when
pressures are known . Excessive pressures can lead
to:
.L
(a) lost circulation in vugular or very high /-La: V
porosity zones;
(b) induced fracturing and lost circulation;
(c) excessive fluid loss and thick mud cake ;
Ii (shear rate)
(d) high differential pressure and pipe sticking;
(e) reduced rates of penetration; Fig. 3.12 Newto nian fluid viscosity.

(f) severe formation damage and plugged per- For laminar flow a fluid is sheared into laminar
foration etc. layers, parallel to the direction of flow, with each
Since in exploration and appraisal wells pressures layer moving at its specific velocity. In such a
are either not known or not fully established, higher condition
mud weights are often carried than would be normal velocity difference between
in development wells - overpressures often exceed- two adJ' acent layers
ing 1000-1200 psi (i .e. of the order of one hundred Sh ear ra t e = v = -::-__-;-___-:-__:--_
o

bars) . distance between the two layers

Shear stress = 't = force per unit area of the laminar
layer inducing the shear
3.6 RHEOLOGY OF WELL FLUIDS
(DRILLING MUDS AND CEMENTS) The apparent viscosity /-La is constant at constant
temperature and pressure.
The shear stress ('t) of a Ne~tonian fluid is directly The determination of the rheological properties of
proportional to shear rate (v) and gives rise to the drilling fluids and cements is complicated for a
30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

number of reasons, including (a) the variable elastic to plastic deformation and to be at its yield
geometry of the well circulating system, (b) flow point.
distortion resulting from rotation and displacement In any subsequent operations, this value of press-
of drill string and casing, (c) the fluids are non- ure at the casing shoe should not be exceeded.
Newtonian and have in general a behaviour in-
termediate between a Bingham plastic fluid and a 3.8 DATA ACQUISITION DURING DRILLING
pseudo-plastic power law fluid, as shown in Figs 3.13
and3.14. In exploration drilling it is imperative that no source
of data should be neglected while drilling is in

-------;.:. . -
progress - it can never be certain that circumstances
'0 + fLp Ii)
l
Bingham (, =

,..-
will not arise which will lead to abandonment of the

----- well before it can be logged comprehensively by

,---- --- //
./
wireline.
The important sources of data while drilling is in
progress are:
/~
// Power Law drilling logs;
./ (,=KV") mud logs;
./ MWD (measurement while drilling) logs;
The sophisticated MWD methods are under active
Fig. 3.13 L-~ well fluid behaviour. development and are entering more common
usage. 1291

3.8.1 Drilling log

The driller's log is the most immediate information

available, especially the rate of penetration under

-----,----
l-
e>
.Q
otherwise constant conditions, such as weight on bit,
rotary speed and mud density.
In general, shales are harder to drill than the
--- Power Law moderately high porosity sands and loosely consoli-
dated sandstones that constitute good reservoir
log Ii rocks. Additionally, just as high mud weights and
pressures retard drilling by a chip hold down effect,
Fig. 3.14 Log L -log ~well fluid behaviour. so high formation pressures relative to the mud
pressures can accelerate drilling - a reverse pressure
differential leading almost to spontaneous disin-
3.7 FORMATION BREAKDOWN tegration of the formation.
PRESSURES AND LEAK OFF TESTS Changes in rate of penetration can then frequently
be correlated with sand and shale intervals, and
An essential factor in planning the control of any prior indication of a porous sand interval can
possible kick or blow-out occurring while drilling instigate a close examination of appropriate cuttings.
involves the avoidance of including fractures in A very sudden substantial increase in drilling rate
higher formations when controlling formations at should lead to a cessation of drilling while a check
greater depths. test is made for fluid influx and a possible kick.
It is standard practice now to conduct a leak off
test on formations after drilling out a casing shoe, 3.8.2 Mud logging
when higher formations are fully protected. It
should be emphasized that it is not the object of a This involves the continuous analysis of gases
test actually to break down the formation, an event extracted from the circulating mud 1151by a chromato-
which must be avoided. graph and a sour gas (H 2S) detector. While back-
In a leak off test, a plot is made of incremental ground methane is always present, a change in
mud volume pumped against pressure. When this methane concentration, and particularly increases in
volume-pressure relationship ceases to be linear, the ethane and heavier hydrocarbons, will frequently
formation is assumed to be in a transition from indicate the presence of hydrocarbon bearing inter-
3 OILWELL DRILLING 31

vals. Given such indications, the mud itself will be 3.9 MUD FLUIDS FOR CORE RECOVERY
tested directly for hydrocarbon content (ultraviolet
light/fluorescence or total analysis by distillation for Some companies operate a policy of coring any good
hydrocarbons) . indication; some operate a policy of never coring the
first exploration well. The rationale of the latter
policy is that after drilling, logging and possibly
3.8.3 Cutting logs testing an exploration well, a precise identification
can be made of the zones which are of the greatest
Provided that the travel time log between bottom interest for coring. Additionally, the formation
hole and surface can be established, cuttings at the pressures will be better known, and a mud pro-
surface can be collected and examined for apparent gramme designed to give minimum alteration of core
porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon content, properties can be adopted.
and shaly samples examined for stratigraphic and It is almost inevitable that a core will be heavily
palaeontologic evidence of age. Obviously, cuttings invaded and thoroughly flushed by mud and mud
will have been washed thoroughly by the drilling filtrate. For maximum useful reservoir information,
fluid stream and only residual oil traces will remain. particularly on wettability and capillary properties of
These may, however, be detectable by examination the reservoir rocks, it is desirable that the drilling
of the solvent extract or cut for fluorescence under fluid should be as neutral as possible with respect to
ultraviolet light. the reservoir rock minerals. Muds containing addi-
If good indications of reservoir rock can be tives which severely affect the surface properties of
detected very early, e.g. drilling break, with good minerals should be avoided.
sandstone cuttings, good mud log indications and An unchanged reservoir brine or reservoir crude
hydrocarbon indications in the cuttings, a decision would be the ideal fluid for securing unaltered
may be made to take a complete formation core. specimens of reservoir rock. The production, stor-
Figure 3.15 is reproduced from[ 15l to indicate a well age and pumping of reservoir fluids will itself
description log for a well drilling with an 81i4 in. bit normally expose the fluid to some contaminants, and
through a shaly sand series with interbedded salt an oxidized crude would be severely altered. Also,
layers. The drilling mud was a salt water-based mud brine or crude would normally not give adequate
in the upper section with a density of 1.58 g/cc and pressure control in undepleted reservoirs.
78000 ppm salinity. The drill string became stuck in A bland or unreactive mud system, which is
a salt section at 8774 ft and after freeing, drilling was unlikely to change significantly either the wettability
continued with oil-based mud. The log data shown of reservoir rock minerals or the physical state of
includes from left to right the following data: clay minerals within the reservoir rock, is desired.
When one objective of core recovery is the evalua-
(a) cutting percentage;
tion of residual oil saturation, an aqueous coring
(b) depth;
fluid is necessary. To avoid changes in wettability,
(c) rate of penetration in min/ft, scale 1=0 to 50
surfactants should be avoided as should high pH
min/ftFSD;
muds. To avoid clay alteration, a brine formulation
(d) mud salinity in ppm;
similar to the connate formation water is desirable.
(e) gas detector (units % equivalent methane)
When an objective is the evaluation of the
showing amount of gas in the analysed gas-air
interstitial water saturation, an oil-based fluid is
mixture coming from the de gasser in the
desirable, and reservoir crude with minimum active
return flow line;
additives is a preferred base.
(f) cutting description by the wellsite geologist.
Viscosity and filter cake control requires the
It was noted in reviewing the well history that the presence of thinners (peptizing agents), many of
upper saliferous beds were drilkd with non- which require moderately high pH. Amongst the
saturated mud and that salt did not show in the most common are tannin derivatives, complex phos-
cuttings brought to surface (i.e. cuttings not repre- phates and chromelignosulphonate/lignin formula-
sentative of formation which exaggerated sand- tions.
stone). The constant increase in salinity, the sharp Additives used specifically for filter loss are CMC
increase in drilling rate and the total disappearance (a cellulose derivative), which is broadly neutral, or
of gas indication are correlatable phenomena which starch which requires a preservative, or a high pH
should have led to the suspicion of saliferous beds. environment or a very high salt environment.
The observation of substantial salt was made while It should be obvious that the problems of formu-
circulating with the drill string stuck at 8774 ft. lating a good bland coring fluid for exploration and
32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

co RES
_,.
-- " HYDROCARBON ~
....
-.. . ~~
SHOWS DESCRIPTION
"'-
.
(No.' 0.., th · Rod CJ

I.
PENeTRATION RATE
t:i;; ( .
...... MUO
"'I "
.
min/h
Ii , 10 1-

.... ""
","-
OBSERVATIONS
SAil
. n "lal
~o I 'o~
.. .. 0 )0 to ' til
rr - 'f;=; .,,;' .='0

I d - UI TOTAL G.
I
I' Solt
ppm 8530· Sond ...... whitt 10 iiii'I troy. hord.
mrdium to COl'''. subanguliu to IUb·
BIT 8112" Soc ~4 roundtd. No visual porosil'y
WOB 30 · 351
RPM 70 ; S"' lighl 'llJIV,sDft. sil r;,wi'ltl COif.
qualtl: gnins. sublngullf' 10 .. b·
; roundltd
;
;

;
78000 ;
;

;
;

• 8590 · Slftdl1ane whill', liiht og,.y to blown,

finl Ie ml!dilJm. subangullf to sub·
fCiunded and SInd CO.fSlIO IItfY COIISt:
BIT 8 1/2" Soc 586 well soued,albln;ul., 10 wbround.d .
WOB ; T,lctS of inhvdfill.
17.51
RPM 50 · 60 ; 8610 · S.od"... wh ito. <li9htly b'own.hord
tin. 10 medium subingullf 10 sub·
;
founded. anhyd ,ilie
80000

86'0 · SilUtGnl, undlf. grlY. with fine tlr-

bon.attd shUll. Same quartz grains
ml!dium to coars..

85000
1700
8 71Q . st... gr.y. loh, wi.h lIJ.Y or whit.
Quartz ~r ..ins. eoarSt. 1Ubin~ullr 10
lubrQumfld

- 8730 · Siltstoft. d.rk 9fey-, ~I''Y line, IlInt,

ni{iI!d, non ul('lrIOUS. grldin9 10 a
"lMIy lithtolll, gfty, fine,wilh qUlrtz
.."
t::' mtChum 10 COif" gr,ined. Tratts (J f
>lit. Hith awi.. porco . . ..
90000

8 110 · Subtintill Qcc:urrlnCI of 1111

Oil"" 8174 · Stuck pip•. Wire-line logging.
BIT 8 1/2" Smith SVH B... ChanOl' to oil.., lse mud
WOB 251 Mud
RPM 100
11800

lilt
Fig. 3.15 Well data during drilling through saliferous beds in a shaly sand series (after 1151).

appraisal wells is difficult, and effective coring is costs can be reduced - the UKCS Murchison
frequently best conducted in development wells development programme managed to reduce drilling
(though well deviation can then be a problem). times from 50-70 days to 30-40 days for 10 000 ft
TVD wells. Optimization requires a careful balance
between the instantaneous drilling rate or rate of
3.10 DRILLING OPTIMIZATION penetration, the useful life of the bit and the time
taken in round trips. Conventional tricone rotary
The cost of drilling is such that total costs of a bits may last from 15 to 35 hours, by which time wear
development can be reduced significantly if drilling of teeth, gauge or bearings will generally have
3 OILWELL DRILLING 33

occurred - ideally all wearing similarly. In soft, rpm) than are possible with turbines (±500
abrasive formations, tooth and gauge wear will be a rpm). Diamond bits which can cut well at these
dominant factor, and it will not be worthwhile conditions are not suited to all formations.
having bits with bearings of very high durability. The (Stratapax bits may change this situation.)
insert type bits used for very hard rock require very 2. The apparent power wastage, using 200-300 hp
high loads for the rock crushing action necessary, at surface to provide 10-20 useful hp at the bit,
and bearing failure is a dominant factor. For these is largely irrelevant in relation to the total
bits, high quality sealed lubrication bearings are power requirements of a drilling rig and the
desirable to maximize bit life. Figure 3.4 shows a power availability.
variety of bits in general use. 3. Turbine reliability has been suspect in the past,
As a rule, the longest tooth (softest formation) bit and turbine usage has been expensive. Conse-
which will actually cut rock without premature quently turbines have largely been used in
failure is the best overall choice. special operations, and in normal drilling
In suitable formations - moderately hard uniform where conditions are known to be favourable.
homogeneous rocks - diamond bits driven by a The special operations are particularly:
turbine can be extremely effective, having very long
(a) diamond coring;
bit lives under these conditions. The rotary speeds of
(b) kicking off a directional hole, where a bent
turbines is ill suited to the conventional tricone bit,
sub and turbine are now the standard
and the combination of turbine, or the lower speed
method;
mud motor, and rock bit is restricted to some aspects
(c) directional correction in deviated wells.
of controlled directional drilling.
Diamond coring with a turbine, where only 60 ft is In future the combination of Stratapax and turbine
cored in a single trip, is the most effective coring may well become standard.
method.
The recent developments of Stratapax bits -
3.12 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN DRILLING
consisting of polycrystalline diamond compacts -
may prove to be the first major advance in bit design 3.12.1 Stuck pipe and fishing
since the development of the tricone bit.
A common cause of stuck pipe is the existence of
With multiple cutting edges, the bits shear the
differential pressure between borehole and forma-
rock in small cuttings - rather as a lathe tool or a
tion. In particular, if a thick impermeable mud cake
shaper cuts - and the tool operates effectively at very
is allowed to build up around a pipe lying stationary
low load and at moderately high speeds. The
on the low side of the hole, the pipe is subject to a
effectiveness of cut does appear to have an unusually
substantial lateral thrust.
strong dependence on the nature of the drilling fluid
The longitudinal pull necessary to move the pipe
- in North Sea shales the bit has been especially
may exceed the capacity of the rig to pull the pipe
effective in oil-based muds, but less effective than
free. The capacity may be limited by:
the best conventional practice in water-based fluids.
On land in Holland, Stratapax bits have outper- the strength of the pipe itself;
formed conventional bits in aqueous fluids. Strata- the strength of wire rope;
pax core bits are also becoming available and could the strength of derrick legs.
be equally effective.
The remedies may be:
avoidance - use lightest possible mud weights;
3.11 TURBINE VERSUS CONVENTIONAL - use stabilizers or fluted drill collars or
square section collars;
ROTARY
- keep pipe rotating while mud cake
builds up after circulation has stop-
In spite of the apparent logic of generating rotary
ped;
torque and power downhole where the power is
- minimize delays;
needed and applied, turbine drilling has been slow to
supplant conventional rotary, where the rotary after sticking - reduce pressure differential;
torque is supplied at the surface. There have been - use lighter muds (wash to water or
in depleted sands to oil)
several reasons for this:
- spot lubricating and/or defloccu-
1. Conventional tricone rotary bits cut and per- lating chemicals around pipe at
form best at lower rates of revolution (±100 stuck section.
34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

If the pipe remains stuck, then a fishing job results. 3.12.2 Pressure control and well kicks
The pipe must be backed off and a recovery string
If the pressure in the borehole is reduced below the
comprising
formation pressure, either through inadequate mud
(a) pipe sub weight, or through lost circulation or by swabbing,
(b) safety joint then formation fluids may enter the well bore. If
(c) bumper sub or rotary jars fluids continue to enter for any period of time, the
(d) drill collars well bore pressure will continue to fall and further
(e) drill pipe fluids may enter. A series of stages can be defined
and encountered:
run and an attempt made to jar the pipe free.
Where safety permits, a drill stem test string can Trip gas: a situation where after making a round
be run, the fishing string latched in, and the pressure trip and resuming circulation, gas is circulated out
below the test packer reduced to reverse the of the hole. This implies that the removal of the
pressure differential. Obviously, there must be circulating pressure drop and the swabbing effect
confidence that the packer will not stick, and that of the round trip have brought gas into the hole.
the hole below the packer will not collapse com- The inference is that mud pressure and formation
pletely. pressure are finely balanced.
When the pipe cannot be backed off for fishing,
the pipe can be cut and an overshot, or a spear, used Kick: a small influx of fluid while drilling, or
to latch on to the pipe for recovery. possibly while making a connection. This is

(a)
Fig. 3.16 Blowout preventers (BOP) arrangement on offshore wells: (a) 21114" BOP on board Sea Conquest (b) detail
of BOP (c) diagram of BOP and wellhead body. (Photo courtesy of BP.)
3 OILWELL DRILLING 35

Quick- release tap

Packer

Cameron forged steel Twin seals

Fig.3.16(b)

controlled by circulating against a back pressure

(obtained by closing BOPs (Fig. 3.16) and circu-
lating through a choke), preventing further fluid
influx until the influx has been circulated out. The
mud weight is increased to a sufficient extent to
control the formation pressures.

Blow-out: a more or less uncontrolled flow of

formation fluid either flowing to the surface or to
a zone of natural or induced lost circulation down
hole.

3.12.3 Cementation problems

Casing is run and cemented partly to protect the
drilled hole from collapse, partly to isolate forma-
tions hydraulically, preventing flow of fluid from one
horizon to another. Consequently, the integrity of
the cement bond is of great importance.
Ideally, the cement should bond firmly to the
casing itself and directly to the wall of the hole. A
number of factors can prevent the attainment of a
. ;> ,' ' .' • ' . : good cement bond:

Eccentricity of casing. Casing clearances in the

Fig. 3.16(c) hole can be small, and eccentricity can lead to very
36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

small clearance areas where gelled mud cannot be thereby limiting plugging of perforation by mud
displaced by cement. This is a use for centralizers. cake. The explosive charges are, however, smaller
than for full hole casing guns, and depths of
Presence of mud . cake. Across all porous perme- penetration of the shots may sometimes be inadequ-
able zones, a mud cake will exist. If this mud cake ate.
is not removed, the cement bond will be to a mud
cake, not to the formation . The tendency may be 3.13.2 Normal completion
reduced by the use of scratchers, pre-wash and
In this case, the perforations are made with a large
operation in turbulent flow.
size casing gun in a mud-filled hole. The larger
charges give better penetration, but if mud weights
Washed out hole. If the hole is washed out to
are excessive, perforations may become plugged.
excessive diameters, the cement may not fill the
After perforation, tubing and packer are run and
entire cross-section. This is a factor to be consi-
set, the BOPs flanged down and the well head and
dered while drilling and requires careful mud
Christmas tree installed. Drilling operations on a
control and clay stabilizing muds in the drilling
well are completed with the installation of the
phase.
Christmas tree (Fig. 3.18).
Additionally, after cementing, the excess pressure
due to the difference in mud and cement density
(cement is at least 50% more dense than the average
drilling mud) should be bled off. This prevents small
contractions in the casing causing a rupture between
cement and pipe.
If, after cementing, subsequent gas or water
problems, or communication problems, arise, then
the more difficult and expensive operations of
remedial squeeze cementing may have to be under-
taken.

3.13 COMPLETION FOR PRODUCTION

For flow into a cemented liner or cemented casing
completion, it is necessary to perforate the casing to
open a flow channel from formation to well bore.
This is effected by the detonation of shaped
charges which can be placed or located selectively
with a high degree of accuracy by correlation with a
gamma ray log and a casing collar locator.
Intervals can be perforated selectively in one or
more batch runs, with a normal perforation density
of four nominal half inch shots per foot. When all
perforations remain open, this will give an ideal
completion, i.e. flow performance equal to or better
than the theoretical uncased borehole.

3.13.1 Permanent completion

With the larger tubing strings, perforating guns can
be lowered down the tubing. This enables the well to
be fully completed for production with tubing and
Christmas tree installed (Fig. 3.17), and the well
washed to oil before perforating.
Perforation can then be carried out under-
balanced, that is with a reverse pressure differential, Fig. 3.17 Production tree assembly (Photo courtesy of BP).
3 OILWELL DRILLING 37

Control
+-- umbilicals
from surface

Sub-sea
Christmas Central export riser
trees
Riser connectors

~ml~

To loading buoy

Satellite well flowlines

Fig. 3.18 Diagram of subsea production equipment, Buchan Field, North Sea.

Examples

Example 3.1
Design a 51/2" OD API casing string from the following grades:
17 pounds per foot N-80 grade or P-110 grade LB threads
20 pounds per foot N-80 grade or P-110 grade LB threads
23 pounds per foot N-80 grade or P-110 grade LB threads
for a well in which 1. 92 SG mud is left outside the casing and 1.15 SG fluid is left inside the casing. The
length of string is 13 000 ft and as abnormal pressures are anticipated , assume the maximum surface pressure
will be 8000 psi . The minimum section design length is 500 ft. Assume the following safety factors: Collapse
= 1.125, Burst = 1.312 and Tension = 1.18. The specific gravity of the steel is taken as 7.84. Use the data of
Table A 3.1 and Fig. A 3.1. (See Appendix II) .

Example 3.2
In drilling through a formation to 13 000 ft the following information has been obtained:
- the pressure at 13 000 ft can be represented by an average pore pressure gradient to surface of 0.455 psi/ft
- the fracture pressure can be represented by an average gradient to surface of 0.8 psi/ft
- a gas gradient to surface of about 0.1 psi/ft can be assumed.
Specify the minimum setting depth for an intermediate string casing shoe.
38 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

References

[1] Craft, B.c., Holden, W.R. and Graves, E.n.

Well Design, Drilling and Production, Prentice-Hall, Houston.
[2] Gray, G.R. and Darley, H.C.H.
Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.
[3] American Petroleum Institute
API Bulletin 5C2 (1972).
[4] Composite Catalogue of Oilfield Equipment and Services
35th Revision (1982-83), 5 vols. Gulf Publishing Co, Houston Tx.
[5] Peden, J.M., Russel, J. and Oyeneyin, M.B.
The design and optimisation of gravel packing operations in deviated wells, SPE Paper 12997, Proc. Europe (1984),
32l.
[6] Bruijn, H.J., Kemp, A.J. and van Donegen, J.C.
The use of MWD for turbodrill performance optimisation, SPE Paper 13000, Proc. Europe (1984), 353.
[7] Bailey, T.J., Bern, P.A. and McEwan, F.
Downhole rheological behaviour oflow toxicity oil muds, SPE Paper 13001, Proc. Europe (1984), 36l.
[8] Paterson, A.W. and Shute, J.P.
Experience with polycrystalline diamond compact bits in the northern North Sea, Paper EUR 339, Proc. Europe
(1982),575.
[9] Johnson, K.A. and Burdyulo, L.
Successful liner completion on the Muchison platform, Paper EUR 365, Proc. Europe (1982) 769.
[10] CSRPPGN
Blow Out Prevention and Well Control, Graham and Trotman, London (1981).
[11] ENSPM, Inst. Franc. duo Petrole
Drilling Data Handbook, Graham and Trotman, London (1978).
[12] Adams, N. and Frederick, M.
Drilling costs, OGJ (Dec. 6, Dec. 13, Dec. 27, 1982).
[13] Baldwin, D.D.
Drilling high angle directional wells, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo Paper PD5(2), (1983).
[14] Tanguy, D.R.
Downhole measurements while drilling, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo Paper PD5(3), (1983).
[15] ENSPM
Geological and Mud Logging in Drilling Control - Catalogue of Typical Cases, Graham and Trotman, London
(1982).
[16] CSRPPGN
Drilling Mud and Cement Slurry Rheology Manual, Graham and Trotman, London (1982).
[17] van Lingen, N.H.
Bottom scavenging - a major factor governing penetration rates at depth, Trans. AIM E 225 (1962), 187.
[18] Holster, J.L. and Kipp, R.J.
Effect of bit hydraulic horsepower on drilling rate of a PCD compact bit, JPT (Dec. 1984),2110.
[19] Cooke, C.E., Kluck, M.P. and Medrano, R.
Annular pressure and temperature measurements diagnose cementing operations, JPT (Dec. 1984). 218l.
[20] Adams, N.
Well Control Problems and Solutions, Pennwell, Tulsa (1980).
[21] Rowlands, G.W. and Booth, N.R.
Planning for deep high pressured wells in the northern North Sea, EUR 244, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. (1980) 327,
Soc. Pet. Eng.
[22] World Oil
1985 Tubing and casing joint tables, World Oil (Jan. 1985),37.
[23] Woodyard, A.H.
Risk analysis of well completion systems. JPT (April 1982) 713.
[24] Denholm, J.M.
Offshore drilling operations. Trans I. Mar. E (TM) 94 (1982) (26) 2.
[25] Mohnot, S.M.
Characterisation and control of fine particles involved in drilling, JPT (Sept 1985) 1622.
[26] Remson, D.
Planning techniques - Key to drilling efficiency. J PT (Sept 1985) 1613.
[27] Black, A.D., Dearing, H.L. and Dibona, B.G.
Effects of pore pressure and mild filtration on drilling rates in a permeable sandstone. JPT (Sept 1985) 1671.
3 OILWELL DRILLING 39

[28] Rabia, H.
Specific Energy as a criterion for bit selection. 1PT (July 1985) 1225.
[29] Elliott, L.R. et al.
Recording downhole data while drilling,lPT (July 1985) 1231.
[30] Bourgoyne, A.T., and Holden, W.R.
An experimental study of well control procedures for deepwater drilling operations. 1PT (July 1985) 1239.
[31] Warren, T.M. and Smith, M.B.
Bottomhole stress factors affecting drilling rate at depth. 1PT (Aug. 1985) 1523.
[32] Hill, T.H., Money, R.C., and Palmer, C.R.
Qualifying drillstring components for deep drilling. 1PT (Aug. 1985) 1511.
[33] Joosten, M.W. and Robinson, G.c.
Development of specification for christmas tree and wellhead components. 1PT (April 1985) 655.
 Chapter 4

Properties of Reservoir Fluids

As we have seen in Chapter 2, reservoir hydrocar- temperature initially held in the liquid phase at an
bon fluids are mixtures of hydrocarbons with com- elevated pressure. This situation is illustrated in Fig.
positions related to source, history and present 4.1 for propane, and generalized in Fig. 4.2.
reservoir conditions. Expansion of the system will result in large
While the behaviour of single component systems decrements in pressure for relatively small incre-
has no quantitative relevance to oil field systems, ments in volume (specific volume), due to the small
qualitative behaviour has some similarities, and compressibility of liquid systems (c), where
terminology is the same.

4.1 VOLUMETRIC AND PHASE

BEHAVIOUR OF HYDROCARBON
SYSTEMS
For most liquids over commonly encountered
Consider the pressure-specific volume relationship pressure ranges, the compressibility is independent
for a fluid at a constant temperature below its critical of the pressure, i.e. compressibility is small and
constant. As expansion is continued, a pressure will
1000 be reached at which some small infinitesimal gas
Ii \ phase will be found.
II
I1\ \.
\........-340 0 F
(ideal gas)
c I \. C ' Gas region "-
'iii
Q.
2! Liquid I ·····':!!{COI
C··.... Pressure constant
"
.........

1
:::> I .... wlthbothgasand "-
IJI
IJI I 525 psi 0$··.. liquid present • Critical
2! 525 point
a. ----- - ""~""
~~i)i'~~> ....
'First gas bubble
( bubble point)
,
ve 1"60220
.....F'~F'•••.••.
0
Two phase region Dew point GAS
Bubble point curve
200~~~------------~----------~
3 9 15
Volume cuft/lb,mol. Temperature -
Fig. 4.1 PVT diagram for propane (single component Fig. 4.2 Phase diagram for a pure single component
system), system.

40
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 41

This pressure is termed the bubble-point or Expansion in the liquid phase to the bubble-point
saturation pressure for the temperature considered. at constant temperature is similar to a pure system.
For a pure substance, further expansion occurs at Expansion through the two-phase region does not
constant pressure - the vapour pressure at that occur at constant pressure, but is accompanied by a
temperature - the relative proportions of liquid and decrease in pressure (vapour pressure) as the com-
gas changing, until only an infinitesimal quantity of position of liquid and vapour changes.
liquid is present in equilibrium with the vapour. This Since at any temperature the bubble-point press-
point on the phase envelope is termed the dew-point. ure and dew-point pressure differ, the pressure-
Expansion to lower pressures and higher specific temperature relationship is not now a single line, but
volumes occurs in a vapour phase. forms a phase envelope. On this envelope it is
If the substance behaves as an ideal gas, then the possible to establish a pressure above which two
equation PV = nRT is valid, and phases can no longer coexist - the cricondenbar -
and a temperature above which two phases cannot
c- -1 (JV) -+-1 coexist - the cricondentherm. The critical point - the
V JP T P pressure and temperature at which the properties of
the two phases become identical - is not necessarily
i.e. the compressibility of an ideal gas is inversely either one of these points, nor must it be between
proportional to the pressure. them.
A series of isotherms then generates a locus of
bubble-points, and a locus of dew-points which meet
at a point - the critical point - C, at which the 4.2 APPLICATIONS TO FIELD SYSTEMS
properties of liquid and vapour become indistin-
guishable. The isotherm at the critical point exhibits 4.2.1 Dry gas reservoirs
a point of inflexion so that
In Fig. 4.4 (a), the reservoir temperature is above
Jp) = (?P)2 = 0
(JV
the cricondentherm (maximum temperature of two-
Tc JV Tc phase envelope). Consequently, decline in reservoir
pressure will not result in the formation of any
reservoir liquid phase.
Multicomponent systems exhibit slightly different This does not preclude the recovery of natural gas
phase behaviour from that of pure materials, and liquids from reservoir fluid as a result of change in
even simple two or three component systems may temperature in flow lines or process facilities. There
demonstrate all the phenomena associated with very are few natural gases yielding no gas liquids, and
complex systems, as shown in Fig. 4.3. Fig. 4.4 (b) is therefore more realistic.

(a) + Liquid Gas

P,Treservoir
lprocess line

.i:V --
Dry gas

o""./ : Isothermal
..".... I line
fiTsurface I

Cricondentherm Temperature ~

(b)

1P, Treservolr
/: I
I Wet gas
Reservoir temperature ~ I
I
Fig. 4.3 Pressure-temperature phase diagram for Process line
multicomponent hydrocarbon reservoir fluid mixture. For
isothermal production in the reservoir: position A indicates
Temperature ~
reservoir fluid found as an undersaturated oil; position B
indicates reservoir fluid found as a gas condensate; Fig. 4.4 Phase diagrams of hydrocarbon mixtures. (a) Dry
position C indicates reservoir fluid found as a dry gas. gas, (b) wet gas, (c) gas condensate, (d) black oil.
42 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
Fig. 4.4 (cont.)
(c) In contrast, the black oil - dissolved gas systems -
in which the composition of gas in eqUilibrium with
~~ Bubble point
liquid is comparatively lean (except at tank con-
iil
Ul
locus Gas ditions), the liquid recovery depends only marginally
~
a..
condensate on the separated gas phase. (Nevertheless in abso-
lute terms the maximization of liquid recovery
Process line from separator gas streams can be a valuable
Dew point locus source of income.)
~========~~L-
Temperature ~
4.2.3 Volatile oil systems
(d) Liquid Gas These are within the two-phase region under reser-
voir conditions, the vapour phase corresponding to
PT
J reservOir r condensate compositions and conditions.
! Consequently, a substantial part of the stock tank
Black oil liquid is derived from a reservoir vapour phase. The
I concept of a system being represented by a gas
.~
Process line __~,.../ : dissolved in a liquid is then invalid.
,-
P,Tsurface .."...... .,.,./
4.2.4 Black oil systems
Temperature ~
As shown on Fig. 4.4 (d), the critical temperature of
these systems is very much higher than the reservoir
temperature encountered (i.e. greater than about
4.2.2 Condensate systems 373 K). Isothermal expansion from the liquid phase
leads to the formation of gas at the bubble-point,
The critical temperature of the system is such that and a monotonic increase in volume of the gas phase
reservoir temperature is between critical and cricon- as pressure declines further. The composition of gas
dentherm as shown in Fig. 4.4 (c). Under these varies only slightly when changing conditions (ex-
conditions the system exhibits isothermal retrograde cept at tank conditions), the gas is relatively lean,
condensation. and contributes only marginally to the separator
At pressures above the cricondenbar, the system liquid phase.
exists as an indeterminate vapour phase. Upon
isothermal expansion, the phase envelope is encoun-
tered at the dew-point locus, and further reduction 4.3 COMPRESSIBILITY
in pressure leads to increased condensation of a
liquid phase.
If the pressure can be reduced sufficiently, the Reservoir fluids are considered compressible and, at
liquid phase may re-evaporate, but sufficiently low constant reservoir temperature, we can define an
pressures may not be obtainable in practice. This isothermal compressibility as a positive term C as
phenomenon - the condensation of liquid upon follows:
decrease in pressure - is termed isothermal retro-
grade condensation. Another phenomenon - iso-
baric retrograde behaviour - can also be demons- c=-V(W 1
T
(dV)
trated, but is not of interest under the essentially
isothermal conditions of petroleum reservoirs.
The liquid phase recovered (the condensate) from where V denotes original volume and P is pressure.
a condensate system, is recovered from a phase Gas compressibility is significantly greater than
which is vapour at reservoir conditions. those of liquid hydrocarbons, which in turn are
This is also partly true of volatile oil systems, greater than those of reservoir waters. The subscript
where the vapour phase in equilibrium with the terminology for the compressibilities of gas, oil and
reservoir liquid phase is particularly rich in liquefi- water is cg , Co. CWo Reservoir pore volume may
able constituents (C 3 to Cs+) and a substantial change with change in fluid pressure, resulting in an
proportion of stock tank liquid may derive from a increased fraction of overburden being taken by
reservoir vapour phase. reservoir rock grains. The pore volume compress-
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 43

TABLE 4.1 Typical system compressibilities

System Symbol bar- 1 psr 1

Reservoir saline waters Cw 4.35E-05 3.0E-06
Undersaturated black oils CO 24.65E-05 17.0E-06
Gas at 100 bar (1450 psi) cg 1000E-05 689E-06
Gas at 400 bar (5800 psi) cg 250E-05 172E-06
Consolidated sands at 400 bar Cf 3.63E-05 2.5E-06
Unconsolidated sands at 400 bar Cj 14.5E-05 10E-06

ibility may be related to fluid pressure P rather than

grain pressure (Pg ) and treated as a positive term,
(X
1(JV)
=V JT p
cf' This is reasonable for a constant overburden
load.
1 8<!> 1 8<!> Both of these factors can be found by differentiat-
<!> 8P ing an equation of state, or can be computed from
plots or tabulations of experimental data.
In the absence of specific information, the general The possible error in these derived functions is an
order of magnitude of compressibilities is as shown order of magnitude greater than the possible error in
in Table 4.1. the original data (or equation of state), so that a very
high degree of accuracy is necessary in equations of
state (or experimental data) used for the calculation
4.4 MEASUREMENT AND PREDICTION of thermodynamic functions.
OF RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES The simplest equation of state is the ideal gas law:

4.4.1 Behaviour of gases PVm = RT

where Vm = molar volume, or
Gas is produced from gas reservoirs by expansion of PV= nRT
the fluid from the initial reservoir pressure to some
lower abandonment pressure. The recovery from the where V = volume, n = no. of moles.
reservoir can be obtained by a mass balance on the The value of R, the gas constant, will depend on
system at the initial and end points, and the densities the system of units adopted. See Table 4.2 for
of the material at the two points (and at intermediate examples. The inadequacy of this relation was
points) must be calculable or measured. quickly recognized, and one early modification was
The flow behaviour, i.e. the pressure gradients that of van der Waals:

(p+ v:' )(Vm - b) ~ RT

developed, will depend in part on the isothermal
compressibility:

C = _~(JV)
V JP T where a is a factor related to, and correcting for,
intermolecular forces, b is a factor related to, and
while the primary processing operations of dehydra- correcting for, the finite volume and real geometry
tion, dew-point processing and sweetening will of a molecule.
involve other thermodynamic functions of the gas, This is a two-constant equation of state, and more
particularly the isobaric thermal expansion coeffi- and more complex equations (e.g. Beattie-
cient
TABLE 4.2 Values of the universal gas constant

Moles Pressure Volume Temperature R

Pound Pounds force/sq.in. Cubicft 10.73
Pound Atmosphere Cubicft 0.729
Kilogram Newton/m 2 m3 8312.0
44 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Bridgemen - five constants; Benedict-Webb-Rubin A similar postulate by Amagat states that the sum
- eight constants) have been developed in attempts of the partial volumes of n ideal components in a
to improve the accuracy. mixture is equal to the total volume under the same
A widely used two-constant equation of state is conditions of temperature and pressure, i.e.
that of Redlich-Kwong which can be arranged to a

IV
form j=n
V= j and

(p + a
[TVm (Vm + b )]0.5
l(V - b) = RT
m
j=1
The apparant molecular weight of a gas mixture
This equation has an acceptable accuracy for behaving as if it were a pure gas is defined as the sum
hydrocarbon systems over a fairly wide range of of the product of individual component mole frac-
conditions, and the constants have been modified by tions and molecular weights
Soave!l51.

I
More recently, the equation of Peng and j=n
Robinson[i 4l has received wide acceptance Ma = (yjMj)
a(1) j=l
P=
Since, for a gas, the specific gravity Yg is defined as
It may be noted at this time that Avogadro stated the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of
that under the same conditions of temperature and dry air taken at the same temperature and pressure
pressure, equal volumes of all ideal gases contain the then, assuming ideal behaviour
same number of molecules. It can be shown that
there are 2.73 x 1026 molecules in each pound-mole mass gas volume gas
of ideal gas and that a volume of 379.4 cubic feet is
Yg = volume gas mass air
occupied at 60°F and 14.7 psia by one pound
molecular weight of any ideal gas. At 14.7 psia and molecular weight of ideal gas (mixture)
32°F one pound mole of gas occupies 359 cubic feet. molecular weight of air
In this context, one mole is taken as the pounds of
a component equal to its molecular weight. Since
moles contain the same number of molecules (or
atoms), they are used to describe system composi-
tion. At low pressure or for ideal gases, volume and 4.4.2 Law of corresponding states
mole fractions are identical.
For each ideal gas in a mixture of ideal gases, Fluids are said to be in corresponding states when
Dalton has postulated that each gas exerts a pressure any two of the variable properties, pressure, temper-
equal to the pressure it would exert if it alone ature and specific volume have the same ratio to the
occupied the total volume of the mixture - that is the critical values. These ratios are termed reduced
same as saying that the total pressure of the mixture values and subscripted R as follows:
is the sum of the partial pressures of each compo-
nent,j, in the n component mixture: TR = TIT,.; PR = PIPe; VR = VlVe

j=n For pure substances with simple molecules it can be

shown theoretically that
P= IPj
PIPe = J(TITe ; VlVe}
j=l
i.e. if fluids are in corresponding states then any
The mole fraction of the jth component is symbol- dimensionless reduced property calculable from
ized as Yj and is therefore defined as PVT data will be the same for those fluids, e.g.
reduced densities, fugacitylpressure ratios, com-
P pressibilities.
Yj=~ The applicability of the law of corresponding
states will depend on the phase and temperature of
the substance; accuracy is greatest in the vapour
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 45

phase, and is best for temperatures above the ~ 1300

critical, and will also depend on the complexity and -S! 1200
eccentricity of the molecule. ;,Ea>
t;.2 11 00
However, the law of corresponding states has
.g ~ 1000
I C

been widely used in smoothing and correlating

experimental data on hydrocarbons, and is used for ~~ 900
generalized liquid phase and gas phase correlations 800
for hydrocarbon mixtures with a considerable degree 700
of success. o~
0.2 600
:.;={/)
-t: a.
4.4.3 Pseudo-critical temperatures
()~

oI
., 500
400
~

and pressures "O~

.,'"
~'"
"'~
a... a. 300
The reference state for the law of corresponding 200
states is the critical state. For most pure substances, Specific gravity of undersaturated reservoir
the values of the independent variables, pressure liquid at 60 0 F and reservoir pressure
and temperature at the critical point, have been Fig. 4.5 Trube diagram for specific gravity as a function of
measured and are known. For mixtures, the critical pseudo-critical constants for undersaturated reservoir
values will depend on composition, but there will not liquids (after [281).
normally be a simple procedure for calculating the
0.1
true critical values from composition and the values
of the pure components. It has been found that the
use of the true critical values of mixtures in
corresponding states correlations gives less accurate Pseudo - reduced
results than the use of so-called pseudo-critical temperature
constants calculated as the mol-average values for .Tpr
the mixture (Kay's rule), i.e.

where Yj = mol fraction of component j, P cj =

critical pressure of component j, Tcj = critical
temperature of component j.
For complex hydrocarbon mixtures (e.g. the C7+
constituent of a system), pseudo-critical constants
can be determined from specific gravity, molecular
weight and boiling point of the mixture without 10 100
determining the composition (see Figs 4.5 and 4.6). Pseudo - reduced pressure. Ppr
More complex rules for calculating critical constants Fig. 4.6 Trube diagram for pseudo-reduced
have been formed, which are more accurate than compressibility of undersaturated reservoir liquids (after
[281).
Kay's rule given above, but this is generally adequ-

TABLE 4.3 Gas properties

Density
Density Iblft3 at 60°F Molecular Critical properties
Gas (relative to air) and 1 atmosphere weight Pc(psia) TdOR)
Air 1.0 0.0763 28.96 547 238
Nitrogen 0.9672 0.0738 28.01 493 227
Oxygen 1.1047 0.0843 32.0 737 278
CO 2 1.5194 0.1159 944.01 1071 548
H2S 1.1764 0.0897 34.08 1306 673
H2 0.0696 0.0053 2.016 188 60
H2O 18.016 3208 1165
 ' ,05

1.2
13

700
-'i';"'U!'H II:: ". ' ., ~
~; , I::: t.: .' !"!
. 1: , iI"1 I:: :::
"I' 11 1'" ::::
-It'~ l-'I ' I ., .'" " •• 1 . ' :"':

.. :.:'!~ ::::. T:'

.11 r' ij' II..
.: , . .,:-:.
. , . r.:..,1
-i!- _ : . -- "rt J;! :::
... ::: I:
. ...
0;
'o 650 ~
0. ~_ ~Il't' ~~ ~ :I~]" "'1r'i ~I..!.Li t ::i:. ::;. I ;~
.111 :-; ! I .. ! 1::1'r-S ' ' :., li::: · .. ·,
II) t· "-1..:' tt _
• . !_~. r ' ..
~ Hr+ nH;!i ~:r: :::'1 :1:;II~;: ::::
:;11
:: ttl.t t:!: . i : l~,r I f: i T i I-l-'~ : ::::
~ 600 tttt 1-1-1.1 • • , ~ lU': ::. I
B Miscellaneous gases p..-::. loh
' I...• E .. ,.
- - - Condensate well fluid !=fi ::::r :+i:: ~~ ,::; IF..! :
- 1t-t1 I H " :-: ::t :1,-: :1_ .:;:; .",
I
:: 550 I--- +' ; H · .! t::... ". -!.. . I '1 :J A N
a. g:r/1:! IP I I! ; :~: :i::~:: :::: J?r8:1
>OO~~ IT· ;t~;, ;;~L(~- :,- 'r:!
., IJ:!- ,.r'!=lr:~ 'i-!: I....
it': :, y'~ .. . . . . J,

~ .. , :~;;~ ;i:~ ;1t

I .v,; ~: , : :: :;~ :::: I : : : :
(to p.-~::: ~ _. i ~: i :: :::: :: t
U:1t: :I :: I::: j .. , . i,., . . ,

R+.' ::~j ;i:! 1::.; V:j:'U~1 .:;;r: :::: :::: ::::i:: ::

0 ....
i~ 450 t:~~~~.
.r.:_:.:: rn; .r~ .. :. :.:: .:-'-: -;-:-:-:- :~:'k':
., .... -:.:! -;:~ 'uJ- !i V ~J4 :. . .. , . \ .......... I '" . . . . . . ..
Z p::7 ::::r r'::~ij: I.j;f+ v. ~:' -"j'i : Ii:' I::: ,::: i :: :;;:
e400 .- 10
"!Il' ................ , .. ,
& .... ,' -r-'" ':J' k ; tJi:. ::: : I ..............
E P.::: t ~h- :v." I ! ... ·1.. , !, '11'no .:: : :::: :::: ::::..... .
~ ~ b~ ~ ~ ~ I • ~ • t •• t · '-1.
.. +r:.=' 1U1 ~'7";.' • ~-:. ::-;:- :_~ _: : . .. .
~. 11 jI ,L
tid'l .,.. .',. '1" "..
]- +~ 'tlli; :~: it!:
. . . 1 : ! f;: "1' :; ::" t::::.. :, :!: ~ i .J: ::::

i 350: ; 11 . I :~ illr il ~ liW:1I8u%mTI,Hi

300 _ .. 12
0 ,5 0 ,6 0 .7 oe 0 ,9 10 u
Go. gravity (air' 1) 2 3 4 5 6
Pseudo reduced pressure

Fig. 4.7 Pseudo-critical properties and super-compressibility factor Z for natural gases (after (11).
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 47

TABLE 4.4 Hydrocarbon properties

Molecular Gross calorific value Critical Properties

Hydrocarbon Formula weight Btulft 3 at s.c. Pc(psia) TctR) Vc(ft31Ib)
Methane CH 4 16.042 1010 668 343 0.0993
Ethane C2H6 30.06 1769 708 550 0.0787
Propane C3 HS 44.09 2517 616 666 0.0730
n-Butane 3262 551 765 0.0704
C4H1O 58.12
i-Butane 3253 529 735 0.0725
n-Pentane 4010 480 845 0.0690
C5 H12 72.15
i-Pentane 4000 489 829 0.0685
n-Hexane C6H14 86.17 4756 437 913 0.0685
n-Heptane C7 H16 100.2 5503 397 972 0.0682
n-Octane CSH1S 114.2 6250 361 1024 0.0680
n-Nonane C9 H20 128.2 6997 332 1070 0.0673
n-Decane C1OH22 142.3 7742 304 1112 0.0671
Benzene C6H6 78.1 3742 710 1013 0.0540
Toluene C7 Hs 92.13 4475 596 1069 0.0570

ate for engineering accuracy with hydrocarbon a Newton-Raphson iterative technique to calculate
systems. Critical constants for some commonly y, the reduced density from t, the reciprocal of the
encountered components are reproduced in Tables pseudo-reduced temperature using
4.3 and 4.4, and for natural gases and condensate
well fluids in Fig. 4.7. (90.7t-242.2F + 42.42) Y (2.18+2.82 1 )
- (14.76t-9.76F+4.582~2 + [(y +/+ y 3-l)/(1-/)]
4.4.4 Gas deviation factor Z = O.06125pprte - l.2(1-t)
The ideal gas equation would predict the equality
Then zY = O.06125pprteA -1.2 (l-tl
PVm = 1
RT The iterative procedure has been described by
For real gases at pressures of more than a very few Dake l291 .
atmospheres this is not true. The behaviour of real Gas density, defined as mass/unit volume thus
gases can be expressed by the equation becomes at reservoir conditions:
PVm = zRT MaP
or
zRT
PV = nzRT
4.4.5 Gas viscosities
where z = I(P, 1) and z is termed a deviation factor
(or super-compressibility factor) expressing the The reservoir engineer is concerned not only with
degree of deviation from ideality. the expansion behaviour of reservoir fluids, but also
Because the law of corresponding states applies by flow rates and potential variations. The magni-
with satisfactory accuracy to mixtures of light hydro- tude of flow rates and potential drops will depend
carbon gases, it has been possible to correlate directly on fluid viscosities, and in the case of gases
compressibility factors with reduced values of press- these will depend on pressure and temperature.
ure and temperature, and these generalized correla- Again, if direct measurements of viscosity are not
tions (the Standing-Katz correlations l!] as shown in available, use is made of cot:relations based on
Fig. 4.7) are widely used in approximate calculations corresponding states. The viscosities of hydrocarbon
of gas reservoir behaviour. For more accurate work, gases at atmospheric pressure are established as
the extension and smoothing of accurate laboratory functions of molecular weight and temperature. The
measurements by an equation of state, or direct ratio of viscosity at a reduced pressure PR and
calculation through an equation of state using the reduced temperature TR, to the viscosity at atmos-
detailed composition of the gas to generate the pheric pressure and real temperatures T are then
necessary constants, will be satisfactory methods. correlated with reduced pressure and temperature.
Hall and Yarboroughl71 have used the Starling- Through these two correlations the viscosity at any
Carnahan equation of state to calculate z, using first given reservoir conditions can be estimated. The
48 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Gas gravity (Air = 1000)

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.016

NZ
0.015 0.0015
"~a.
0.014 15 0 0.0010
c I
Q 0

0.013 ~ ~ 0.0005
Q)
o
oB
'"
'0
a. 0.012
~
Q)
(.)
Mol. % C02
~- 0.011
::i.
E 0010
C
0.009
"0 a.
~ U
'in
0
0.008 I 00015
0
(.) U>
;;:
>'" 0.007 ~ 00010
"cP
0.006 ""
"c 0.0005
0
.;::
0
0.005 ~
5
0

0.004 ,0
50 60
Molecular weight
Fig. 4.8 Viscosity (Ill) at one atmosphere for natural gases.

correlations, after Carr et al. \III are shown in Figs 4.8

and 4.9.
il) 0
O <t) f<:! 0
.... ::: - '\I f't)
Note obtain JL1
from Figure 4.8 4.4.6 Gas compressibilities
For a perfect gas:
pv= nRT
nRT
V=-
P

dV= nRT
dP p2

~ dV _ ( -P
V dP nRT
) (-;:T) 1
P

02 Fig. 4.9 (left) Viscosity ratio for natural gases.

Pseudoreduced pressure, Ppr Note: obtain III from Fig. 4.8.
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 49

For a real gas: (Formation volume factor)gaS = Bg

= f(composition, pressure, temperature)
PV = nzRT and z = f(P) (Formation volume factor)oil = Bo
z = f(composition, pressure, temperature)
V=nRT-
P (Formation volume factor)water = Bw
= f(composition, pressure, temperature)
~~ - [ Zn;T ] + n;T ( :; ) Defining a simple ratio does not, of course, simplify
the problem of calculating the factor.
In the case of-gases, this can be done through an
dV 1 1 dz equation of state, and this is also possible for a liquid
V dP P z dP =cg above the saturation pressure. With liquids below
the saturation pressure, the evolution of gas with
so that for any ideal gas, or for real gases when the decreases in pressure, and the possible dependence
rate of change of z with p is small, compressibility on composition and volume changes with pressure,
can be represented by reciprocal pressure. the definition of simple equations of state is compli-
For real gases the gradient dz/dP is obtained cated.
by drawing a tangent to the z against pseudo-
reduced pressure curve at the reservoir pseudo- 4.5.1 Gas formation volume factor 8 g
reduced conditions. In this case the transformation
P = Ppc • Ppr is used as follows: For a gas
Since
volume at operating conditions
dz = dPpr • dz
Bg = volume at standard conditions
dP dP dPpr
P Tz
and B = _ 0- volumes/volume
g PTo
dPpr_ ~
dP - Ppc For example, for reservoir conditions, 2000 psia,
585°R, Z = 0.85, and for reference conditions, 14.7
then psia, 520o R, z = 1
dz 1 dz Bg = 7.028 X 10- 3 volume/volume
=--.-
dP It is frequently convenient to work in reservoir
so that units of barrels, and gas volumes are frequently
expressed in MSCF so that
Cg~ Pp, 1 P~ -ZP: (d~,) B
g
=P Tz 1000
_0_
P To 5.615
.
x - - reserVOir barrels/MSCF

and for the above example

4.5 FORMATION VOLUME FACTORS 8 Bg = 1.2516 reservoir barrels/MSCF
Formation volume factors have been given the (In these particular units, gas formation volume
general standard designation of B and are used to factors have the same general numerical range as oil
define the ratio between a volume of fluid at formation volume factors.)
reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure Regrettably, some writers also use Bg to represent
and its volume at a standard condition. The factors the reciprocal of the formation volume factor, i.e.
are therefore dimensionless but are commonly
quoted in terms of reservoir volume per standard Volume at reference conditions
volume. Subscripts o,g, ware used to define the fluid (B g ), = Volume at operating conditions
phase, and i and b are often added to define initial
and bubble-point conditions. Thus Bg; is an initial but this convention will not be adopted here, and
reservoir condition gas formation volume factor and this expression will be given an alternative definition
Bob is an oil formation volume factor at bubble-point ofthe gas expansion factor, i.e.
conditions.
In general we can write
50 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Gas expansion factor = E = .-L

Bg
Volume at reference conditions
=
Volume at operating conditions
Note that for small changes in z
Tz po. 1000 1
Bg = To 5.615· P
and Fig. 4.11 Brine compressibility at different
1 pressures and temperatures.
B=
g const·
P
(the equation of a hyperbola) and

1 = constant P 1.06
...... ......
~
Bg ......
.................. 250F
As shown in Fig. 4.10, a plot of E against P is 1.04
.........

approximately linear over small pressure ranges, and ...............

~
this can be convenient for data smoothing and ......
.........-...... 200F
interpolating. 1.02_
-- - -
... -
...
...............

-- ......
...

1.00 ~
- ................ 150F
..........
...........
............
....... 100F
:2 Pressure
u
0::
......
:2 Upper line - gas saturated--
u
(J)
Lower line - pure water-----
w
Fig. 4.12 Effect of temperature, pressure and gas
Pressure - - -
saturation on water formation volume factor.

Fig. 4.10 Gas formation volume factor.

isothermal
4.5.2 Water formation volume factor Bw conditions

For water, gases and dissolved salts can affect the

compressibility and so the formation volume factor,
but this effect is often ignored. When pressure
changes and water volumes are small, Bw is o
generally taken to be unity, and when pressure
changes are large and/or water volumes are large,
volume changes are calculated through compressibil- Fig. 4.13 Volume factor for water.
ity, rather than formation volume factor. These data
are shown in Figs 4.11 and 4.12. In general, Bw may be expressed in terms of the
The isothermal reservoir volume relationship for volume change A V wp during pressure reduction and
water containing some dissolved gas and initially AVwI during temperature reduction
existing above its bubble-point condition is shown in Bw = (1 + .:lVwp ) (1 +.:l V wt )
Fig. 4.13. It can be seen that loss in liquid volume
due to evolution of gas as the pressure reduces only The values of .:l V terms are shown in Figs 4.14 and
partially compensates for water expansion. 4.15.
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 51

0.06 it is the total system - oil plus associated gas - that

must be considered, and not simply the stock tank
liquid phase. The effect of pressure on the hydrocar-
0.05
bon liquid and its associated gas is to induce solution
of gas in the liquid until an equilibrium condition is
attained. A unit volume of stock tank oil brought to
equilibrium with its associated gas at reservoir
0.04 pressure and temperature will almost invariably
occupy a volume greater than unity (the only
exception would be an oil with little dissolved gas at
0.03
very high pressure).
The volume change is then a function of the
partial molar volume of the gas in solution, the
thermal expansion of the system with temperature
0.02 change, and the compression of the liquid phase. No
simple thermodynamic equation exists through
which these volume changes can be calculated and
0.01 LL-_ _-L-_ _..l--_ _--L_ _...J formation volume factors generated. The necessary
100 150 300 liquid properties are either directly measured or are
Reservoir temperature (0 F) determined from generalized correlations which can
have an acceptable accuracy for the generally
Fig. 4.14 Correction term ~Vwt. homologous family of components of crude oil
systems.
The oil formation volume factor will be discussed
-00021-_ _-.:2:..:0~0~0~p~s~ia~_ _ in connection with the behaviour of dissolved gas
systems. The shape of the Bo curve (Fig. 4.16)
reflects oil compressibility while all gas stays in
solution at pressures above bubble-point, and indi-
cates liquid shrinkage when gas comes out of
solution below bubble-point.

0.
lC
>
<l

1.0L-._ _ _ _.l....._ _ _---L-_ __

o Pb
Pressure - - -
-0.Q12.L.-_ _...l-_ _- L_ _-.J,-,----_--1
100 Fig. 4.16 Oil formation volume factor.
Reservoir temperature (OF)

Fig. 4.15 Correction term ~Vwf'

4.6 GAS·OIL RATIOS
4.5.3 Oil formation volume factor 8 0 The dissolved or solution gas-oil ratio, Rs , is a
constant above bubble-point pressure, as shown in
Black oil, or dissolved gas systems, may convenient- Fig. 4.17, and displays similar behaviour to Bo below
ly be regarded as solutions of gas mixture in a liquid, bubble point pressure. The symbol R is generally
the compositional changes in the gas with changing used for gas-oil ratios and has the units of standard
pressure and temperatures being ignored. In con- volumes of gas dissolved in a standard volume of
sidering volume changes between reference condi- liquid. When used alone, R represents an instan-
tions and reservoir (or other operating) conditions, taneous total producing gas-oil ratio (free gas plus
52 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

/
RS i • • wise variable composition (differential) separation.
~ For operational convenience, both these separations
u are carried out, and the results of the two separa-
Cfl
"-
~
tions are combined (in rather arbitrary fashion) to
u generate the data needed for material balance
Cfl
calculations. The experimental layout is usually
'"
0::
similar to that indicated in Fig. 4.18.
Gas samples
Pb Pi .------measurement
and analysis
Pressure -
Fig. 4.17 Solution gas-oil ratio.
solution gas), while with subscript s the symbol Rs r-- -------- ---I
indicates only the dissolved gas content of the liquid. J
IJ
J
:I
The symbol Rp indicates a cumulative ratio since J
J
J
J
PVce11 in
start of reservoir production, and is thus total J
J
J
J
thermostat both
J J

standard volume of gas produced divided by total J

J
J
J
J
J

standard volume of oil produced.

J J
1J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...1J

4.7 DIRECT MEASUREMENTS

PVT ANALYSIS
The first requirement - and difficulty - in taking
measurements is that of obtaining a truly representa-
tive sample of the formation fluid.
Provided that the pressure at the bottom of a test Gas Oil Mercury pump
sample sample
well does not drop below the bubble-point, then a Fig. 4.18 SchematicPVT analysis.
bottom-hole sample should be representative. Pro-
vided then that no leakage occurs from the sample, In the case of black oil (dissolved gas) systems,
and that transfer from the sample vessel to the test this inconsistency is relatively unimportant, and the
vessel is carried out without loss of any components, values generated are system properties valid within
then tests should be representative of samples. the usual range of data uncertainty. In the case of
Multiple samples are essential. The alternative to volatile oil and condensate systems, standard
bottom-hole sampling is recombination sampling, methods are inadequate, and process simulation by
which is inherently less satisfactory, except perhaps laboratory experiment is necessary to validate ther-
for gas condensate systems. modynamic relationships.
When samples of separator oil and separator gas
are recombined for test purposes, a particular 4.7.1 Flash liberation at reservoir
problem is the choice of proportions for recombina- temperature
tion. If a well flows under stable conditions, with a
bottom-hole pressure above the bubble-point, and The fluid sample is raised to a high pressure
the separator gas-oil ratio stabilizes throughout the (substantially above bubble-point) at reservoir
test, then recombination should be valid. Measured temperature, and expanded in stages at constant
gas-oil ratios will frequently be erratic, and will composition, to give the total volume at a series of
occasionally vary over a range which will make pressures.
recombination suspect. It must be realized that all A plot of the volumes and pressures will identify
PVT analysis involves a basic and unavoidable the bubble-point pressure, and data is customarily
inconsistency. The thermodynamic path followed by replotted in terms of relative volume V R, as shown in
a two-phase mixture (i.e. the changes in pressure, Fig. 4.19.
temperature and composition) in flowing from the
reservoir to the stock tank is essentially unknown. Volume at any arbitrary pressure
Consequently this thermodynamic path cannot be Volume at bubble-point pressure T
followed or duplicated in a PVT analysis. In the
laboratory, two processes can be followed - a
constant composition (flash) separation, and a step-
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 53

t as a formation volume factor. For many systems, this

ratio will be sufficiently accurate (given the uncer-
>
.0
tainties in sampling) to be used in this way. The
......
-> volumes of stock tank oil generated by a volume of
~ reservoir oil is in fact dependent on the thermodyna-
0:: Constant mic path followed between initial and final states.
> temperature

-e
Q)
E
:::l
(a)
~
Q)

c
>
+=
a;
1.0 ---e
a:: .0
>
Pb
Pressure --+-

Fig. 4.19 Relative volume data by the flash process.

The initial condition is VRi.

From the plot, the compressibility above bubble- Pb Pi
(b)
point of the liquid at reservoir temperature can be ·0 Pressure
determined.
....c: ~

·0
a.
1- V Ri ..J
a::
Q)
:0
Co = V Ri I1P "tJ
.0
:::l
~ .0
~ .....0
Q)
.0 "0
en ...>
4.7.2 Differential liberation at C
(9
Q)
a.
re~ervoir temperature '0
~
Pi
0 e e
Again starting above or at the bubble-point, the
system is expanded in stages. In this case, the free Fig. 4.20 Relative volume (a) and gas liberation (b) data
gas phase at each stage is removed at constant by the differential process.
pressure, and then measured by expanding to
standard conditions. Consequently the expansion is
not at constant composition, and the results are valid 4.7.3 Flash separation tests
only for dissolved gas systems.
This expansion yields the solution gas-oil ratio as It is customary to carry out a separator test, flashing
a function of pressure, gas expansion factors as a the bubble-point liquid to stock tank conditions
function of pressure, and volumes of liquid at each through a series of intermediate stages correspond-
pressure. The liquid remaining at 1 atmosphere at ing to possible field separator conditions. The total
reservoir temperature is termed residual oil (and its gas evolved in this flash operation is the value taken
volume the residual oil volume), and cooling this to as the total or initial solution gas-oil ratio R si• This
60°F will generate a stock tank volume (VST). will differ from the cumulative gas released in the
The relative volume ratio (Vo)dlVb is generally differential process because of the different thermo-
plotted as a function of pressure, as shown in Fig. dynamic path involved in cooling residual oil to
4.20 (a). The liberated gas ratio RL is also plotted standard conditions.
against pressure, as shown in Fig. 4.20 (b). When this is done, the difference between residual
PVT reports frequently tabulate the ratio oil (60°F) and stock tank oil obtained through a
specific separation process can be corrected,
(Vo )d = liquid volume ]p, T although the basic inconsistency remains.
VST residual liquid volume ]60 F0
We define: .
Volume of oil obtained by a
Vo Vb
differential separation at any pressure,
and reservoir temperature
54 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Volume at bubble-point and The two-phase formation volume factor B t is

reservoir temperature calculated in consistent units from
Vt Vb
(Vo)d .~ Bt = - . -- = Bo + Bg {Rsi - Rs}
Vb (VST)F Vb (VSTh
Volume of stock tank oil obtained by The solution gas-oil ratio is thus
flashing a volume Vb
of bubble-point oil Bt - Bo}
Rs=Rsi- ( Bg

A difficulty also arises with the definition of gas-oil

ratio. If the incremental gas volumes accumulated in
a differential process are summed, the results will be
a total for the gas originally in solution. This is 4.8 GENERALIZED CORRELATIONS
frequently referred to as initial solution GOR per FOR LIQUIDS SYSTEMS
unit volume of residual oil (60°F).
This volume will not be the same as the total gas 4.8.1 Bubble-point pressure
obtained by flashing bubble-point oil through a
specific separator process to stock tank conditions. The bubble-point pressure or saturation pressure is a
Since the produced GOR used in material balance value of considerable interest to engineers, and a
calculations is the separator GOR, it is customary to value will nearly always be measured experimental-
use the flash separator GOR as the value for Rs in ly. In fields with multiple reservoirs (or where the
material balance calculations, the differential fact of separation of horizons is not established early
separation values being used for the solution gas-oil on), samples may not be taken for all reservoirs, and
ratio. Again an inconsistency remains. indirect approaches may be necessary.
Correlations are available for the estimation of
4.7.4 Summary of tests bubble point pressure from other system properties.

The laboratory tests can be summarized as in Table

Pb = f(composition, temperature)
4.5, together with the data generated. If detailed composition is known, and equilibrium
The bubble-point oil formation volume factor Bob ratios are available for the components at the
from flash separator tests is used in the calculation of temperature required, the bubble point can be
oil compressibility. calculated, but in general the composition for a

TABLE 4.5 Laboratory test summary

Equilibrium vaporization tests Flash separator test

Conducted at reservoir temperature Conducted from reservoir
temperature to surface conditions
Relates oil properties at T,P to saturated oil properties at Relates oil properties at
Pb andT, reservoir conditions to oil
at stock tank conditions
Flash vaporization test Differential liberation test Measures:
Gas not removed Gas removed as it is released
Composition constant Composition of remaining
system varies

Measures: Measures:
VrNb VaNb
Co RL
Co
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 55

I
dissolved gas system is represented by the solution B = 0.972 + 0.000147 FI. I75
gas-oil ratio, the gas density and the oil density, so Yg ]0.5
that F=Rs (Y)o +L25T
Pb = f(Rs , Pg , Po , T)
An empirical correlation using a large amount of Evaluation of Bo over a range of pressures, when
data, and developed by Standing(I)is the value of solution GOR is known at one pressure,
will then involve determining Rs at a series of
0.83 10 0.00091 T ] pressures within the range by the inverse of proce-
Pb = 18 [ (~;) . lOO.0125APJ dure for bubble-point pressure, and the use of this
value in the formation volume factor correlation.
Above the bubble-point, the formation volume
where T = of, Yg = gas gravity and Pb is in Psi. The factor will be given by the equation
relationship is shown in Fig. 4.21. Figure 4.22 shows
a nomogram for an alternative method due to Bp = Bb {I + c(Pb - P)}
Lasater(16) . = Bb{l-c(P-Pb) I
10000
8000 l- and the oil compressibility within the range P ~ Pb
6000 V will be needed for this.
/
5000
·in
0-
4000 Depending upon the data available, estimation for
3000
the compressibility can involve a number of cross-
~
:::> 2000 / correlations, the final correlation being of pseudo-
/
<II
<II
~
0-
1000
reduced compressibility with pseudo-reduced

V temperature and pseudo-reduced pressure, several

c:
·0 800
0-
.!!
600 previous correlations being necessary for the liquid
/
.0 500
.0
:::> 400 phase.
III 300
200
7' The oil density at reservoir conditions can be
estimated in appropriate units from the oil and gas
100 I 1I1I1 I I I 11111 densities at standard conditions and from the values
10 20 3040 6080100 200300 600 1000 at Bo and Rs at reservoir conditions, as follows:
[(
y i
RSf·S3 10o.00091T
100.0125(API)
]
PoBo = (Po)sc + Rs (Pg)sc

Fig. 4.21 Bubble-point correlation using 4.8.3 Two-phase volume factor

Standing's data (after (11).
The total (two-phase) formation volume factor is the
volume occupied at reservoir conditions by the oil
and gas associated with a unit volume of stock tank
oil. The parameter is designated Br and is defined by
Br = Bo + Bg (Rsi - Rs)
This can be evaluated from the separate oil and gas
formation volume factors at any pressure, and the
Example' solution gas-oil ratio.
GOR =370scf /slb
API= 35
Since the reservoir equations using formation
TR=200degF volume factors involve differences in these factors, it
YG=O.6 is frequently desirable to smooth experimental or
.. Pb= 2000pslo
correlation derived data to improve accuracy.
Fig. 4.22 Bubble-point pressure using the Lasater
correlation (after 1161).
Two-phase formation volume factors are most
readily smoothed by the relation
(Pb -P)
4.8.2 Formation volume factor
Formation volume factor for a saturated liquid can
be estimated(1) from the empirical equation
p{~> 1 )
 56 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

and the Y function is a linear function of pressure 100

(see Fig. 4.23). This can be a valuable relationship
for smoothing, correlating and extending data,
especially near the bubble-point.

P
Fig. 4.23 Y-function smoothing.
Viscosity of dead oil , cp
at reservoir temperature and 14.7 psia
4.8.4 Oil viscosity Fig. 4.24 (b)
The viscosity of a reservoir oil can be considered to
be the viscosity of a dead oil at some reference 4.8.5 Water viscosity
pressure condition (e.g. tank oi!), corrected for
temperature and the effects of dissolved gas. It is Water viscosity is dependent on salinity. The viscos-
. preferable for the viscosity at the reference state to ity of various salinity brines at 1 atmosphere
be measured, although correlations are available for pressure (f-t*7) is given in Fig. 4.25 (a) as a function
this purpose. of reservoir temperature l181 . At elevated pressures,
Figure 4.24 shows the essential correlations l171 . the relationship
The viscosity of dead oil at reservoir temperature
f-tP,T= f-t*T . jp,T
and atmospheric pressure is the required start point,
and a measured value at this temperature, or a is used where jp, T is obtained from the jp, T against T
measured value corrected to this temperature, is chart (Fig. 4.25 (b» at pressures between 2000 and
desirable. The viscosity of saturated oil is directly 10000 psi.
obtained. If the system is undersaturated, a correc-
tion for the excess pressure is needed. If no 4.8.6 Recent North Sea oil correlations
measured viscosity is available, an estimate must be
made through the oil gravity. Using the correlation methods proposed by Stand-
ing, a number of North Sea oils have been recorre-
fr 10000 lated by Glas0[!31. The units used are oil field units
'0 with Ph the bubble-point pressure in psia; R the
Q)
"C producing gas-oil ratio in SCF/STB; Yg the average
2 1000
u specific gravity of the total surface gases; T the

- reservoir temperature in OF; API is the degree API

Q)

~
I stock tank oil gravity and Yo is the specific gravity of
the stock oil. The reservoir pressure in psia is P.
If)
C
C>
Temperature reservoir For saturation pressure the relationship is
deg F
....>-
.iii 10 /100 log Ph = 1.7669 + 1. 7447 (log P* b)
o ./ /160
<)
If) 220 - 0.30218 (log P*b)2
'>
~ 1.0 where
::l

l]
"0

lf(API)0.989
If)

~ )0.816.
.0
« 0.1 L::--~--::L:-----:,L;:--~-~::-- * = [( T 0.172
10 P b . Yg
(a) Crude oil gravity (APIl,60oF,14.7psia

Fig. 4.24 Beal correlations for crude oil viscosity.l171

 4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 57

(a) Figure 4.26 (b) illustrates this relationship. For the

two-phase flash volume factor B t at any reservoir
(b) 114,------'Press"'e(Psl)
pressure P, the relationship between B t and B t * is
112 10000
shown in Fig. 4.25 (c) and represents:
a:-
log B t = 0.080135 + 0.47257 (log B\)
....
u
+ 0.17351 (log B*rf
-=-~
~
E!
where
'"E

1r
Co

l!! 4000 J5
~~S~:;J2000
B* t = R - -. ) . (p- 1. 1089 )
_ 03
• {
Yo (2.9 x lO- o.(XK)27R)
}
~ Yg·
E 1.0
f, pressure correction factor
C
.
~

§ 08 The pressure of non-hydrocarbons, specifically

;;
'"c 07 CO 2 , N2 , HzS, can affect the calculated values of
~ saturation pressure described above. The magnitude
.
0

Co
r-
06
of the correction multiplier Fe> which should be
:;: applied to the calculated value, can be expressed in
0.4
terms of the mole fraction Y of the non-hydrocarbon
component present in total surface gases, as shown
02 in Fig. 4.26 (d), (e) and (f).
For nitrogen
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
ReservoIr temperature (deg F) Fe = 1.0 + {( -2.65 X 10- 4 (API) + 5.5 X 10- 3 ) T
Fig. 4.25 Chesnut's water viscosity correlation [18]
+ (0.093 (API) - 0.8295)} YN2
+ {(1.954 X 10- 11 (API)4.699) T
For volatile oils an exponent for the temperature of + (0.027 (API) - 2.366)} (YNZ)2
0.130 rather than 0.172 is appropriate. The rela-
tionship between P* band P b is shown in Fig. 4.26 For CO 2 ,
(a). For oil flash formation volume factor, Bob, the Fe = 1.0 - 693.8 (Yeo,) . T-1. 553
relationship is
log (Bob - 1.0) = 2.91329 (log B* ob) For H 2 S,
- 0.27683 (log B* ob)2 - 6.58511 Fe = 1.0 - (0.9035 + 0.0015 (API» (YH,S)
where + 0.019 {45 -(API)} (YH,S) -

h
were
B*ob -- R[ ~_]0,526 + 0.968T

Examples
Example 4.1
Tabulate values of API gravity for the specific gravity range 0.70 to 0.90 in increments of 0.02.
Example 4.2
The composition and component critical values of a gas are as tabulated below:
Component Mol.wt Mol. fraction Critical press (psia) Critical temp. ("RI
C1 16 0.9 673 343
C2 30 0.05 708 550
C3 44 0.03 617 666
C4 58 0.02 551 765
58 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(a) (b)
10 4 2

1.5

.a
.a
0- 10 3 m
0

Bubble Point Oil Flash

Pressure Formation Volume
Factor

10 2
1 10 100 1.01
Pb* 10 2 10 3 10 4
Bob*

(c) 10 2 (d)
N2 correction to Pb
Two Phase Flash
1.6
Formation Volume Factor

1.5 Yg =0.72

-
m 10
L1..0

(e) (f)
,.~................... 300°F
................. .
..
................
'
0.95
'"''''
Yg =0.72 ........ '00
..... , of:"
0.90 ..................
CO 2 correction to Pb " .... ,,

Fig. 4.26 PVT correlations for North Sea oils (after 13).
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 59

(a) Calculate the molecular weight ofthe gas.

(b) Calculate the density and specific gravity relative to air at 14.7 psia and 60°F. (Mol wt. of air = 28.9)
(c) Calculate the pseudo-critical pressure and temperature.
(d) Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature at 2000 psia and 135°F.
(e) Determine the gas deviation factor at 2000 psia and 135°F.
(f) Calculate the gas density at 2000 psi a and 135°F.
(g) Calculate (both in vols/vol and in reservoir barrels/lOOO scf) the gas formation volume factor at 2000
psia and 135°F.
(h) Find the gas viscosity at 2000 psia and 135°F.
(i) Calculate the compressibility of gas at 2000 psi a and 135°F.
(j) If the pressure of 2000 psia is the reservoir pressure measurement at 4100 ft SS and the regional aquifer
gradient is 0.44 psi/ft (below mean sea level), at what depth would a gas water contact be expected?
(k) If the crest of the structure is found to be 1000 ft above gas water contact, what density of drilling fluid
will be necessary to control formation pressures at the crest (providing an over pressure of 500 psi).

Example 4.3
If a reservoir has a connate water saturation of 0.24, a yas saturation of 0.31 and compressibilities are
respectively: Co = 10 x 1O-6(psi)-\ water: 3 x 1O-6(psi)- ; gas as calculated in 42(a); pore compressibility
cf= 5 X 1O-6(psi)-1. What are:
(a) total compressibility
(b) effective hydrocarbon compressibility.

Example 4.4

(a) Using correlations find the bubble-point pressure and formation volume factor at bubble-point pressure
of an oil of gravity 38° API, gas-oil ratio 750 scflstb, gas gravity 0.70, at a temperature of 175°F.
(b) If a reservoir containing this hydrocarbon has an oil-water contact at 7000 ft s.s. and the regional
hydrostatic gradient is 0.465 psi/ft, at what elevation would a gas-oil contact be anticipated?
(c) What would be the formation volume factor of the oil at a pressure 4000 psi?
(d) Find the viscosity of the oil at bubble-point pressure and 175°F. Molecular weight = 180.

Example 4.5

The following results are obtained in a PVT analysis at 200°F:

Pressure psia 4000 3000 2500 2000 1500
System vol.ml. 404 408 410 430 450
Estimate the bubble point pressure.
The system is recompressed, expanded to 2000 psia and the free gas removed at constant pressure, and is
measured by expansion to 1 atmosphere.
Volume of liquid 388 ml.
Volume of gas (expanded to 1 atm., 60°F) 5.275litres
The pressure is then reduced to 14.7 psia and the temperature to 60°F
Volume of residual liquid 295 ml.
Volume of gas (measured at 1 atm., 60°F:21litres)

Estimate the following PVT properties:

Co. liquid compressibility at 3000 psia
Bo at 3000 psia
Bm B(, Rs at 2500 psia; 2000 psia
Bg , z at 2000 psia
60 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

References
[1] Standing, M.B.
Volumetric and Phase Behaviour of Oilfield Hydrocarbons, Reinhold Publishing (1952).
[2] Clark., N.
Elements of petroleum reservoirs, Soc. Pet. Engrs. (1962).
[3] Standing, M.B. and Katz, D.L.
Density of natural gases, Trans AIME 146 (1942), 140.
[4] GPSA
Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa (1974),16.
[5] McCain, W.D.
The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, Pemwell., Tulsa (1973).
[6] Katz, D.L. et at.
Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc, New York (1959).
[7] Hall, K.R. and Yarborough, L.
How to solve equation of state for Z-factors, OGJ (Feb. 1974),86.
[8] Takacs, G.
Comparisons made for computer Z-factor calculations, OGJ (Dec. 1976),64.
[9] American Petroleum Institute
Recommended practice for sampling petroleum reservoir fluids, API Pub. RP 44 (Ian. 1966).
[10] Dodson, C.R., Goodwill, D. and Mayer, E.H.
Application ofiaboratory PVTdata to reservoir engineering problems, Trans. AIME 198 (1953), 287.
[11] Carr, N.L., Kobyashi, R. and Burrows, D.B.
Viscosity of hydrocarbon gases under pressure, Trans. AIME 201 (1954), 264.
[12] Burcik, E.l.
Properties of petroleum fluids, IHRDC (1979).
[13] Glas~, O.
Generalised pressure-volume-temperature correlations, J PT 32 (1980), 785.
[14] Peng, D.Y. and Robinson, D.B.
A new two constant equation on state, Ind. Eng. Chern. Fund 15 (1976), 59.
[15] Soave, G.
Equilibrium constants from a modified Redlich-Kwong equation of state, Chern. Eng. Sci. 27 (1972),1197.
[16] Lasater,l.A.
Bubble point pressure correlation, Trans. AIME 213 (1958), 379.
[17] Beal, C.
The viscosity of air, water, natural gas, crude oil and its associated gases at oil field temperatures .and pressures,
Trans. AIME 165 (1946), 94.
[18] Matthews, C.S. and Russell, D.G.
Pressure buildup and flow test in wells - Chesnut's water viscosity correlation, SPE Monograph No. I (1967).
[19] Chew, 1. and Connally, C.A.
A viscosity correlation for gas saturated crude oils, Trans. AIME 216 (1959), 23.
[20] Long, G. and Chierici, G.
Salt content changes compressibility of reservoir brines, Pet. Eng. (July 1961), 25.
[21] Cronquist, C.
Dimensionless PVTbehaviour of Gulf Coast reservoir oils, J. Pet. Tech. (1973),538.
[22] Firoozabadi, A., Hekim, Y. and Katz, D.L.
Reservoir depletion calculations for gas condensates using extended analyses in the Peng Robinson equation of
state, Can. J. Ch. Eng. 56 (1978), 610.
[23] Katz, D.L.
Overview of phase behaviour in oil and gas production, JPT (1983),1205.
[24] Yarborough, L.
Application of a generalised equation of state to petroleum reservoir fluids, Adv. Chern. Series. Am. Chern. Soc.
Washington D.C. No. 182 (1979), 385.
[25] Robinson, D.B., Peng, D.Y. and Ng, H.l.
Some applications of the Peng-Robinson equation of state to fluid property calculations, Proc. GPA, Dallas (1977),
11.
4 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 61

[26] Lohrenz, J., Bray, B.G. and Clark, C.R.

Calculating viscosities ofreservoir fluids from their compositions, Trans. AIME 231 (1964), 117l.
[27] Clark, N.J. .
Adjusting oil sample data for reservoir studies, JPT (Feb. 1962), 143.
[28] Trube, A.S.
Compressibility of undersaturated hydrocarbon reservoir fluids, Trans. AIME 210 (1957),341.
[29] Dake, L.P.
Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam (1978).
 ChapterS

Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

5.1 DATA SOURCES AND APPLICATION Friable or unconsolidated rock is frequently reco-
vered only as loose grains, unless special core barrels
To form a commercial reservoir of hydrocarbons, are used.
any geological formation must exhibit two essential The recovered core represents the record of rock
characteristics. These are a capacity for storage and type in the well section and is the basic data for
transmissibility to the fluid concerned, i.e. the interpretation of geological and engineering prop-
reservoir rock must be able to accumulate and store erties.
fluids, and when development wells are drilled it In general, two partially conflicting objectives
must be possible for those reservoir fluids to flow must be met when taking core samples. In the first
through relatively long distances under small poten- place, a careful on-site examination for hydrocarbon
tial gradients. traces is desirable (e.g. gas bubbling or oil seeping
Storage capacity requires void spaces within the from the core, core fluorescence on a freshly
rock, and transmissibility requires that there should exposed surface, fluorescence and staining in solvent
be continuity of those void spaces. The first charac- cuts etc.), in case an open hole drill stem test is
teristic is termed porosity, the second permeability. possible and desirable. In the second place, it is
While some estimates of reservoir rock properties desirable to preserve the core in as unchanged a
can be made from electrical and radioactive log condition as possible prior to laboratory evaluation.
surveys, the study of core samples of the reservoir Some parts of the core should then, immediately
rock are always essential. after lithological examination and logging, be wrap-
A core is a sample of rock from the well section, ped tightly in polythene or immersed in fluid and
generally obtained by drilling into the formation sealed into containers for transit to the laboratory.
with a hollow section drill pipe and drill bit. There is This is done in the hope that drying out of cores with
a facility to retain the drilled rock as a cylindrical changes in wettability, or changes in porosity and
sample with the dimensions of the internal cross- permeability due to washing with incompatible fresh
sectional area of the cutting bit and the length of the or sea water, will be minimized. Remaining parts
hollow section. With conventional equipment, this may then be examined for hydrocarbon traces,
results in cores up to 10 m in length and 11 cm in solvent cuts taken, and some samples washed
diameter. It is frequently found that variation in thoroughly for detailed lithological, sedimentologic-
drilling conditions and in formation rock character al and palaeontological examination. Figure 5.1
prevent 100% recovery of the core. In addition, the shows the kind of data obtained from recovered
core may also be recovered in a broken condition. cores.
62
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 63

Rout ine core plug analys'l s

Slabbed core • Porosity
• Photograph • Permeability
• Sedimentology "- Government or • Grain density
" regu latory body
• Li thology
• Samples
ISampling I /
~
• As- received saturations

ICuration I t
Special core analys is

Thin sections
• Deta i Ipore structure
• Diagenesis
/ Core from
well
• Preserved/restored state
• Capillary pressure
• Re lative permeab ili ty
• Electrical properties
• Porosity type
• Acoustic propert ies
• Environmenta l evidence

/
• Compressive properties
• Clay chem i stry effects

Small samp les • Specif ic tests

• Gra in s zi e distribution
t
• Mineral analysis
Cal ibration of wire line logs
• X-ray and SEM analysis
• Biadati ng and association

Fig. 5.1 Data obtained from cored wells.

Descriplion

A slacked senes of
moderate reddISh
brown t current ripple
Iommled and
Iere>ss -bedded, graded
sandslones.

Fig. 5.3 Core log.

64 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

correlated with wireline logs (Fig. 5.2). Study of the

Gamma ray log F. D. C. og
l
bedding character and associated fossil and micro-
Bul k density fossil record may provide an interpretation of the
225 250g/cc
age and depositional environment (Fig. 5.3). Petro-
Copper shale -' ==~=:fi=:=!F;~==:=:;::== c physical measurements of porosity and permeability
g'" -!:!. ~~ :g~ from samples of the recovered core allow quantita-
. . =. tive characterization of reservoir properties in the
-
(DQ.<Dc

well section. Samples from the recovered core are

also used to study post depositional modification to
the pore space (Fig. 5.4) (diagenetic studies), flow
character of the continuous pore space (special core
analysis studies) and character of recovered fluids
and source rocks (geochemical studies). The diversi-
ty of information that can be obtained from reco-
vered core implies that a number of specialists are
involved in assembling a coring program for a new
well - each specialist wishing to ensure that samples
are obtained under the best possible conditions.
o
(D In general, it may be said that coring operations
Q.
0' subdivide into two types - those conducted on
exploration/appraisal wells and those on develop-
~

g. ~.
~o.
(Do. ment wells. As a further generality, it is often found
",eD that the control of the coring program lies with
g §
",-
0. _ . exploration geologists for exploration/appraisal
(D
.a wells and with reservoir engineers for development
c
(D
~
wells. The amount of core taken is usually decided
n
(D on the basis of a technical argument between data
collection, technical difficulty and costs. Geologists
and reservoir engineers require core for reservoir
description and definition, and they may argue that
the opportunity to recover samples of the reservoir is
only presented once in each well. Drilling engineers
tend to argue that the possibility for losing the well is
increased by coring operations, and that coring adds
significantly in terms of time to the cost of a well.
The efficiency of a drilling operation is often
measured in terms of time-related costs to move on
to a location, reach a given depth, complete the well
Legend and move off to the next location . This is in direct
Reworked

~
~
o0. r0 conflict with time-consuming data retrieval and
sands -. ~
o. (D often results in coring decisions requiring manage-
Foreset bed (D ...
-.:> c ment arbitration between departments.
_ Bottom set bed '"o=+-~_. The case for coring therefore requires a careful
• 0 Wadi Y>

0" deposits presentation in which the need for the information is

simply explained, together with the reasons for
obtaining samples under controlled conditions . The
Fig. 5.2 Lithology and log character in zonation of case should be supported by a time and cost analysis
Rotliegendes in Leman gas reservoir (UKCS) (after 1361). .for the coring operation and, where possible, by an
indication of the benefits in terms of incremental oil
recovery (i.e. reservoir description leading to better
5.2 CORING DECISIONS well placement). The incremental cost of the coring
may also be effectively presented as a fraction of oil
Cores provide an opportunity to study the nature of value at peak production rate .
the rock sequence in a well . They will provide a The coring of exploration wells tends to be
record of the lithologies encountered and can be minimal on the first well on a prospect, unless a good
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 65
commissioned by the exploration department, with-
out particular regard to the conditions of sample
selection or preparation of the plugs. It can be
important to specify the plug frequency, plug
orientation, plug drilling fluids, plug cleaning pro-
cesses and even the test methods for routine core
analysis. These are more appropriately the responsi-
bility of the reservoir engineer to define for the
exploration department. The presentation of results
may also be defined by the reservoir engineers, in
combination with geological zone description.
The coring of development wells is largely control-
led by reservoir engineers. In this case it is necessary
for co-operation between engineers and production
geologists to prepare the coring program. At this
stage, reservoir zonation may be better established
and cores are required by the geologists for detailed
sedimentological, mineralogical and reservoir con-
tinuity studies and by engineers for attributing
reservoir petrophysical properties within the more
detailed zonation. The conditions of core recovery,
sample selection and sample storage require partic-
ular definition since results will be affected by, for
example, wettability variation.
The decisions on how many wells to core are
generally taken by management after considerations
Fig. 5.4 Diagenetic modification to pore space - SEM of
of need to know technical argument and project
illite/smectite formed at the expense of kaolinite. economics. It tends to be true that the degree of
reservoir continuity and the number of development
wells required form an inverse relationship and that
core study can provide a basis for reservoir descrip-
regional analogy exists. The second well is often tion, which should lead to more efficient reservoir
designated a type well by the exploration department management. In many North Sea reservoirs the
and may be extensively cored. The cored intervals geological complexity can only be resolved by a
will be decided on the basis of prognosis and analogy combination and integration of data from many
with the discovery well section. It is frequently found sources - core data being particularly relevant.
that the reservoir engineers do not fully participate Despite delay to first production, it is sensible to
in defining the core program for such appraisal core early development wells as fully as possible in
wells. The opportunity exists to influence the coring order to improve confidence in reservoir description
mud program, the basis for sample selection for and development plans. Coring in highly deviated
special core analysis tests, the basis for sample wells is naturally more of a risk than in straight holes
selection for routine core analysis, and the storage or less deviated wells, and choice of cored wells
and transportation of recovered core. There may be should reflect this. A target of 30% cored wells will
some specialist advice from a laboratory group provide reasonable reservoir control in all but the
regarding some of these aspects. most complex geology - the coring should however
In exploration wells the geologists have a primary be 75% complete before the reservoir has 50% of its
concern in describing the core in terms of its wells.
lithological variation and defining a basis for zona-
tion. The zonation may initially be in terms of
reservoir and non-reservoir intervals, subdivided in 5.3 CONVENTIONAL AND ORIENTED
terms of rock units. Correlation with wireline logs CORING
and between wells may be made on a preliminary
basis which will be improved as sedimentological Conventional coring refers to core taken without
and petrographic studies proceed. Routine core regard to precise orientation - that is without
analysis on plugs drilled from the core is frequently reference to true north position. Conventional coring
66 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

encompasses a range of particular core barrels and

cutting head and includes:
steel core barrel; ~--1
plastic or fibre glass core barrel;
rubber sleeve core barrel; ~---2
pressure core barrel;
sponge insert core barrel.
The core recovered from these devices does not
allow visualization of rock in its exact reservoir
condition orientation. This may be a limitation in
sedimentological interpretation where direction of
orientation has significance in predicting reservoir
continuity. The orientation in fluvial deposition
systems (e.g. river channels) is of particular import-
ance in well to well correlation and may not be easily
deduced from dip meter data, particularly where
overbank slump is greater than depositional dip.
A technique that has found application in onshore
coringl12J and is now achieving success in offshore
coring involves the scribing of grooves along the axis
of the core in a gyroscopically controlled orienta-
tion. The method is known as directionally oriented
coring arid requires periodic stops in the coring
operation to take a measurement of orientation. The
cost of oriented core offshore has recently been
estimated as an incremental cost of some US $50 per
metre on conventional core.
Orientation of cores is accomplished by running a
conventional core barrel which has a scribed shoe
containing three tungsten scribes (Fig. 5.5). The
scribe shoe is located at the base of the inner core
barrel immediately above the core catcher assembly.
The scribe shoe is added to the inner barrel by
replacing the inner sub with the scribe shoe sub. The
top of the inner barrel is attached to the inner barrel
head. A shaft extends from the inner barrel head
through the safety joint and into a muleshoe
attached at its top. The shaft rotates with the inner
barrel. Multishot survey instruments are attached to
the upper portion of the muleshoe. The survey
J"'. I
A

instrument has a built-in marker which is aligned

with the oriented scribe in the scribe shoe at the I
bottom of the barrel. The survey instrument is
located within a K-monel collar to prevent any : lID
magnetic disturbance from the drill pipe.
I

I
5.4 CORING MUD SYSTEMS ru\fl fTTrrnIi
LJJ. J..,.L Je..
It is inevitable that coring fluid will invade a porous I
reservoir rock to some degree. The consequence of Fig. 5.5 Oriented coring: American Coldset oriented core
this is that materials in the mud system, used to barrel with Spenny Sun adapter (1) and scribe shoe (2) in
control viscosity, filter loss, weight etc., may cause a place of conventional inner barrel sub.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 67

change in the relative affinity of the reservoir rock Formation damage prevention: Need compatibility
surface for oil and water. This change in wettability is with formation waters to prevent changes of clay
manifest in the term 0 cos e, which represents the chemistry or physical state.
interfacial tension (0) between oil and water under
the reservoir conditions and the contact angle (e) Residual oil saturation: Eliminate oil base fluids.
measured through the water phase as the angle Best with formation brine composition muds.
between the oil water interface and the surface (Fig. Flushing will reduce any oil saturation to just
5.6). about residual, therefore use low mud circulation
rate and high as practicable penetration rate.
/
/
/
/ Initial water saturation: Eliminate water in mud
/
/ Oil system. Flushing from oil filtrate. Best fluid is
/
lease crude if well control permits.

~
////IIIi!lilli/IJ/~'iliIII/iIIiIiJ/IiIiIiIi///I///IiJ
Surface
The main constituents of drilling muds are classified
as liquid or solid as follows:
Fig. 5.6 Wetting surface.
Liquids: (1) fresh water; (2) salt water; (3) oils;
(4) combination of 1-3.
The term 0 cos e controls the capillary forces and
hence irreducible saturations in a particular rock Solids: (1) low gravity (approximate SG = 2.5),
fluid system. Changes in the term through mud (a) non-reactive - sand, limestone, chert and some
system chemistry will result in the recovery of shales, (b) reactive - clay compound; (2) high
unrepresentative samples. It is clear that the ideal gravity, (a) barite (approximate SG = 4.2), (b)
coring fluids from a sample purity point of view iron ore + lead sulphide (approximate SG = 2.0).
would be reservoir brine or reservoir crude oil, but
in general these fluids would not allow adequate well A mud laboratory is used to evaluate the compatibil-
control. It is therefore necessary to use a bland or ity and performance of chemical additives for
unreactive mud system, or to otherwise demonstrate drilling muds planned for a particular well.
the effect of any particular mud system on the term 0
cose.
The principal changes that might occur are those 5.5 CORE PRESERVATION
changing the wettability of the core or the physical
state of in situ clay materials. These may change The objective of core preservation is to retain the
porosity and permeability as well as flow properties wettability condition of a recovered core sample,
determined in laboratory tests. and to prevent change in petrophysical character.
The influence of engineers and geologists requir- Exposure to air can result in oxidation of hydrocar-
ing core on the mud system recipe must be decided bons or evaporation of core fluids with subsequent
in conjunction with the drilling engineers as the wettability change[lO, 46, 511. Retention of reservoir
primary functions of the mud are: fluids (either oil or water) should maintain wetting
character, so core may be stored anaerobically under
(a) control of subsurface pressure;
fluid in sealed containers. Reservoir brine (or a
(b) lift formation cuttings;
chemically equivalent brine) will prevent ion ex-
(c) lubricate drill string; change processes in interstitial clays and maintain
(d) hole cleaning;
porosity-permeability character. The use of refined
(e) formation protection.
oils and paraffins may cause deposition of plugging
The general limitations on mud composition dictated compounds, particularly with asphaltinic crude oils.
by formation evaluation requirements are as follows: Failing these techniques, the core plug may be wiped
clean, wrapped in a plastic seal and foil and stored in
Unaltered wettability: Use essentially neutral pH dry ice. Usually only samples for special core
mud, avoid use of surfactants and caustic soda. analysis are stored and transported under these
Eliminate oxidation possibilities. special conditions. The core for routine analysis,
following visual inspection at the well site, is placed
Minimum filtrate invasion: Use lowest mud weight in boxes, marked for identification, without special
giving control of formation. care for wettability change or drying of core fluids. It
68 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

is not really known whether this has any effect on the situ in the reservoir and used to position the core
state of pore fill/replacement minerals recorded in pieces more precisely.
subsequent geological analysis. Analyses may be performed on the sample of the
whole core. More usually core plugs are drilled at
regular intervals (say 3-6 per metre) specified by the
5.6 WELLSITE CONTROLS reservoir engineer or picked at specific intervals, and
in an orientation to the whole core specified to
The recovery of core at a wellsite requires care in represent bedding planes, horizontal flowpath, ver-
handling core barrels and an awareness of the tical flowpath etc. The plugs are usually about 4 cm
ultimate use of the core. Core should be wiped clean long and are trimmed to 2.5 cm to eliminate mud
for visual inspection and marked for top and bottom invaded parts. The plug diameters are of the order
and core depth in a box. Photographs of the fresh 2.5-3.8 cm. These plugs are used in routine core
core prove invaluable in correcting later misplace- analysis. The coolant used on the core plug drilling
ments and sometimes in locating fracture zones. bit is important in many cores since it may possibly
Core for special core analysis should be selected modify internal pore properties. The best coolant
quickly and preserved in the agreed manner. Core would be a reservoir brine, if salinity is low (danger
for routine analysis should be dispatched quickly otherwise of salt plugging), or a refined oil (as long
following the wellsite geologist's preliminary as the crude oil is not waxy or asphaltinic (plug-
observations. Packing of transportation boxes ging)). There is a danger in using tap water in that it
should naturally be effective and prevent displace- may change the nature of interstitial clays by
ment of pieces. modifying ionic balances.
After plug cutting, the core is usually sliced along
its major axis into three slabs (known as slabbing).
5.7 CORE FOR SPECIAL CORE One third is designated for geological analysis, one
ANALYSIS third for curation and one third is often required by
the licencing agency (e.g. the Government).
The selection of core for special core analysis is
frequently a rather loose arrangement resulting from
a reservoir engineering request to the wellsite 5.9 GEOLOGICAL STUDIES
geologist to preserve some representative pieces.
While this approach may be inevitable with explora- The purpose of geological core study is to provide a
tion wells, it should be possible to be more explicit basis for dividing the reservoir into zones and to
during development drilling when reservoir zonation recognize the geometry, continuity and characteris-
may be better understood. It is necessary to preserve tics ofthe various zones.
samples from all significant reservoir flow intervals The main areas of study involve recognition of the
and these intervals must span permeability ranges. It lithology and sedimentology of the reservoir and its
is necessary to specify the basis for zone recognition, vertical sequence of rock types and grain size. This is
the amount of sample required and the conditions achieved by visual observation and the result re-
for preservation, transportation and storage. In corded as a core log. It is convenient to describe the
cases of doubt it is preferable to preserve too much bedding character and macrofossil character within
rather than too little and the geologists can always the grain size profile, as shown in Fig. 5.3. The age
inspect the preserved core in the more controlled of the individual rock units is usually established by
laboratory environment. association with the microfossil record (micro-
palynology) and this can be done as well with
cuttings as with core samples. The recognition of
5.8 CORE DERIVED DATA depositional and post depositional features is
achieved by core description and by microscopic
The non-special core analysis, i.e. non-preserved observation of thin sections from cores. In addition,
core, will generally form the bulk of the recovered the fossil assemblages also provide indication of
core. It is now customary to pass the whole core transport energy regimes (palynofacies analysis)
along a conveyor belt through a device called a which help support sedimentological interpretations.
Coregamma surface logger which records a reading The environmental/depositional model of a reservoir
of natural radioactivity against equivalent downhole is largely based on the observations from individual
position of the core l41 • The readings may be com- cored wells but requires correlation of data between
pared with the gamma ray log readings obtained in wells and integration with other sources of informa-
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 69
tion, in order to provide insight into reservoir visually inspected at the wellsite and is often frozen
geometry and continuity. prior to transportation. Plug preparation may re-
quire frozen drilling to prevent movement of sand
grains. The plug sample may be supported by some
5.10 ROUTINE CORE ANALYSIS kind of sheath while in a frozen state and is often
then placed in a core holder where simulated
5.10.1 Principles and methods formation pressures are restored and the tempera-
ture restored to reservoir conditions.
Routine core analysis is primarily concerned with The validity of subsequent measurements made
establishing the variation of porosity and permeabil- on unconsolidated samples treated in the foregoing
ity as a function of position and depth in a well. In manner is the subject of contention, but it is clear
order to do this, samples of recovered core are that any grain re-orientation or lack of similarity
subjected to measurements and the results plotted with real reservoir overburden stresses will invali-
and/or tabulated. In order to provide valid analyses, date results.
different rock systems require various analytical
approaches with particular names, i.e. conventional 5.10.2 Residual fluid saturation
core analysis, whole core analysis, analysis of core determination
recovered in rubber sleeve!!' 4, 5, 7, 5!). In addition, In the API Recommended Practice, the methods for
some analyses may also be performed on cuttings determining the saturation of fluids in the core as
and sidewall cores. The techniques are reported in received in the laboratory include:
API booklet RP490 entitled Recommended Practice
for Core Analysis Procedure!!). (a) high vacuum distillation at around 230°C (not
so good for heavy oils);
(a) Conventional core analysis (b) distillation of water and solvent extraction of
This technique is applied to samples drilled from the oil (need to know oil gravity);
whole core piece, Such samples are taken at regular (c) high temperature (up to 650°C) retorting at
intervals along the core and may represent a atmospheric pressure (not relevant for hy-
statistical sample. The samples are, however, usually d.rated clays in sample);
biased towards the more consolidated reservoir (d) combination techniques.
quality intervals, because of ease of core cutting. Sponge inserts in core barrels are sometimes used to
retain reservoir fluids. The experimental techniques
(b) Whole core analysis should give accuracy of ±5% of the true as received
The technique refers to the use of the full diameter saturation condition.
core piece in lengths dependent only on the integrity If the cored interval passes through an oil-water
of the core and the size of porosimeters and contact this may be observable from the residual
permeameters available. Full diameter cores are saturation data. Although the core saturations re-
analysed only when there is reason to believe that ported do not represent saturations in the reservoir,
plug samples will not reflect average properties. An they are certainly influenced by them. Thus a rapid
example of this would be vugular carbonates where change in oil saturation from a relatively high
vug size may represent a significant volume of the volume to near zero in a similar lithology and
plug sample. The use of whole core pieces tends to reservoir quality interval suggests the presence of an
downgrade heterogeneous character that would be oil-water contact. The placement of the contact will
pronounced in small plugs. The cleaning of whole be between adjacent samples of relatively high and
core sections can be difficult and time-consuming, relatively low values, as shown in Table 5.1.
and analysis is generally significantly more expensive The zone appears to be of one rock type and is
than conventional core analysis. thus likely to have consistent capillary character.
_The change in core oil saturation as received in the
(c) Rubber sleeve core (also plastic/fibre glass sleeves) laboratory shows a dramatic change between 2537.5
The purpose of a rubber sleeve or plastic sleeve in a m and 2538 m from 19.6% to 1.1%. The oil-water
core barrel is to support the core until removal in the contact would therefore be tentatively placed at the
laboratory. The technique is therefore applied parti- mid-point between these samples at 2537.75 m and
cularly in formations which are friable or unconsoli- confirmation sought from log data. The observed
dated. There are several disadvantages in the OWC may not be coincident with the free water
method, but its utilization provides a method of at level (FWL), and capillary pressure data (see Chap-
least recovering a core sample. The core cannot be ter 6) will be required to determine the FWL.
70 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 5.1 Laboratory measured oil saturation in recovered core

Sample depth (m) rp (%) k(mD) So (core residual) %

2536.0 30.1 1007 43.6
2536.5 28.6 897 35.7
2537.0 29.3 954 40.2
2537.5 27.9 875 19.6
2538.0 29.1 960 1.1
2538.5 29.7 1106 0.5
2539.0 28.9 984 0.9

TABLE 5.2 Presentation of routine core analysis results

Horizontal Vertical Satura- Pore Saturation
permeability permeability Helium tion Grain Formation
Depth milliDarcy milliDarcy porosity porosity dens. description
KA KL KA KL % % SO STW glcc
S.ST. GY. V.F.GR.
3631.35 1.4 1.0 17 14 9.6 2.69
v.w. cemented w/mica
3631.70 24 20 1.4 1.0 19.9 2.67 A.A
3632.00 0.25 0.16 0.29 0.18 3.0 3.0 0.0 59.8 2.75 A.A. SILT Calcitic
A.A. V.F.GR
3632.35 3.3 2.4 1.2 0.83 13.9 2.67
without calcitic
3632.70 n.p.p. rubble
3632.80 9.8 7.6 6.2 4.7 17.3 19.7 0.0 36.6 2.66 A.A. w/org. matter
3633.35 n.p.p. rubble
3633.70 31 26 19 15 21.5 2.68 A.A. without/org. matter
S.ST. GY/BR F.GR
3634.00 30 25 19 15 21.2 24.5 0.0 37.9 2.67 sub.ang. v.w. cemented
w/mica
3634.35 38 32 24 20 17.1 2.68 A.A
3634.70 85 74 62 53 18.2 2.68 A.A. w/org. matter
S.ST. GY. V.F.GR
3635.00 17 14 13 10 20.8 20.6 0.0 39.9 2.68
well cemented w/mica
3635.35 28 23 21 17 22.2 2.68 A.A
3635.70 10 7.8 6.8 5.2 19.0 2.69 A.A.
3636.00 4 2.9 3.0 2.2 14.8 12.5 0.0 41.6 2.71 A.A. SILT Calcitic
3636.35 0.25 0.16 0.29 0.18 3.0 2.76 AA
3636.70 0.25 0.16 0.29 0.18 3.8 2.77 A.A
3637.00 6.4 4.8 5.9 4.4 15.3 19.1 0.0 38.4 2.80 AA poor calcitic w/pyrite
S.ST. GY/BR V.F.GR
3637.35 11.9 9.3 10.2 8.0 18.5 2.67
v.w. cemented w/mica
3637.70 21 17 14 11 19.6 2.67 A.A. F.GR.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 71

5.10.3 Grain density 5.11 POROSITY

Grain density measurements are sometimes pre- Porosity is generally symbolized <j> and is defined as
sented in routine core analysis reports. Two methods the ratio of void volume to bulk volume. The void
are in use: spaces in reservoir rocks are most frequently the
(a) the wet method, where a weighed sample of intergranular spaces between the sedimentary parti-
crushed core is placed in an unreactive cles. For regular arrangements of uniform spheres,
refined liquid (e.g. toluene) and the displace- the proportion of void space can be calculated
ment equated to its volume; theoretically, but this is not a useful exercise. These
(b) the dry method, where a weighed uncrushed void spaces are microscopic in scale, equivalent to
sample is placed in a Boyle's law porosimeter apparent diameters of voids rarely exceeding a few,
to determine grain volume. or a very few, tens of microns (Fig. 5.8).

The dry method is preferred.

In the grain volume determination, the effective Isolated pore space
pore volume is measured by compressing a known
volume of gas at a known pressure into a core which
was originally at atmospheric pressure. The grain
volume is the difference between the total gas space Inter- connected pore
of the void volume plus annulus and the calibrated space
volume of the core holder. Grain volume measure-
ments should be reproducible to ± 0.04%.
The most usual limitation in the applicability of
these measurements is their lack of representation of
the bulk reservoir. This is especially so in silty or Cements and clays
highly cemented formations.

5.10.4 Data presentation 2- Dimensional representation of pore

space
Routine core analysis is usually presented in tabular Fig. 5.8 2-D representation of pore space.
form, as shown in Table 5.2. The rock description is
provided only as a guide to character and does not
pretend to be the geological sample description. Processes subsequent to sedimentation - cementa-
Data may also be presented as a point plot against tion, recrystallization, solution, weathering, fractur-
depth. It has been customary to plot permeability on ing - can modify substantially the proportion and
a logarithmic scale, partly to present the values on a distribution of void space, and in some circum-
condensed scale and partly because it is often found stances it may be necessary to define a system as a
that lithologically similar samples show a linear dual· porosity system having primary and secondary
relationship between porosity and log permeability. porosity, although since it is the physical nature of
For the purpose of recognizing stratification effects, the porosity that is of interest, these may be defined
it is preferred nowadays to show permeability as coarse and fine porosities.
variation with depth on a linear scale, as shown in The porosity of reservoir rocks may range from
Fig. 5.7. These data are usually not plotted in this about 5% of bulk volume to about 30% of bulk
way by service laboratories. volume, the lower porosity range normally being of
interest only in dual porosity systems. The distin-
k- k- guishing factor between primary and secondary
0.1 1 o porosity from the reservoir engineering point of view
is not the origin or mode of occurrence, but the flow
capacities of the different types of porosity. It will
.c
a. normally only be possible to distinguish any effects
of dual porosity if the coarse system has a flow
Q)
o
capacity about two orders of magnitude greater than
that of the fine system. With lesser contrasts,
behaviour is virtually indistinguishable from single
Fig. 5.7 Representation of permeability with depth. porosity systems with some heterogeneity. In this
72 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

situation, generally only porosities greater than wireline log responses. From plug samples, the
about 10% are likely to be of commercial interest. techniques of routine core analysis provide for
Porosity may be measured directly on core sam- measurement of bulk volume and either void volume
ples in the laboratory, and also may be estimated in or grain volume. The void volume is represented as
situ by well log analysis. the interconnected pore space that can be occupied
In reservoir engineering, only the interconnected by a fluid such as gas, water, oil or, for laboratory
porosity is of interest since this is the only capacity purposes, mercury. In routine core analysis, the bulk
which can make a contribution to flow. volume is usually determined either by caliper
measurements or by displacement of mercury in a
5.11.1 Measurement of porosity pycnometer (Fig. 5.9).
A technique known as the summation of fluids is
Porosity may be determined from measurements on applied to as received core plugs, in which the pore
plugs drilled from recovered core or estimated from volume is considered equal to the sum of any oil,
(a) Bulk volume pycnometer

(b) Grain volume (Boyle's law)

Vz I Pz

Solid reference
or sample Gas supply
Sample Reference
chamber volume

Solid volume Vs = VI - :~ p • Vz
I 2

(Calibration curve Vs against pz / p,-pzcan be

established using steel blanks)

(c) Bulk and pore volume porosimeter

II
AL::J b"OO "',,
::~:rence mark

~J - Dead weight tester

Micrometer mercury pump

Fig. 5.9 Measurement of core plug porosity. (a) Bulk volume pycnometer; (b) grain volume (Boyle's law),
calibration curve Vs againstP21(p 1-P 2) can be established using steel blanks; (c) bulk and pore volume porosimeter.
 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 73

water and gas occupying the sample. The method is generally established using steel blan~s. In precision
destructive in that oil and water from a representa- work, the helium porosimeter using this principle
tive part of the core are determined by distillation of has found wide acceptance.
fluid from a crushed sample. A further representa- A destructive method of porosimetry, involving
tive piece is subject to mercury invasion to provide injection of mercury into small and irregularly
the gas filled volume. These processes are indicated shaped sample chips or regular plugs, is designed to
in Fig. 5.10. The sum of the oil + water + gas replace air with a measured volume of mercury. By
volumes as a fraction of total bulk gives the porosity. conducting the test with small increments of mercury
The presence of clay bound water provides a injection and noting the pressure required for
limitation and the values of porosity are considered displacement, a mercury injection capillary pressure
to represent ±0.5% around the percentage value curve and pore size distribution factor can be
calculated. obtained en route to the porosity measurement. The
maximum amount of mercury injected is equal to the
Piece of fresh sample containing pore volume of the sample. Accuracy is reported
'as-received' fluids
high and reproducible to one percentage point in the
Piece for gas volume range of porosities of 8-40%. Dual porosity systems
determination by mercury
injection can be investigated by the technique if the test is
conducted in equilibrium steps(4).
With low porosity, fine pore structure systems,
Weigh fragment high pressures may be necessary to approach 100%
Several hundred gram sample
for crushing and distillation t displacement, and corrections for mercury and steel
vessel compressibility may become necessary, but at

!
Inject mercury to
displace gas from pressures of 6000-10 000 psi, attainable with stan-
pores but leave dard equipment, most of the pore space contributing
liquids to flow is occupied. Samples are not usable for
RETORT DISTILLATION
t further experiments after mercury injection.

Water content
/ \ Oil content
Gas content as
fraction of bulk
volume
A similar, non-destructive but inherently less
accurate technique of porosity measurement in-
volves evacuation of all air from the pore spaces of a
as fraction of as fraction of cleaned, dry weighed sample and the introduction of
bulk volume bulk volume
water into the pore space. So long as any clay
minerals in the pore space remain unreactive l50), then
Porosity = water fraction + oil fraction + gas fraction the weight increase of the sample is directly prop-
ortional to the pore volume.
Fig. 5.10 Porosity by summation of fluids. Total porosity may be obtained from crushed
samples during the measurement of grain density.
Non-destructive testing is generally preferred Rock at reservoir conditions is subject to overbur-
since other types of measurements are often re- den stresses, while core recovered at surface tends to
quired on a common sample. The Boyle's law be stress relieved. It is not usual to perform routine
method is used to provide an estimate of grain porosity determination with anything approaching a
volume. In this method which has a reproducibility restoration of reservoir stress, and therefore labora-
of about 2% of the measured porosity, a calibration tory porosity values are generally expected to be
curve defining the relationship between known solid higher than in situ values. The magnitude of the
volumes in a sample chamber and reference press- overestimation will depend upon the pore volume
ures and volumes is required. A schematic repre- compressibility of the rock and the initial in situ
sentation is shown in Fig. 5.9(b) and the grain porosity. In general
volume of the sample or solid volume of say a steel
cylinder is denoted by Vs. The volume of Vs in the 1 (<1>1 - <1>2)
C =-
sample chamber thus influences the observed press- p <P (PI - P2 )
ure in the system compared with the pressure The form of the relationship between reservoir
without the presence of a sample. condition porosity <PR and zero net overburden
P2 V2 laboratory porosity <PL in terms of pore volume
Vs = VI - PI - P2 compressibility cp (V/V/psi) and net overburden
pressure APN (= overburden pressure - fluid press-
A calibration curve of Vs against P2 /PZ-P2 is ure) psi has been found for Brent sands (21 ) as follows:
74 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The measurement of porosity on consolidated

samples in routine core analysis might generally be
expected to yield values of the true fractional
Inserting some typical values, say: porosity ±0.005, i.e. a true value of 27% porosity
may be measured between 26.5% and 27.5% poros-
<PL = 0.27 ity.
cp = 3 X l~psi-l
tlPN = 10 000 - 4500 = 5500 psi 5.11.2 Formation resistivity factor

lf- 3E-06
<l>R = (5500)} = 0 94 Although when clays and shales are present the rock
<l>L exp 0.27 . itself has some conductivity, in general the solid
matrix can be considered non-conducting. The

Effective Overburden Pressure: 0.0 PSI

100
90

\
80 FF= 1.00 \0
70 t/J 1_91
60
50
40 0

o~
0

30 0
8
o.
00
20 0'0

-
00
<P
~
0
()

-
~
>.
--,0::> 10
9
I/)
-iii 8
Q)
0:: 7
c: 6
0
:.;::
c 5
E
~

~ 4

Porosity I Fraction

Fig. 5.11 Formation factor (forced a = 1)_

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 75

electrical resistance of a rock sample fully saturated The form of the relationship is shown in Fig. 5.11.
with a conducting fluid (brine) is therefore very The tests should be performed at a range of net
much greater than would be the resistance of a overburden pressures, and perhaps at reservoir
sample of fluid of the same shape and size!3]. The temperature in some cases.
ratio
5.11.3 Resistivity index
Resistivity of rock fully saturated with brine = Ro
Resistivity of the saturating brine Rw At partial brine saturations, the resistivity of rock is
higher than at 100% saturation, and an index is
is termed the formation resistivity factor (or forma-
defined:
tion factor, or resistivity factor) and is designated F.
Obviously, the formation resistivity factor will Rt
1=-
depend on porosity, being infinite when <I> = 0, and 1 Ro
when <I> = 1, and a relationship proposed is True formation resistivity
a Resistivity of rock fully saturated with brine
F=-
<l>m This index is a function of brine saturation and to a
first approximation
where a === 1 (taken as 0.81 for sandstones, 1 for
carbonates), m === 2. (This is known as the Archie 1
Equation[3]. ) I=p
w
The .formation factor can be measured by means
where n === 2. An example is shown in Fig. 5.12.
of an a.c. conductivity bridge, the saturated core
These two quantities, formation factor and resis-
being held between electrodes in the bridge circuit.
tivity index, are important in electric log validation.
Brine resistivity is determined by a platinum elec-
trode dipped into the brine, forming an element of a 5.11.4 Porosity logs
bridge circuit.
The porosity measurements from core plugs are
40 frequently used to validate porosity interpretation
from wire line logs. Most wire line logs are designed
30 to respond, in different degrees, to lithology and
2.5 .____Equation of line is porosity (Fig. 5.2) and perhaps to the fluid occupy-
(Rtf Ro) = (Sw)-2.27 ing the pore space. In making comparisons it is
20
necessary to note that the core sample represents
5 information essentially at a point and on a small scale
compared to the averaged response of a logging tool.

\ 0\
o In heterogeneous formations, and in instances where
10 localized mineralogy may influence response, it
9
8
should be expected that overburden corrected core
0
7 porosity will not match log data!39J.
a:
"- 6 The main logging tools for porosity are the
r:£ compensated formation density log, the neutron log
5
and the acoustic log. In interpreting formation
lithology and saturation, the gamma ray tool and

'\
4
o
variations of the induction, conductivity and spon-
3 taneous potential logs are used in addition (Fig.
2.5 5.13, after!25 J). The reader is referred to the special-
2 ized log interpretation literature for particular de-
o tails of their calibration, response and application!52J.
1.5 \o As a particular example of wireline log use, the
formation density tool response will be discussed
further as it provides a particularly useful porosity
indication in known lithology. The principle of
Sw (% P.v.) operation concerns the scattering of gamma rays as a
function of the bulk density of an environment
Fig. 5.12 Resistivity index for a Berea sandstone sample. irradiated by a gamma ray source, such as cesium
76 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

function of the bulk density of a formation, high

Matrix densities are indiGated by low count rates and low
densities by high detector count rates. The count
~ Drycloy rate of a detector at a fixed distance from a source of
constant intensity is very closely a sole function of
CJ cloy
Water- portion inside
dashed line represents
bound water,
the formation bulk density PR'
lt is usual for two detectors to be used: the short
remainder IS free 'MIter spaced one being some 6 in. from the source and the
• Hydrocarbon
o long spaced detectors 1 ft away. Gamma ray flux
10< from the source is focused into the formation and
I. . . .
""'. ..:r = F
.:
Cf:" ·:t~t;-" -.;0- -.;0- .: -
c: :--:; .-:;: r:-~ --- results in about 90% of the instrument response
rc
-.;0-
I :..:-
MATR DCLA _~WAT d:.:=. .: .: . I?
.:. ' ' :
coming from a region within 6 in. of the well bore.
.,::-: ':-: 1=". lY Both detectors are located in inserts in a tungsten
He = I.:.
~~
••• carrier, the high density solid tungsten preventing
£!!5l l-'= :. :. .:
~ .=-. = :.= I~
1=". .:'
unwanted photons from reaching the detectors. The
l
--'--

=. ~
~

""'~ ~ b--:- .:. .=-.

1=".
.... detector responses are influenced by their specific
. .=- ~ length and depth, and collimation ensures that
I.:
:
~
~
.=-
..: 1=". Compton scattering from formation rocks provides
'':

.: . =
;2 : . the prime detected energy. Radiation intensity at the
<:
.::;
~ :. = F:- :~ detectors is measured in number of events per unit
-
t~
~

. f«: t;=: .: _..0. .: ~ _.

. . time and because all radioactive processes are
r.:'"
f::: .: .: statistical in nature the count rate fluctuates around
:<..:: .: .
1;I..::.
1=" . .:. .:
: . .: 1=" .
.: ~ an average value. An average rate is obtained by
I
'':
--: ~ .: I.: , cumulating all counts for a given time and dividing
--:;: =
:. ~
I.::: ~ ::-~ by the time. As a result, the count rate does not
t=~ ~ I~
s change as abruptly as a physical boundary or as a
'.
'.
:, 1,;,
..::; -- ~- -
.=-
~
1.= =~ ---
1="--:- '~
1=.
: .

m ..
~,
change of character is encountered by the detector-
.: ::.: . 1-:: 0:' I~
;;;.,,:: --- L-=: ~ source combination. This so-called vertical bed
:: I :.::~
r
.: '.: : .:
:": ~ ~ ~
resolution is dependent on the heterogeneity of the
.,> I:::':: ~
.

,
.: : .:

r:::: .::: ::§~

formation and on tool design and logging speed.

I~
'-: ~. .:.
.: :" ... ..;.
1< The bulk density measured by the density log is
I'::·
;
:.: :,: :'-

.;.. ;,.- - the weighted average of the densities of the matrix

-~
".
:'
..:::
.~ and pore fluid such that
~
1'::- 1= -= 'ill/)

- .::- -.::- ~
::? = 1= I=" ~

~ -, :
:,:
--" := -.=
c=
:;:: :
-,:

:;::
= r= = r-=- ~ ~
:...::
-,:

~~
-.::-
i~ .-I where PI is the average density of the pore fluid
-':
containing pore water, hydrocarbons and mud fil-
Fig_5.13 Bulk volume interpretation from logs for a 100 It trate, and Pma is the density of the rock matrix in the
interval of a North Sea production well (alter 1251). investigation region.
lt is therefore clear that interpretation of the tool
response requires some knowledge of the formation
137 which emits 0.66 MeV gamma radiation. lithology and fluids present in the pore space as well
Gamma radiation has neither charge nor mass but as the heterogeneity of the investigation region. The
may be attenuated by matter as a function of response is invalidated in poor conditions.
electron density. The main interaction at an energy In shaley formations a shale index, defined from
level around 1 Me V is known as Compton scatter- FDC-neutron cross-plots or perhaps from gamma
ing, whereby a photon collides with an atomic ray readings, is known as Vshale and empirically
electron and some of the photon energy is imparted represents the fraction of shale in formations. In
to the electron. A new photon of lower energy is such shale formations the bulk density is modified
created which in general moves in a different for shale density Psh as follows:
direction to the incident photon and which can be
considered proportional to bulk density. Since the
returning gamma ray intensity, measured by a
Geiger-Mueller detector is an inverse exponential
 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS n
In correlating core compaction corrected porosity 5.11.5 Porosity distributions
measurements with density log data, it is therefore
important to recognize bed heterogeneity and Data from both core and log derived porosity
boundary factors (zonation) as well as the scale of interpretations may be used to provide zonal prop-
the observations. Core data in particular may not be erties. The log porosity validated by core observa-
generally representative of an interval and is influ- tion is the most useful working set since it will
enced in practice by ease of cutting and picks of good represent a continuous depth section. In contrast,
reservoir rock. The nature of coring fluid influences most core data is discontinuous.
the magnitude of Pt in the porosity calculation and Sometimes it is observed that given lithologies in a
together with Pma provides limits on a cross-plot of reservoir with a particular depositional and diagene-
core corrected porosity against PB in a given zone, as tic history will show a characteristic distribution of
shown in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15. porosity in a given zone. One of the more common
forms is a truncated normal distribution, as shown in
Fig. 5.16. The distribution mayor may not be
100 • I
I skewed and mayor may not show a trend of value
I
~ I
I
with depth.
~
I
"~<> I
I
~0
I
I (a)
I
<> I
I
~
<>
I
I
of).. I
I
I
/Trend 2
o~----~--------------------~·---
t + 1
eb
Fig. 5.14 Porosity-bulk density cross-plot.

/Tren d 1
1.00
.... __ .f"1r
~

........ 1-,.
1.25 'cP-
Q)
Min Max
'">c
1.50 c
E
'"c
(.)
C\l
~ Q)
~

E 1.75 -c "z (b) \. x x

C1 Q)

"E
0
-e- \. x x x
0...12 /Trend 2
.
(.)
Q) .\
?: a:: \ X
'iii 2.00 .\
c
Q)
Cl
\'x
.,.
X
x
.\
2.25 x\ ~
X ~\' /Trend 1
Recorded density value x \ .
x .\
\ ..
2.50 x .\
x X \
X .\.
x , .
2.75~__~~__~____~__~____~____~
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110
Neutron CPN (A PI ) cP ------...-
Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16 Porosity distribution.
78 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

For a truncated normal distribution, the mean conductivity, electrical conductivity and diffusivity,
porosity of the unit is the arithmetic average. The and is defined similarly by a transport equation
core analysis porosity histogram is usually only a
Q d<l>'
part of the log derived porosity histogram since - =U=- constant--
sampling is unlikely to be statistically meaningful, A dL
and very high and very low values are sometimes
i.e. a rate of transfer is proportional to a potential
missing.
gradient.
Combinations of different rock units often show Basic equations of fluid mechanics (Euler or
up with a multimodal histogram character and this Bernoulli equations) apply the statement of energy
requires separation into subzones, as shown in Fig. conservation to a flowing fluid, so that if no energy
5.17.
losses occur an energy balance on a unit mass of
flowing fluid is
3
P U 2 P U 2
-..l + g'ZI + _1 = ~+ g'Z2 +_2
PI 2 P2 2
t:>.
2 3
subzones
and if irreversibilities exist
PI , U/ P2 ul
()
c:
Q)
? - +g ZI +- = -
,
+ g Z2 +- + WI
:>
t:r PI 2 P2 2
~
1L..
The three terms can be considered to be the
energy components of the fluid liable to vary during
a flow process - the pressure energy, the kinetic
energy, and the potential energy of position - and
Porosity • their sum can be considered to be a potential per unit
Fig. 5.17 Multimodal porosity. mass of fluid.
A gradient in potential can also be defined

P + gZ + "2
2
d {P U } d<l>
dX = dX

5.12 PERMEABILITY
and the gradient in potential is a measure of the
5.12.1 Fluid flow in porous media irreversible energy losses.
If the potential terms are divided throughout by g,
The permeability of a rock is a measure of its specific the acceleration due to gravity, then
flow capacity and can be determined only by a flow
experiment. Since permeability depends upon con- P U2
( -+Z+-
)
tinuity of pore space, there is not, in theory (nor in pg" 2g'
practice), any unique relation between the porosity
of a rock and its permeability (except that a rock has the dimensions of length, and
must have a non-zero porosity if it is to have a
non-zero permeability). For unconsolidated rocks it diP U2 ) dh
is possible to establish relations between porosity, dX pg' + Z + 2g' = dX
and either some measure of apparent pore diameter,
or of specific surface, and permeability (e.g. Kozeny and
model), but these have a limited application. Again ,dh d<l>
for rqcks of similar lithology subjected to similar g dX
conditions of sedimentation, it may be possible to dX
establish an approximate relation between porosity Darcy [27] originally studied the vertical filtration of
and permeability, but this is likely to be of local water deriving experimentally the relation
value only. Nevertheless, this provides one method
of evaluating permeability variation from log and Q dh
- = U = - constant-
drill cuttings data which can be of value. A dL
Permeability has direct analogies with thermal
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 79

where dh/dL represents a manometric gradient. as shown in Fig. 5.18, where Q = cm3/s, fl = cp, A =
Further experiments and analysis, particularly by sq. cm, dp/dL = atml~m.
King Hubbert [28J, showed that the constant includes
the fluid density and viscosity, and that the residual
constant has dimensions of acceleration and rock
geometry.
constant = (Ntf).(P/fl) g'

Q
where N = final constant of proportionality and
incorporates a shape factor, d = characteristic length Fig. 5.18 Linear Darcy flow.
dimension (e.g. mean throat diameter), p = density
of fluid, and fl = viscosity of fluid. A rock has a permeability of 1 Darcy if a potential
Obviously, the product g dh/dL can be related gradient of 1 atmlcm induces a flow rate of 1
directly to the potential as defined above, and since cc/sec/sq cm of a liquid of viscosity 1 cpo The Darcy
kinetic energy changes are generally negligible can be large for a practical unit, and the milliDarcy is
more commonly used. With dimensions of L2, an
Q =U= _ e . d<l>. (NdZ) absolute length unit could be adopted and
A fl dL
1 Darcy 10-8 (cm)2 (=10-6 mm 2)

:. <I> JP
dP
= - +g Z
,
1 milliDarcy 10- 11 (cm)2 (=10-9 mm 2)

For an incompressible fluid (or for a small pressure (=10- t5 m2)

interval for which an average density may be used)

J-+gZ=-+gZ
dP
p
, P
p
,
5.12.2 Datum correction
and The equation
Q
{p+ pg'Z}
d<l>' k dP
p ~; = d~ dL
-= U= - -
A fl dL
and <1>' may be considered a potential per unit is encountered so frequently that its restriction to
volume. The group constant horizontal flow may be forgotten. It is, however, a
valid equation when all pressures are corrected to a
k = Ntf = permeability common datum level (frequently in reservoir prac-
is taken as the characteristic of the porous medium tice a level such that equal volumes of hydrocarbon
controlling fluid flow within the medium. lie up dip and down dip of this datum, giving initially
For horizontal flow dZ/dL = 0 and Darcy's a correctly volumetrically weighted average pres-
equation can be written as sure).
The corrected pressures are then
Q = U= _~ . dP
A fl dL P tc = P t + (Z - h t ) pg'
and this is the defining equation for the measure- P2c = P 2 + (Z - h 2) pg' = P 2 - (h2 - Z) pg'
ment of permeability by flow measurement.
For the oil industry, the unit adopted is termed the and the potential difference between points 1 and 2
Darcy, and this is defined by is then as shown in Fig. 5.19.
Qfl a cI>' = (Ptc - P2c )
k =A (dP/dL)
80 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(b) Radial flow system, as shown in Fig. 5.21.

~ From Darcy's law we can write
~ Datum kA dp·
Q= - -

~P2~th2
fl dr
The curved surface area open to flow is 2Jtrh so
2Jtkh dP
Fig. 5.19 Datum correction. Q=--r -
fl dr
Integrating between the wellbore and the external
5.12.3 Linear and radial flow equations boundary of the system we have

We may now summarize the equation for steady

state linear and radial flow of a single phase fluid as J ~p = ~
2Jtkh
follows: p w/
(a) Linear system, as shown in Fig. 5.20. which yields

P2

or
2Jt_k_h--,-(P-,-e_-_P--"wJ..:..f)
_
Q= -
flln {re/rw}
Fig. 5.20 Linear flow in dipping bed. In field units with Q in RBID and length terms in
feet, this becomes
kA[
Q= - ;
PI L
- P2 + pg ,sm
.
(t
1 Q=
0 ._00_7_08_k_h--,-(P-"e_-_P...::wL:.,f)
_
-
flln (re/r' w)
If pressure gradient is measured in psi/ft, y is a In practical situations there may well be a region
specific gravity relative to pure water, area is in of altered permeability around the wellbore, which
square feet, permeability is in milliDarcies, viscosity may increase or decrease the pressure drop in
is in centipoise and volumetric flow rate is in comparison with an unaltered system. The effect is
reservoir condition barrels per day, then we have an described in terms of a skin effect S, which may be
expression infield units as follows: positive for reduced permeability and negative for
improvement. It is incorporated into the steady state
+ 0.4335 y sin (t 1
kA (PI - P2 ) equation as follows:
Q = 1.127 X 10-3 - [ L
fl

Pressure gradient The pressure Pe is constant at

Net thickness
h
dp/dr
I.
V
/-- ----
_ radial distance re from well

///

_Radial distance rw
r from well Flowing steady state pressure
at well is Pwf
Fig. 5.21 Radial flow system. (a) Geometry, (b) pressure distribution.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 81

Q/l
2rrkh
~ p, plug "mpl,

5.12.4 Laboratory determination of

permeability
Q~:r::t/t:::r:::tt::'f.
end 55
0: pz
cap steel cylinder compliant sleeve
Permeability is an anisotropic property of porous
rock in some defined region of the system, that is, it
is directional. Routine core analysis is generally Fig. 5.22 Permeability measurement.
concerned with plug samples drilled normal to the
long axis of the whole core. Such samples are Dry gas is usually used (air, N2 , He) in permeabil-
referred to as horizontal plug samples. Sometimes ity determination to minimize fluid-rock reaction,
these samples are specifically requested along bed- and for convenience. In the laboratory, the sample is
ding planes where it has been noted that the long placed in a device called a permeameter which
axis of the whole core is not normal to the bedding comprises a compliant sleeve sealing the plug sam-
plane. Any plug drilled along the long axis of the ples along its long axis and a steel container with end
whole core is termed a vertical plug. Along with caps and pressure regulators into which the sample is
routine core analysis measurements of horizontal placed. The region between the compliant sleeve
permeability, it is sometimes found that vertical and the inner walls of the permeameter is subjected
measurements have also been specified. In carbon- to a confining pressure (about 200 psi) in order to
ate reservoirs where heterogeneity is anticipated, prevent the flow along the long axis of the plug.
measurements are often made on a full diameter Linear flow of gas through the core plug is estab-
core piece. The horizontal permeabilities of k max lished (flow rate proportional to pressure drop is
and k90 are usually reported for full diameter checked). The outlet end pressure is often atmos-
samples (k90 is normal to k max in horizontal plane). pheric. At low pressures, the permeability measured
The permeability for horizontal laminar flow of a is higher than the real permeability and a correction
single fluid through a granular material has previous- is required. This is known as the Klinkenberg
ly been given by correctionl61 for gas slippage and involves making
several measurements of permeability at different
Q!! = _ k dP inlet pressures. The mean permeability is deter-
A dL mined as
where the units are Q = volumetric flow rate, cm 3/s; PI + P2
f.1 = fluid viscosity, cp; A = sample cross-sectional Pm= 2
area, cm 2 ; dP/dL = pressure gradient across sample,
atm/cm; k = constant called permeability, Darcies. and calculated permeability is plotted against 1/ Pm
For gas flow where flow rate is measured at (Fig. 5.23). The true permeability is the extrapola-
standard conditions, the relationship between rate tion of the measured data on a straight line to the
and pressures upstream and downstream at isother- point lIPm = 0 (i.e. infinite mean pressure). This
mal conditions is given by real permeability is equivalent to the permeability
that should be obtained for flow with the core
PI QI = P2 Q2 saturated 100% with an unreactive liquid. For this
as shown in Fig. 5.22. For P2 = 1 atm, then reason the Klinkenberg corrected permeability is
also called KL (L = liquid). When corrective
Q 1_- Q2 measurements are not made, charts are available for
PI typical corrections but these may be erroneous in
specific circumstances. In general, permeability cor-
The linear Darcy relationship for gas flow at
rections are unnecessary for permeabilities
standard conditions thus becomes
approaching 1 Darcy but may be in the order of 0.6
kA (P I 2 - pl) in the milliDarcy range. The nature of the liquid
Qsc = 2!!L used in checking Klinkenberg corrections may be
important in clay sensitive or reactive formations.
Using conventional equipment, permeabilities in
82 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The utilization of permeability anisotropy in-

formation is very much scale and problem depen-
dent. Core data represents microscale observation as
shown in Fig. 5.24, and well test derived data is of
~. macroscale. Application in reservoir simulation
models is of intermediate scale. The representation
~.

--- -".
of flow restriction is at the heart of permeability
characterization and is manifest through definition
of transmissibility. In the representation T with
subscripts x,y,z to indicate direction, the quantifica-
tion is as follows:
T= kA Q~
L I1P
o

Fig. 5.23 Klinkenberg permeability correction.

the range of 1 x 10-4 D up to 20 D can be measured.

The accuracy is usually within ±5% of the true
value, although the measurements are poorer at high
and low permeabilities. With special permeameters,
values of cap rock ~ermeability can be determined
down to around 10- D.

5.12.5 Anisotropy of permeability

While permeability as defined in petroleum usage is

a Rroperty only of the rock (having the dimension
L ), the property is not necessarily identical in all
size samples or orientations. The direction of
greatest interest in reservoir samples is that parallel I;~;,\
to the bedding planes - the horizontal permeability. o ( plug" \
The direction perpendicular to bedding planes is of 36.5 i Por.17. 5 % i
considerable interest in connection with movement \ Perm.19 mD
in the gravitational field: "-- '------~.

gas segregation;
injected gas override; o <0.5
injected water tonguing;
gravity smearing or accentuation of unstable
displacement fronts. 0 210
Whenever sediments are poorly sorted, angular
and irregular, the sedimentation process will ensure o >0.5
that vertical permeability will be less than horizontal
permeability even in the absence of tight streaks. Location of mini- g
The sedimentary environment may also lead to permeameter measurement
the orthogonal permeabilities in the horizontal
h
direction also being unequal, but this is generally a
lesser effect than the vertical to horizontal differ-
ence. Fig. 5.24 Effect of scale of observation and measurement
in permeability data from a Rotliegende aeolian sand
Consequently, in general, cross bed set in the Leman gas field (after [361).
kxi= kyi=kz
with kz generally the smallest value.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 83

The value of k may be from appropriately scaled 2. Linear beds in parallel

observation. The relationship between well test
derived permeability k res and core averaged per- See Fig. 5.26.
me ability kc can be represented empirically to
account for scale by use of a coefficient (X
Ql ... P2

k res kl
(X--
- kcor Q2
k2
It should, however, be remembered that in
general k res is an effective permeability and really Q3
should be considered as a k·kr product where kr is a k3
relative permeability. L 1O
""
Fig. 5.26 Linear beds in parallel.
5.12.6 Averaging permeabilities
Warren and Price [20[ showed that the most probable
behaviour of a heterogeneous system approaches
that of a uniform system having a permeability equal
to the geometric mean
- 1!n
kG = (kI . k2 . k3 ... k n)
It has also been shown analytically that the mode
of a log normal distribution is a geometric average.
Two simple systems can be analysed in linear
geometry to determine an appropriate mean to
represent an equivalent homogeneous system. These
are linear beds in series and parallel with no - IkiAi
crossflow between beds. k= IAi
When all beds are the same width, then A r:x:h so k is
1. Linear beds in series
an arithmetic average, kA .
For constant flow rate we can add pressure drops, as - Iki hi
shown in Fig. 5.25. kA = I hi
This applies when beds are homogeneous such
that PI - P2 is constant in all beds at equal distances.
It will not be true when water displaces oil since
koll-lo ahead of front is different from kw1l-lw behind,
Q--t- so the pressure gradient will be different and also
different between layers. Cross-flow between adja-
cent beds can occur unless there are permeability
Ll barriers. Cross-flow is also promoted by capillarity.
Fig. 5.25 Linear beds in series. 5.12.7 Permeability distributions
(PI - P4 ) = (PI - P2) + (P2 - P3) + (P2 - P4 ) In a given rock type unit, which essentially means a
. -QL - - QLI
- +-- QL2 QL3
+-- unit having similarity in pore size distribution as a
result of depositional and diagenetic history, it may
.. kA kIAJ k2A2 k03
be expected that a truncated log normal frequency of
For equal A then permeabilities will occur. This type of distribution
k = L/I{L;lki } was first reported in the literature by Law [13J and has
been noted by others. The only source of permeabil-
The appropr~te mean is thus a harmonic average ity data for observing the nature of a distribution is
permeability k H . from core analysis measurements, and there is a
84 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

strong possibility that the plugs will not represent a tests such as the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test have
true statistical sample of the unit. The idealized found application in testing whether or not sample
truncated log normal distribution is shown in Fig. sets belong to a particular population [14, 30J.
5.27 and has the property that the mode is equiva- In zonation it is important to recognize depth and
lent to a geometric average of the sample values. thickness trends with permeability which can be
different but which can give rise to the same
apparent distribution.

5.13 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN

POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
c

-
.S
.>< Porosity from validated log response provides a
o continuous representation of pore volume as a
~ function of depth in a well. Core analysis data can
c
~ rarely do this, so a depth record of permeability is
:::l
8o not generally available. Empirical correlation of
porosity with permeability is frequently attempted in
'0 order to provide an estimate of permeability as a
>.
o function of depth. There is no theoretical rela-
c
0)
:::l tionship between porosity and permeability in natu-
...c-
O)

IJ..
ral porous systems, so any practical relationship
represents a best fit and may be represented by a
convenient mathematical relationship. The easiest
min
t
max
relationship to test is that of a straight line and it has
frequently been noted that a plot of porosity against
Logarithm of permeability
the logarithm of permeability leads to an approxi-
Fig. 5.27 Truncated log normal distribution. mate straight line. The application of any rela-
tionship is purely in the nature of an in-out operator
Permeability distributions in a reservoir can be so any reasonable functional form will suffice. Some
used diagnostically to aid zonation and subzonation.
As shown in Fig. 5.28, the sand unit probably (a) 10000
represents three regions. The low permeability zone
may sometimes relate to diagenetic damage of pores
and exist in a particular depth and/or saturation
1000
interval of a given depositional unit. "C
Reservoir zonation within and between wells can E

-
be aided by histogram analysis. In these circum- .><

stances, normalization of the frequency axis is ...

0
100
recommended for ease of comparison. Statistical 0)
"0
.,
0

0 10
3 'E

t
.><
~c
C>
!2
'0
>.
o
c
ISubzones ? I
0)
:::l
c-
O)

It %</>-
linear scale porosity

Logarithm of permeability
Fig. 5.29 Porosity-permeability correlations for given rock
Fig. 5.28 Multimodal permeability distribution. types. (a) Semi-log, (b) log-log, (c) semi-log multi-fit.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 85

(b) '0000 required from a porosity value at a particular depth.

In poor correlations a porosity of say 25% may be
used to predict a permeability of 300 mD, but be
1000 based on a data spread of permeabilities between
1500 mD and 10 mD. Since flow rate is directly
proportional to permeability the potential errors are
100
significant.
The most usual sequence of operations to provide
the correlations is shown in Table 5.3.
In addition to the correlation methods outlined
10

TABLE 5.3 <I> - K relationships

1. Depth match core and log data.

0·,,'-------,1-..
0 -----,...Joo Compare compaction corrected core <I>
histogram with log derived <I> histogram
%<:/>- and define appropriate zonation.
logarithmic scale porosity
2. For given zone plot compaction
corrected core <I> against log derived <I>
and obtain relationship.

(c)
1000l Explain anomalies.

3. Plot compaction corrected porosity

100C from core against Klinkenberg and
compaction corrected core permeability
(bedding plane direction)
and obtain best fit.
'00
4. Define relationship between log derived
.:.to Multi -line fit
in situ porosity and Klinkenberg and
'0 compaction corrected core permeability
at common depth.

5. Use each relationship in appropriate

zone to predict permeability
at each depth value of interest
and plot permeability log.

above there are other approaches [381. One has been

the direct correlation of core corrected permeability
reservoir units may be represented by curves or with well test interpretation and log response in-
multiple lines. As might be expected, only data from formations [331. The form of the correlating expres-
unimodal histograms are plotted for defining a sion in a given zone is as follows:
particular permeability-porosity relationship. Ex- k = <X {f(apB + b<pN+ c ~T+ ... )}
amples ofthe cross-plots are shown in Fig. 5.29.
It is clear that a statistically significant volume of where <X = kres.welltes/kcore; a,b,c = coefficients
data is necessary to identify the relationships. It may obtained empirically; PB = formation density log
also be apparent that the degree of fit of the response; <PN = neutron log response; AT = acoustic
equations is important as a calculated permeability is log response.
86 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Another form promoted by a logging service where

company requires knowledge of irreducible satura-
tion and is based on pore geometry and log
response. The Coates and Dumanoir equation [I7J is a
W2 = 3.75 - <I> + !{log [ ;w ]+ 2.2}2
f,r,
modificatipn of one by Timur [31J and is expressed as
follows: and

k ~ ( ~ ( s~. )" r C = 465 Phc - 188p~c + 23

Examples
Example 5.1

A series of core samples from a well give the following formation factor: porosity relationships:
FRF: 30 19.3 12.5 8.4 6.0
<1>: 0.092 0.120 0.165 0.205 0.268
Calculate the constants of the Archie equation.
In an offset well, a thick water bearing layer is encountered having a resistivity of 1.29 !lm. The water
resistivity is 0.056 !lm. What is the porosity?
In an updip location the same formation has an apparent hydrocarbon saturation, and a true resistivity of
11.84 !lm metres. If the exponent of the resistivity ratio equation is 2, what is the hydrocarbon saturation?
What would be values for exponents of 1.8 and 2.2?

Example 5.2

Using the logs in Figs A5.2.1 and A5.2.2 (see Appendix II) together with the density-SNP crossplot in Fig.
A5.2.3 evaluate the following information for the permeable zones A and B. Note these are Dresser Atlas
logs in a sandy formation of a well drilled with an oil base mud - there are no resistivity logs or an SP.
Assume a = 1, m = 2, n = 2.
(a) Tabulate log values for the zones A, B, C and shale, and plot all points on the DIN Crossplot.
(b) Determine R w by considering only zone C.
(c) Determine R sh , Nsh and Vsh from a shale zone (as included in table).
(d) Establish the clean line and the shale line for gamma ray. Read gamma ray values for zones A and B
and convert to V sh '
(e) Establish the shale point on a neutron - density crossplot. Evaluate Vsh for zones A and B.
(f) Integrate information from the two shale indicators and select the most appropriate value of V sh for
each level.
(g) Use this value to determine porosity.
(h) Calculate Swat A and Busing
i) The Simandoux equation
ii) The modified Simandoux equation
iii) The Poupon and Leveaux equation (Indonesia Equation).

Example 5.3

A shaley sand has a porosity of 26% over an interval within which R t = 5 !lm and Rw = 0.1 !lm. Laboratory
analysis has shown that Qv = 0.3 meq/cc. Evaluate the water saturation using the Waxman-Thomas
equation. (B = 0.046!l-1.cm2 meq-1, a = 1, m = 2, n = 2).

If Rsh = 1.5 !lm, to what value of V sh is this

Qv equivalent on the modified Simandoux model?
Using these values of Rsh and Vsh calculate the water saturation from the basic Simandoux equation.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 87

Example S.4

Darcy's law in differential form is:

kA dp
q= - - -
!-! dx

(a) Show that the equation for isothermal linear flow of an ideal gas in Darcy units reduces to:

qs.c =

(b) If a gas flows through a core sample discharging to atmosphere at a rate of 6.2 ccs/s when a manometer
upstream of the core records a pressure of 190 mm Hg, what is the permeability of the sample?
Dimensions are 1 in. diameter x 1 in. length, and gas viscosity at ambient temperature is 0.018 cpo

ExampleS.S

An aquifer is known to outcrop at the sea bed where the water depth is 250 ft as shown in the figure. A
hydrocarbon-water contact exists at -5250 ft. The effective distance from the HWC to the outcrop is 10
miles. Under dynamic conditions, when the pressure at the HWC is 1450 psi, what is the rate of water influx
in barrels per day? Assume the specific gravity of the aquifer water is 1.038. The aquifer sand has a net
thickness of 65 ft, a width of 3000 ft and a permeability of 750 mD.
Sea level -~----~~--~ t
t250'

5000'

ExampleS.6

The following results were obtained in flowing dry gas through a cleaned extracted dried core plug:
Core dimensions: Diameter 1 in., Length 1 in.
Gas viscosity: 0.018 cP
Atmospheric pressure: 760mmHg

Upstream pressure Downstream pressure Flow rate

(mmHg) (standard conditions) (cm 3/min)
101 Atmospheric 6.4
507 Atmospheric 35.6
1520 Atmospheric 132.8

What is the permeability of the sample,.after Klinkenberg correction?

88 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

ExampleS.7

A core sample is saturated with brine, and mounted in a burette as shown in the accompanying diagram.
When flow is started, the height of the brine above the core is as follows:

Time(s) Height (cm)

o 100.0
100 96.1
500 82.0
1000 67.0
2000 45.0 ho =100cm
3000 30.0 Brine
4000 20.0
5000 13.5

What is the permeability of the sample? Assume that:

Density of brine = 1.02 glcm
Viscosity of brine = 1 centipoise g = 981 cm S-2 Core ~ 2cm

1 atmosphere = 106 dyne/cm2

ExampleS.8

A reservoir is bounded by three faults and an oil-water contact forming a tilted rectangular block of 3000 ft
x 1000 ft x 150 ft. The oil-water contact is 1000 ft long at a depth of -5750 ft. A production rate of 1000
bbl/day of tank oil is obtained from a number of wells lying close to the upper fault boundary.

Average pressure at producing wells = 1750 psig at 5000 ft

Net sand thickness = 150 ft
Permeability to oil = 150 mD
Porosity = 26%
Viscosity of oil at reservoir conditions = 0.7 cp
Oil formation volume factor = 1.135 rb/stb
Density of oil at reservoir conditions = 50 Ib/ft 3
(a) What is the pressure at the oil-water contact?
(b) If the pressure at the original oil-water contact at abandonment is 500 psig, what size of aquifer would
be necessary if water drive of the reservoir were to be complete? (i.e. 1 pore volume of invading water)
Use the following relationships:
1 BBLIday = 1.84 cm 3/s
1 ft = 30.48 cm
1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi
Compressibility of water = 3 X 10-6 volslpsi

ExampleS.9

Find the expressions for the average permeability of beds or zones of differing permeability when in series
and in parallel, both in linear (a), (b) and radial flow (c), (d).
(e) Calculate the mean permeability for the following cases:
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 89

Depth (parallel)
Zone Length or radial extent (series) Permeability (mD)
1 250 25
2 250 50
3 500 100
4 1000 200

References
[1] American Petroleum Institute
Recommended practice for core analysis procedure, API RP 40 (1960).
[2] Ryder, H.M.
Permeability, absolute, effective, measured, World Oil (1948),174.
[3] Archie, G.E.
Reservoir rocks and petrophysical considerations, AAPG Bull 36 (1952), 278.
[4] Monicard, R.P.
Properties of Reservoir Rocks: Core Analysis, Graham and Trotman (1980).
[5] Anderson, G.
Coring and Core Analysis Handbook, Penwell, Tulsa (1975).
[6] Klinkenberg, L.J.
The permeability of porous media to liquid and gases, API Drilling and Production Practice (1941), 200.
[7] Amyx, J.M., Bass, D.M. and Whiting, R.L.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering - Physical Properties, McGraw Hill (1960).
[8] Frick, T.e. (ed.)
Petroleum Production Handbook (VI, V2), SPE (1962).
[9] Buckles, R.S.
Correlating and averaging connate water saturation data, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. 4 (1965), 42.
[10] Cuiec, L.
Study of problems related to the restoration of the natural state of core samples, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. 16 (1977),68.
[11] Havlena, D.
Interpretation, averaging and use of the basic geological engineering data, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. 6 (1967), 236.
[12] Bell, H.J.
Oriented cores guide Eliasville redevelopment, Pet. Eng. Int. (Dec. 1979),38.
[13] Law,J.
A statistical approach to the interstitial heterogeneity of sand reservoirs, Trans. AIME (1944), 202.
[14] Davis, J.
Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, Wiley Interscience (1973).
[15] Keelan, D.K.
A critical review of core analysis techniques, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. 11 (1972),42.
[16] Newman, G.H.
Pore volume compressibility of consolidated friable and unconsolidated reservoir rocks under hydrostatic loading,
1PT25 (1973),129.
[17] Coates, G.R. and Dumanoir, J.L.
A new approach to improved log derived permeability, Proc. SPWLA, 14th Ann. Symp. (1973).
[18] Teeuw, D.
Prediction offormation compaction from laboratory compressibility data, SP E1 (1971), 263.
[19] Testerman, J.D.
A statistical reservoir zonation technique,JPT (1962), 889.
[20] Warren, J.E. and Price, A.S.
Flow in heterogeneous porous media, Trans. AIME (SPE1) 222 (1961),153.
[21] RRIIERC
The Brent Sand in the N. Viking Graben, UKCS: A Sedimentological and Reservoir Engineering Study, Vol 7
(1980).
[22] Gewers, C.W. and Nichol, L.R.
Gas turbulence factor in a microvugular carbonate, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. (1969).
[23] Wong, S.W.
Effects of liquid saturation on turbulence factors for gas-liquid systems, 1. Can. Pet. Tech. (1970).
[24] Firoozabadi, A. and Katz, D.L.
An analysis of high velocity gas flow through porous media, 1PT (Feb 1979),211.
90 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[25] Peveraro, R.e.A. and Cable, H.W.

Determination of rock properties by quantitative processing of geophysical borehole logs, Paper EUR 273, Proc.
Europec (1982), 29.
[26] Juhasz, I.
Normalised Qv - the key to shaley sand evaluation using the-Waxman-Smits equation in the absence of core data,
Proc. SPWLA 22nd Ann. Log. Symp. (June 1981), Z.
[27] Darcy, H.
The public fountains in the Town of Dijon, V. Dalmont, Paris (1856).
[28] Hubbert, M.K.
Darcy's law and the field equations of the flow of underground fluids, Trans. AIME 207 (1956), 222.
[29] Toronyi, R.M. and Ali, S.M.F.
Determining interblock transmissibility in reservoir simulators, JPT (1974),77.
[30] Miller, R.L. and Kahn, J.S.
Statistical Analysis in the Geological Sciences, J. Wiley, New York (1962).
[31] Timur, A.
An investigation of permeability, porosity and residual water saturation relationships for sandstone reservoirs, The
Log Analyst 9 (1968).
[32] Swanson, B.F. and Thomas, E.C.
The measurement of petrophysical properties of unconsolidated sand cores, Proc. 6th Europ. Symp. SPWLA,
Paper A (1979).
[33] Allen, J.R.
Prediction of permeability from logs by multiple regression, Proc. 6th Europ. Symp. SPWLA, Paper M (1979).
[34] Muecke, T.W.
Formation fines and factors controlling their movement in porous media, JPT (1979),144.
[35] Nagtegaal, P.J.e.
Relationship of facies and reservoir quality in Rotliegendes desert sand stones, SNS, J. Pet. Geo!. 2 (1979), 145.
[36] Van Veen, F.R.
Geology of the Leman gas field, In Petroleum and the Continental Shelf of NW Europe, (Woodland, A.W., ed.),
Applied Science Pub., Barking (1975), 223.
[37] Passmore, M.J. and Archer, J.S.
Thermal properties of reservoir rocks and fluids, In Development in Petroleum Engineering - I, (ed. Dawe/wilson)
Elsevier Applied Science Pub., Barking (1985).
[38] Wall, e.G.
Permeability - pore size distribution correlations, J. Inst. Pet. 51 (1965), 195.
[39] Archer, J.S. and Hurst, A.R.
Applications of clay mineralogy in reservoir studies, Proc. Clay Min. Conference, Cambridge (Apr. 1985).
[40] McHardy, W.J., Wilson, M.J. and Tait, J.M.
Electron microscope and X-ray diffraction studies of filamentous illitic clay from sandstones of the Magnus field,
Clay Min. Oxford 17 (1982), 23.
[41] Hook, J.R.
The precision of core analysis data and some implications for reservoir evaluation, Proc. 24th SPWLA Ann. Symp.
(1983).
[42] Kruger, W.D.
Determining areal permeability distributions by calculations, JPT (1961), 69l.
[43] Dupuy, M. and Pottier, J.
Application of statistical methods to detailed studies of reservoirs, Rev. I. F. P. (1963).
[44] Jennings, H.Y. and Timur, A.
Significant contributions in formation evaluation and well testing, JPT (1973), 1432.
[45] McLatchie, A.S., Hemstock, R.A. and Young, J.W.
The effective compressibility of reservoir rock and its effect on permeability, Trans. AIME 213 (1958), 386.
[46] Luffel, D.L. and Randall, R.V.
Core handling and measurement techniques for obtaining reliable reservoir characteristics, AIME Form. Eva!.
Symp. Houston (Nov. 1960).
[47] Rathmell, J.J.
Errors in core oil content data measured by the retort distillation technique,JPT (June 1967),759.
[48] Pallat, N., Wilson, J. and McHardy, W.J.
The relationship between permeability and morphology of diagenetic illite in reservoir rocks, JPT (Dec. 1984),
2225.
[49] Trudgen, P. and Hoffman, F.
Statistically analysing core data, SPE Proc. 41st Ann. Fall Mtg. (1966), 1574.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 91

[SO] Bush, D.C. and Jenkins, R.E.

Proper hydration of clays for rock property determinations, JPT (July 1970), 800 ..
[SI] Keeland, D.
Coring, World Oil (March 1985), 83.
[S2] Serra, O.
Fundamentals of Well Log Interpretation, (Dev. in Pet. Sci. ISA), Elsevier, Amsterdam (1984).
[S3] Dewan, J.T., Essentials of Modern Open Hole Log Interpretation, Pennwell, Tulsa (1983).
[S4] Desbrandes, R.
Encyclopedia of Well Logging, Graham and Trotman, London (198S).
[SS] Hilchie, D.W.
Advanced Well Log Interpretation, D.W. Hilchie Inc., Golden, Colorado (1982).
[S6] Threadgold, P.
Advances in Formation Evaluation. In Developments in Petroleum Engineering - 1 (Ed. Dawe-Wilson), Elsevier
Applied Science, Barking (198S), 43.
 ChapterS

Fluid Saturation: Influence of Wettability

and Capillary Pressure

6.1 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS The curvature of the interface suggests that the oil
phase pressure Po is greater than the water phase
The equilibrium saturation distribution in a pet- pressure Pw' The capillary pressure Pc is defined as
roleum reservoir prior to production is governed by the difference between the two phase pressures. By
the pore space characteristics. This happens as a convention, the Pc term is positive for unconfined
result of non-wetting phase fluid (hydrocarbons) immiscible fluid pairs. The curved interface has two
entering pore space initially occupied by wetting principal radii of curvature normal to each other, R]
phase fluid (water) during migration of hydrocar- and R2 . It can be shown that the capillary pressure
bons from a source rock region into a reservoir trap. can also be defined in terms of these radii and in
A pressure differential is required for non-wetting terms of the interfacial tension 0 between the
phase fluid to displace wetting phase fluid and this is immiscible fluids, i.e.
equivalent to a minimum threshold capillary press- 1 1
ure and is dependent on pore size. Pc= 0(-+-)
Capillary pressure may be defined as the pressure Rl R2
difference across a curved interface between two For an immiscible fluid pair confined in a circular
immiscible fluids. Using the example of an oil drop cross-section pore of radius r, and making the
in a water environment (Fig. 6.1) assumption that R] = R2 , we can write
Pc = Po - P w 20 cos e
Pc = - - -
r
where e is the angle measured through the wetting
phase (water) fluid that the surface makes at the
contact with the pores wall (Fig. 6.2). The angle e is
known as the contact angle.

r 20" cos e
r

Fig. 6.1 Pressures at an interface. Fig. 6.2 Immiscible fluids interface in a confined capillary.

92
6 FLUID SATURATION 93

TABLE 6.1
System Conditions e a (dynes/em)
Wetting Non-wetting T = temperature
phase phase P= pressure
Brine Oil Reservoir, T,P 30 30
Brine Oil Laboratory, T,P 30 48
Brine Gas Laboratory, T,P 0 72
Brine Gas Reservoir, T,P 0 (50)
Oil Gas Reservoir, T,P 0 4
Gas Mercury Laboratory, T,P 140 480
(After [26J).

The angle 8 is influenced by the tendency of one 6.2 LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

of the fluids in the immiscible pair to spread on the AND RELATIONSHIP WITH
pore wall surface in preference to the other. The RESERVOIR SYSTEMS
qualitative recognition of preferred spread is called a
wettability preference, and the fluid which spreads Since a cos 8 = rPe/2 it follows that the capillary
more is said to be the wetting phase fluid. Contact pressure measured in any given porous system using
angles are measured, by convention, through the a particular fluid pair will be related to that obtained
wetting phase fluid. A table of typical fluid pairs of with any other fluid pair merely by the ratio of the
interest in reservoir engineering is shown in Table a cos 8 terms, i.e. denoting fluid pairs by the
6.1, together with contact angles and interfacial subscripts 1 and 2
tensions. (a cos 8h
The relative spreading concept applied to fluids on Pe(l) = Pe (2) (a cos 8h
a surface may be used to illustrate the understanding
of wettability description applied to an oil-water Use is made of this relationship in conducting
system in a reservoir. The main practical difficulty laboratory tests with fluids other than reservoir
comes from obtaining a smooth representative pore condition fluids. For example, air and brine with a
surface at reservoir conditions of temperature and (a cos 8) value of 72 may be used to measure P e
pressure on which to make measurements. In Fig. (air-brine) in the laboratory. The relationship for Pc
6.3, 8 is measured in the water phase to aid (reservoir oil-brine) is obtained using the appropri-
comparisons. ate value of (a cos 8)res (= 26 dynes/cm).
The degree of wettability exhibited depends both (a cos 8)res
on the chemical compositions of the fluid pair, Pe(res) = Pc(lab) ( 8)
particularly the asphaltine content of the oil, and on a cos lab
the nature of the pore wall. Pure quartz sandstone or The migration of hydrocarbons into an initially
calcite surfaces are likely to be wetted preferentially water filled reservoir rock and the subsequent
by water. The presence of certain authigenic clays, equilibrium vertical distribution of saturation is
particularly chamosite, may promote oil wet charac- modelled in the laboratory by a non-wetting phase
ter. The capillary pressure forces that influence displacing wetting phase drainage capillary pressure
allowable saturation change in pores of a given size test. Air and brine are frequently used as the
are thus directly influenced by wetting character. It pseudo-reservoir fluids, and the displacement is
will be seen later that fluid displacement characteris- effected by increasing air pressure in a series of
tics can also be used to deduce wetting character. discrete steps in water-saturated core plugs sitting

e= 0 0 - 30 0 e= 30 0 -90 0 e = 90 0 e=90 -150

0 0 e= 150 -180
0 0

.~W 0 e~
W 0
~ ~ ~
(a) Strongly (b) Preferentially (c) Neutral.. (d) Preferentially (e) Strongly
water wet water wet wettablhty 011 wet 011 wet

Fig. 6.3 Wetting contact angles in confined capillaries. (a) Strongly water wet, (b) preferentially water wet, (c) neutral,
(d) preferentially oil wet, (e) strongly oil wet.
94 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

on a semi-permeable porous diaphragm. As a result

of an increase in pressure (equivalent to Pc since I
Pc = Pair - P water) the water saturation decreases and I
its value is established by weighing the core plug. I
I
The non-wetting phase fluid finds it easier to enter I
the largest pore spaces in the porous rock first since, I
·iii I
for a given rock-fluid system, a. I
I
1 I
poc- I
c r I
I
The apparatus layout is shown in Fig. 6.4. A I
I
number of cores of similar petrophysical properties
can be analysed simultaneously, with equilibrium ---t-------------- --
I
PCt
being controlled by the core plug taking longest.
o t sWirr 1.0
Wetting phase saturation Sw

Fig. 6.5 Laboratory measurements of drainage capillary

""W
Capillary
pressure.

Screen
u first applied pressure differential does not cause any
desaturation of wetting phase and is interpreted as
meaning that the threshold capillary pressure of the
largest pore sizes has not been reached. Between 0.5
psi and 1.0 psi some desaturation is achieved and the
minimum threshold pressure (Pct ) lies in this region.
-Atmosphere
For pressures greater than the minimum threshold
0-300 0-3 pressure, a decreasing pore size is invaded by
o 0 Pressure regulators
transducers and
non-wetting phase fluid until an irreducible wetting
~ digital voltmeters phase saturation Swirr is reached and no further
increase in differential pressure causes further de-
~----.---i 0-100
o 0-10
0 saturation. In laboratory tests this final irreducible
saturation value is often beyond the breakdown
pressure of the porous plate and is sometimes
obtained by centrifuge spinning at a rotational force
equivalent to about 150 psi, and measuring the
quantity of any produced wetting phase. The cross-
hatched region in Fig. 6.5 which lies between P ct and
Cylinder Air compressor Pc (Swirr) is known as the transition zone region. In
higher permeability reservoir rocks (500 mD) the
Fig. 6.4 Gas liquid drainage capillary pressure
measurement. (1) Portion of liquid in saturated cores is
value of Pct may be indistinguishable from zero
displaced at a particular pressure level by either gas or applied pressure. The physical significance of
displacing liquid. (2) Liquid saturations measured after threshold pressure may be appreciated by an analo-
equilibrium saturation has been reached. (3) Repetition gy with capillary rise of water in different bore glass
for several successive pressure levels. tubes suspended in an open tray of water. Again,
since Pc oc 1Ir it will be observed that entry of the
There will be a threshold pressure for each pore non-wetting phase should be most difficult in the
radius which has to be overcome by the applied smallest bore tube (highest threshold pressure), as
pressure differential in order to move wetting phase shown in Fig. 6.6. If the density of water is denoted
fluid from that pore. The relationship between bypw
applied pressure differential (equivalent to capillary
pressure) and saturation thus gives a characteriza-
tion of pore size distribution. The laboratory test
results may look like those shown in Fig. 6.5. The Pct(3) > Pct(2) > Pct(l)
6 FLUID SATURATION 95

2 3

Pressure - -

\ Pc
\(=Po -Pw)
.......,~ ~Oil phose pressure
(f)
(f)
\ gradient
\
.;: \
\
Co \
Q)
\
0 H \
\
H3
~ \
\
\
\
Free water level
H=O

~ Water phose
pressure gradient

Fig. 6.6 Capillary rise above free water level. Fig. 6.7 Static pressure gradients in a homogeneous
reservoir interval.

The free water level in the dish provides a con- and

venient datum location. Pw = Pwgjgc' H
P FWL -
The threshold capillary pressure found in reservoir
rocks is proportional to the height above the free where g/gc or g' is the quotient of the acceleration due
water level (FWL) datum, where a region of 100% to gravity and the gravitational constant In Imperial
water saturation will be found. The FWL is thus a units this ratio is unity, and in SI units is 9.81.
property of the reservoir system, while an oil-water From our definition of capillary pressure as Pc =
contact observed in a particular well in the reservoir Po - P w, the capillary pressure at a depth equivalent
will depend on the threshold pressure of the rock to H above the free water level is given by
type present in the vicinity of the well and there may Pc = (PFWL - Pogjgc H ) - (PFWL - PwgjgcH)
then be a zone of 100% water saturation from some
height above the FWL. The relationship between therefore
height above free water level and capillary pressure Pc = gjgc H (Pw - Po)
is derived from consideration of the gravity-capillary The saturation which exists at this height H is a rock
pressure force equilibrium. Using the free water property dependent term and is obtained from
level as a datum and defining its position in the laboratory tests
reservoir as the place where oil phase pressure Po
equals the water phase pressure P w then at the FWL Pc = f(Sw)
Po - Pw = 0 = Pc(FWL) therefore
Figure 6.7 shows fluid gradients for the oil and H= f(Sw)
water phases which are defined in terms of density of Since we also have the relationship
the fluids. At some height H above the free water 20 cos 8
level, which is a convenient datum and where Po = Pc=
Pw=PFWL r
it also follows that the saturation which occurs at
Po = P FWL - Pogjgc' H height H will depend on a pore radius term r, i.e.
96 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

20 cos e The water saturation distribution in a

pc(sw) = r = H(sw) . g/gc . (Pw-Po) homogeneous reservoir is shown in Fig. 6.8.
The magnitude· of the threshold capillary pressure
therefore can influence the location of fluid contacts predicted
20 cos e by gradient intersection methods from RFT data
H(sw) = r. g/gc . (pw - Po) since the tool responds to filtrate invaded zone
character (Pf = P hc + Pet).
Similarly, the threshold height H t which is equiva-
lent to the height of an observed oil-water contact
above FWL in a particular rock type is given by 6.3 PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
H _ gc. Pct The pore size distribution in a given rock type, which
t - g (pw - Po) has been shown to influence saturation distribution,
The FWL depth is usually determined by noting an is usually determined using a mercury injection test.
observed owe in a well and conducting a drainage Although this test is destructive, in the sense that the
laboratory capillary pressure test on a rock sample sample cannot be used again, it has the advantage
from the interval to find the threshold capillary that high pressures can be attained and mercury, the
pressure, then the depth of the FWL (= DFWd. non-wetting phase with respect to air, can be forced
into very small pores. The pore size distribution
D FWL = Dowc + H t function D(r) is determined from the volume of
In frequently used oilfield units where P is in Ibf/in2, mercury injected over a given pressure step [III (Fig.
H is in feet and fluid densities are in units oflbm/ft3, 6.9).
and glgc is equal to unity, then The shapes of the capillary pressure curves can be
P = H(pw - Po) used diagnostically to compare samples of similar
c 144 rock type. Figure 6.10 shows a number of different
characteristic mercury injection capillary pressure
(Note: 1 glcm 3 = 62.41bmlft3 .) curve shapes.
Well

'Clean oil'

Top transition zone

o
Transition zone E
P
T Initial water-oil
H
transition zone
lies in region between
irreducible water saturation
Lowest location and 100% water saturation
for oil production

Observed owe
(Pc =Pc,)

Free water - - - -
level (Pc =o) 100%

Sw_
Fig. 6.8 Static water saturation distribution and definition of contacts and transition zone in a homogeneous reservoir.
6 FLUID SATURATION 97
Pc The pore size distribution would be expected to
control the rate of saturation change in a given
Incremental wettability system for a given phase pressure differ-
Mercury ence, and the rate would be different depending on
Injection' whether phase saturation was decreasing (drainage)
or increasing (imbibition). The directional effect is
attributable to the threshold pressure dependency
D -~.~
(rj- r dPc on pore radius.

6.4 CAPILLARY PRESSURE HYSTERESIS

When wetting phase pressure is increasing, the

imbibition wetting phase threshold pressure is some-
r times called a capillary suction pressure. The hys-
pore radius teresis phenomenon gives rise to the curve pair
Fig. 6.9 Pore size distribution function. character shown in Fig. 6.11. The condition Pc = 0 in
the imbibition direction effectively defines the re-
sidual non-wetting phase saturation which is there-
fore a property of the particular rock pore size
S system and should be recognized as such.

Pc

Unsorted Well sorted

a.
.
S S

l <.>
a.

Pc Pc

o
Sw
Well sorted Well sorted
Coarse skewness
Fig. 6.11 Capillary pressure hysteresis.
Fine skewness
The experimental difficulties in determining the
definition of the imbibition direction capillary press-
ure curve, combined with the difficulties of using the
information in reservoir simulation models, has led
to the assumption by many reservoir engineers that,
Pc for practical purposes, capillary pressure hysteresis
does not exist. This is close to the truth in systems
without strong wetting preference and with essen-
tially mono size pores and the magnitude of the
Poorly sorted Poorly sorted
difference I::l.Pc(D-I) may often be negligible in
Slightly fine skewness Slight coarse skewness
comparison with viscous force pressure gradients.
(This last assumption depends on whether the
Fig. 6.10 Characteristic mercury injection capillary gradients are being compared over large distances
pressure curve shapes. between wells (macrosystem) or over small pore
98 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

diameter distances on a microdisplacement scale.) 6.13. In this example, four sand units are connected
For the application of hysteresis in the dynamic only at a common aquifer, whose free water level is
pressure of reservoir fluid displacement, the reader denoted as FWL
is referred to the literature [1,5,22, 29J. The sands are labelled 1-4 and have permeabili-
ties krk4 with kl>k4>k3>k2' The observed oil-
6.5 SATURATION DISTRIBUTIONS water contacts representing the effects of threshold
IN RESERVOIR INTERVALS entry pressure are denoted owe. Each sand has a
capillary pressure curve, depth related to saturation,
In real reservoir systems it is expected that a number and different irreducible water saturations. A well
of rock type units will be encountered. Each unit can penetrating all sands as shown will log a saturation
have its own capillary pressure characteristic and the profile as shown. Multiple oil-water contacts and
static saturation distribution in the reservoir will be a transition zones which are shown can be seen to
superposition of all units, as shown in Figs 6.12 and relate to appropriate portions of each sand's capil-

Fig. 6.12 Observed oil-water contacts and their relationship with free water level in a layered reservoir
with a common aquifer.

Profile ot weI [

Sw-+- 100%
Unit

Depth
2

4
fWL----''--.....
Sw-

Fig. 6.13 Saturation discontinuities in a layered reservoir and an example of multiple observed oil-water contacts, but a
single free water level.
6 FLUID SATURATION 99

lary pressure curve. This behaviour is important to With this shape of curve, an approximate
recognize in correlating oil-water contacts and in the linearization can be made by plotting the logarithm
zonation of reservoirs. of capillary pressure' against the logarithm of per-
meability as iso-saturation lines, as shown in Fig.
6.16. This enables easier interpolation and regenera-
6.6 CORRELATION OF CAPILLARY tion of particular capillary pressure-saturation rela-
PRESSURE DATA FROM A GIVEN tionships to predict reservoir saturation distribution.
ROCK TYPE Those curves are often obtained for sands where
large permeability variations occur in a very narrow
From our definition of Pc = 20 cos 81r where r is a range of porosities.
mean radius, we may note that the grouping rPel 0
cos 8 will be dimensionless. Since permeability has
the dimension L2 (the unit of area), then we could
substitute Yk for r and maintain the dimensionless
nature of the group. Leverett [4J in fact defined a
dimensionless capillary pressure group in this way,
with the exception that (kl<j> )0.5 was preferred. Since
capillary pressure is a function of saturation, then
the dimensionless capillary pressure term (J) is also a Drainage capillary
function of saturation. Thus we may write pressure curves
o
J = Pe(sw) a..
(sw) 0 cos 8

Sw

Fig. 6.15 Effect of permeability on capillary pressure in a

given rock type.

Sw --+-
Fig. 6.14 LeverettJ-function correlation.

This relationship (Fig. 6.14) will apply as a

correlating group for all measurements of capillary
pressure using different fluid systems, so long as the
porous rocks have similar pore geometries. There
will therefore be a particular correlation for given
rock type, and lack of correlation can suggest the E
need for further zonation. Following the establish- :€
(;
ment of the correlation from representative rock 01
o
samples under laboratory conditions, it is used to -1
predict reservoir saturation distribution.
A further correlating technique makes use of an
observation that in a given rock type, capillary Logarithm of permeability--+-
pressure curves from samples of different per-
meabilities often form a family of curves, as shown Fig. 6.16 Correlation of capillary pressure with
in Fig. 6.15. permeability in a given rock type.
100 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Examples
Example 6.1

An oil water capillary pressure experiment on a core sample gives the following results:
0/ w capillary pressure 0 4.4 5.3 5.6 10.5 15.7 35.0
(psia)
water saturation: 100 100 90.1 82.4 43.7 32.2 29.8
(percent)
Given that the sample was taken from a point 100 ft above the oil-water contact, what is the expected water
saturation at that elevation? If the hydrocarbon bearing thickness from the crest of the structure to the
oil-water contact is 175 ft, what is the average water saturation over the interval?
(Pw = 64Ibs/ft3; Poreservoir = 45Ibs/ft3)

Example 6.2

If, in the previous example (6.1), the interfacial tension 0 cos e had been 25 dyne/cm, and the permeability
and porosity had been 100 mD and 18% respectively, construct the mercury capillary pressure curve for a
sample of similar lithology with permeability 25 mD, porosity 13 %.
Use a mercury interfacial tension of 370 dyne/cm.

Example 6.3

A drainage capillary pressure curve using an air-brine fluid pair (0 cos e = 72 dyne/cm) is generated using a
core plug of porosity 0.22 and permeability 150 mD. It is described as follows:
Sw (feac) 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
Pc(psi) 0 1 4 6 8 9.5 11.2 13.7 16.5 23 100
It is believed that the reservoir is better represented by a porosity of 0.25 and a permeability of 500 mD. The
reservoir condition oil has a specific gravity of 0.785 and formation water at reservoir conditions has a
specific gravity of 1.026. The reservoir condition value of 0 cos e is taken as 26 dyne/cm. Use a J-function
method to generate the reservoir condition capillary pressure curve and estimate the depth relative to the
free water level of the top transition zone and the observed oil-water contact.

References
[1] Morrow, N.R.
Physics and thermodynamics of capillary action in porous media, Ind. Eng. Chern. 62 (June 1970), 33.
[2] Muskat, M.
Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw Rill, NY (1949).
[3] Gregg, S.J. and Sing, K.S.W.
Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity, Academic Press, London (1967).
[4] Leverett, M.e.
Capillary behaviour in porous solids, Trans. AIME 142 (1941),152.
[5] Melrose, J.e. and Brandner, e.P.
Role of capillary forces in determining microscopic displacement efficiency for oil recovery by waterflooding,
1. Can Pet. Tech. 13 (1974), 54.
[6] Mohanty, K.K., Davis, T.R. and Scriven, L.E.
Physics of oil entrapment in water wet rock, SPE Paper 9406, AIME Ann. Fall Mtg. (1980).
[7] Shull, e.G.
The determination of pore size distribution from gas adsorption data, 1. Am. Chern. Soc. 70 (1948), 70.
[8] Pandey, B.P. and Singhal, A.K.
Evaluation of the capillary pressure curve techniques for determining pore size distribution - a network approach,
Powder Tech. 15 (1976), 89.
6 FLUID SATURATION 101

[9] Kimber, O.K., Reed, R.L. and Silverberg, I.H.

Physical characteristics of natural films formed at crude oil-water interfaces, SPEJ (1966), 153.
[10] Donaldson, E.C., Thomas, RD. and Lorenz, P.B.
Wettability determination and its effect on recovery efficiency, SPEJ (1969), 13.
[11] Ritter, L.c. and Drake, R.L.
Pore size distribution in porous material, Ind. Eng. Chern. Fund 17 (1945), 782.
[12] Burdine, N.T., Gournay, L.S. and Reichertz, P.P.
Pore size distribution of petroleum reservoir rocks, Trans. AIME 189 (1950),195.
[13] Brunnauer, S., Emmett, P.H. and Teller, E.
The adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers, J. Arn. Chern. Soc. 60 (1938), 309.
[14] Rose, W.R and Bruce, W.A.
Evaluation of capillary character in petroleum reservoir rock, Trans. AIME 186 (1949),127.
[15] Brooks, C.S. and Purcell, W.R.
Surface area measurements on sedimentary rocks, Trans. AIME 195 (1952), 289.
[16] Donaldson, E.C., Kendall, R.F., Baker, B.A. and Manning, F.S.
Surface area measurements of geologic materials, SPEJ 15 (1975),111.
[17] Purcell, W.R
Interpretation of capillary pressure data, Trans. A1ME 189 (1950), 369.
[18] Hassler, G.L. and Brunner, E.
Measurement of capillary pressure in small core samples, Trans. AIME 160 (1945), 114.
[19] Slobod, RL., Chambers, A. and Prehn, W.L.
Use of centrifuge for determining connate water, residual oil and capillary pressure curves of small core samples,
Trans. A1ME 192 (1951), 127.
[20] Schilthuis, R.J.
Connate water in oil and gas sands, Trans. AIME 127 (1938), 199.
[21] Brown, H.W.
Capillary pressure investigations, Trans. AIME 192 (1951), 67.
[22] Rapoport, L.A. and Leas, W.J.
Properties of linear waterfloods, Trans. AIME 198 (1953), 139.
[23] Holmes, M. and Tippie, D.
Comparisons between log and capillary pressure data to estimate reservoir wetting, SPE Paper 6856, Ann. Fall
Mtg. (1977).
[24] Dullien, F.A. and Batra, V.K.
Determination of the structure of porous media, Ind. Eng. Chern. 62 (Oct. 1970), 25.
[25] Bruce, W.A. and Welge, H.
The restored state method for determination of oil in place and connate water, OGJ (July 26,1947),223.
[26] Core Labs Inc.
Special Core Analysis, Spec. Studies Section CL Inc. (April 1974).
[27] Pickell, J.J., Swanson, B.F. and Hickman, W.B.
Application of air-mercury and oil-air capillary pressure data in the study of pore structure and fluid distribution,
SPEJ (March 1966), 55.
[28] Morrow, N.R and Harris, c.c.
Capillary equilibrium in porous materials, SPEJ (March 1966), 55.
[29] Batycky, J., McCaffery, F.G., Hodgins, P.K. and Fisher, D.B.
Interpreting capillary pressure and rock wetting characteristics from unsteady-state displacement measurements,
Paper SPE 9403, Proc. 55th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE of A1ME (1980).
[30] Melrose, J.C.
Wettability as related to capillary action in porous media, SPEJ (Sept. 1965),259.
[31] Sinnokrot, A.A., Ramey, H.J. and Marsden, S.S.
Effect of temperature level upon capillary pressure curves, SPEJ (March 1971), 13.
[32] Mungan, N.
Interfacial phenomena and oil recovery: capillarity, In Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Water as a Driving Fluid.
World Oil (May 1981),149.
[33] Dunmore, J.M.
Drainage capillary pressure functions and their computation from one another, SPEJ (Oct. 1974),440.
 Chapter 7

Relative Permeability and Multiphase

Flow in Porous Media

7.1 DEFINITIONS
Relative permeability is a concept used to relate the
absolute permeability (100% saturated with a single
fluid) of a porous system to the effective permeabil- ~
I
ity of a particular fluid in the system when that fluid ~
I
I
"0
only occupies a fraction of the total pore volume. E I
I
I
ke = k· kr <I>
.>< I
I
where ke is the effective permeability of the phase, kr I
I
is the relative permeability of the phase, k is the I
I
absolute permeability of the porous system. I
I
It has been convenient to relate the relative I
permeability to saturation as it is observed that I
I I
effective permeability decreases with decrease in the I
I
I
I
phase saturation. The relationship really expresses
•
I
~---1
the Darcy flow of a two-phase or multiphase system
in a porous system, i.e. it maintains a relationship
0
t Sw
t 1.0
SWmin SW max
for linear flow of the form
Fig. 7.1 Representation of effective phase permeability.
keep) A dcp' the non-wetting phase reaches the residual non-
q(P)=
dL wetting phase saturation. Similarly, SW(min) represents
the irreducible wetting phase saturation. The pro-
cess represented in these figures is one of imbibition
where q(P) refers to phase volumetric flow rate, ke(p) (Le. increasing wetting phase saturation).
refers to effective phase permeability, ~p refers to In oil-water systems in particular, the relative
phase viscosity, dcp' /dL refers to datum corrected permeability scale is often normalised by represent-
pressure gradient (pseudo-potential). ing relative permeability as effective permeability
In two-phase systems the relationships are ex- divided by permeability to non-wetting phase at the
pressed as functions of saturation, as shown in Figs minimum wetting phase saturation, i.e.
7.1 and 7.2, where the subscripts wand n w refer to
wetting and non-wetting phases respectively. ke
k =-----
Note that Sw(max) occurs in a two-phase system when r k nw (Sw(min»

102
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 103

1.0 ,,r •
1.0' •I, J~
II kr w at Sw = 1.0 represents
I
I
II aquifer conditions and on
J: this scale may be> 1. 0
I I
I I
I I
~ I I
o I I
o I I
->< I I
"'- , I
Q)
.x .~krwat SOr

krw I
I I
I Sw =1- SOr

t
I / I
o I ~---:_ _ _.• I

1.0
Sw= SWc or
SWirr
Fig. 7.3 Oil-water relative permeability (imbibition
o direction).

Fig. 7.2 Representation of relative permeability.

(a) (b) 1.0

e IDrainage I IImbibition I

CD
-><
e
.x
CD " I
I
" I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
o -------:::-----e ~ o e-------=
Sg t 1.0 t
Sgc Sgmax Sgr Sgmax
critical gas residual gas (= 1- SWj)
saturation saturation

Fig. 7.4 Gas-oil relative permeability.

In the oil-water system this is often expressed represent a drainage process such as gas drive (gas
symbolically as kr = kelko cw, where ko cw is the oil displacing oil immiscibly) or an imbibition process,
permeability at connate water saturation, as shown such as: (1) movement of an oil zone or (2) aquifer
in Fig. 7.3. into (3) a receding depleting gas cap, as indicated in
In the gas-oil system, the direction of displace- Fig.7.4.
ment is particularly important as the process can In gas-oil systems the third phase, water, which in
104 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

reality is always present in reservoirs is considered to '.0 --------------.-,

I
stay at irreducible saturation and play no part in the I
I
displacement processes. It is therefore argued that I
I
I
experiments in the laboratory can be conducted with I
I
or without irreducible water present, and the effec- I
I
tive permeabilities are correlated with total liquid I
I

saturation (SL) rather than gas saturation. The l iI

relationship is based on I
I
I

SL = So + Sw = 1 - Sg
I
I
I
I
In a system where gas saturation increases from I
I
zero (a liquid drainage process) it is observed that I
I
I
gas does not flow until some critical gas saturation o .""----::------:-'
(Sgc) has been attained. This is attributed to the t
physical process of the gas phase becoming con- SWj

tinuous through the system in order to flow. In liquid Fig. 7.6 (left) The kcIkcJd ratio curve (semi-log scale).
imbibition processes (gas saturation decreasing from Fig. 7.7 (right) The fractional flow curve for water
a maximum initial value) the gas permeability goes displacing oil.
to zero when the residual or trapped gas saturation
(Sgr) is reached. capillary pressure effects can be represented at
The directional aspects of relative permeability different saturations in terms of mobility ratios M
representation are often more pronounced in gas-oil
systems, and modification to laboratory data may be t.d-- qd M
necessary. The directional aspect may perhaps be qtotal l+M
appreciated by consideration of the difference be- where
tween bedding plane gas advance towards a produc- k d · fldd kd fldd
tion well and downward gas movement vertical to M=-=-..!....::.::
the bedding plane in the vicinity of a production fld . kdd kdd fld
well, as shown in Fig. 7.5. The directional differ- and subscript d = displacing fluid, dd = displaced
ences may be incorporated in reservoir engineering fluid.
calculations by determination of frontal saturation The reservoir fractional flow of wetting phase
and the use of pseudo-functions. The calculation of displacing fluid in an oil-water system with water as
frontal behaviour is discussed under the heading of the displacing fluid is therefore
fractional flow analysis.
fw= ~
qw+ qo
produClion
as shown in Fig. 7.7., where qm qw are reservoir
condition rates.
Writing a Darcy law expression for steady state
flow of each phase in a linear horizontal system we
have
k k rw !J..P w
--·A·-
flw L
fw = - - - p - - - - - - - - - - ; ; ; -
kA [kr(w)!J..Pw + kr(o)!J..Poj
Fig. 7.5 Directional aspects of frontal gas movement. L flw flo
For the condition in which viscous flow forces are
7.2 FRACTIONAL FLOW considerably greater than capillary forces, we can
write Po = Pwand the expression becomes

j
Phase permeability characteristics are also frequent-
ly presented in terms of permeability ratios k.jko J,= ----.,.------
1
and kgfko (Fig. 7.6). This is because the fractional w 1 + [kr(o) . flw
flow of displacing fluid (fd) at the outlet end of an kr(w) flo
incompressible linear horizontal system with no
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 105

In tilted reservoirs of dip angle ~, the fractional

flow of water, using field units of RBID for the total
flow rate qn length terms in feet, y as a specific
gravity, viscosities in centipoise and permeabilities
in milliDarcies, is given by
0.001127 k kr(o) A
1- {0.4335 (yw - Yo)sin~}
qT' !-to

1 + !-tw . kr(o)
!-to kr(w) -
3:

(Note for a constant injection rate and an incom-

pressible system qT = qo + qw = qJNJ.) Typical
shapes of the effective permeability curves and the
f w curve are shown in Figs 7.14 and 11.5. I
Since the angle ~ is conventionally measured from I
I
a horizontal axis to the axis of a line in the direction SWf I Sw
of flow, it will be positive for the displacing fluid a I

SW--
moving from down dip to updip, and will be negative
for displacing fluid moving from an updip to a Fig. 7.8 Fractional flow analysis.
downdip position.
1.0
7.2.1 Analysis methods

Analysis of the fractional flow curve by the method

of Buckley and Leverett [8J and Welge [10J allows the
recovery performance of a homogeneous reservoir
to be determined. This technique is applicable to
relatively thin reservoir intervals where diffuse or
dispersed flow is assumed - this means that over any
part of the cross-section, the saturation of oil and SWj --------------------- ---

water is uniform and no fluid segregation exists. This

is a condition assumed in the laboratory core Xf
analysis determination of relative permeability rock
curves. - - Distance X from owe at time t
In the Buckley-LeverettlWelge analysis of dis- Fig. 7.9 Linear saturation profile before breakthrough.
placement of oil from a system with a uniform initial
water saturation SWi' a graphical technique can be This leads to an equivalencing for all times up to
utilized. A tangent drawn to the fractional flow breakthrough of the saturation change behind the
curve from the initial water saturation has two front to the volume of displacing fluid injected:
important characteristics, as shown in Fig. 7.8. The
tangent point indicates the saturation Swf of the
displacement front shown in Fig. 7.9. The intercept
Wi = l/dfw
- - Swi -- XAA.
Sw dS 1
f 't' wsw/
of the tangent at fw = 1 indicates the average (Sw)
saturation behind the front up to the time of water At breakthrough the distance travelled by the front
breakthrough at the outlet end (production well) of X f will equal L, the length of the system. Therefore
the system. From Buckley-Leverett theory for the
rate of movement of the frontal saturation, the
distance Xf travelled can be related to the volume of
Wi = l/dfw 1 = qT·tb
LA<j> dS w Sw/ LA<j>
displacing fluid injected Wi (= qit) and the gradient
of the fractional flow curve at the front with respect where tb is the breakthrough time:
to saturation:
Wi df w ] LA<j>
= ---;;;-.
1
dfw/ dS w
1
X f = A.A . dS w S tb Sw/
't' wf
106 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

After breakthrough of the frontal saturation at a and

production well for a water displacing oil system, the
average water saturation in the reservoir will in- -
Sw = Swe
1 - fwe
+ dl'JwIds w
1
crease with increasing volume of injected water until Swe
a maximum value of (1- Sor) is reached. The Welge
analysis is used to calculate the average water The reservoir condition recovery factor after break-
saturation. It makes use of the fractional flow curve through is obtained from the ratio of oil produced to
at a saturation greater than the frontal saturation initial oil in place. In terms of saturation this will be
and relates any such saturation to its fractional flow Sw-Swi
saturation gradient. It is imagined that after break- RF = - - - -
through, the outlet end of the system (production 1-Swi
well) will experience an increasing water saturation
with time. At any time after breakthrough, the
particular outlet end saturation is defined as Swe and 7.3 EFFECTS OF PERMEABILITY
its gradient from the fractional flow curve is VARIATION

[dfwldSwke Reservoirs characterized by a number of different

rock types may be analysed analytically if they are
Welge demonstrated that totally stratified, or by numerical modelling techni-
ques if cross-flow is significant. In both cases the
[dl' IdS] = 1 - fwe effective permeability characteristics of each pore
:/w' w Swe S - S size rock type are required. Stratified reservoir
w we
analysis by analytical methods is subject to con-
This relationship at some time after breakthrough straints regarding end point mobility ratios and the
can be seen in Fig. 7.10. Since reader is referred to the original papers by Dykstra
and Parsons [53, 54] and by Stiles [55J. Immiscible
displacement in a system having a transition zone
cannot be handled by the geometrical construction
methods appropriate to a uniform initial saturation
distribution, and material balance methods are
needed [75J. Displacement stability can be analysed in
relatively simple homogeneous linear reservoir sys-

---------7 / ?We
~.
0 --'

I
tems, where end-point mobilities are used and the
approach of Dietz [49J applied. In this case, a sharp
interface is assumed to exist between the displacing
I
• I and displaced fluids, that is gravity segregation
SWf I
dominates any capillary forces.
I
I
I For a water-oil system, the gravity segregated
I
I distribution of oil and water at any distance X along
I
I
the flow path can be represented as shown in Fig.
I
I
7.11 by a thickness weighted distribution. In terms of
I
I
the water phase saturation Sw and the fraction n of
I flooded thickness, the weighted average saturation
I
I Sw" is given by
I
I
I
o I
SW-
and since at this front we are dealing with end-point
Fig. 7.10 Fractional flow gradients after breakthrough. relative permeabilities (i.e. k'ro = kro at SWi and k\w
then the relationship between time and the attain- = krw at Sor then appropriate relative permeabilities
ment of a given outlet end face saturation is readily at the weighted average saturation Sw" are
obtained, i.e. k rw" = n . k rw '

t(Swe) = LA<j> [ dj, ;dS

qT w w Swe
1 and
k ro "= (1-n) k ro '
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 107

reservoir. Dietz showed that the maximum rate for

-----iJlo~ Flow direction stable updip displacement was given, in field units of
RB/D, feet, centipoise, milliDarcies and specific
gravities, as
Oil + immobile
Water + Imrnnr,",,', connate water 4.9 X 10-4 k A . (YD - YDD) sinex
[1
. k;(D) •
residual
qmax = k'r(D)
IlD --.
k'r(DD)

Fig. 7.11 Dietz analysis.

where the subscript D refers to the displacing phase
and DD to the displaced phase. Note that for
This leads to down dip displacement ex will be negative and that for
k rw"= k rw ,[ Sw" - Swi ] all end-point mobility ratios less than or equal to
1 - Sor - Swi unity the displacement is unconditionally stable and
becomes piston-like.
and
k ro "= k ro ,[1 - Sw" - Sor] Piston-like displacement in stratified reservoirs
characterized by thin beds with no cross-flow
between them can be analysed very easily by the
1 - Swi - Sor
Stiles l55 ] approach. In this technique, the total frac-
tional flow of water at a producing well is deter-
As shown in Fig. 7.12 this indicates that a straight mined at a number of times as each thin bed achieves
line relative permeability relationship with average water breakthrough. Since there is no cross-flow
saturation is appropriate. In this way pseudo-relative between beds, the calculation technique is facilitated
permeability relationships may be used to solve by rearranging the actual beds in a sequence with the
displacement problems in thicker sands, effectively highest kh product beds at the top. For equal oil and
transforming a homogeneous 2-D displacement to a water mobilities the pressure gradients in all beds
1-D problem solvable by a Buckley-Leverett/Welge are assumed equal and the displacing fluid is
technique. In such an application the fractional flow distributed between beds in proportion to the bed
curve is generated from the kro" and k rw" v. Sw" kh. In any bedj, therefore, the injection rate is
relationship. The stability of displacement in a
homogeneous 2-D system will depend on the mobil-
ity ratio of the fluids and the dip angle ex of the (q)j ~ {~;~J
qT

j=l

where qT is the total rate. The flow is considered

• kr 0'
incompressible and qT the reservoir condition injec-
tion rate is considered equal to the total reservoir
condition production rate. The pore volume of each
bed between the injection and production points is
(PV)j = (LA<\»j
= The volume of injected fluid needed to change the
saturation from Swi to Sw(ro) (or from Soi to Sor) at
breakthrough of the displacing phase is
(Wib)j = (LA<\>(l - Swi - sor»j
The time taken tb to reach this condition in the
particular layer j is thus

~-------------.~ (tb)j = (Wib)j

a 1
(q)j
SW II
- As each layer reaches breakthrough, the piston
Fig. 7.12 Relative permeabilities for segregated flow. displacement assumption means, for say a water-oil
108 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

system, that only water flows thereafter, and the - - Woter wet preference
layer continues to take water from the injector. In - - - Oil wet preference
practice it may in fact be sealed off. The total
production at any time t is therefore the water from
any layer· which has reached breakthrough, plus the
oil from any layer which has reached breakthrough,
plus the oil from any layer which has not yet
achieved breakthrough. For an incompressible flow
system this is easily calculated since the proportions
at the outlet are equivalent to inlet rate distribu-
tions. At some time t in a system in which two out of
n layers have reached breakthrough we have
qw = (ql + q2)
PV woter injected
qo = (qT- qw) Fig. 7.13 Oil recovery efficiency.
The fraction flow of water is given, at reservoir
conditions, as
fw= qw
qT
and the reservoir condition water-oil ratio as
WOR= qw
qo Q)
.x

The recovery factor at any time will be obtained

by evaluating frontal positions and conducting a
material balance. In any layer which has broken
through, the recovery will be (Soi - Sor)/Soi' In a
layer not yet at breakthrough, the oil remaining is Sw-
(PVj{X(Sorh+(l-X)(SOih) where Xis the distance Fig. 7.14 Effect of wettability on effective permeability.
of the front from the injection location. The recov-
ery factor for such a layer at that time is thus
(RF)j] = (So;)j - [X(Sor)j + (1- X) (Soi)J Oil wet systems tend to be characterized, in
t (Soi)j comparison with water wet systems, by:
earlier water breakthrough;
The overall economic recovery factor will be con- lower initial water saturations for a given pore
trolled by surface handling facilities and economic size;
rate. the condition ko = kw occurs at lower values of
water saturation;
less piston-like approach to a residual saturation
7.4 WETTABILITY EFFECTS (the Sor approaches zero by a film drainage
mechanism) ;
Wettability effects in fluid displacement are display- higher values of kw at most values of water
ed by effective and relative permeability curve saturation;
characteristics. As discussed previously, the wetta- lower values of ko at most values of water
bility of a surface depends on the term a cos e, and saturation.
capillary pressure controls the sequence of pore The establishment of in situ wettability
saturation change so long as viscous flow forces are conditionsl45J is therefore very important in the
not controlling. Viscous forces tend to control when proper conduct of laboratory experiments, which
the term qD!!DLlA in Darcy units is greater than should duplicate or account for field conditions. The
about 2.0 Ill.76J. The effective permeability character most frequent laboratory measurement of wetting
for water wet and oil wet systems is shown in Figs. tendency is through the Amott test l3J , but this only
7.13 and 7.14. indicates the condition of the as received sample.
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 109

7.5 LABORATORY DETERMINATION pressure (say 20 bar) to facilitate flow rate inter-
OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY DATA pretation.
Unsteady state relative permeability tests simulate
Laboratory determination of effective permeability the flooding of a reservoir with an immiscible fluid
is generally conducted as a special core analysis test (gas or water). The determination of relative per-
on representative and carefully preserved core plug meability is based on observation of the fractional
samples. A reservoir condition test is conducted at flow of displacing phase fluid from the outlet end of
reservoir pore pressure conditions and reservoir the core plug and its relationship with saturation.
temperatures with real or simulated reservoir fluids. The displacement theories of Buckley and Leverett[8]
Such reservoir condition tests may model displace- are combined with that of Welge[iO] in a technique
ment under steady state[23], or unsteady state described by Johnson, Bossler and Naumann[13]. The
conditions[14], and equipment arrangements are detection of the breakthrough time of the displacing
shown in Figs. 7.15 and 7.16. Room condition phase at the outlet core face is critical in the
relative permeability tests can be conducted at outlet representation of relative permeability, and severe
end pressures of one atmosphere and at room errors can occur with heterogeneous samples. Flow
temperature using refined oils and synthetic brines, rates are determined according to the method of
or with gases such as air, nitrogen or helium. Gas Rapoport and Leas[76] in order to minimize the
displacement processes require a significant back effects of capillary pressure forces in retaining

(a) OIL
COLLECTOR

BRINE
COLLECTOR

~
L~ i

\ BRINE

(b) OIL
COLLECTOR

He
H. u
BRINE

OIL
II COLLECTOR

SOLTROL CllTROl,

1000 cc

Fig. 7•.15 Unsteady state relative permeability measurement: (a) constant rate; (b) constant pressure.
110 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

each phase to calculate effective permeability at the

given steady state saturation. Capillary pressure
tends to be ignored and a major difficulty is the
OIL
determination of saturation at each stage. Between
ENO PlATES
five and ten stages are usually needed to establish
relative permeability curves.
Hg

It has become clear that the room condition tests

flUID are not necessarily a good guide to reservoir
COLLECTION
conditions behaviour. Table 7.1 shows the results of
OIL
a number of different room condition and reservoir
conditions unsteady state tests conducted on diffe-
BI<INE
rent small plugs of sandstones. For each test pair the
OIL
injection rate and oil-water viscosity ratio was
RES
constant. The flooding efficiency ratio is defined
CONSTANT DISPLACEMENT
RUSKA PUMPS
here as the breakthrough to total oil recovery ratio
for the reservoir condition test divided by the
Fig. 7.16 Steady state relative permeability measurement.
equivalent ratio for the room condition test. These
data indicate the significance of temperature in that
wetting phase fluid at the outlet end face discontinui- the flooding efficiency ratio appears to correlate
ty. The unsteady state or dynamic displacement test with temperature and might be considered influ-
is most frequently applied in reservoir analysis of enced by wettability.
strong wetting preference, and with homogeneous In cases where reservoir condition mobility ratios
samples. are significantly greater than unity, there is some
For reservoirs with more core-scale heterogeneity evidence to suggest that conventional short core
and with mixed wettability, the steady state labora- plugs (7 cm) should not be used. To some extent this
tory test at reservoir conditions and with reservoir conclusion is based on the applicability of Rapoport
fluids is preferred. The steady state process provides and Leas L VI-lD core flooding criteria. In short cores,
simultaneous flow of displacing and displaced fluids the velocity may be too high for proper imbibition
through the core sample at a number of equilibrium processes to take place between fingers of invading
ratios. At each ratio from 100% displaced phase to water. Experimental evidence suggests that core
100% displacing phase an equilibrium condition lengths of at least 25 cm are needed to obtain
must be reached at which the inflow ratio of fluids consistent results. Figure 7.17 shows the effect of
equals the outflow ratio, and at which the pressure core length on observed breakthrough recovery at a
gradient between inlet and outlet is constant. At constant L VI-lD factor in a strongly water wet
such a condition the Darcy law equation is applied to outcrop sandstone. To obtain cores of lengths

TABLE 7.1 Comparison between reservoir condition and room condition waterflood tests

Oil recovery (fraction PV)

Between BT and Residual oil satn

Sample BeforeBT (fraction PV)
WOR= 100
Flooding
Reservoir condo Room Resv. Room Resv. Room Resv. efficiency
No. PRES psi TREs reF) condo condo condo condo condo condo ratio
A 3430 199 0.30 0.40 0.15 0.06 0.30 0.26 1.30
B 2100 176 0.25 0.26 0.15 0.13 0.40 0.35 1.07
C 2000 155 0.35 0.35 0.05 0.05 0.30 0.39 1.00
0 1500 128 0.30 0.27 0.12 0.25 0.40 0.35 0.73
E 500 170 0.11 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.53 0.58 1.19
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 111

0.4 capillary and gravity forces and little effect of rate on

residual saturation is observed. This may not be true
>
[L
4>=02; KL=14md
SWj =0.38, M = 2.7
in the field. In gravity stabilized oil drainage by gas
u
,g 0.3 advance into an oil zone, residual saturations
approaching single percentage figures have been
'"
li;
>
claimed - this contrasts with a dynamic but other-
0
u 0.2 wise equivalent wettability process of water displac-
t':
ing oil where residual saturation between 20% and
'0
.<= 40% might be e{Cpected. The influence of capillary
0>

e'" 0.1 pressure is exerted at pore scale rather than at

.<=
:;;:: inter-well scale and, depending on wettability, can
0
t': influence the location of residual fluids. The capil-
aJ
lary number concept has been used to represent the
2 4 68
10 1000
residual oil saturation resulting from competition
between viscous and capillary forces, i.e. Nc =
Core length (em)
V f.LD/( (J cos 8) . Its scaling to field conditions is
Fig. 7.17 Effect of core length on breakthrough recovery problematical, but some field analyses tend to
at constantLVI-b. support its application, as shown in Fig. 7.19. The

greater than 25 cm in the bedding plane from

reservoir rock cores it is necessary to butt together
small cores and construct a composite core. Compo-
site cores should have component sections of similar ....
Field
petrophysical character in any representative sec- o -0- Measured
Cf) Laboratory 1
Residual
tion. When composites obey this rule, and they are data
1
1

maintained in capillary contact by compressive 1

1

stress, Fig. 7.18 shows that they can behave as a : Field Capillary
continuous sample. Logarithmic scale 't'
Number

Npc

0.8
Fig. 7.19 Comparison of field and laboratory capillary
= 30 em continuous core numbers and residual saturations.
"C 0.7 • 30 em, 8 piece composite core
t':
Q)
> 0.6 p..olp..w=1.3 1.0 ........ ..... ---- ...............
... " .... ....
.'
0

/
t
u
t':
0.5 " ,.... , " Wetting phase
" ,", ,,
.-'&'-'&'-4-&-
' \ residuals
'0 0.8
'0 0.4 ·1..·········7························ \
'"E
Q)
~ 0.6 . \ \ \
0.3 p..olp..w = 160 Non - wetting \ \ \
0 '"> Ct)l'!
phase residuals \ \ \
0.2 "- \
t': ~ 0.4 \ \
[L
0
0.1 Ct)1:> \ \
\
\
\
0.2
Pore volumes of water injected
o~~~--~--~----~--~--~--~~
Fig. 7.18 Comparison of composite and continuous core 10- 7 10- 6 10- 5 10- 4 10- 3 10- 2 10-1
performance with homogeneous water wet outcrop
sandstone. Nc (= V:)

Fig. 7.20 Correlation between residual saturation ratio

7.6 RESIDUAL SATURATIONS and capillary number (after 127]).

Residual saturations tend to be dependent on pore potential for mobilizing the residual oil saturation
geometry and on direction of saturation change with from conventional recovery processes is the target in
respect to wetting phase. In most laboratory tests, improved hydrocarbon or enhanced oil recovery
the viscous flow forces are designed to dominate (IHR or EOR). Figure 7.20 shows the ratio of
112 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

residual oil from chemical flood processes to that

from waterflooding as a function of Nc for a range of \ \
laboratory tests [271. The capillary number at which ----·e-----------e---Critical displacement
increased recovery starts can be used to represent
mobilization. Figure 7.21 shows that when the
\ ratio
,
mobilization is represented as a critical displacement
\ , q2
ratio (units L-2 ), then it is apparent that oil can be
liberated more easily from higher permeability
'" ,
.....

reservoirs. With transformation into radial coordin-

ates it is possible to show that residual saturations in
high velocity regions around a wellbore may be Velocities too low for
different from that some distance away. The critical mobilisation of residual
displacement ratio for a given rate and permeability oil in this region
is shown in Fig. 7.22.

10 000 '-y-J
rw Radial distance r
Fig. 7.22 Influence of near wellbore velocity on residual oil
mobilization (after 127)).

1E
o
...... demonstrate wettability change and contact angle
til
CD
C
modification. A comparison with true in situ wetta-
>- bility is, however, difficult to demonstrate.
-
"C
......
....
......
'iii
a. 7.8 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
-l
b FROM CORRELATIONS
......
a..
<J In spite of the wide variety of pore structure in
reservoir rocks, of preferential wettabilities between
fluids and rock surfaces, and in fluid properties,
normalized plots of relative permeability, (Ko/ K;
KglK;Kw/K) against saturation, exhibit general simi-
Air permeability (md) - - -
larities of form. It is, then, attractive to attempt to
Fig. 7.21 Effect of permeability on critical displacement formulate theoretical semi-empirical, or purely
ratio (after 127)). empirical relationships, to assist in smoothing, extra-
polating, extending (or even dispensing with) ex-
perimental measurements of effective permeability.
7.7 IN SITU WETTABILITY CONTROL This is particularly so since accurate, reliable,
reproducible, experimental measurements are
All laboratory measurements on core samples are lengthy and troublesome, and the more rapid
dependent on preservation of reservoir condition experimental techniques generally show poor repro-
characteristics at the time of testing. It is therefore ducibility. The accuracy of approximate correlations
clear that any core cutting, core transportation, plug may then be little worse than the present accuracy of
cutting, plug cleaning etc. processes which alter the more usual measurements!
wettability will change effective phase permeability Idealized pore models have their greatest applica-
characteristics. Methods for restoration of in situ tion in calculating relative permeabilities. The drain-
wettability conditions [45] have been proposed and are age case is conceptually the simplest, and several
presently under scrutiny. Some restoration of wetta- simple idealized flow models lead to acceptable
bility is claimed by conditioning cores at reservoir smoothing relations. The imbibition case is more
temperature in the presence of reservoir crude oil difficult to model, and gives generally less satisfac-
for some days or weeks. Both static and dynamic tory reGults, but smoothing relations are not un-
capillary pressure measurements can be used to acceptably inaccurate.
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 113

7.8.1 Correlations of wetti ng phase 7.9 VALIDATION OF RELATIVE

permeabilities PERMEABILITY DATA FOR USE IN
DISPLACEMENT CALCULATIONS
1. Drainage case
KYW = (Sw *)a Laboratory derived relative permeability data reflect
a number of characteristics which may be associated
where a = 4 (Corey model), a 10/3 (statistical entirely with handling procedures and which may
model). not be typical of in situ reservoir behaviour. These
include:
(a) wettability change associated with coring
fluids, storage, plug cutting and preparation;
where Swi = irreducible wetting phase saturation. (b) resaturation of plug and saturation distribu-
An alternative correlation is the Pirson model: tion;
K rw = S w 3. (Sw *)3/2 (c) test fluids, particularly with respect to viscos-
ity and interfacial tension;
(d) test method, particularly with respect to
steady state or unsteady state displacement
2. Imbibition case mechanism and nature of the moving interface
Kyw = (Sw *)4imb through the system with effect on distribution of
residual fluid.
(Sw*)imb = (Sw*)drainage - 1/2(Sw*)2drainage
Recognition of these effects, together with selecting
or and use of relevant core plugs to represent zones of
K rw = S w4. (S w * )0.5 interest, can minimize the problem of applying
relative permeability data in model studies.
Particular concerns in use of laboratory derived
7.8.2 Correlations for non-wetting data arise from the scaling of microsize core plug
phase relative permeability displacement to reservoir simulation grid size dis-
placement. Core plug experiments tend to be run at
1. Drainage case high viscous: capillary force ratios and the system
represents a disperse or diffuse flow regime. Gravity
Krnw = (1 - Sw *)3 (1 + 2Sw*)
forces are generally negligible in core plug tests. The
or direct application of core plug data in simulators·
K rwn = (1 - S w *) (1 - (S w *)0.5 S w0.5)0.5 where thick grid cells are modelled will result in
improper representation of gravity forces - it can be
shown that straight line relative permeability rela-
2. Imbibition case tionships are more representative of the gravity
segregation of fluids. In simulators, straight line
Sw - Swi )2 relative permeability curves do not lend themselves
1- Swi - Sr to stable numerical manipulation as the initial
gradients to and from irreducible saturations are too
where Sy = irreducible non-wetting phase satura- steep. As a practical compromise some curvature is
tion. usually provided, as shown in Fig. 7.23.
7.8.3 Use of correlations There are no proven rules for obtaining valid
relative permeability data for use in models. Labora-
With a limited amount of fairly readily determined tory experiments can explore the sensitivity of
experimental data - irreducible water saturation, derived curves for rate effects and hysteresis in given
residual non-wetting phase saturation, and the phase test methods using core obtained and prepared in
permeabilities at these saturations, these smoothing ways which minimize wettability alteration. The test
relations can be used (or modified) to generate can be conducted at reservoir conditions using
complete relative permeability curves. Normalized reservoir (or simulated reservoir) fluids. The results
end points can be adjusted using factors based on of waterflood core tests can furthermore be proces-
experience, i.e. Kr = Kreale x f The value of/might, sed using the same reservoir simulator as the
for example, represent the ratio Koew/ Kabs and be a reservoir model. This at least ensures that a given
function of permeability and/or pore geometry. curve set will reproduce the fluid recovery and
114 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

..
Segregated flow
representation
o

Q)
.><:

------------ 0 -----
SW ro

Fig. 7.23 Curvature at end points in use of straight line relative permeability curves.

From core with undisturbed pressure distribution measured in the laboratory

wettability an appropriate test poJ . A flow diagram representing the use of a I-D
somple used for core flood
at reservoir conditions with
simulator for checking coreflood relative permeabili-
reservoir fluids ties is given in Fig. 7.24 and follows the Archer-
Wong method.
Result' oi I recovery and
Relative permeability in simulation models is used
pressure gradients as function to determine transfer of fluid between grid cells at
of cumulative displacing grid cell boundaries. In order to aid numerical
phase Injected and time
stability, the relative permeability of the upstream
cell block at the start of a time step is often used
Compute relative permeability in effective transmissibility calculations, i.e. from
curves using JBN or J- R
methods. Check base for Kr Darcy law for one fluid in x-direction flowing across
IS compatible with simulation the boundary between CellI and Cell 2 in Fig. 7.25.
calculation
kol A [<1>i -<1>2]
,-----~-_l Check lab derived curves in
1- 0 core flood simulator to
history match oil recovery
and pressure gradients as
function of cumulative
displacing phase injected The potential term (<1>') can include any capillary
pressure contribution .

...----- DX 1 - - - - + - - - DX 2 --

Generate pseudo functions or

weighted average kr curves if
necessary to represent region
of reservoir in the size of grid
block applied In the model. For
thin cells the lab curve may
be sufficient

Fig. 7.24 Application of laboratory derived permeability in

reservoir simulation (after [301). Fig. 7.25 Flow between cells.
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 115

7.10 PSEUDO-RELATIVE PERMEABILITY - Permeability(md) k

IN DYNAMIC SYSTEMS hjkj (n=N) Layer N

It is often a convenience in reservoir modelling to

1
hjkj (n=N-1)
reduce the number of grid cells in a system in order
to reduce model run costs. The flow behaviour of a
Total
reduced cell system may be matched with that of the thickness
full definition system by use of a set of pseudo- H
relative permeability curves in place of the original

j
curves. The sole purpose of the curves is to hjkj( N=2)
reproduce the fluid and pressure distribution and
displacement characteristics of the fine grid system hj kj( N=1) Layer 1
in a coarse grid system. The current methodology for
creating pseudos in a dynamic flow system is due to
Kyte and Berry [58] and essentially determines the Fig. 7.27 Layer system representation for static pseudo-
functions by summing flow rates from fine grid calculations.
systems into the equivalent coarse grid and recalcu-
lating the effective permeability using Darcy's law
(Fig. 7.26). The dynamic pseudo-relative permeabi- The average saturation 5w as the reservoir unit
lities can be significantly different from calculated approaches flood out to residual oil may be calcu-
static pseudos or from modified pseudos obtained by lated assuming cross-flow through the vertical com-
history matching observed reservoir behaviour. In ponent of permeability. This is essentially an adv-
large field simulation, different pseudo-functions ance of bottom water, considering the position of the
may be generated for different regions of the local oil-water contact from its initial position at the
reservoir. base of the bottom layer (n = 0) to its final position
at the top of the top layer (n = N), as shown in Fig.
7.28.
The pseudo-functions generated will depend on
H",_,,,,
"!.-- ./
I
Z3r~
HL:!= ~ :~,:,g"d
position in the reservoir system and are clearly also
dependent on ordering and thickness of the layers.
For each condition of equilibrium oil-water contact
~~--====I-~ from n = 0 to n = Nwe can write
I~
(~
(cl
(bll
)
.. ___ Derived N
.... psuedo-curves L _ _ _ _ _ _---'-' hj <t>j(l-Sor) /
+ L hj <t>jSw
/
Single equivalent coarse grId celi n+l
y... Typical original
rock curves
with same volumetric centre (Sw}n =
N
L1 hj <t>j

sw-
Fig. 7.26 Pseudo-relative permeability functions in coarse n
grid definition. I1 hj kj kr:V /

(krw}n at (Sw)n N
L1 hjkj
7.11 STATIC PSEUDO-RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY FUNCTIONS
N
As a start point in many reservoir simulation L hj kj kr~ J
problems, static pseudo-functions provide an insight -n+l
into possible performance. The generation of a (kro}n at (S •.,)n
N
pseudo-curve is described for a reservoir unit with N L1 hjkj
thick layers, as shown in Fig. 7.27, in each of which
segregated flow staight line relative permeability
curves are assl.Jmed to apply.
116 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The resulting pseudo-relative permeability curve is 0.9

shown in Fig. 7.29, but actual shape will depend on ---"",-

\
0.8
layer ordering and reservoir character. These data
can then be used in 1-D displacement calculations or 0.7

x/
in coarse simulator cells. 0.6

tc:
0.5
I~ OA
0.3
, f\OYl
I~I

,
I-
0.2
Oil ... ''2.
0.1
owe :::::t=~=~=:~=!=~==~~=~=~~=~~=~=~~=~~=~=~~=~~=~==-===:~=i====_==.:-=.:-=_""(\,.l,,O-'-::::i(\i\ia\\~ ___ / - I I I~ _ I I
0 I
-:'§§~§j:~§~j:~~-=-':-- 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sw n -

Fig. 7.28 Flow in layered system used for pseudo- Fig. 7.29 Pseudo-curve character which might result from
calculation. static calculations.

Examples
Example 7.1

The following laboratory data have been obtained from a steady state room temperature relative
permeability test:
Air permeability 20mD
Helium porosity 20%
Plug length 9cm
Plug diameter 3.2cm

Core average water

saturation
Oil flow rate Brine flow rate Pressure drop psi (from weight change)
(cc/h) (cc/h) (from transducer) (%PV)
90 o 49.25 15.02
75 5 91.29 19.80
60 9 109.52 25.10
45 20 123.30 32.15
30 34 137.05 40.98
15 85 164.30 54.92
o 122 147.00 68.10

The viscosity of the laboratory oil is 2 cP.

The viscosity of the laboratory brine is 1.1 cP.
Prepare the steady state relative permeability curves for this sample and comment on its characteristics.

Example 7.2

A linear horizontal sand reservoir of length 1 mile between a water injector and an oil producer is 1 mile
wide and has a net thickness of 50 ft. The porosity and initial water saturation distribution are uniform and
are 0.25 and 0.28, respectively. The reservoir pressure can be considered as 5000 psi a and at this condition
the oil formation volume factor is 1.2765 RBISTB. The oil production rate is constant prior to breakthrough
7' RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 117
at 10 000 STB/D and water injection is used to maintain reservoir pressure in the 'incompressible' system.
Estimate the frontal saturation of the injection water prior to breakthrough and the time in years of water
breakthrough at the production well. Further estimate the reservoir condition water cut and recovery factor
one year after breakthrough assuming water injection continues at the initial rate. The end point mobility
ratio has been estimated as 2.778.
The relative permeability data for the reservoir are given as follows:

Sw kro krw
0.28 0.90 0.00
0.30 0.80 0.02
0.35 0.427 0.05
0.45 0.25 0.17
0.55 0.10 0.38
0.60 0.03 0.52
0.65 0.00 0.70

Example 7.3
It is proposed to inject gas into an updip well of a linear geometry oil reservoir at a rate of 15 x 106 SCFID.
The reservoir is 8000 ft wide and 100 ft in net thickness and has a permeability of 800 mD. The oil has a
reservoir condition viscosity of 1.8 cP; a density of 48 lb/fe and a relative permeability in the presence of
connate water of 0.9. The gas has a reservoir condition density of 17 lb/ft , a viscosity of 0.028 cP and a
relative permeability in the presence of residual oil and connate water of 0.5. The reservoir dip is 10°. The
gas formation volume factor is 7.5 X 10-4 RB/SCF.
Show by calculation whether you consider the gas injection stable. If the oil formation volume factor is
1.125 RB/STB what oil production rate in STB/D might be expected initially?

Example 7.4
The intitial saturation distribution and relative permeability data for a linear isolated sand reservoir
subjected to water drive are as follows:

Distance from original Sw krw kro

water oil contact (tt) (% PV)
0 100 1.00 0.0
10 79 0.63 0.0
12 75 0.54 0.02
18 65 0.37 0.09
26 55 0.23 0.23
35 45 0.13 0.44
50 35 0.06 0.73
90 25 0.02 0.94
350 16 0.00 0.98

Calculate the fractional flow curve (fw) for the water saturations between initial water saturation (Swi =
0.16) and residual oil saturation (Swro) = 0.79). Represent the initial saturation distribution graphically as a
series of steps equivalent to the continuous distribution. Determine the position of the 0.79, 0.75 and 0.70
water saturations at the following times: 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 years. The withdrawal rate from the reservoir zone
is 9434 RB/D. Other relevant reservoir zone data are as follows:
118 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Average reservoir thickness = 100 ft Average reservoir width = 8000 ft

Formation dip = 6° Permeability = 276 mD
Porosity = 21.5% Oil viscosity (reservoir conditions) = 1.51 cp
Water viscosity (res. cond.) = 0.83 cp
Reservoir oil specific gravity = 1.01 Reservoir water sp. gravity = 1.05
Distance from the original owe to the first line of producers is 350 ft.
Determine the frontal saturation after six months production using the material balance expression:

~( ) Ax - 5.615 qt . t
.. Sw-Swi -----
<j>A

Example 7.5
Prepare the static pseudo-relative permeability curve for a five layer reservoir assuming bottom water
advance. Each layer is 10 ft thick and the oil-water contact is initially at the base of the lower layer. From
bottom to top the layer permeabilities are 50 mD, 500 mD, 1500 mD, 2000 mD and 2500 mD. For simplicity
assume that in each layer the following properties apply:
Oil relative permeability at the initial water saturation of 15% is 0.9.
Water relative permeability at the residual oil saturation of 30% is 0.5.
Permeability (md)
400 800 1200 1600 2000

500mdl
10

E 20
2000md
I
III
III 1500
I
'"c:
"'"
E
<J
30
500md I
J
I- 40 Assume
50md SWj = 0.15 }
50 So, = 0.30 .
kro',~~ 0.9 10 each layer
krw - 0.5

References
[1] Burdine, N.T.
Relative permeability calculations from pore size distribution data, Trans. A/ME 198 (1953), 71.
[2] Corey, A.T.
The interrelation between gas and oil relative permeabilities, Prod. Mon. 19 (Nov. 1954),34.
[3] Amott, E.
Observations relating to the wettability of porous rock, Trans. A/ME 216 (1959), 156.
[4] Geffen, T.M., Owens, W.W., Parrish, D.R. and Morse, R.A.
Experimental investigation of factors affecting laboratory relative permeability measurements, Trans. A/ME 192
(1951),99.
[5] Morse, R.A., Terwilliger, P.L. and Yuster, S.T .
. Relative permeability measurements on small core samples, OGJ (Aug 23, 1947).
[6] Osoba, J.S., Richardson, J.e., Kerver, J.K., Hafford, J.A. and Blair, P.M.
Laboratory measurements ofrelative permeability, Trans. A/ME 192 (1951), 47.
[7] Jordan, J.K., McCardell, W.M. and Hocott, e.R.
Effect of rate on oil recovery by waterflooding, OGJ (May 13, 1957),98.
[8] Buckley, S.E. and Leverett, M.C.
Mechanism of fluid displacement in sands, Trans. A/ME 146 (1942),107.
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 119

[9] Cardwell, W.T.

The meaning of the triple value in non-capillary Buckley-Leverett theory, Trans. A/ME 216 (1959), 271.
[10] Welge, H.J.
A simplified method for computing oil recovery by gas or water drive, Trans. A/ME 195 (1952), 91.
[11] Kyte, J.R. and Rapoport, L.A.
Linear waterflood behaviour and end effects in water wet porous media, Trans. A/ME 213 (1958), 423.
[12] Mungan, N.
Certain wettability effects in laboratory waterfloods, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1966),247.
[13] Johnson, E.F., Bossler, D.P. and Naumann, V.O.
Calculation ofrelative permeability from displacement experiments, Trans. A/ME 216 (1959), 370.
[14] Colpitts, G.P. and Hunter, D.E.
Laboratory displacement of oil by water under simulated reservoir conditions, J. Can. Pet. Tech. 3 (2) (1964), 66.
[15] Kyte, J.R., Naumann, V.O. and Mattax, C.C.
Effect of reservoir environment on water-oil displacements, J. Pet. Tech. (June 1961), 579.
[16] Sandberg, C.R., Gournay, L.S. and Sippel, RF.
The effect of fluid flow rate and viscosity on laboratory determinations of oil-water relative permeability, Trans.
A/ME 213 (1958), 36.
[17] Mungan, N.
Relative permeability measurements using reservoir fluids, SPEJ (Oct. 1972),398.
[18] Salathiel, R.A.
Oil recovery by surface film drainage in mixed wettability rock, JPT (Oct. 1973),1216.
[19] Rathmell, J.J., Braun, P.H. and Perkins, T.K.
Reservoir waterflood residual oil saturation from laboratory tests, JPT (Feb. 1973), 175.
[20] Jenks, L.H., Huppler, J.D., Morrow, M.R. and Salathiel, R.A.
Fluid flow within a porous medium near a diamond bit, Paper 6824, Proc. 19th Ann. Mtg. Pet. Soc. CIM (May
1968).
[21] Treiber, L.E., Archer, D.L. and Owens, W.W.
Laboratory evaluation of the wettability of fifty oil producing reservoirs, SPEJ (Dec. 1972),531.
[22] Huppler, J.D.
Numerical investigation of the effects of core heterogeneities on waterflood relative permeabilities, SPEJ (Dec.
1970)381.
[23] Braun, E.M. and Blackwell, R.J.
A steady state technique for measuring oil-water relative permeability curves at reservoir conditions, Paper SPE
10155, Proc. 56th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1981).
[24] Jones, S.c. and Rozelle, W.O.
Graphical techniques for determining relative permeability from displacement experiments, SPEJ (May 1978), 807.
[25] Craig, F.F.
The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE Monograph No.3 (1971).
[26] Brown, C.E. and Langley, G.O.
The provision oflaboratory data for EOR simulation, Proc. Europ. Symp. on EOR (1981), 81.
[27] Taber, J.J.
Research on EOR - past, present and future, In Surface Phenomena in EOR (Shah, D.O. ed.), Plenum Pro (N.Y.),
(1981),13.
[28] Larson, RG., Davis', H.T. and Scriven, L.E.
Elementary mechanisms of oil recovery by chemical methods, JPT(Feb. 1982),243.
[29] Hvolboll, V.T.
Methods for accurately measuring produced oil volumes during laboratory waterflood tests at reservoir conditions,
SPEJ (Aug. 1978),239.
[30] Archer, J.S. and Wong, S.W.
Use of a reservoir simulator to interpret laboratory waterflood data, SPEJ (Dec. 1973),343.
[31] Tao, T.M. and Watson, A.T.
Accuracy of JBN estimates of relative permeability, SPEJ (April 1984), 209.
[32] Sigmund, P.M. and McCaffery, F.G.
An improved unsteady state procedure for determining the relative permeability characteristics of heterogeneous
porous media, SPEJ (Feb. 1979), 15.
[33] Collins, R.E.
Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials, Penwell, Tulsa (1976).
[34] Brooks, RH. and Corey, A.T.
Properties of porous media affecting fluid flow, J. /rrig. Drain. Div., Proc. ASCE (1966), Vol. 92, If. 2, 61.
120 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[35] Torabzadeh, S.J. and Handy, L.L.

The effect of temperature and interfacial tension on water-oil relative permeabilities of consolidated sands,
SPE/DOE 12689, Proc. 4th Symp. EOR, Tulsa (April 1984), 105.
[36] Heiba, A. A. , Davis, H.T. and Scriven, L.E.
Statistical network theory of three phase relative permeabilities, SPEIDOE, 12690, Proc. 4th Symp. EOR, Tulsa
(April 1984), 12l.
[37] Ramakrishnan, T.S. and Wasan, D.T.
The relative permeability function for two phase flow in porous media - effect of capillary number, SPEI DOE
12693, Proc. 4th Symp. EOR, Tulsa (April 1984), 163.
[38] Manjnath, A. and Honarpour, M.M.
An investigation of three phase relative permeability, SPE 12915, Proc. Rocky Mt. Reg. Mtg. (May 1984), 205.
[39] Corey, A.T., Rathjens, C.H., Henderson, J.H. and Wylie, M.
Three phase relative permeability, Trans. AIME 207 (1956), 349.
[40] Stone, H.L.
Estimation of three phase relative permeability and residual oil data, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Oct.-Dec. 1973),53.
[41] Land, C.S.
Calculation of imbibition relative permeability for two and three phase flow, from rock properties, SPEJ (June
1968),149.
[42] Dietrich, J.K. and Bondor, P.B.
Three phase oil relative permeability models, SPE 6044, Proc. 51st Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (Oct. 1976).
[43] Carlson, F.M.
Simulation of relative permeability hysteresis to the non wetting phase, SPE 10157, Proc. 56th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE
(Oct. 1981).
[44] Killough, J.E.
Reservoir simulation with history dependent saturation functions, SP EJ (Feb. 1976), 37.
[45] Cuiec, L.E.
Restoration of the natural state of core samples, SPE 5634, Proc. Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (Oct. 1975).
[46] Hearn, C.L.
Simulation of stratified waterflooding by pseudo relative permeability curves, J. Pet. Tech. (July 1971), 805.
[47] Berruin, N.A. and Morse, RA.
Waterflood performance of heterogeneous systems, J PT (July 1979), 829.
[48] Coats, K.H., Dempsey, J.R and Henderson, J.H.
The use of vertical equilibrium in two dimensional simulation of three dimensional reservoir performance, SPEJ
(March 1971), 63.
[49] Dietz, D.N.
A theoretical approach to the problem of encroaching and by-passing edge water, Proc. Koninkl Akad. van
Wetenschappen, (1953) Arnst. V. 56-B, 83.
[50] Davis, L.A.
VHF electrical measurement of saturations in laboratory floods, SPE 8847, Proc. 1st Jnt SPElDoE Symp. EOR,
Tulsa (April 1980), 397.
[51] Fayers, F.J. and Sheldon, J.W.
The effect of capillary pressure and gravity on two phase flow in a porous medium, Trans. AIME 216 (1959),147.
[52] Dyes, A.B., Caudle, B.H. and Erickson, RA.
Oil production after breakthrough - as influenced by mobility ratio, Trans. AIME 201 (1954), 8l.
[53] Dykstra, H. and Parsons, RL.
The prediction of oil recovery by waterflood, Sec. Rec. of oil in the U.S., 2nd ed. API (1950),160.
[54] Johnson, C.E.
Predicition of oil recovery by waterflood - a simplified graphical treatment of the Dykstra-Parsons method, Trans.
AIME207 (1956), 345.
[55] Stiles, W.E.
Use of permeability distribution in waterflood calculations, Trans. AIME 186 (1949), 9.
[56] Ashford, F.E.
Computed relative permeability, drainage and imbibition, SPE Paper 2582, Proc. 44th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1969).
[57] Evrenos, A. I. and Comer, A.G.
Sensitivity studies of gas-water relative permeability and capillarity in reservoir modelling, SPE 2608 (1969).
[58] Kyte, J.R and Berry, D.W.
New pseudo functions to control numerical dispersion, SPEJ (Aug. 1975),269.
[59] Dake, L.P.
Fundamentals of reservoir engineering, Elsevier Dev. Pet. Sci (8), (1978).
7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MULTIPHASE FLOW 121

[60] Jacks, H.H., Smith, O.J. and Mattax, C.C.

The modelling of a three dimensional reservoir with a two dimensional reservoir simulator - the use of dynamic
pseudo functions, SPEJ (June 1973), 175.
[61] Woods, E.G. and Khurana, AK.
Pseudo functions for water coning in a three dimensional reservoir simulator, SPEJ 17 (1977), 251.
[62] Chappelear, J.E. and Hirasaki, G.J.
A model of oil-water coning for 2-D areal reservoir simulation, SPEJ (1976),65.
[63] Koval, E.J.
A method for predicting the performance of unstable miscible displacement in heterogeneous media, SPEJ (June
1966), 145.
[64] Handy, L.L. and Datta, P.
Fluid distribution during immiscible displacements in porous media, SPEJ (Sept. 1966),261.
[65] Higgins, R.V., Boley, D.W. and Leighton, AJ.
Unique properties of permeability curves of concern to reservoir engineers, U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Investig.,
RI7006 (1967).
[66] Hagoort, J.
Oil recovery by gravity drainage, SPEJ (June 1980),139.
[67] Bragg, J.R. et al.
A comparison of several techniques for measuring residual oil saturation, SPE 7074, Proc. Symp. Impr. Oil Rec.,
Tulsa (April 1978), 375.
[68] Deans, H.A.
Using chemical tracers to measure fractional flow and saturation in situ, SPE 7076, Proc. Symp. Impr. Oil Rec.,
Tulsa (April 1978), 399.
[69] Hove, AO., Ringen, J.K. and Read, P.A
Visualisation of laboratory core floods with the aid of computerised tomography of X-rays, SPE 13654, Proc. Cli!
Reg. Mtg. SPE (March 1985).
[70] McCaffery, F.G. and Bennion, D.W.
The effect of wettability on two phase relative permeability, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Oct.lDec. 1974),42.
[71] Singhal, A.K., Mekjerjee, D.P. and Somerton, W.H.
Effect of heterogeneities on flow of fluids through porous media, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (July-Sept. 1976),63.
[72] Fulcher, R.A., Ertekin, T. and Stahl, C.D.
Effect of capillary number and its constituents on two phase relative permeability curves, JPT (Feb. 1985),249.
[73] Melrose, J.c. et al.
Water-rock interactions in the Pembina field, Alberta, SPE 6049, Proc. 51st Ann. Fall Mtg. (1976).
[74] Archer, J.S.
Some aspects of reservoir description for reservoir modelling. Proc. IntI. Seminar North Sea Oil and Gas Reservoirs,
Trondheim (December 1985).
[75] Slider, H.C.
Worldwide Practical Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Methods, Pennwell Books, Tulsa (1983).
[76] Rapoport, L.A. and Leas, W.J.
Properties of linear waterfloods, Trans. AIME 198 (1953),139.,
 ChapterS

Representation of Volumetric Estimates

and Recoverable Reserves

8.1 IN-PLACE VOLUME 8.2 AREAL EXTENT OF RESERVOIRS

The volume of hydrocarbon in place in a reservoir The areal extent of reservoirs are defined with some
depends on: degree of uncertainty by evidence from drilled wells
combined with geophysical interpretation of seismic
(a) the areal extent of the hydrocarbon region of data. The amount of well control has the main
the reservoir; influence on the mapping and representation of
(b) the thickness of reservoir quality porous rock reservoir structure. Maps tend to represent time
in the hydrocarbon region; stratigraphy as depositional units. Since reservoir
(c) the porosity of reservoir quality porous rock fluids are contained in, and recovered from, perme-
in the hydrocarbon region; able beds, the combination of permeable elements
(d) the saturation of hydrocarbon in the hydro- of a number of time stratigraphic units leads to
carbon region. mappable rock stratigraphic units having (a) areal
This is represented in terms of average properties as extent, (b) thickness, (c) petrophysical properties.
follows
V = A hN <P (1 - Sw)
where A = area (avg) , liN = net thickness (gross
thickness x net thickness/gross thickness) (avg), <p =
porosity (avg) , .)w = water saturation (avg) , V =
reservoir condition volume of hydrocarbon.
At standard conditions, the volume of hydrocar-
bon in place is the reservoir condition volume
divided by the formation volume factor. Each of the
components of the volumetric equation is subject to
uncertainty and spatial variation. We shall now
examine the source and representation of these data
and develop a probabilistic approach to volumetric
estimation.

Fig. 8.1 Example of a structure contour map on top

porosity.

122
8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 123

• Completed producers
o Proposed well locations
x Abandoned gulf wells

C I. = SOft

Fig. 8.3 Top sand structure map, Rough gas field l •5).
Structure contour maps are used to connect points
of equal elevation. It is customary to map structure
at the top and base of porosity and the map indicates
the external geometry of the reservoir. The map
shown in Fig. 8.1 shows the boundaries as a fluid
contact, a porosity limit to reservoir quality rock and
fault boundaries. The contour intervals are regular
and represent subsea depths. The map would be
labelled top sand, base sand or refer to a geological
age boundary. The difference in elevation between 1 km
the hydrocarbon-water contact and the top of the
structure is known as the closure or height of the
Contour interva I
hydrocarbon column. Structure maps of the top 50 feet
sands of Thistle oil reservoir l16) and the Rough gas
field ll5) are shown in Figs 8.2 and 8.3. A schematic
cross-section of the Rough field is illustrated in Fig. o Well control
8.4115).
The area contained within each structural contour Fig. 8.2 Top sand structure map, Thistle oil reservoir.
can be measured by various mathematical techni- (after 116)
Depth(ft) A3 Al A4
subsea

9000 A5

9200

9400

Tentative
9600 ~--I----k~"::';::""",,,~~~~;:;""':i-";:>"~Il!--+------+- hydrocarbonl
waler contac I

9800

Carbon iferous
sands

Fig. 8.4 Aschematic cross-section of the Rough field. (afte~'5I)

124 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

ques but is most usually performed by a digitizing

process or with the aid of a calibrated device called a
planimeter. A plot of the area contained within each
contour against the contour elevation for the top and Isopach C.I .
base structure maps establishes the basis for calcula- 25 " nits
tion of rock volume, as shown in Fig. 8.5
The area contained between the top and base
structure and limited by the fluid contact can be
measured from the plot. by planimeter and is
equivalent to the gross rock volume of the hydrocar-
bon interval. The validity of the maps, the scale and
the accuracy of planimetering all influence the
numerical value of the rock volume obtained.

Helghest elevallon
on lop "ruelure

He.ghe5t eleva tIon

on bose structure
Fig. 8.6 Net pay thickness isopach.
well test interpretation. It is customary to use a
porosity cut off in log analysis equivalent to some
minimum permeability on a porosity permeability
cross-plot (i.e. 8% porosity at 0.1 mD permeability).
Hydrocarbon water In addition, Velay and water saturation are often
co;tO'c, eie~.on- - - - -- included as additional delimiters, i.e. if Velay> 40%
and Sw > 60% then the rock might in a particular
o Area contaIned byeontOlJr circumstance be considered non-reservoir quality.
Fig. 8.5 Rock volume estimation. The net: gross ratio defines the thickness of reservoir
quality rock to total thickness in a given unit.
Isopach maps of sand thickness in the Rough field
and the Murchison field are shown in Figs 8.7 and 8.8.
8.3 THICKNESS MAPS The area contained within a given isopach can be
plotted against isopach value, as shown in Fig. 8.9.
Contours of equi-thickness points in a reservoir can The area enclosed by this plot represents the net
be drawn and are again influenced by geological and rock volume and can be obtained by planimetry.
geophysical interpretation and well control. Where When a reservoir is composed of a number of
thickness represents formation thickness normal to different rock types or sand units, and they are
the plane of the reservoir (true bed thickness) the mapped separately, the thickness maps are known
contours are called isopachs. Often the thickness of for each rock type as isoliths.
a bed is mapped as a vertical thickness and such a
contour should strictly be known as an isochore. A
thickness mapped between top and base porosity
and including non-reservoir material is known as
gross reservoir isopach. If the impermeable beds are
excluded it becomes a net reservoir isopach. If the
thickness is measured from a zero datum of the
hydrocarbon-water contact, the map would be
either a net or gross pay isopach.
Figure 8.6 shows a net pay thickness isopach map
and the zero contour indicates the fluid contact.
Sand thickness is increasing down dip in this repre-
sentation, and the sand pinches out at the top of the
structure with a change in lithology to non-reservoir
material. The definition of reservoir quality and
non-reservoir quality material is a petrophysical
definition based on core analysis, log analysis and Fig. 8.7 Rough field isopach map (after (151).
 8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 125
(a) m+-- - - - ----'--.----- - - - - -+ 0 8.4 LITHOFACIES REPRESENTATION
o
m
g
0
o
o ~
~
Rock lithology can provide a guide in contouring,
and lithofacies maps are generally presented as ratio
maps, typically sand: shale or limestone: anhydrite
(Fig. 8.10). The ratios follow geometric progressions
(1:1 , 1:2, 1:4, 1:8 etc.) and equal contour spacings
do not therefore represent equal changes in litho-
logy.

Reservoir sand ' Shale ratio

<1 -2 ~
1. 2-2 -1 0
2 01 -4 - 1 Illl!IIliIlI
en > 4'1 ~
m
o
~ 0
o
'" 0
II)
o +---------~---------+ ~
436000 430000 ~
Fig. 8.10 Lithofacies mapping.

(b)
8.5 ISOPOROSITY MAPS
In a given reservoir zone or subzone, the areal
variation in mean porosity may be represented. The
porosity control values are thickness weighted aver-
age porosities for the zone at each well.
The shape of the isoporosity map shown in Fig.
8.11 may be obtained by application of geological
modelling, by statistical techniques such as Krige
mapping (17-19) or by computer controlled contour
mapping! An example of an isoporosity map of the
Rough gas field is shown in Fig. 8.12.

Fig. 8.8 Isopach map (a) and mesh perspective diagram

(b) of Brent Sands, Murchison reservoir.
Porosity C , l.
5"10

Q) Area enclosed
:::>
-0 : net rock lIolume
>
J;;
o
c
Q,
o
.!!!

a;
z

Area contained by contour

Fig. 8.9 Hydrocarbon volume from net pay isopach. Fig. 8.11 Isoporosity map.
126 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

471247.t3~

Contour intervals 20 millidarcies

Fig. 8.12 Rough field porosity map - average gas Fig. 8.14 Rough field permeability map (after [15)).
saturation 63% (after [151).

8.6 ISOCAPACITY MAPS 8.7 HYDROCARBON PORE VOLUME

MAPS
Isocapacity is used to denote equal values of a
permeability-net thickness product, which is signifi- As has been derived previously, an estimate of
cant in appreciating well production capability. The hydrocarbon pore volume can be obtained by
product is frequently mapped instead of permeabil- combining the net rock volume from isopach map-
ity, as permeability for a particular zone is sought as ping with a mean porosity Cj> and a mean hydrocar-
a functional relationship with porosity (k = fn (<1»). bon saturation (1 - Sw;). The porosity should be a
Figure 8.13 shows an isocapacity map in which the volume weighted average, i.e.
absolute permeability has been obtained as an - I
<l>r4jhj
arithmetic average in the zone, i.e. at a well <I> = --==--,-....:........:.-
"k·h· I Ajhj
(kh) = h _L.._,_, and is obtained by dividing the reservoir into regions
NIh;
of constant porosity and measuring the bounding
The data, when modified for effective permeability areas and mean thickness.
can be validated by well testing. A permeability map The isosaturation map may be derived by noting
of the Rough gas field is shown in Fig. 8.14. the relationship in a given rock type between
irreducible water saturation and porosity. The poro-
. :1
sities and saturations in a hydrocarbon zone are
generally considered interdependent. Contouring of
any isosaturation map must respect capillary transi-
tion zone characteristics and, as a consequence,
regional average values are often of more practical
use than a contoured map. Saturation should be
represented as a pore volume weighted average:

!O~I S = I (Sw)j <l>jAjhj

,)I
23
0.~5 \ \' w I <l>jAjhj
An alternative to this approach is the direct mapping
of hydrocarbon pore thickness (HPT) at each well
[socapacity CI =1 unit control point.
(note interval change below
hydrocarbon-water contact)
HPT is characterized at a well in a given zone as
l<i> . hN . Sh) where Sh = 1 - Sw. The average porosity
<I> in the net thickness interval hN is likely to be an
arithmetic average, as indicated from a porosity
Fig. 8.13 Isocapacity map. histogram. At the hydrocarbon-water contact Sh is
8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 127

zero, and at the porous rock limit <p is zero. Figure

8.15 shows the form of an HPT map. A map of HPT
in the Rough gas field is indicated in Fig. 8.16. The
shape of the contours might be suggested by
geological controls such as structure, depositional
environment and/or diagenetic modifications.
The planimetering, or any alternative way of
measuring area, of the areas represented by each
HPT value results in data for a plot of area against
HPT, as shown in Fig. 8.17. The area under the
curve generated represents the hydrocarbon pore Areo~
volume of the reservoir unit.
Fig. 8.17 Hydrocarbon pore volume from HPT maps (area
under curve = net hydrocarbon pore volume).

8.8 PROBABILISTIC ESTIMATION

It should be apparent that there are a number of
ways to map any given set of data. A numerical
value of hydrocarbon pore volume thus represents
one outcome of a given map combination. The
presentation of hydrocarbon in place as a probabilis-
tic estimate rather than as a deterministic value
seeks to show the uncertainty of the estimate. The
association of ranges and distribution shape with
each of the components A,(</>Sh), h, N/G of the
volumetric equation is a subjective technical exer-
cise. One method, which has found widespread use
in arriving at a probabilistic estimate, is the Monte
Carlo approach [10]. Since standard condition (Vsc)
Fig. 8.15 Hydrocarbon pore thickness map. volumes are usually needed, the reservoir volume of
hydrocarbon in place is converted to a standard
volume by use of an initial formation volume factor
(B hi ) for the particular hydrocarbon, and its uncer-
tainty is included in the estimation:
HCPV
VSC=-B--
hi
where HCPV represents reservoir condition hydro-
carbon pore volume.
The shape of distributions and maximum and
minimum values are generally agreed in specialist
group committees, and rectangular and triangular
distributions (Fig. 8.18 (a) and (b» based on
subjective assessment of reservoir characteristics are
most frequently used. The distribution can easily be
Fig. 8.16 Rough field hydrocarbon pore thickness map converted into a cumulative frequency curve which
(after 11 51). can be sampled at random. The repeated random
selection of values and their probabilities from each
independent variable set leads to the calculation of a
large number of volumetric estimates (Fig. 8.19).
The cumulative frequency of these estimates is used
to show the likelihood that a given value will be at
least as great as that shown, as indicated in Fig. 8.18
(c). The independent variables considered in
128 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

volumetric and reserve calculations are A, ha, N/G, pre-drilling through discovery and appraisal to early
(<I>Sh), Bhi and RF (i.e. area, gross thickness, net - production and f~nally to late time depletion.
gross ratio, hydrocarbon porosity, formation volume
factor and recovery factor).

t
t
a..

Min Max Value - -

Value - - Fig. 8.19 Representation of volume in place calculations.

t An alternative method attributed to Van der Laan

is suited to desk calculation and makes use of a
[14]
number of values of each variable - 3 or 5 values to
represent the probability distribution, e.g.
(1) a very optimistic value (say 0.2 chance of
yielding a low value);
(2) an optimistic value (say 0.3 chance of yielding
Value - - a low value);
;E 1.0 (3) most likely value (say 0.5 chance of yielding a
:0
o
.a
low value);
o
a (4) a pessimistic value (say 0.8 chance of yielding
Q) a low value);
.<:
"6 (5) a very pessimistic value (say 0.9 chance of
"3
E
::J
yielding a low value).
0

~ Each of the five values has a probability of 1 in 5 or

>-
0
c
20%.
Q)
All combinations of two parameters (say hand <1»
tt 0+
::J
0-

+ are computed (giving 25 products), and these are

Min Max reduced to five by averaging successive groups of
Value - five. The next parameter is then combined to yield a
Fig. 8.18 Representation of independent variables. (a) new suite of 25 values, which are again reduced to
Rectangular distribution (no preference), (b) triangular five. The process is repeated until all parameters are
distribution (strong preference), (c) resultant distribution introduced, and a final range of five values, ranging
from multiple calculations or from multiple random from very pessimistic through the most likely to a
sampling of distributions. very optimistic value, are then obtained.
These methods may give a clearer idea of the
The values on the cumulative frequency graph possible spread of results and divert attention from
(Figs. 8.18 and 8.21) are used to represent concepts the potentially misleading best estimate value to
of certainty at given levels. In common usage!!), the other possibilities. When the distribution is symmet-
90% level is known as a proven value, the 50% level rical the expectation value of the field can be found at
is known as a proven + probable value and the 10% the 50% cumulative probability value.
level is known as a proven + probable + possible
value. Prior to drilling a well which indicates the
presence of hydrocarbon, there is no proven value. 8.9 RECOVERY FACTORS AND
It is also important to realize that the distribution of RESERVES
values can change with time as more information
about a reservoir becomes available. Figure 8.20 The recoverable volume of hydrocarbon from a
indicates the change in volumetric estimate from particular reservoir will depend on reservoir rock
8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 129

(a) (b) (c)

- - -
max max max
Value- Value- Value-

max max
omm. max
Value- Value- Value-

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 8.20 Time (and data) variation of probabilistic estimates. (a) Pre-drilling, (b) discovery, (c) appraisal,
(d) delineation/early production, (e) mature production, (f) late time depletion.

and fluid properties and continuity, as well as on in terms of the cumulative recovered hydrocarbon,
economic conditions. The heterogeneity of the Lq/j
reservoir pore space will influence pressure gra-
_ Bhi Lqjtj
dients during dynamic displacement of hydrocarbon
and leads to regions of poorer recovery than would RF- HCPV
be predicted by laboratory measured residual satura- where qj is an interval standard condition volumetric
tions. The fraction of original hydrocarbon in place production, tj is an interval time, Bhi is a hydrocar-
that will be recovered, all volumes being represented bon initial formation volume factor.
at a standard condition, is known as a recovery For oil, where N is the stock tank oil in place, Np is
factor. The ultimate recovery factor refers to the the cumulative stock tank oil production then, at
change in saturation of hydrocarbon from initial some time t and pressure P,
(=l-SwJ to residual conditions (Shr) in a completely
contacted region and implies a particular recovery RF= NPj
mechanism (i.e. waterflood, chemical flood etc.). It N P,t
is not achievable throughout the reservoir.
For gas, where G is the standard condition gas in
RF j
ULT
1 - Swi - Shr
= --"-----"'-
1 - Swi
place, Gp is the cumulative standard condition gas
production, then, at some time t and pressure P

The recovery factor at any stage of reservoir RF= GPj

depletion is represented without spatial distribution G P,t
130 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Recovery factors representing a given develop- of each lease region enter into some sort of
ment concept can be calculated using the techniques agreement to develop the reservoir in a cost and
and methods of reservoir dynamics and represented energy efficient manner. This means that the reser-
probabilistically as a distribution. This allows a voir should be operated as a unit and the costs and
recoverable reserve estimation. to be performed revenues shared in an agreed manner. The basis for
using a Monte Carlo technique and for the results to agreement depends on apportionment of equity in
be represented probabilistically. For each randomly the unit, and the reservoir operation will then be
selected parameter set the calculation: considered unitized. It is appropriate that we consid-
er unitization in this chapter as most equity formulae
Recoverable reserve (standard conditions) are based on volumetric estimation of hydrocarbons
= recovery factor x hydrocarbon in place (standard in place.
conditions) Although recoverable rather than in-place hydro-
carbon may appear equitable, experience indicates
(l-S .)
RR = A· hN • "'.
'I' WI • RF that it rarely provides a basis for agreement. This is
Bhi because economic recovery factors will be influ-
enced by well density in heterogeneous reservoirs,
and ultimate recovery factors may be uncertain

\
1.0 --............
because of their origin with core tests and the
'f representative nature of samples. The ultimate
I I

.!! 'C 0.9 Proven recovery formula is also known as the movable

~~","2
;.~
hydrocarbon volume (MHV) formula, i.e.
A . hN . '" . (1-.5 . -Sh )
~.~ 0.5
~ Q)
t 'Proven + probable'
MHV
sc
= 'I'
Bhi
~ r

-2'
where A = area, hN = net thickness, <l> = porosity,
l!.2
-",
\ Swi = average connate water saturation, Shr =
~ 0 'Proven + probable average residual hydrocarbon saturation, Bhi =
~ 0.1 C( + possible' initial hydrocarbon formation volume factor. The

-
- T' ........
~ O~--------------~~~----- lack of agreement between licence or lease owners
Recoverable reserve
over the proper representation of residual hydrocar-
bon saturation is the main reason why this formula is
Fig. 8.21 Probabilistic representation of recoverable
reserves. rarely applied in equity agreements.
In North Sea reservoir operation the equity
The resulting cumulative frequency distribution determination most frequently applied in joint oper-
shown in Fig. 8.21 is used with the same connotation ating agreements is on the basis of stock tank oil in
as that of the hydrocarbon volume in place estima- place. The use of this approach involves the least
tion, namely proven reserve at the 90% level, proven amount of contention but is nevertheless a major
+ probable reserve at the 50% level and proven + exercise involving the establishment of rules for
probable + possible reserve at the 10% level. defining net pay, fluid boundaries, transition zones,
The recoverable reserve histogram can be used to porosity, saturation and mapping techniques. Spe-
develop a risk ratio for application in development cialist subcommittees from all parties are required to
decision making, by defining upside and downside formulate the bases for agreement of all parameters
potential of the reservoir. Development decisions in the volumetric formula if unitization is to proceed.
are often taken assuming reserves at the 60-70% The final definition of parameters may sometimes be
probability level. only quasi-technical, in that agreement is the main
concern.
The use of computer models to represent a
8.10 DISTRIBUTION OF EQUITY IN three-dimensional reservoir as a number of grid cells
PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS in which property variations are expressed is now
commonplace. The summation of hydrocarbon pore
It frequently occurs that the boundaries of a pet- volume for each grid cell leads to a deterministic
roleum reservoir straddle lease lines and, in some evaluation of initial hydrocarbon in place (standard
instances, international boundaries. Under such conditions). The mapping of the reservoir follows
conditions it is prudent that the owners or operators rules agreed in geological and geophysical subcom-
8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 131

mittees, and the exercise may be conducted by an

independent expert if there is no unit concensus. ----: 211/23012111240

The mapping exercise provides gross reservoir rock

volume as top structure and isopach (isochore) maps
of each reservoir zone or layer. This of course
presupposes some agreement on vertical zonation
and reservoir boundaries. Figure 8.22 shows reser-
voir regions defined in the Dunlin field volumetric
study [3J.
The definitions of net thickness and porosity tend
to emerge from the agreements reached in petro-
physical subcommittees on log interpretation
methods and core-log correlation. The compaction
corrected core porosity is often taken as a standard,
particularly where log interpretation involves wells
drilled with both oil-based and water-based muds.
The petrophysical interpretation agreement will also
define the methods for interpretation of saturation .
5

from well logs. Interaction with a reservoir engineer-

ing subcommittee is necessary to reach agreement
on representation of capillary transition zones and
the validation of log derived saturation in a given
rock type with capillary pressure data. The reservoir
engineering subcommittee will usually undertake the o 2km
responsibility of defining fluid contacts and will be
involved in agreements regarding zonation. Reser- Fig. 8.22 Reservoir regions defined in the Dunlin field for
voir engineering methods for zonation are described volumetric calculations (after [3J).
in Chapters 5 and 14. The fluid properties relevant
to each computer grid cell allow areal and vertical The equity distribution between leases or licenses is
variation in initial volume factors for hydrocarbons obtained by arranging the computer grid system such
but depend on agreement reached in the reservoir that it follows the lease boundaries and it therefore
engineering subcommittee on the use of fluid sam- facilitates regional subvolume calculation. The
ples and the calculation methods for PVT properties equity determination may be reviewed or redeter-
(see Chapter 4). For a resultant computer model of n mined at certain times in the development lifetime of
grid cells, the deterministic total hydrocarbon in the reservoir. Following any redetermination, his-
place at standard conditions Vsc is then torical costs and revenues may be reapportioned
according to the nature of the Joint Operation
I
j=n
Aj (hN)j <l>j (Shc\ Agreement. One owner or licencee in a unitized
Vsc= reservoir will agree to act as the Operator of the unit
(Bhi)j
j=l on behalf of all members.
132 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Examples
Example B.1
The table shows values of net sand thickness and area for a reservoir. The porosity varies linearly with sand
thickness from 0.15 to 0.28, the water saturation varies hyperbolically from 1.0 to 0.33 from water contact to
crest, and the oil formation volume factor is 1.355. What is the oil in place?

Table of net sand isopach values v. area within contour

Isopach value (tt) Area within contour (acres)

350 o
300 400
250 730
200 965
150 1200
100 1520
50 2150
o 2600

NB. The general equation of hyperbola is

XZ yZ

aZ - bZ =1
and the relationship between x (= Sw> fraction) and y (= h, ft) can be fitted using the expression

164
h= - - -139
sinh x

where sinh x is 1jz (eX - e-X).

ExampleB.2

The probabilistic distributions of reservoir properties are summarized in the following table at the
cumulative frequency levels (equivalent to cumulative probability greater than a given value) of 90%, 50%
and 10%. These data might correspond to minimum, most likely and maximum values. Compare the
deterministic and probabilistic estimates of the recoverable reserve in stock tank barrels of oil.

Cumulative frequency level

greater than given value
Variable 90% 50% 10%
Area (acres) 1780 2115 2450
Net thickness (ft) 225 250 275
Porosity (fraction) 0.125 0.133 0.140
Porosity-oil saturation product (fraction) 0.099 0.113 0.127
Initial oil formation volume factor (RB/STB) 1.214 1.240 1.260
Recovery factor (fraction) 0.17 0.31 0.52
8 VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATES AND RECOVERABLE RESERVES 133

References
[1] Archer, J.S.
Reservoir volumetrics and recovery factors, In Developments in Petroleum Engineering, (Dawe, R.A. and Wilson,
D. C ,eds), Elsevier Applied Science Publishers (1985).
[2] Walstrom, J.E., Mueller, T.D. and McFarlene, R.C
Evaluating uncertainty in engineering calculations, JPT (Dec. 1967), 1595.
[3] VanRijswijk,J.J.etal.
The Dunlin field, a review of field development and reservoir performance to date, Paper EUR 168, Proc. Europec
(1980),217.
[4] Arps, J.J.
A statistical study of recovery efficiency, API Bull D14 (Oct. 1967), Am. Pet. /nst.
[5] Bankhead, C.C
Processing of geological and engineering data in multi pay fields for evaluation, Pet. Trans. Reprint Series No 3,
SPE of A/ME (1970), 8.
[6] Grayson, CJ.
Bayesian analysis - a new approach to statistical decision making, Pet. Trans. Reprint Series No 3, SPE of A/ME
(1970),215.
[7] Ryan, J.M.
Limitations of statistical methods for predicting petroleum and natural gas reserves and availability, Pet. Trans.
Reprint Series No 3, SPE of A/ME (1970),227.
[8] Harbaugh, J.W., Doveton, J.H. and Davis, J.C
Probability Methods in Oil Exploration, J Wiley, New York (1977).
[9] Pritchard, K.C
Use of uncertainty analysis in evaluating hydrocarbon pore volume in the Rainbow-Zama area, JPT (Nov. 1970),
1357.
[10] Stoian, E.
Fundamentals and applications of the Monte Carlo method, J. Can. Pet. Tech. 4 (1965), 120.
[11] Archer, J.S.
Reservoir definition and characterisation for analysis and simulation, Proc. 11th World Pet. Cong., London (1983),
Paper PD6 (1). .
[12] SPE
Standards pertaining to the estimating and auditing of oil and gas reserve information, JPT (July 1979), 852.
[13] Martinez, A.R. and lon, D.C
Classification and nomenclature systems for petroleum and petroleum reserves, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo
(1983), Study Group Report.
[14] Van der Laan, G.
Physical properties of the reservoir and volume of gas initially in place, In Proc. Symp. on the Groningen gas field,
Verhandel Konikl. Ned Geol. Mijnbouwt Genoot Geol. Ser. 25 (1968),25.
[15] Hollis, A.P.
Some petroleum engineering considerations in the change over of the Rough gas field to the storage mode, Paper
EUR 295, Proc. Europec (1982),175.
[16] Hallett, D.
Refinement of the geological model of the Thistle field, In Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of North
West Europe (llling, L.V. and Hobson, G.D.,eds), Inst. Pet., London (1981), 315.
[17] Davis, J.C
Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, Wiley Int., NY (1973).
[18] Krige, D.G.
Two dimensional weighted moving average trend surfaces for ore valuation, Proc. Symp. Math. Stat. and Computer
Appl. in Ore Valuation, Johannesburg SA (1966),13.
[19] Matheron, G.
Principles of geostatistics, Econ. Geol. 58 (1963), 1246.
[20] Garb, F.A.
Oil and gas reserves classification, estimation and evaluation, JPT (March 1985) 373.
 Chapter 9

Radial Flow Analysis of Well

Performance

This chapter will serve as an introduction to the For a radial coordinate system (Fig. 9.1), with
subject of pressure analysis in reservoir engineering. angular and vertical symmetry and isotropy, the
The theoretical basis of radial flow analysis and the resulting equation is
rudiments of data analysis for build-up and draw-
a2p 1 dP
down in oil and gas wells are presented. Well test --+
procedures are briefly discussed for exploration and ar2 r dr k dt
development wells. or
[r
1 ~ {)P] = <pile dP
9.1 RADIAL FLOW IN A SIMPLE SYSTEM r dr dr k {)t
This equation is linear for the assumed conditions of
Considerations of conservation of mass, of Darcy's constant <p, 11, k and small and constant compres-
equation for flow, and of an equation of state for a sibility. Solution is possible by Laplace transform
slightly compressible liquid lead to a linearized methods (Hurst and van Everdingen 1211), and for
partial differential equation of flow for a fluid more limited boundary conditions by applying the
flowing in a porous medium. Boltzmann transformation:
<P!lC,z
S= 4kt

----
Between the limits t = 0 and t (when s = x) then:

- p. J dP=-
Pqll LX e-
-dS
S

--
---
4'Jtkh S

-
P,
Radial flow Pwf One solution applicable to well test analysis is the
exponential integral, or line source solution 1181:
r.
qll <P!lC,z
:~r
I
(P)r.t = 4'Jtkh Ei (- 4kt) + Pi
I
where, since the exponential integral of a negative
Fig. 9.1 Radial flow towards a well.
argument is negative, an alternative nomenclature
maybe used:
134
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 135

9.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LINE

ei(x) = -Ei(-x) = SOURCE SOLUTION
where
<pile? This exponential integral is calculable from the
x=-- series
4kt
The boundary conditions necessary for this solution • X x2 x3
to apply are as follows: ez(x) = -logex -0.5772 -T+ 2.2! - 3.3! + ...
(a) external boundary is at infinity, re = 00; then, for small values of x (large values of kt/<P/lC?)
(b) the rate is zero at the inner boundary r w, and
is instantaneously changed to q at time zero
=
Ei( -x) 10geX + 0.5772
or
and maintained constant
ei(x) = - 0.5772 -logeX =- Ei(-X)
(q)r=rw=O,t<:::O
(The terminology elx) = - Ei(-X) is commonly used
(q )r=rw = q, t> 0 and values are shown in Fig. 9.2.)
(c) the inner boundary r = r w is vanishingly 10,------------,-------,01
small, rw~ 0; 8 For x<OOI
-E, (-xl 0-2 303 log x-O 5772
008

(d) porosity, permeability, thickness and viscos- 006

ity are constant; 004

(e) compressibility is small and constant; 002

(f) pressure gradients are small;
(g) Darcy's law is valid. i 1 001
9 08 0008

In spite of these apparently severe restrictions on 06 0006

the use of this equation, it has wide applications and

* *
04 0004

will be valid for real systems (i.e. re 00, rw 0) 02 0002

provided that:
01 0001
001 002 004 01 02 04 4 6 810
(a) Dimensionless time for the radius at the
inner boundary is greater than 5-10. The Fig. 9.2 The functionei(x).
dimensionless time parameter is defined as This means that:
follows:

tD = A-.
kt
2 > 10 qll [ ez.(<p/lC
Pi - P = 4rckh
r
4kt ) 1
w 't'llcr w
Since the wellbore radius is this radius in well
testing, this condition is met within a few
seconds or minutes of production in most =
qll [
4rckh 4kt
loge <P/lC? - 0.5772
1
.cases.
(b) There is no significant pressure drop at any
outer boundary. This condition will be met if
the dimensionless time for the outer bound-
ary is small, e.g.
kt Since all solutions of the diffusivity equation
tDe = A-. 2 < 0.1 involve a coefficient q!likh, a generalization of
't'llcre
solutions is possible in the form
Since the dimensionless times are large for qll
radii and times of practical interest, the (Pi-P) = 2rckhPD (tD)
simplified equation is valid in many situa- or
tions.
Pi-P
[qll/2rckh] = PD(tD)
136 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

where q!Jl2rtkh is the coefficient for steady state where PbP =psi, q =STBID, Il = cp, kh = mD ft, ct
radial flow, and PD(tD) is a dimensionless pressure = coSo + cwS w + Ct, (pSi)-l, =ft, Bo = RB/STB.
function for the boundary conditions specified.
The dimensionless pressure function will be a If t is in days
function of dimensionless time and may be a simple
0.006336kt
analytical function, or a complex function requiring
numerical evaluation, depending upon the complex- tD = <P1l~~
ity of the boundary conditions.
Tabulation or plots of PD(tD) for the more
common idealizations of boundary conditions are 9.4 APPLICATION OF ANALYTICAL
available in the literature 11.21J. SOLUTIONS IN WELL TEST METHODS

Considering the equation for a well in an infinite

9.3 RADIAL EQUATIONS IN PRACTICAL reservoir
UNITS
qll rlOge "! + 0.809]
The constant rate, radial flow equation in Darcy (Pi - Pw) =
Wh1 A,. 2

)
'I'IlC' w
units is
t(~
(P;-P) ~ ::'~h [IOg.,~" + 0.809] :. P = -qll 10
w 4rtkh ge <PIlf'/ +
p. _(0.809QIl)
I 4rtkh

which in field units becomes it is apparent that if this well is maintained at a

constant rate of production, then a plot of Pw against
70.6q1lBo [0.OO0264kt ] loget will yield a straight line, with a slope of
(Pi - P) = loge __ 2 + 0.809 q!Jl4rtkh. If, then, the fluid viscosity is known, an
kh <PllCr estimate can be made of kh, the permeability
or thickness product of the formation. This estimate
will be an estimate of the average kh in the area
(p.- P) =
162.6q1lBo [10glO---:2'
kt - 3.23 ] drained by the well during the test period, and
I kh <Pllfr consequently is representative of a very much
greater reservoir volume than can be tested by
coring or by wellbore survey methods.

TABLE 9.1 Characteristics of some current downhole pressure gauges (after Schlumberger)
Manufacturer Designation Pressure typel Pressure Temperature Pres. Pres. Temperature Temperature
Temp. type range (psi) range (OC) accuracy resolution accuracy resolution
% orpsi %fsorpsi (OC) COC)
for 10K for 10K
Flopetrol SSDP/SG Strain gauge 10000 0-150 ±Spsi 0.02 psi ±o.so ±0.06° .
Johnson Junct. trans 15000
(option)
Flopetrol SSDP/CRG HP x-tal 13500 0-150 ±0.03S% 0.02 psi ±0.3° 0.03°
Johnson Plat. Res. ±3.Spsi
GRC EMRS02 Capacitance 10000 0-150 ±0.09% FS 0.01 psi ±1° ±1°
EPG 520 Plat. Res ±9psi
Geo Demeter Strain 5000 0-150 ±0.04% 0.012% ±0.3° 0.02°
Services gauge 10000 ±4psi 1.2 psi
or Plat. Res 15000
Sperry Sun MRPG Strain 10000 0-150 ±O.OS% 0.005% 0.03°
MKIII gauge ±Spsi 0.5 psi
Lynes DMR Strain 5000 0-125 ±0.2S%FS 0.025% ±1° 0.03°
3121200 gauge 10000 ±2Spsi 2.5 psi
Lynes DMR Quartz 5000 0-105 ±O.OS%FS 0.01% ±1° 0.14°
314/200 ±Spsi 1 psi
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 137

The problem in this case is the practical one of and since the pressure differences are more
accurate measurement of the small pressure drops important than the absolute value of the pressure,
normally encountered, at the fairly high absolute these can give the data required in many cases. More
pressures involved. The characteristics of some sensitive gauges are available which are capable of
current downhole pressure gauges are reproduced in detecting pressure changes of a few hundredths of
Table 9.l. psi, but the significance of these small changes in a
Rates of pressure decline may be substantially less flowing well may be obscure. For prolonged testing,
than 1 psi/day in extensive reservoirs with large surface recording pressure gauges are available and
permeabilities or thickness. Standard pressure eliminate the possible failure of clockwork or battery
gauges in use have an accuracy of 0.1-0.2%, but driven recording mechanisms.
may be sensitive to pressure changes of 0.25 - 0.5 psi The procedure of measuring the pressure decline

(a) Radial flow system

a.
<1 a.
CI
o <1
....J

Log 6.t

\;"
___ 0_
a. a.
<1 <1 /1\
~
~
- Log 6.t

(b) Spherical flow system

/
a.
<1

~
CI
a. a.
0
....J
<1 <1

Log 6.t Jt;t 1//Et

a. a.
<1 <1

I
4JXt Log 6.t
?Jt\' Spherical
flow

Fig. 9.3 Behaviour of pressure a~ainst time plots in spherical and radial flow in an infinite homogeneous reservoir
(after 391). (a) Badial flow system, (b) spherical flow system.
138 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

( a) Homogeneous reservoir

Log ~t
/ 1/1Fi

~J Linear flow
Log~t

(b) Finite capacity fractured reservoir

a..
<l
CI
o
...J

Log ~t 1/&t

:/
With skin

/
a.. a.. a..
<l <l <J
~
V6t ~ Log ~t

Fig. 9.4 Contrast in well test plots for assumed linear flow mechanism in infinite homogeneous and fractured reservoirs
(after [39J). (a) Homogeneous reservoir, (b) finite capacity fractured reservoir.

in a producing well is known as drawdown testing (a) For some time following start of flow, the
and is usually undertaken for purposes other than kh pressure at the well bore is not influenced by
measurement, which can normally be done more the drainage boundary of the system, and
conveniently by pressure build-up testing. analysis can be conducted as if the system was
In many reservoir geometries the pressure infinite. The solution is said to be a transient
changes with time will indicate a number of influ- or early time solution.
ences: (b) At some later time the influence of the
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 139

{Two layer
Homogeneous reservoir Double porosity reservoir reservoir}
Model 1} 'I nf'Inlte
. " 2} 3} f-:7-::-_in-;t_er-:p_o_ro;-s,it=:Y_f_10_w_ _ _-l6} {With
Closed Fractured
systems system wells 4} Pseudo steady 115} Transient X-flow}
state

Log-log cf
plot

Semi log
plot
a
CL
~/~'~
--- ~.""
...... T
( Cartesian) .-

,,-r;;:-
0.5

Key
m =Semi.log slope -Infinite ---Infinite
conductivity
-211 lines
develop.
iI
representing ---No flow
infinite acting boundary - Uniform flux ........ Transition s1arts I
before end of I
radial flow ....... PresSure man· (No well bore W.B.S I
tenance storage)
boundary I

Fig. 9.5 Summary of well/reservoir model responses in different reservoir systems (after (421).

nearest reservoir system boundary is experi- Approxi mate start of

enced at the wellbore and the solution is said semi log straight line eoe 2 •
to be a late transient or middle time solution. _----:r/--- 1030
(c) When the rate of change of wellbore pressure

~~~~iiiiiii\:'0.3
o
Q. -10 8
becomes constant in time then semi-steady '0 10 -104
state stabilized flow conditions have been (,) 101!! 2
--10
-""':'3
"-
established. E
~

o 10-1
The change from transient to semi-steady state Q.
conditions depends particularly on reservoir geomet-
ry, capacity and permeability. The ideal drawdown
and build-up plots are only rarely seen, and inter-
pretation is frequently difficult and ambiguous,
10 102 104
especially in the absence of good geological and
to/Co
structural information. Many techniques have been
proposed to identify the reason for anomalies [43,441, Fig. 9.6 Combined derivative and pressure type curve
and Figs 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 show some responses under (after [32J).
different boundary conditions. Figure 9.6 is a type-
curve showing combined pressure and pressure
derivative curves [421. This dimensionless approach is 9.S PRESSURE BUILD-UP ANALYSIS
often used to match observed well response to
properties of a particular reservoir type. The uncer- A pressure build-up survey involves measuring the
tainties in interpretation remain linked to assump- changes in pressure which occur after a flowing well
tions of boundary conditions applied in solution of has been shut-in. If possible, the flowing pressure
the original diffusivity equation. prior to shut-in should also be recorded.
140 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

To enable the analytical equation to be used for

pressure build-up analysis, the discontinuity in the
-- ----P~I-
-" -"-"-"
Slope = - m" 162.6 q po
kh
flow is removed by the technique of superposition. "
If the well is considered to have flowed at rate q
for a time t, prior to shut-in, then the change to zero "
rate at time t is effected by continuing the produc-
tion, but from time t superimposing a negative rate
-q, so that the total rate is zero, as shown in Fig. 9.7.
+q ___ t+6t
1---., ----------- 6t
Fig. 9.8 A Horner plot (field units slope -m
t O l - - - +lt - - - - - - T i m e - -
q
162.6QIlB
kh
I
I ________ _
_qL _...-r- p*imtlol
~-iiinitial

Fig. 9.7 Constant rate flow followed by constant rate

shut-in. <i
~
--
~ii after some depletion
..... __ p*after somedeplehon

Ii: ______
The pressure drop at rw due to a positive rate of
production q, maintained for a time t + dt (dt being
the time after shut-in) is

ilP1 = -qfA.- [ loge (t+dt) + loge k]

_ 2 I 0.809
4nkh <p/ACrw
IOg~
The pressure drop due to the superimposed negative Fig. 9.9 Pressure build-up analyses at initial time and after
rate of production is significant reservoir production.

dP2 = -~
4nkh
[lOge dt + loge ~
<p/ACr w
2 I 0.809] The permeability thickness product of the reservoir
is obtained from
The net pressure drop at any time t + dt (i.e. time 162.6 qfA. B
after shut-in) is given by the sum of these expres- kh = milliDarcy-ft
sions: m
where units are field units, and m is the slope in
(Pi - p(at) = 4nkh Tt
qfA. [ loge t+dt] psi/loglO cycle.
The use of type curves [32,441 in analysis of pressure
build-up is increasingly popular, and many examples
Consequently a plot of p(at) (the pressure measured of responses can be foundl1l. It is important to
in the well at time after shut-in) against loge (t +
identify the appropriate reservoir model for type
dt)/dt should give a straight line of slope qfA.l4nkh.
CUlVe matching and the use of pressure derivatives
This is known as a Horner plot (Fig. 9.8).
reduces but does not eliminate ambiguity.
Conventionally, the data are plotted on semi-log
paper, and the best straight line fitted to obtain a
slope of m psi/loglO cycle. Extrapolation of the
straight line to infinite shut-in time gives an extrapo-
9.6 SKIN EFFECT
lated pressure P* which, for the infinite reservoir, or
It is frequently found that observed pressures in the
for wells tested early in the life of the reservoir, has
very early part of a build-up do not agree with the
the physical significance P* = Pi (Fig. 9.9). At
theoretical relation, even when corrections for after-
infinitely long shut-in time
flow production are made. Pressure drops are
t+ dt usually larger (rarely smaller) than theory would
--~unity
dt indicate. Better agreement is obtained if it is
assumed that in the vicinity of the wellbore, some
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 141

impediment to flow exists. the pressure at closed-in time is:

Physical reasons for such an impediment are
obvious and include: incomplete, inaccurate or
plugged perforations; mudding off of formation or P, - PC'" ~ 4!':w [lOge t~t]
perforations by drilling fluid solids, filtrate invasion
and consequent clay swelling or water blocking etc. and for small t:..t (early shut-in times)
All these effects are local to the wellbore, affect-
ing only a very small volume of the reservoir, and so Pi - PeAt) = 4!~h [IOget - loge t:..t]
flow within this damaged zone can justifiably be
considered as steady state.
The effect of damage - the skin effect - can then
be considered as a rate proportional, steady state
p(!J.t) - Pf = ~
W 4Jtkh
[lOge ~
<l>rur W
z + 0.809 + 2S]
pressure drop, given as the product of a flow rate
function, and a dimensionless skin factor: for values of t:..t such that t + t:..t ~t.
Conventionally and conveniently t:..t is taken as 1
qfA. and the equation manipulated to yield S, and in
t:..Pskin = 2Jtkh . S = qD . S
field, or practical, units the resulting equation used
where S = skin factor in a zone of altered kh with a solution at one hour of shut-in time (P 1h ):
compared to the bulk formation kh as shown in Fig.
9.10.
S = 1.151 [Plh - p w [ -IOgIO
m
_k z I
<l>fA.crw
3.23]
flow
where P, P wI = psi, m = slope psi per 10gIO cycle, k =
mD, <I> = fraction, fA. = cp, c = (psi)-l and rw = ft.
For any other value of t:..t (subject only to the
restriction t + t:..t~ t)

S=1.151[P(!J.t)-PWI -IOgIO
m <l>fA.crw
~t:..tz 13.23]
Pwf' .
It is possible, but not generally very useful, to
Altered zone interpret the skin factor as a zone of radius rs within
IIski'n" which the permeability is altered to some value ks
when:
Fig. 9.10 Concept of altered zone around wellbore.

The total pressure drop for a flowing well in an rs

S = { -k - 1 ) loge-
infinite reservoir is then the transient solution ks rw
but since it is not possible to assign an unambiguous
t:..P t I
to a
~
= 4Jtkh [lOge <l>rur
-!!:!--z + 0.809 + 2Sj
W
value to either rs or ks this has limited application.
The pressure drop in the skin is given by
Note that uncertainty in the values of kl<l>fA.c?v and S t:..Pskin = ~ . 2S (in Darcy units)
makes it difficult to calculate kh from flowing 4Jtkh
pressure data alone. or 0.87 m·S in field units when m is in psillogIO cycle.
The magnitude of the skin factor can be found The ratio of theoretical pressure drop to the actual
from a pressure build-up survey as will be shown. pressure drop may be considered an index of the
The equation for the pressure at the flowing well at flow efficiency:
the instant of shut-in is:
. P* - p w [ - t:..Pskin

q rlOget + loge ~ z + 0.809 + 2S]

EffiCIency = P* _ P
wI
Pi - PwI =
. Wh1 <l>fA.cr W
142 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

9.6.1 Negative skin factors since -qdt = V p ' c· dp

then
It is possible, after stimulation treatments, to obtain
negative skin factors, and efficiencies or completion
factors greater than 1. In this case:

or

If the kh is apparently unchanged by the stimula-

tion, then the physical interpretation of the situation
is normally that the effective well radius has been Note that the average reservoir pressure Pis

J
increased, reducing the value of the log term of the re
right-hand side. P= dV and dV = 2rrrhfPdr
This effective well radius, defined as the radius of
a well in a reservoir of uniform permeability giving rw
the same pressure drop as the real system, is given A plot of pressure against time on linear (Carte-
by sian) coordinate paper should be a straight line. The
slope of this line is
dp = -q
dt rrr/ h<l>c
9.7 PRESSURE DRAWDOWN AND The pore volume is therefore
RESERVOIR LIMIT TESTING 0.0418qBo
Vp = ~c reservoir barrels
By the time the initial disturbances due to bringing a
well on production have died out, the log approx- where ~ = psilh (slope), c = (pSi)-l and q = stb/D.
imation to the exponential integral solution will be It may be noted that the presence of an aquifer can
appropriate, and the flow equation will be influence interpretation through its volume and
compressibility, i.e. for an aquifer of volume V w
~ 1
kt w 2 + 0.809 + 2S
P wf = Pi - 4rrkh llOge <I>!J.C r
using nomenclature from Chapter 10
NpBo = NB o, coe!J.P + V wCw !J.P
At early times, therefore, a plot of Pwf against log Since qo= NpBo/!J.t, then
time will be a straight line of slope q!Jl4kh. If flowing
well pressures are recorded, and pressure fluctuation kh!J.t
or gauge drift and vibration do not obscure the ----:---:---:------:--- = NBoi Coe + V wCw
IlBo(loge[r)r w] + S - !)
trend, the plot may yield values of kh.
If flow is conti ned then at some time (usually 162.2 q !J.t
estimated as tD = 0.1 for the outer boundary of a = m' {loge [re/rw} + S - n
symmetrical system), a significant pressure change
will occur at the boundary. With a no-flow boundary The definition ofe will determine whether total pore
condition, pressure will fall more rapidly than is volume or hydrocarbon pore volume is calculated. If
predicted by the infinite reservoir equation. At some a test can be prolonged sufficiently to reach this
later time (again usually taken as tD = 0.3 for the semi-steady state period, then the drawdown test (or
outer boundary) the reservoir is assu~ed to reach a reservoir limits test) can yield an estimate of
pseudo steady state condition when the pressure at hydrocarbon in place in a closed reservoir. The
all points of the reservoir is falling uniformly with literature gives equations for the analysis of the
time and the equation for the pressure at a flowing intervening period (tDe equal to 0.1 to 0.3), but the
well is obtained as follows: theoretical justifications are dubious, and results
9 RADIAL FLOW ANAL VSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 143

ambiguous and uncertain. However, data in this

region can be used to determine minimum hydrocar-

0/0
bon in place since the slope of the linear scale ,
pressure:time plot declines monotonically, and any
slope taken at a time prior to semi-steady state
should be larger (and so the pore volume estimate
should be smaller) than the value calculated for the
steady state condition. Approximate radial flow
analysis indicates that the transient stage can be

/Slope~B
considered as pseudo steady state flow within a
moving boundary (the radius of disturbance), so that
observation of pressure in a well offsetting a
producing test well can indicate the time when the
radius of disturbance reached this point, and a pore
volume (or BBLs of hydrocarbon per acre ft) can be
estimated for this region. More advanced interpreta- ,,
, ,.
tion of such interference effects is possible, but is not I"~'t----Intercept = A
considered in this text. ilJ

9.8 GAS WELL TESTING

High rate gas wells are one common example of Q-
departure from the simple Darcy equation, requiring Fig. 9.11 Correlation of high rate gas test data.
a quadratic equation for a realistic description of the
pressure drop rate relationship. The basic equation
for these conditions is known as the Forchheimer reservoirs [8.I1J. One advantage of these methods is
equation: that testing at more than one rate is required so that
inertial effects can be investigated, although the
dp
- dX= (XU + ~pU2 empirical equations in use give no insight into
reservoir behaviour.
and the pU2 term is a kinetic energy, or inertial The empirical relationship between rate and
effect correction. The usual form of equation used in flowing pressure used to correlate data is known as
field practice where flow to the well bore is essen- the back pressure equation:
tially radial is
Q = C(p/ - pw/t
ll(Pl) =A Q + B Q2
where p2 = ]52 - P wi,
A is the coefficient of Darcy Figure 9.12 shows the log-log plot of back pressure
test data, where Q = flow rate, standard volumes
flow, and B is a coefficient of non-Darcy flow. B is
some function of rock properties, gas properties and per day, Ps = static reservoir pressure, Pwf =
interval open to flow but is always treated as a stabilized flowing bottom-hole pressure, C = coeffi-
grouped term. cient, n = slope, between 0.5 (turbulent) and 1.0
(laminar). The log-log slope is defined as rate//lP.
Dividing through by Q we can transform the This equation is not strictly the result of any
equation into a linear form with slope Band particular flow law, and is invalid if a very wide
intercept A (Fig. 9.11): range of flow rates is studied. However, over
f.. t p 2 ) moderate ranges of flow rate, test results will
-\-=BQ+A generate an approximate straight line when q is
Q plotted against (p/ - Pwi) on log-log scales, as
A single constant rate test for a well described by a shown in Fig. 9.12. If the flow were true Darcy flow
non-Darcy flow equation will give kh and the of an ideal gas under steady state condition, the
extrapolated pressure, but will not define inertial exponent n (the slope of the log-log plot) would be
effects, and may not describe accurately the produc- unity, with the coefficient C given as
tive potentials of wells.
Empirical test methods were developed for the kh
C = constant· . /
statutory control and regulation of gas wells and [!zTlog· [re rw]
144 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

data will not be coincident with the true back

pressure curve, but will be parallel to it. Conse-
quently, it is desirable for a test at one flow rate to
C\I be prolonged until stabilized conditions are attained,
'i this point when plotted giving the position of the
~ ---------------------------~ AOF
/
/1
1
back pressure curve.
/ 1
/ 1
Q)
/ 1 9.8.2 Modified isochronal testing
"0 j
o 0
'"C> / A further modification may be used, in which
o
..J ° 1
identical flow and shut-in periods are adopted. In
this case, the last value of shut-in pressure before
flow is used instead of Ps , the static pressure in the

o
/ i
:
term (Ps - P wf)' and this procedure may further
reduce the time necessary for testing in low per-
1
meability formations.
Log scale rate -
Fig. 9.12 Back pressure test analysis.
9.8.3 Analysis of multirate data
The empirical back pressure equation
If the flow were fully turbulent the exponent n
would be 0.5. Values of n between 0.5 and 1 are Q = C(p/ - pw/t
generally taken as indicating the existence of some is not especially helpful in predicting reservoir
inertial effect, and this will frequently be the case, characteristics or in analysing the components of
but a combination of a Darcy flow equation and a pressure drops, although it may be useful in charac-
power series expression for z can lead to a value of terizing well performance.
exponent other than 1. When multirate data are available it is more useful
The standard test procedure involves producing to revert to one of the basic flow equations in field
wells at a constant rate, until the flowing bottom- units:
hole pressure approaches stabilization, and measur-
ing Pwf. The well can then be allowed to build-up to -2 -
P
2 -
P wf -
1422QIlZT [
kh
~-
loge r w
Q
4 +S 1
static pressure, and a test carried out at a new rate;
this may be repeated for three or four rates. or
The results are then plotted on log-log scales, and
the line extrapolated to the value (p/ - P.v/) = p/
(i.e. the theoretical flow rate corresponding to this
-2
P - P wf =
2 1422QIlZT [
kh
0.472 re
loge r w + S + BQ
2 1
value is termed the absolute open flow potential).
The test itself may be termed an AOF test - or (semi-steady state)
absolute open flow test.

9.8.1 Isochronal testing

Pi2 - P wf2 -- 1422QIlzT
kh [1
2(loget D + 0.809) + S 1
The requirement of stabilized flow and full build-up
between flow rates may require very prolonged + BQ2 (transient)
testing periods in low permeability reservoirs, and
modified standardized test procedures have been
developed to reduce the test duration 1251.
The isochronal test uses the flowing pressures
after identical flow durations at each rate, the pres- where
sures not necessarily being the stabilized pressure.
Between each rate, the well should return to the [ loge rw re
0.472 +S 1 semi-steady state
fully built-up conditions «dp/Pdt) < 0.2%/hour) but
with short flowing periods the build-up periods are
also short. Unless stabilized conditions are attained
in the flow periods chosen, the log-log plot of the
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 145

or It must be remembered that the skin factor

calculated from a constant rate test will generally
1422!!zT
kh [t(logetD + 0.809) + S 1 (transient) involve a non-Darcy component unless the rate is
very low, and care should be exercised in determin-
ing a B correlation. It is perfectly possible for a
stimulated well with a true negative skin to exhibit
and B = non-Darcy coefficient, Q = MSCF/D, k = large positive apparent skin factors.
mD, h,r = ft, !! = cp, P = psia, T = oR (= 460 +
OF).
It is more appropriate[34J to use the real gas 9.9 WELL TEST PROCEDURES
pseudo-pressure m(P) defined as
E Tests of the flowing behaviour of discovery and
appraisal wells are necessary, both to help in
m(P) = 2J PdP
!!Z
determining reservoir parameters, and in evaluating
the productivity of individual wells, upon which will
Pb depend the number of wells needed to obtain a
and either 6.(m(P)? or m(P) - m(P wI) correlated specified rate of production.
with rate: Because of cost considerations, the first tests on
an exploration or appraisal well may be made by
means of drill stem tests, without the well being
completely equipped for continuing production.

9.9.1 Drill stem testing

1422TQ
kh
[ r
loge;: - ~ + S + DQ
1 A drill stem test is a temporary completion of a well,
enabling the well to be brought on production
without a production flow string and wellhead, for
where pressure surveys to be made, and the well then killed
Fkh prior to abandonment or permanent completion.
D=--- The drill string is customarily used as the flow string
1422T (Fig. 9.13) (hence the term drill stem test), although
and DQ is known as the rate dependent skin in some cases the test tool assembly may be run on a
factor[3J. tubing string, kept for this purpose. A review of
This provides one method of isolating the non- currently used equipment and techniques is refer-
Darcy effect, but does not enable the skin effect to enced in [45J.
be separated from the Darcy effect. Because of the Drilr stem tests may be run in open hole, thereby
localized nature of the non-Darcy effect, it is eliminating the need to run a casing string, but the
possible to regard this as a local additional rate uncertainty in obtaining a good packer seat, the
dependent skin effect, rearranging the equation as greatly increased possibility of sticking pipe and
losing the hole, andthe lack of selectivity in testing,
severely limit the utility of open-hole tests, and tests
in cased holes are very much to be preferred. When
testing in cased holes, a number of intervals can be
perforated for test at one time, and by use of a
retrievable bridge plug and the testing tool, intervals
can be tested selectively in a series of drill stem tests.
The analysis of multiple rate for the apparent skin Progressive testing of increasingly thick intervals
effect S' will result in a set of rate dependent data, allows assessment of productivity and zone contribu-
conforming to the equation tions.
S' =S+ DQ 9.9.2 Testing tools and assemblies
where
kh There are the essential components in an assembly
D = 1422T . B of testing tools.
146 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Drill pipe to surface ~

Empty -------c:' ,n drill piPEI --",?:

Drilling flUid
Main valve
Main valve closed - - ----'-
Main valve closed
(b)
Main valve --~
open
Drill-stem
tester
Equili zing
• _ _ Equilizing valve open
Equilizing valve
(cl valve closed - - ..,...

Packer set --~~III~~

Formation to Formation fluid

be tested (gas and oil
or sail water )

About to set packer Test in prOQress Test termina ted,

about to pullout

Fig. 9.13 Drill stem testing.

1. Packer 3. Choke assembly

The interval to be tested must be exposed to a On a first test of a formation when pressures and
reduced pressure 'in order to induce flow. The mud potentials are unknown, a bottom-hole choke will
column in the annulus must then be isolated from generally be run. This serves to throttle the flow of
the test interval, by means of a packer. the well and dissipate some of the pressure of the
system, relieving the wellhead assembly of excessive
2. Tester valve pressures. Since the initial flow period will displace
This is the main valve in the tool, which enables the drilling fluid (possibly gelled), mud cake, perforat-
drill pipe to be run wholly or partially empty of ing debris etc., which may plug narrow restrictions in
drilling fluid. valves and chokes, some screening system is neces-
When the test packer is set, opening of the test sary at fluid inlets.
valve exposes the test interval to the low pressure of When pressures are known, chokes may be
the drill pipe bore, inducing flow. The valve is omitted completely, or a selected size run to control
operated by vertical movement of the drill pipe, pressures and rates.
against a spring holding the valve normally closed. A
hydraulic control system delays the opening of the
valve when drill pipe weight is applied so that the 4. Reverse circulating sub
drill pipe weight can be used for setting the packer Since the tester valve will be closed when the pipe is
without opening the valve, and the valve will not pulled, fluid would be released only as stands are
open with a temporary hold up when running in the broken on the derrick floor, if there were no means
hole. of opening the drill pipe bore to the annulus. The
Valves operated by changes in annulus pressure reverse circulation sub provides this connection and
are increasingly used instead, imposing less restric- eliminates the necessity of spilling formation fluids
tion to flow than the mechanically operated types. (since these can be circulated out before pulling),
They can be operated reasonably reliably under the and also enables the pipe to be pulled essentially
conditions of a floating drilling vessel. dry.
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 147

5. Safety jOints and jars 8. Cushion

These are not essential to the test operation, but The water cushion is a column of water contained
assist in the recovery of the test string, in case the within the drill pipe above the tester valve, so that
packer or any other part of the tool becomes stuck. the test string is not run completely empty.
The safety joint enables the test string to be The main object of the cushion is to ensure that
detached at some point above the packer. some back pressure is maintained on the formation
immediately after the tester valve is opened. If a
6. Samplers moderately high pressure formation were instan-
Particularly when flow does not reach the surface, it taneously exposed to a pressure effectively atmos-
may be desirable to obtain a fluid sample at a pheric, an explosively violent period of flow could
pressure, as close as possible to bottom-hole press- result, leading to plugging of, or damage to, tools,
ure. Samplers are available which close top and and possible damage to unconsolidated formations.
bottom valves at the end of the final flow period. A secondary concern in very deep high pressure
(Note that this is a flowing sample and does not wells is that of preventing collapse of the test string
necessarily correspond to a true sample of reservoir
due to the unbalanced annulus mud column press-
fluid.) ure.
As an alternative to a water cushion, the test
string can be pressure charged with nitrogen to any
7. Pressure gauges predetermined pressure, giving a variable cushion
Any type of pressure gauge [15,24,47] can be run with a effect as the nitrogen is bled off.
test string, but a test will always use two gauges,
which sl;lould be carefully calibrated gauges of 9.9.3 Test procedures, data analysis
known accuracy, commonly with one gauge in the
flow stream, and with one blanked off, that is Accurate interpretation of test results requires con-
contained within a chamber with ports to the tinuous monitoring of all events, so that as much
wellbore, but with no flow through the chamber. data as is possible on flow and pressure can be
Table 9.1 shows some current downhole pressure subsequently reconstructed.
gauge characteristics. Figure 9.14 shows the princi- Immediately after the valve is opened, flow may
ple of the rugged Amerada gauge with mechanical be detected by a blow of air at the surface, as
clocks. formation fluids flow into the well. The first signifi-

/KI, Clock
V:)
Vertical chart

Chart Static pressure-

depth survey )

.....--r
(a) Flowing pressure-
Pressure
depth survey ~
~r---{.t; Pws
, -Stylus ~ : wf I _
C/ ,-' b.t--i
\

Time'- Base line

Stylus movement (b)
a pressure

Bourdon pressure element

Fig. 9.14 Principle of the Amerada gauge. (a) Amerada pressure gauge, (b) Amerada chart for a typical pressure
build-up survey in a producing well.
148 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

cant measurement that can be made is the time of 9.9.4 Wireline testing
arrival of the water cushion at the surface. The
difference between this time and instant of valve 1. The formation tester (FT) and
opening, and the void volume of the test string, can formation interval tester (FIT)
be used to estimate a flow rate for this period.
The end of the water cushion may be more These are devices run on electric wire line enabling a
difficult to estimate, because of cutting of the small sample of formation fluid, and very limited
cushion by formation solids. Since there will usually pressure data, to be obtained from a selected
be mud solids, debris, possible formation solids interval.
which may plug, erode or damage orifices, this In operation, a valve is opened and a hydraulic
period is not metered, and a robust mass flow meter intensifier expands a back-up shoe, forcing the tool
would be of help in analysing such flow periods. It is, and two sealing packers against the formation of
however, possible to use choke pressures to estimate casing wall. If there is no flow in open hole, or if the
the magnitude of flows, and choke pressures should hole is cased, a shaped charge is fired through a
be routinely recorded. sealing packer giving a flow channel from the
When the well has cleaned up and formation fluids formation to sample chamber.
are flowing, attempts are made to stabilize flow - oil Pressures are monitored from the surface, but an
being tested through a separator, with gas being Amerada gauge is generally connected to the
vented or flared through a meter and oil being stored sampling system for a more accurate measurement.
or burned off. Figure 9.15 shows test burners. The sample chamber is small (generally taking a
Difficulties with burners, separators, and other 10 litre sample), and if this fills with formation fluid
surface equipment, with frequent changes of chokes a pressure build-up is subsequently recorded.
(and so of rate) in attempts to stabilize and control Alternatively, the sample chamber seal valve may
flow, can often result in data going unrecorded for be closed and the tool left in place to record a
significant periods, materially complicating analysis. build-up. (This could lead to an overpressured
condition in some circumstances.)
Bleeding down the hydraulic pressure releases the
tool for pulling. If filtrate invasion is severe,
open-hole tests may recover only mud filtrate, but in
cased-hole it should generally be possible to recover
formation fluid.
The tool may be particularly useful in locating
hydrocarbon-water contacts, and the extent of
transition zones, but the flow and pressure data are
generally of poor quality, and follow-up drill stem or
production tests are necessary.

2. The repeat formation tester

(vertical pressure logging)
The earlier tools have now been replaced by an
open-hole testing tool that measures the vertical
pressure distribution in a well, recovers formation
fluid samples and, in certain circumstances, mea-
sures effective permeability. One such device which
has found frequent application is known by its
Schlumberger trade name of the repeat formation
tester or RFT. The device is designed to operate in
open-hole sizes between 6/1 and 14%/1, in mud
pressure ratings up to 20000 psi and mud tempera-
tures to 350°F. A piston device and an associated
packer can be actuated to force a probe through mud
Fig. 9.15 Test burners. (Photo courtesy of BP.) cake and allow the flow of small volumes of fluid
(about 10 cc) into each of two pretest chambers
(Figs. 9.16 and 9.17). Analysis of the flow and
9 RADIAL FLOW ANAL VSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 149

Mud cake
~
Flow l i n e -

. .
Formation
Equalizing~
valve Chamber 1
(10 mud
column)
Flow line
Probe closed
Chamber 2

Seal valve ---.. _Seal valve

to lower to upper
chamber chamber

Probe open and sampling

Fig. 9.16 Schematic of the RFT tool.

build-up curves using spherical and cylindrical flow

analysis may lead to an estimate of effective per-
meability. The built-up pressure is recorded by a
strain gauge and can be backed up with a high
precision quartz gauge with accuracy typically
around 0.5 psi for temperatures ±l°C of true.
Sample chambers between 1 and 12 gallons can be
fitted for saving a fluid sample in extended flow.
After each pretest pressure build-up, the probe can
be retracted and reset at a different vertical location
in the well. In this way any number of pressure data
points may be logged in a well. An example of the
pretest pressure response in a well is shown in Fig.
9.18. The built-up pressure response at a number of
depth points in a well [31) is shown in Fig. 9.19, and
the log is compared with the initial pressure gra-
dient of the reservoir. The deviation between current
and initial gradients in a producing reservoir can provide
a basis for interpretation of reservoir depletion and
cross-flow by matching in reservoir sirnulation[26,3Q,46[.
In many instances the pressure measured by the
tool will be the pressure of filtrate which is less than
hydrocarbon pressure by the magnitude of capillary
threshold pressure. This difference will only be
Fig. 9.17 Photograph ofthe RFT tool. significant in lower permeability formations but
150 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Digital pressure record (psi)

o 104
~ IO 103 10 2
Analog
pressure ~HO 0 10
4 Time ~
o
(psi) 100.mins) I Interpretation
o : -+- Hydrostatic
) pressure = 7039
I
I
I
I
First pretest flow ~ (
J
(
I
I
I
I

"
Second pretest flow ~
\
Shut i n _ ~""i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ~rmat~
: -+- pressure =6571
I

Pressure record from RFT test (pretest) at a given

depth in the wall

Fig. 9.18 Pressure record from RFT test (pretest) at a given depth in the well.

leads to the conclusion that RFf gradient intersec- bottom-hole pressures with a subsurface gauge, and
tion may represent a- hydrocarbon water contact of annulus (when open) and wellhead pressures, and
rather than a free water level (see Chapter 6). continuous monitoring of oil and gas flow rates.
With prolonged testing, a range of flow rates may
9.10 WELL TESTING AND be utilized to help establish the productivity index
PRESSURE ANALYSIS and inflow performance of a well, but this should
always be secondary to establishing a valid, essen-
9.10.1 Production testing tially constant rate, flow and build-up survey.
It is frequently a practice to flow a well for clean
Production tests are carried out after a well has been up before beginning a production test proper, but
completed, with the final casing and liner (if run), since this period will induce pressure transients it is
flow string and any necessary downhole production desirable that some monitoring of this period
equipment (storm chokes, safety valves etc.) instal- through orifice meter or burning line pressures
led. The Christmas tree and surface controls will be should be maintained, unless it is certain that the
installed, and testing is limited only by the restraints reservoir returns to an equilibrium state before the
of production facilities, handling capacities and production test.
manpower availability. The production facilities may Oil flow rates may be measured by one or more of
be temporary (e.g. Rolo tester or other portable the following:
tester), or permanent, and the produced hydrocar-
bon will not generally be flared (although gas orifice meter readings;
associated with produced oil may be burnt off). positive displacement meter readings;
Under these conditions long drawdown, interference tank dips.
and build-up tests of days' or weeks' duration may Gas flow rates will generally be measured by orifice
be undertaken, enabling very much more significant meters.
pressure data to be obtained, and the stabilized flow Separator and tank samples should be monitored
conditions giving better oil and gas samples than is regularly for bottom settlings and water.
possible on shorter tests. It is particularly important that all events should
Good testing practices involve the monitoring of be properly recorded - when there is a divided
 9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WEll PERFORMANCE 151

Reservoir pressure (psig)

2500 3000 3500 4000

Top paleocene
8100
Perforations Original
Layer I pressure
gradient

Layer II
~~2-~------------------------~~~-----------t----~8200

Layer III

8300

-
+-
Q)
Q)

.r:::
.r::: 84001i Q)
+-
a. "0
Q)
"0 Layer IV C
Q)
C
3l '"
.a
~
.a
~

'" c'"
.~

~
+-

Q)
8500 ~
r---------------------------------------------~r_----_r~ Q)
~ 2600 ~~~L-~
.=
~

.=
::::J

8600

Layer V

8700

Well 22/17 - A8
Jan.1978 8800
Fig. 9.19 RFT data - East flank Montrose reservoir
(UKCS) (after [31 J).

responsibility for bottom-hole gauges and surface line and separator pressures, choke changes, accu-
separator readings, it is sometimes possible for rate recording of rates and GORs are essential to
essential data to be omitted from reports. Accurate accurate interpretation of test data. Interpretation
times, recording of datum levels used (SS, RKB or may be difficult enough under ideal conditions; with
wellhead tend to be used indiscriminately without missing or inaccurate data it may become im-
being logged), bottom-hole, wellhead, annulus, flow possible!
152 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Examples

Example 9.1
Calculate the dimensionless time tD for the following cases:
(a) <j> = 0.15 r = lOcm
!.t = 0.3 cp t = 10 s
c = 15 X 10-5 atm- 1 k = 0.1 D
(b) <j>, !.t, c as above r = lOcm
t = WOOs
k = 0.01 D
(c) <j>, !.t, c as above r = 100000 cm
t = 10000 s
k = 0.05 D

Example 9.2
Find the exponential integrals and pressure drops for the following cases:
(a) <j> = 0.12 r = lOcm
!.t = 0.7cp t = 1s
c = 10 X 10-5 atm- 1 k = 0.05 D
h = 2400 cm q = 10 000 reservoir ccs/s
(b) as above r = 30000cm
t = 24h
(c) <j> = 0.12 r = 500000 cm
!.t = 0.7cp q = 250000 ccs/s
c = 10 X l~psi-l t = 365 days
h = 2400cm k = 0.05 D

Example 9.3
Plot the following drawdown data and estimate the permeability thickness product.

time (h) o 1.5 3.0 6.0 9.0 12 18 24 48 72

pressure (psi) 5050 4943 4937 4935 4929 4927 4923 4921 4916 4912

Flowing rate was constant at 500 bopd.

Oil viscosity 0.5 cp
Oil formation volume factor 1.7535 RB/STB
If net pay thickness is 60 ft, what is the estimated permeability to oil?
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 153

Example 9.4
An oil well produces at 500 stb/d for 60 days
Initial reservoir pressure = 5050 psi
Flowing pressure before shut-in = 4728 psi
Pressure build-up data:

Shut-in time (h) 0.25 0.50 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 18.0 36.0 48
Pressure (psi) 4967 4974 4981 4984 4987 4991 4998 5002 5008 5014 5017

Oil viscosity = 0.7 cp

Oil formation volume factor = 1.454
Estimated net formation thickness = 120 ft
Average porosity = 0.135
Effective fluid compressibility = 17 x 10-6 (psitl
Effective well radius = 6in.
Calculate: kh; k; skin factor and completion factor, and pressure drop across skin.

Example 9.5
A well discovers an undersaturated oil reservoir of thickness 50 ft. The static pressure is 1800 psia.
A fluid sample has the following properties:
Oil formation volume factor = 1.365 RB/STB
Effective compressibility of fluid in place = 15 x 10-6 (psitl

The well was tested at a constant rate of 500 bid, during which the following pressure record was obtained:

Time (h) 3 6 12 18 24 36 48 72
Pressure (psi a) 1438 1429 1420 1415 1412 1407 1403 1398
Time (h) 84 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Pressure (psia) 1396 1395 1392 1389 1386 1383 1380 1377

Calculate the order of magnitude of the oil in place.

Example 9.6
A test on a gas well gives the following results:

Flow rate Duration Bottom hole pressure

MSCFld (h) (psia)
7290 4.5 2506.6
0 4.5 2514.5
16737 4.5 2489.8
0 4.5 2513.6
25724 4.5 2467.4
0 4.5 2512.7
35522 4.5 2435.9
154 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The following build-up was then recorded:

Shut-in time (h) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6
Pressure (psi a) 2509.7 2510.7 2511.3 2511.7 2512.1 2512.5 2513.0 2513.2
Over the pressure range considered, viscosity and compressibility factor can be considered constant at !-lg =
0.017 cp z = 0.856.
Reservoir temperature = 138°F
Initial reservoir pressure = 2515 psia
Well radius = 0.4 ft
Formation thickness = 200 ft
Hydrocarbon porosity = 0.10
Gas gravity, Yg = 0.64
re = 5000ft

(a) Plot the back pressure curve.

Determine AOF and slope.
(b) Determine permeability and apparent skin factors.
(c) Determine inertial coefficients and inertial pressure drops.

References

[1] Earlougher, R.C.

Advances in Well Test Analysis, Monograph Series 5 SPE of AIME (1977).
[2] Matthews, C.S. and Russell, D.G.
Pressure Build Up and Flow Tests in Wells, Monograph Series 1 SPE of AIME (1967).
[3] Dake, L.P.
Fundamentals of reservoir engineering, Devel. in Pet. Sci. 8, Elsevier (1978).
[4] Cullender, M.H.
The isochronal performance methods of determining the flow characteristics of gas wells, Trans. A/ME 204 (1955),
137.
[5] Edwards, A.G. and Shryock, S.H.
New generation drillstem testing tools/technology, Pet. Eng. (July 1974), 46.
[6] Fetkovich, M.J.
The isochronal testing of oil wells, SPE 4529, 48th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1973).
[7] Gibson, J.A. and Campbell, A.T.
Calculating the distance to a discontinuity from DST data, SPE 3016, 45th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1970).
[8] Energy Resources Conservation Board
Guide for the Planning, Conducting and Reporting of Subsurface Pressure Tests, ERCB Report 74-T (Nov. 1974),
Calgary, Canada.
[9] Hirasake, G.J.
Pulse tests and other early transient pressure analyses for insitu estimation of vertical permeability, SPEJ (Feb.
1974),75.
[10] Khurana, A.K.
Influence of tidal phenomena on interpretation of pressure build up and pulse tests, Aust. Pet. Expl. J. 16(1),
(1976),99.
[11] Energy Resources Conservation Board
Theory and Practice of Testing Gas Wells, ERCB -75-34 (1975), Calgary, Canada.
[12] Lee, W.J.
Well Testing, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Dallas (1982), Textbook Series.
[13] Matthews, C.S., Brons, F. and Hazebroek, P.
A method for determination of average pressure in a bounded reservoir, Trans. A/ME 201 (1954), 182.
[14] Miller, C.C., Dyes, A.B. and Hutchinson, c.A.
The estimation of permeability and reservoir pressure from bottom hole pressure build up characteristics, Trans.
A/ME 189 (1950), 91.
[15] Miller, G.B., Seeds, R.W. and Shira, H.W.
A new surface recording down hole pressure gauge, SPE 4125, 47th Ann. Fall Mtg., San Antonio (1972).
9 RADIAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF WELL PERFORMANCE 155

[16] Odeh, A.S., Moreland, E.E. and Schueler, S.

Characterisation of a gas well from one flow test sequence, J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1975),1500.
[17] Raghavan, R.
Well test analysis: well producing by solution gas drive, SPEJ (Aug. 1976),196.
[18] Ramey, H.J.
Application ofthe line source solution to flow in porous media-a review, Prod. Mon. (May 1967), 4-7, 25-27.
[19] Ridley, T.P.
The unified analysis of well tests, SPE 5587, 50th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1975).
[20] Timmerman, E.H. and van Poollen, H.K.
Practical use of drillstem tests, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Apr.-June 1972), 3I.
[21] van Everdingen, A.F. and Hurst, W.
The application of the Laplace transformation to flow problems in reservoirs, Trans. AIME 186 (1949) 305.
[22] Vogel, J. V.
Inflow performance relationships for solution gas drive wells, JPT (Jan. 1968),83.
[23] Vela, S. and McKinley, RM.
How areal heterogeneities affect pulse test results, SPEJ (June 1970), 18I.
[24] Weeks, S.G. and Farris, G.F.
Permagauge - a permanent surface recording downhole pressure monitor through a tube, SPE 5607, 50th Ann. Fall
Mtg. SPE (1975).
[25] Winestock, A.G. and Colpitts, G.P.
Advances in estimating gas well deliverability, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (July-Sept. 1965), lli.
[26] Stewart, G. and Wittmann, M.J.
Interpretation of the pressure response of the repeat formation tester, SPE 8362, 54th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (1979).
[27] Pinson, A.E.
Concerning the value of producing time in average pressure determinations from pressure build up analysis, JPT
(Nov. 1972), 1369.
[28] Peaceman, D.
Interpretation of well block pressure in numerical simulation, SPEJ (June 1978), 183.
[29] Schlumberger,
RFT: Essentials of Pressure Test Interpretation, Doc. M--081022 Schlumberger (1981).
[30] Dake, L.P.
Application of the repeat formation tester in vertical and horizontal pulse testing in the Middle Jurassic Brent
sands, Paper EUR 270, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Conf (1982),9.
[31] Bishlawi, M. and Moore, R.L.
Montrose field reservoir management, Paper EUR 166, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Conf (1980),205.
[32] Bourdet, D., Ayoub, J.A. and Pirard, Y.
Use of pressure derivative in well test interpretation, SPE Paper 12777, Proc. Calif Reg. Mtg. (1984).
[33] Gringarten, A.C. et al.
A comparison between different skin and wellbore storage type curves for early time transient analysis, SPE 8205,
Proc. 54th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE of AIME (1979).
[34] Al-Hussainy, R, Ramey, H.J. and Crawford, P.B.
The flow of real gases through porous media, JPT (May 1966), 624.
[35] Agarwal, R.G., Al-Hussainy, R. and Ramey, H.J.
An investigation of wellbore storage and skin effect in unsteady liquid flow, SPEJ (Sept. 1970),279.
[36] Streltsova, T.D.
Well pressure behaviour of a naturally fractured reservoir, SPEJ (Oct. 1983),769.
[37] Horner, D.R
Pressure build up in wells, Proc. 3rd World Pet. Congo II (1951),503.
[38] Baldwin, D.E.
A Monte Carlo model for pressure transient analysis, SPE 2568, 44th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (1969).
[39] Erhaghi, I. and Woodbury, J.J.
Examples of pitfalls in well test analysis, JPT (Feb. 1985),335.
[40] Ramey, H.J.
Pressure transient testing, JPT (July 1982).
[41] McGee, P.R
Use of a well model to determine permeability layering from selective well tests, JPT (Nov. 1980),2023.
[42] Clark, G. and van Golf-Racht, T.D.
Pressure derivative approach to transient test analysis: a high permeability North Sea reservoir example, SPE
12959, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf, London (1984), 33.
156 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[43] Wilson, M.R.

Some well test analysis results for a North Sea oil well, SPE 12966, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. London (1984).
[44] Gringarten, A.C.
Interpretation of transient well test data, In Developments in Petroleum Eng. -1 (Ed. Dawe and Wilson), Elsevier
Applied Science (1985).
[45] Brouse, M.
Proper equipment and techniques ensure better drill stem tests, World Oil (May 1983), 87.
[46] Archer,J.S.
Reservoir definition and characterisation for analysis and simulation, Paper PD(1), Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo
London (1983).
[47] Diemer, E.
Pressure analysis: the hardware. In: Developments in Petroleum Engineering, (Ed. Dawe and Wilson), Elsevier
Applied Science, Barking (1985), 89.
 Chapter 10

Reservoir Performance Analysis

Recovery of hydrocarbons from a reservoir may then

make exclusive use of the inherent energy of the G(Bgi ) = (G-Gp)Bg
system (primary recovery); energy may be added to
the system in the form of injected fluids (secondary Since the gas formation volume factor represents a
recovery); some of the residual hydrocarbon trapped ratio between reservoir and standard condition
during conventional recovery processes may be volumes then a simple equation of state can be used
mobilized (tertiary or enhanced oil recovery). in its representation:
(Bg;) _ V; _ Z; n RT; P
10.1 RECOVERY FROM GAS Bg V P; znRT
RESERVOIRS For an isothermal reservoir T; = T, therefore
(Bg;) _ Z;· P
The expansion of gas in the reservoir pore space as
Bg p;. Z
pressure declines during production is the most
significant mechanism in analysis of gas reservoirs. from which
The compressibility of gas is generally significantly ZiP G - Gp
greater than that of the reservoir pore volume, and
in the absence of water influx the volumetric Piz G
material balance reduces to the following expression or

~= P;[l- ~G 1
at reservoir conditions:
Z Z;
Initial gas volume at initial pressure =
remaining gas volume at lower pressure This equation can be arranged in a linear form as
shown in Fig. 1O.l.
Using the terminology:
P ( P.)
-= _ - ' Gp p.
+ -.!.
G = standard condition volume of gas initially Z ZiG Zi
in place;
Gp = standard condition volume of cumulative A plot of Plz against the cumulative produced gas
gas produced; volume has two significant intercepts, firstly Piz =
Bg = gas formation volume factor (res. voll P/z; at G p = 0 and secondly G p = Gat Plz = O. The
stand.cond.vol.); application of the Piz against Gp plot in the reservoir
= subscript for initial conditions. analysis of a depletion drive gas reservoir
157
158 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

..k'Pi/Zi the surface condition volume of water produced

from wells and Bw is the formation volume factor for
\, ,,
,
,,
water
G(BgJ = (G-Gp) Bg + We - WpBw
"
N '" ,, A linear equation which can be solved by assuming
"-
a.. ,, values of We to force linearity can be written as

r'"
,, follows:
,
Abandonment value of P/Z G p Bg + Wp Bw = [
Bg - (Bg;)
1
Bg - (Bgi)
1
W +G
e
O~----------~--~--
Gpo The relationship between the values of We indicated
Gp~
and reservoir pressure at the original gas-water
Fig. 10.1 The P/z plot. contact can be used to establish the performance
classification of the aquifer, i.e. steady state, pseudo
steady state, unsteady state. If the production terms
(G p Bg + Wp Bw) are denoted as F and the volume
without water influx is therefore particularly useful expansion term (B g - Bgi ) as Ex, the material balance
in providing a further estimate of gas in place by equation becomes
extrapolation of early production data. When the
value of G indicated by the plot is significantly
F= We + GEx
different from volumetric estimates, then assump- and the linearized equation is, as shown in Fig. 10.3,
tions of reservoir continuity in the field might be F We
questioned. The variation of field data from linearity -=-+G
is a fairly frequent observation and thus may be an
Ex Ex
indication of water influx (increasing pressure sup-
port) or aquifer depletion (decreasing pressure
support by fluid transport to another reservoir).
Figure 10.2 shows the more usual representation of
limited aquifer influx indicated by production data.
In this case the material balance equation must be
written as follows, where We is the cumulative
volume of water influx at reservoir conditions, Wp is

•\
•~.
"'.". WelEK

".
\\ Fig. 10.3 Aquifer performance.
\ \
\
\
\
\
Figure 10.3 shows that the evaluation of We is a
N \
\ forcing exercise.
'Q:- \
\ Water influx in a gas reservoir lowers the recovery
\
\
\
factor Gp/G by two mechanisms in comparison to
\
\
normal depletion. Through partial maintenance of
\
\ reservoir pressure by the influxed water the gas
\
\ expansion process is arrested. In addition, the water
\
\ traps gas at relatively high pressures behind the
advancing front. The magnitude of trapped gas
Gp- saturation is likely to be rate dependent, but for
Fig. 10.2 Effect of limited aquifer influx on the P/z plot. many sandstones the sparse literature suggests an
10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 159

order of 40% pore volume. A comparison of not usually considered separately, and the three
ultimate recovery factors for natural depletion and principal categories ofreservoir drive are:
water influx can be made.
(1) solution gas drive (or depletion drive) reser-
~
G
] =1--
Paz i
voirs;
(2) gas cap expansion drive reservoirs;
PiZ a
depletion,
abandonment (3) water drive reservoirs.
where a = abandonment pressure conditions. Simi-
Frequently two or all three mechanisms (together
larly,
with rock and connate water expansion) may occur

~] -S ]J!.L
_[l-S1 - Swi simultaneously and result in a combination drive.
gr wi
G wat«inH"" -
abandonment
(Bgi) 10.2.1 Solution gas drive:
analysis by material balance
where Sgr is the average residual gas saturation in the
reservoir. Such comparisons often yield water influx: If a reservoir at its bubble-point is put on produc-
depletion recovery factor ratios of about 0.77:1. tion, the pressure will fall below the bubble-point
pressure and gas will come out of solution. Initially
this gas may be a disperse discontinuous phase,
10.2 PRIMARY RECOVERY IN essentially immobile, until some minimum satura-
OIL RESERVOIRS tion - the equilibrium, or critical gas, saturation - is
attained. The actual order of values of critical
Oil can be recovered from the pore spaces of a saturation are in some doubt, but there is consider-
reservoir rock by expansion or only to the extent able evidence to support the view that values may be
that the volume originally occupied by the oil is very low - of the order of 1% to 7% of the pore
invaded or occupied in some way. There are several volume. Once the critical gas saturation has been
ways in which oil can be produced from a reservoir, established, gas will be mobile and will flow under
and these may be termed mechanisms or drives, and whatever potential gradients may be established in
where one replacement mechanism is dominant, the the reservoir - towards producing wells if the flowing
reservoir may be said to be operating under a or viscous gradient is dominant - segregating verti-
particular drive. The analysis of drive mechanisms cally if the gravitational gradient is dominant.
using a method of material balance follows the Segregation will be affected by permeability varia-
general form described by Schilthuis [13]. tions in layers but is known to occur even under
Possible sources of replacement for produced apparently unfavourable conditions.
fluids are: Initially then, a well producing from a closed
reservoir will produce at solution GOR. At early
(a) expansion of undersaturated oil above the times, as pressure declines and gas comes out of
bubble-point; solution, but cannot flow to producing wells, the
(b) the release of gas from solution in the oil at producing GOR will decline. When the critical gas
and below the bubble-point; saturation is established and if the potential gra-
(c) invasion of the original oil-bearing reservoir dients permit, gas will flow towards producing wells.
by gas from a free gas cap; The permeability to oil will become lower than at
(d) invasion of the original oil-bearing reservoir initial conditions, and there will be a finite per-
by water from an adjacent or underlying meability to gas so that the producing gas-oil ratio
aquifer. will rise. As more gas comes out of solution, and gas
All replacement processes involve a reduction in saturations increase, permeability to gas increases,
pressure in the original oil zone, although pressure permeability to oil diminishes and this trend acceler-
drops may be small if gas caps are large, and aquifers ates. Ultimately, as reservoir pressure declines
large and permeable, and pressures may stabilize at towards abandonment pressure, the change in gas
constant or declining reservoir offtake rates under formation volume factor offsets the increasing gas
favourable circumstances. to oil mobility ratio, and the gas-oil'ratio trend is
The compressibility of oil, rock and connate water reversed, i.e. although the reservoir GOR may
is generally relatively small, so that pressures in continue to increase in terms of standard volumes,
undersaturated oil reservoirs will fall rapidly to the the ratio standard cubic ft/stock tank barrel may
bubble-point if there is no aquifer to provide water decline.
drive. As a result, these expansion mechanisms are In addition to the effect of gas on saturation of,
160 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

and permeability to, oil, the loss of gas from solution IlP pressure change from initial conditions
=
also increases the viscosity of the oil and decreases (= Pi-P);
the formation volume factor of the oil. W'e = net water influx in reservoir condition
The solution gas drive performance of unconsoli- volume units (= W e- WpBw + WinjB w)
dated sand reservoirs and chalk reservoirs (such as For oil production of an undersaturated reservoir
those in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea) from Pi down to bubble-point pressure Ph, the
require consideration and inclusion of pore volume solution gas-oil ratio remains constant in the reser-
compressibility as it can be of the same order as oil voir. A reservoir condition volumetric balance is
compressibility [15, 22J, In well cemented reservoirs, thus
the pore volume compressibility may be small in
comparison to gas and oil compressibility and may NpBo = N( Bo - (Boi) ) + Vp( Cw Swi + Cf) /)'P + We'
be ignored below bubble point.
The analysis of performance of a solution gas The middle term represents the expansion of con-
drive reservoir can be conducted by use of reservoir nate water as fluid pressure is reduced and the
condition material balance, or volumetric balance compaction of pore volume as grain pressure is
techniques. The methods consider a number of static increased. For a constant overburden pressure, the
equilibrium stages of reservoir production during decrease in fluid pressure is equal to the increase in
which pressure changes have occurred, At any grain pressure. The pore volume compressibility cfis
equilibrium stage a balance is made on the original therefore a positive value with respect to fluid
reservoir content at original pressure and the current pressure reduction. The pore volume is represented
reservoir content at current pressure. The pressure byVp.
reduction between initial and later conditions is Since initial oil saturation Soi can be represented
accompanied by all or some of the following: as NBo/Vp, then
expansion of remaining oil; N(Boi) N(Boi)
V =--=
liberation and expansion of dissolved gas; P Soi 1 - Swi
expansion of connate water; The equation thus becomes transformed into
compaction of rock pore volume;
production of a cumulative volume of oil; N(Boi)
NpBo = N ( Bo - (Boi) ) + 1 _ S .
production of a cumulative volume of gas; WI
production of a cumulative volume of water;
injection or influx of a cumulative volume of
water;
injection of a cumulative volume of gas. Since, down to bubble-point pressure
Co = (Bo-Boi}I(Bo}i/).Pthen in terms ofthe effective
The nomenclature for describing these processes oil compressibility Coe this expression becomes
between initial pressure Pi and some later pressure P
is defined as follows:
NpBo -- N(Boi) [Coc+w1Swi + cf
_ Swi 1/)'P + We I

= cumulative gas produced at surface

(standard volumes); Therefore
N = stock tank volume of oil initially in
place; NpBo = N(Boi )coe /)'P + We'
= reservoir condition volume of oil The recovery factor for pressures down to bubble-
initially in place; point becomes
= stock tank volume of cumulative oil
produced; ~l = (Boi)C oe /)'P + We'
= reservoir condition volume of cumula- N Pb<P Bo NBo
tive oil produced;
= cumulative produced gas-oil ratio As the pressure falls below bubble-point pressure,
(standard volumes) (= GpINp); gas from solution is released and may form free gas
= solution gas-oil ratio (standard saturation in the reservoir orland be produced. The
volumes); cumulative gas oil ratio Rp will then become greater
= total compressibility = coSo + cwS w + than Rsi and the remaining solution gas-oil ratio Rs
CgSg + cf; in the reservoir will fall below R si '
= effective oil compressibility = c/l-Sw; A reservoir conditions volumetric balance thus
10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALVSIS 161

becomes an equation of the change in reservoir A linearization which yields N as an intercept and
volume, equivalent to total production with the has unit slope is given by
volume change associated with remaining and in-
F W'
fluxed fluids and adjusted pore volume. = e +N
The production of oil and free gas together with (Eo + Ef,w) (Eo + Ef,w)
any water is and is indicated in Fig. 10.4 (a). Values of We are
NpBo + RpNpBg - RsNpBg + WpBw chosen to provide the required linearity and will
then indicate the aquifer character. Production
The expansion of original oil between pressure P;
and current pressure is volumes and PVT properties from field data are
required for the analysis. In the absence of any
NBo - N(Bo;) influx terms, a plot of F against (Eo + Ef,w) yields a
The expansion of liberated solution gas expressed in straight line through the origin with slope N, as
reservoir volumes at the current pressure is shown in Fig. 10.4 (b).
NRs; Bg - NRs Bg (a)
The change in hydrocarbon pore volume between
pressure P; and the current pressure is

N( Bo;)dP { C; s~;s:;C[)
The net influx terms are represented by We'.
The balance therefore becomes
N

We'
- - - (s·t·vol)
Eo+ E fw

(b)
In high pore volume compressibility reservoirs
such as chalks and unconsolidated sands, the energy
contribution of compaction drive cannot be ignored
(5
even at quite high gas saturations. In other situa-
tions, pore volume and connate water compressibil- ...>
LL
ity can be small in comparison with gas compressibil-
ity and is often ignored in calculations.
Following the nomenclature used by Havlena and
(Eo + E f w), r'vol!st'vol
Odeh (2), the production and expansion terms can be
grouped as follows: Fig. 10.4 Representation of field data using Havlena and
Odeh methods.
F= Np {Bo + (Rp-Rs)Bg}
The material balance equation for a solution gas
Eo = (Bo - (Bo;) ) + (Rs; - Rs) Bg drive has also been represented in its static form
ignoring pore volume compressibility as follows:
cw Swi + cr ) N = Np (Bo - RsBg) + GpBg -(We')
Er,w = (Boi)dP { 1 - Swi
(Bo - (Boi)) + (Rsi - Rs) Bg
and the balance equation can be represented more
easily for calculation purposes as
F= N(Eo + Er,w) + We'
162 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The main expansion terms are in the denominator N(BoJ

and by calling them D, Tracy [1] defined the following PV= (1- Sw~)
material balance equation, i.e. D = (Bo - Bo;) + (Rs;
- Rs) Bg , then: The oil saturation at time j when the cumulative oil
production is (Nph is
N = NpFo + GpFg - We' Fw
[N - (Np)j] (Bo)j
where Fo = (Bo - RsBg)/D (So)j = PV
Fg = BiD
Fw= l/D
= [1- (Np)j] (B o)j(l_S .)
N (Bo;) w,

Tracy developed the earlier Tamer [8] method For unit stock tank oil in place this becomes
using this formulation to predict recovery perform-
ance below bubble-point pressure. Relative per- - (BO)j[ (Np)j]
meability data is required which gives kglko as a (So)j - (Boi) 1- N (l-Swi)
function of the average oil saturation So or liquid
saturation SL (= 1 - Sg) in the reservoir. For the The relative permeability ratio kglko at time j is
situation where net influx and water production is obtained as a function of So or (So + Sw;) as shown in
zero and where pore volume compressibility is Fig. 10.5. From this, a new estimate R' of the
insignificant, an analysis in terms of unit stock tank average producing gas-oil ratio can be derived and
volume of oil in place can be written: compared to the original estimate R(k):
+ GpFg
R' = (Rs)j + (Bo)j. (Ilo)j. [!:&]
1 = NpFo
If we use the subscript j to represent the time level (Bg)j (Ilg)j ko j
in which we are interested, then for a pressure
decrement from Pj - l to Pj it is necessal}' to estimate ,,
,
10
the average producing gas-oil ratio R during the
decrement:
\
R= Rj_l + Rj(k) 1.0
I
\
2 \
\
This is obtained by an iterative process, so Rik) \
\
represents the estimated value of R at time j for k 0.1 \
guesses from k = 1 to n. The correct value of Rj will \
be obtained by comparing R(k) with a value VIR'
\
\ ,
calculated as follows.
Between Pi-I and Pj the incremental production 0.01
~,
, \
added to the cumulative production at the time j-1 \
\
gives the cumulative production at time j, i.e. letting \
\
I:lNp be the cumulative oil production we have \
0.001 '--_-L-_--'-_ _"--_-"--_---'
(Np)j = (Np)j_l + I:lNp 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
and So

1= (N)p j-I + I:lNp )(P )j + ()

0
-)(
Gp j-I + R I:lNp Fg)j
Fig. 10.5 Relative permeability ratio.

from which A revised estimate of R is obtained from R = (R(k)

+ R' )12 and used in a fresh circuit of calculations
I:lN = 1- «Np)j_l (Fo)j) - «Gp)j-l (Fg)j) until a convergence in R is obtained (say within
p (Fo)j + R(Fg)j 0.1 %) for the estimated value of llNp- After
convergence
The average oil saturation in the reservoir at time j is
given by material balance as follows. (Gp)j = (Gp)j_l + R I:lNp
Let initial oil saturation So; = l-Sw; in pore volume
PV. Therefore
10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANAL VSIS 163

and a check is obtained from Np Fo + Gp Fg = 1. The data by plotting (F/(Eo + (l+m) Ef,w» against
functions Fo and Fg are usually prepared from the (EgI(Eo+ (1 +m) Ef,w» as shown in Fig. 10.6, i.e.
PVT data as functions of pressure.
F =N+ mNEg
(Eo + (1 +m) Ef,w) (Eo + (1 +m) Ef,w)
10.2.2 Gas cap expansion drive
The presence of a gas cap at initial reservoir
conditions serves to retard the decline in reservoir
pressure as oil is produced. The pressure at the

--
original gas-oil contact is by definition the bubble-
point pressure since the oil must be saturated. The t
material balance equation must be formulated by
taking into consideration the expansion of the initial ~
..:
lL!
gas cap as well as liberation of solution gas from the LL+
oil as pressure declines. The efficient recovery of oil o
lL!
will depend on keeping as much gas as possible in '---'"
the reservoir to act as an expansion energy -
completion intervals and location of oil wells are
therefore particularly important. The volume of gas N
at initial reservoir conditions is related to the volume
of oil initially in place at reservoir conditions by the
ratio term m: o Eg )
(
G(Bgi) Eo + Ef,w -
m
N(Boi) Fig. 10.6 Havlena-Odeh plot in absence of influx and
In the formulation a new term must be added to injection terms.
the right-hand side of the solution gas drive equation
to represent the gas cap expansion drive process, i.e. To solve for net influx and injection terms the
value of m must be known and, letting ET = Eo +
Gas cap expansion = G (Bg - (Bgi) ) Ef, w + mEg then a plot of FI ET against We' / ET gives
a line of unit slope and intercept N, as shown in Fig.
10.7, i.e.
ET = Eo + (1 +m) Ef,w + mEg
F W'
If we define Eg as -=N+-e

{(:'j -
ET ET
(80 ,) 1}

then, in Havlena and Odeh formulation

F = N [Eo + mEg + (1 +m) Ef,w] + We' lL!

l-

........
LL
In this case We' can include gas injection Ginj Bg. It is
also expected that the term Ef, w can usually be
ignored since, in comparison with gas expansion it is
small. This may not hold true in chalk reservoirs or
N
other highly compressible unconsolidated sand
reservoirs.
In the absence of influx and injection terms the We'/ET-
material balance equation can be solved to provide
estimates for m and N from production and PVT Fig. 10.7 Havlena-Odeh plot using influx and injection
terms.
164 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

The recovery factor NplN evaluated at different near the wellbore, will slightly exaggerate this
pressures during the life of a gas cap drive or behaviour. )
solution gas drive recovery process is clearly related Under these conditions the expected recovery
to the cumulative produced gas-oil ratio Rp. Since efficiency will depend on the economic limit for
F=NE T + We' wells and could be as low as 2-3% for low
permeability reservoirs with high viscosity and low
therefore for no produced water gas-oil ratio oils, and up to about 15% or so for high
permeability reservoirs, normal GOR, low viscosity
!i.e]
N p
oils, but will rarely exceed this range. Gravity
drainage of oil from a slowly advancing gas cap is
reported to give extremely low residual oil satura-
It is clear from this relationship that low values of Rp tions -less than 10%.
lead to higher recovery factors at a given reservoir If the vertical permeability to gas is non-zero,
pressure than high values of Rp. The conclusion may however, there will be a vertical component of gas
be translated into practice by completing producing flow under the gravitational potential, and gas will
wells down flank from primary or secondary gas segregate in the reservoir, migrating to structurally
caps, as shown in Fig. 10.8, to minimize gas high positions, with oil counterflowing downwards.
saturation around well bores and also to consider the This mechanism has two effects. Firstly, the oil
possibility of gas reinjection to increase W'e' The saturation in the lower parts of the reservoir is
expansion energy of gas caps serves oil production maintained at a value higher than the average oil
best by having gas retained in the reservoir rather saturation - so that permeability to oil is higher, and
than by producing it in large quantities with oil. permeability to gas lower than for the purely
solution gas drive case. The producing gas-oil ratio
is then lower than for solution gas drive alone.
10.3 GRAVITY SEGREGATION Secondly, the lower producing gas-oil ratio in-
AND RECOVERY EFFICIENCIES volves smaller gross fluid withdrawals than would
otherwise be the case, so that the pressure decline at
One mechanism, only briefly referred to, but which any given oil cumulative will be smaller, with the
has an important role in several aspects of reservoir usual effects on k m Bo and So at abandonment.
behaviour is that of gravity segregation - the The segregated gas may form a secondary gas cap,
movement (generally of gas and oil) of phases and the later life of a reservoir may then be similar to
countercurrent to each other, under the influence of that of gas cap drive reservoirs.
the gravitational potential g' ~p. Under these conditions the recovery efficiencies
Considering the solution gas drive reservoir, the will be higher - if the economic limit is low, possibly
behaviour described earlier assumed essentially that very much higher - and may approach or even
gas saturations build up uniformly throughout the oil exceed the range 20-40% of oil in place.
zone without any saturation gradients in the vertical Gravity drainage plays its greatest role in high
direction. (Saturation gradients existing as a result of contrast dual porosity systems where almost com-
horizontal pressure gradients, i.e. the pressure drops plete segregation can take place in the secondary

Production
well

Possibility of variation
in bubble point pressure with
depth in thick intervals

Fig. 10.8 Initial conditions in a reservoir with a gas cap.

10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 165

porosity system, and the wells produce throughout !ion of a continuous pressure decline into periods of
at solution gas-oil ratio. Gravity drainage is then the IOstantaneous pressure drop. This is achieved using
predominant mechanism in draining oil to residual the method of van Everdingen, Timmerman and
saturation in the secondary gas cap. McMahon (10), where the equivalent instantaneous
pressure drop occurring at time zero and subsequent
times represented as APm APj, ... , APj are as follows:
10.4 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR Pi-PI
RESERVOIRS WITH WATER ~PO=-2-
ENCROACHMENT OR WATER INJECTION
_
PJ-i--":I_-_P.Li+:...:.1
~p.=
If a reservoir is underlain by, or is continuous with, a J 2
large body of water saturated porous rock (an
aquifer), then reduction in pressure in the oil zone The water influx due to each instantaneous
will cause a reduction in pressure in the aquifer. The pressure drop is calculated as a time function up to
total compressibility of an aquifer (cwS w + cr) may the maximum volume indicated by a steady state
be rel~tively large (about 10-6 x 10-6 pSi-I), and instantaneous influx. The total influx into the
water IOflux under steady state conditions will obey rese.rvoir is calculated at any time T by superposing
the rule the IOfluxes from each pressure drop, which depends
on the dimensionless time each has been effective
~Vw= cVw~P (TD - (tD )).
The response time of an aquifer to a change in For each instantaneous pressure drop from time
press~re ~t the original oil-water contact is of great
zero to the end of the nth time step, we can write at
praCtICallmpo~tance. In small aquifers, steady state
some time T
lOstant an eo us IOflux may be a good representation j=n-I
but large aquifers tend to behave in an unsteady
state manner. When water is required for pressure
support in an oil reservoir, the unsteady state
WiT) = U L ~Pj·
j=O
W D (Tv - (tv)))

response of an aquifer may negate its usefulness and

external water injection is frequently used instead. where:
Water injection allows a more immediate replace-
ment of oil zone energy. TD is the dimensionless time equivalent to time
The determination of aquifer characteristics is T;
important if water injection is not planned. Two (tD)j is the dimensionless time at which the
main aquifer geometries, radial and linear, may be instantaneous drop Apj commenced;
considered in analytical analyses, although reservoir tD is dimensionless time equal in Darcy units to
kt/( <j>!l"l"r0 2 ) for radial systems and for linear
simulation can cope with irregular shapes. The
properties of an aquifer are rarely known with any systems;
confidence since there is usually little well control. ro is the radius of the oil zone;
The basis for unsteady state aquifer analysis is found L is the linear distance from the original OWC
in the methods of van Everdingen and Hurst [5J, to the outer limit of the aquifer;
Carter and Tracy [6J and Fetkovitch [7J. They are used U is the aquifer constant equal in Darcy units
to 2'Jtj<j>h"l"r0 2 for radial systems and wLh<j>c
to provide estimates of cumulative water encroach-
for linear systems;
ment We in the total influx term We', and can be
j is the fractional encroachment angle of the
applied in material balance formulations, such as
that due to Havlena and Odeh [2J and discussed in radial aquifer = 8°/360°;
h is the net thickness of the aquifer;
the previous sections. w is the average width of the linear aquifer;
F (We + W inj Bw + G inj Bg - WpBw) WD(tD) is the dimensionless cumulative water influx
- = N +~ __:::..:!...---':':""'_..::2-2..._~--':::' function for a unit pressure drop at the
ET ET original reservoir OWC at time t=O and
where W inj is the cumulative water injection and Gin' easily read from charts or tables of W D
is the cumulative gas injection both volumes being against tD for different values of reD. Typical
represented at standard conditions. values are shown in Fig. 10.9;
The unsteady state aquifer representation of reD is the dimensionless radius equal to
Hurst and van Everdingen requires the discretiza- raqUifie!rO.
166 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

In field units where permeability is in mD, time in gas. W inj and Ginj are cumulative injection volumes
years, pressure in psi, length in feet, rate in reservoir at stock tank conditions.
barrels per day Setting G(Bg); = mN(Bo)i; Rp = GplNp and Gp =
U = 1.119/<1> he r/ bbl/psi (radial system) (GpJc + (Gp)s we can write
U = 0.1781 w L h <I> cbbl/psi (linear system) F= N (Eo + mEg + (1+m) Efw)
tD = 2.309kt / (<I>ller0 2) (radial system, t in years)
tD = 2.309kt / (<I>!J.CL2) (linear system, t in years) or
If water injection is employed in a reservoir then F=NE T + We'
natural water influx may still occur if the pressure at
where: F= Np (Bo + (Rp-Rs)Bg)
the original water contact decreases from initial
pressure. The combination drive material balance
equation which represents a step change from
equilibrium at pressure Pi to equilibrium at pressure
P can be formulated to show all expansion, produc-
tion and injection terms as shown below.
In this formulation the subscripts c and s refer in
gas terms to conditions in the gas cap and in solution

Freed Gas Net Rock and

Present Original
solution cap water connate Injected
oil oil
gas expansion influx water volumes
volume volume
expansion
(N-Np)Bo = N(Bo;)- +
(B,), [N(R')i -(N-NpR,-(Gp)s ] -

[(G-(Gp)c)(Bg)c - G(B,),]_

cf+ Sw;cw]
N(Bo;) (1 +m)!1P [ 1 - Sw; -

[W'OlBw + Gm1B,]

N=----------------------~----------------~~----~--~-----------

(B.-(B.,)) + «R,;)- R,)(Bg), + (B.,))AP [cr~;:w] (1 +m)

10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 167

10
8 00
/5.0
6 .. '"~~ 4.0
.,-,'':_- 3.5
4
...
,----\
--
,.,:-;,,,,,,-_-- 3.0

.......... _---,---- 2.5

,.---- reo
2 .............
_--------------2D
... _------ Finite linear aquifer
~ 1.0
~ 0.8
3: 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 5 10

tD -
Fig. 10.9 Dimensionless water influx function Wo (to) at different dimensionless times (to) for linear and radial (reo
= 1.5- 00) constant terminal pressure solutions (after TS1).

The aquifer characteristics may be explored and the oil zone rather than repressure the aquifer, as
correlated with an appropriate aquifer model by shown in Fig. 1O.1l.
making use of the linearized material balance A water drive reservoir may then be particularly
formulation and validated production and PVT data, rate sensitive, and the reservoir may behave almost
as shown in Rig. 10.10. as a depletion reservoir for a long period, if offtake
It is sometimes noted in matching aquifer per- rates are very large, or as an almost complete
formance that not all injected water enters the oil pressure maintained water drive reservoir, if offtake
zone. This will depend on the transmissibility at the rates are low.
owe and the pressure gradients established in the Because of the similarity in oil and water viscosi-
aquifer-reservoir system. In general, more than 85% ties (for light oils at normal depths), the displace-
of the injected water is expected to move towards ment . of oil by water is reasonably efficient, and
provided that localized channelling, fingering or
coning of water does not occur, water drive will
generally represent the most efficient of the natural
producing mechanisms for oil reservoirs.

Injection
well

{ We + WiBw E: GiBg-WpBw }
PAq
Fig. 10.10 Combination drive, Havlena-Odeh plot. Fig. 10.11 Water injection near original OWC.
168 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

As with the gas cap drive reservoirs, a maintained 10.5.1 Production data
pressure leads to lower viscosities and higher Bo
values at any given saturation, reducing the satura- Cumulative oil production is generally measured
tion and minimizing the terms So/Bo for any given accurately for royalty and transfer payments. A
economic limit. single reservoir field then presents no difficulty and
The recovery efficiency of water reservoirs will be Np will be the factor most precisely known. With
governed by an economic limit, the limit in this case multireservoir fields the individual reservoirs are not
being dictated by water handling problems. Pro- always (rarely!) metered separately, and the alloca-
vided that water can be controlled reasonably, tion of cumulatives to reservoirs depends on inter-
efficiencies of 30-40% would be expected, and mittent well testing. Nevertheless, this is not a major
under favourable sweep conditions recovery effi- source of error.
ciencies of 50-60% might be calculated. (Ultimate- In dealing with past production histories, gas has
ly, of course, calculating a recovery efficiency generally not been measured with any accuracy, and
depends on knowing the initial oil in place, and a frequently the cumulative produced gas-oil ratio Rp
calculated high recovery factor might simply be the will be subject to very great uncertainty. Reservoirs
result of underestimating oil in place.) now being developed should involve less uncertainty
The first requirement in maximizing recovery is to since gas is increasingly a marketable product.
establish the probable natural mechanisms of a Water produced is also very uncertain depending
reservoir and the extent to which these are likely to upon interpretation of separator, tank farm and well
be rate sensitive. Obviously, if a reservoir is very test data taken intermittently, if at all, but the term
much undersaturated, and has a potentially large itself may often be relatively small.
aquifer, it should be possible to determine a reser-
voir production rate at which the aquifer response
will maintain pressure around the saturation pressure 10.5.2 Pressure data
for the whole producing life of the field. With wells
located in structurally high positions this would give For the simplest calculations, the whole reservoir is
maximum recovery and maximum efficiency. assumed to be at some average datum pressure,
However, if the offtake rate did not generate corresponding to some cumulative production. All
sufficient income to justify the expenditure on field pressure dependent values refer to this pressure.
development it would not be an economic rate, and The average pressure must be calculated from a
any considerations of maximizing recovery must also series of essentially transient well tests, taken at
involve economic factors. varying times and positions, but practically never
Where recovery efficiencies seem likely to be low, corresponding to a situation where the whole reser-
or where substantially higher offtake rates would be voir is shut in at one time. Regardless of the
possible if natural mechanisms are augmented, then accuracy of the pressure data itself, the interpreta-
pressure maintenance or secondary recovery opera- tion of average pressure from this data is possibly in
tions may be initiated to improve recovery factors. error. Reservoirs pressures at datum in given wells
Normally, this would be either water injection to may be assigned volumetric or areal regions of
augment a natural water drive, or gas injection, the influence in the calculation of weighted average
former tending to be more efficient because of reservoir pressures:
mobility ratio considerations, but the latter being
increasingly important because of gas conservation
requirements. Problems with secondary recovery
operations are similar to those of the related primary 10.5.3 Pressure dependent oil
mechanisms - particularly control of gas or water properties
and the prevention of excessive fingering or channel-
ing of injected fluids. This is another aspect of The values of Band R assigned for any value of
reservoir management in which gravity segregation res~rvoir pressure and temperature will depend on
can play an important (and essentially adverse) part. either:

10.5 ACCURACY OF THE GROSS (a) the use of generalized correlations relating oil
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION gravity GOR, reservoir temperature and
pressure to Bo and Rs. Although generalized
There are several sources of error in material correlations are fairly reliable, there is no
balance calculations. certainty that they will match the behaviour of
10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 169

any given crude system with any particular Boi = 1.3600, an error of 5 parts in 1360 (0.4%) can
degree of accuracy; or lead to a 100% error in the difference. In view of the
(b) a laboratory analysis of a reservoir fluid uncertainty in pressure dependent values of B t and
sample. The problem in this case is the R s , this would appear serious, but provided that a
question of whether or not the sample high degree of relative accuracy can be maintained
obtained (either as a bottom-hole sample or in the values of B t and Boi (i.e. provided random
recombined sample) is truly representative of errors can be reduced), then systematic errors which
the reservoir fluid. affect the absolute values, but not the differences,
All these sources of error contribute to inaccuracy are less !mportant and the error in the difference
may not be too important. Even so, material balance
in material balance calculations, but the factor which
calculations at early times of reservoir history are
most dominates the accuracy is the denominator
unreliable compared with later calculations when
term (B t - BoJ Since this is a difference between
two quantities of the same order of magnitude, a pressure drops are greater and differences in the (B t
small absolute error in either term can lead to a very
- B oi ) term are greater.
large error in the function, e.g. if B t = 1.3365 and
Examples

Example 10.1
Using the data from Problem 4.2, estimate the value of gas in place assuming seismic, log, and geological
interpretation have provided the following estimate:
Thickness (average) 500 ft
Area 100 sq miles
Porosity 12 %
Water saturation 35%

What is the recoverable gas for an average reservoir abandonment pressure of 500 psia?

Example 10.2
Find the expression for the flowing gas-oil ratio of a well (volume of gas sc/volume of stock tank oil) in a
reservoir having a gas saturation in excess of the critical.
Calculate the gas-oil ratio for the following conditions:
flo 0.8 cp Bo 1.363 rb/stb
flg = 0.018 cp Bg 0.001162 rb/scf
ko 1000 mD Rs 500 scf/stb
kg 96mD
Example 10.3
A reservoir is estimated by a volumetric method to contain approximately 14.5 x 106 barrels of stock tank
oil, originally just saturated at the initial reservoir pressure (i.e. no gas cap). The table below gives the
properties of the reservoir fluids and production data for the reservoir. There has been no water production.

Pressure
(psia) Rs (scJlstb) Bo (rblstb) Bg (rblscf) B t (rblstb) Rp (scJlstb) Np (stb)
1850* 690 1.363 0.00124 1.363 0
1600 621 1.333 0.00150 1.437 878 1715000
1300 535 1.300 0.00190 1.594 996 3430000
1000 494 1.258 0.00250 1.748 1100 ?
* bubble point
Bg is reservoir barrels/SCF
Rs is SCF/barrel
170 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Calculate the water influx at cumulative oil production of 1. 715 x 106 and 3.430 x 106 stb.
What would you expect the cumulative production to be at a reservoir pressure of 1000 psi?

Example 10.4
A reservoir may be considered as a right cone with dimensions 750 ft from ;apex to oil-water contact, and a
base radius of 3 miles at the oil-water contact. Estimated values of porosity and water saturation are 0.17
and 0.24 respectively (bed thicker than the column). The oil-water contact is found at 4260 ft subsea, and a
fully shut-in pressure of 1919 psi was measured at this depth, the initial average reservoir pressure at
reservoir datum being taken as 1850 psi. Given the following PVT and production data, what is your
estimate of the cumulative production obtainable by the fall in average reservoir pressure to 1000 psi?

Pressure Rs Bo Bg Bt Oil density Np Rp W

(psi) (scflstb) (rblstb) (rblscf) (rblstb) (/blb 3 ) (stb) (scflstb) (stb)
1850* 690 1.363 0.00124 1.363 43.4
1600 621 1.333 0.00150 1.437 43.9 3.1 x 108 1100 31 X 106
1300 535 1.300 0.00190 1.594 44.5 5.5 x 108 1350 55 x 106
1000 494 1.258 0.00250 1.748 45.1 1800 (est) 63 x 106 (est)

Example 10.5
A reservoir is believed to contain an initial oil in place of 300 x 106 STB and has an initial gas cap of 120.7 x
109 SCF. The initial pressure at the gas-oil contact, which is also a convenient datum, is 5000 psi. The PVT
properties of the system at reservoir conditions are as follows:

P (psi) Bo (rblstb) Rs (scf/stb) Bg (rblscf)

5000 1.3050 500 6.486 E-04
4750 1.2840 450 6.827 E-04
4500 1.2540 390 7.207 E-04
4250 1.2150 325 7.630E-04

The uniform initial water saturation is 30% and water and pore volume compressibilities are each 3 x 10-6
psi -1. Production started on 1.1.80 and a constant oil production of 60 000 STB/d has been maintained.
Water injection started at a constant rate of 70 000 BBLId on 1.1.81. Assume Bw for injected water is 1.00
RB/BBL. The cumulative gas and reservoir production pressure has been reported as follows:

Gp P (psi)
1.1.81 12.045 X 109 SCF 4300
1.1.82 26.280 x 109 SCF 4250

Estimate the cumulative water influx on 1.1.81 and 1.1.82 of the surrounding aquifer.

Example 10.6
An oil reservoir is totally surrounded by a radial aquifer. The radius to the oil-water contact is 9000 ft and
the outer radius of the aquifer is 81000 ft. The aquifer and oil zone net thickness is 200 ft and the aquifer has
a porosity of 18%. The water compressibility is 3 x 10-6 psi- 1 and water viscosity at aquifer conditions of
temperature and pressure is 0.4 cpo The pore volume compressibility is 4 x 10- 6 pSi-I, and the aquifer
permeability is 707 mD. The pressures at the original oil-water contact have been determined initially (Pi)
and at subsequent yearly intervals (PI> P 2, P 3 ) after the start of oil zone production as follows:
10 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 171

Time P (psia)
Initial 5870
End year 1 5020
End year 2 4310
End year 3 3850

Estimate the aquifer performance in reservoir barrels of influx at the end of each year assuming unsteady
state behaviour and using the method of Van Everdingen and Hurst.

References
[1] Tracy, G.W.
A simplified form of the material balance equations, Trans. A/ME 204 (1955), 243.
[2] Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S.
The material balance as an equation of a straight line, Pt I Trans. A/ME 228 (1963), 896, Pt II Trans. A/ME 231
(1964),815.
[3] Teeuw, D.
Prediction of formation compaction from laboratory compressibility data, SPEJ (Sept. 1971),263.
[4] Merle, H.A. etal.
The Bachaquero study - a composite analysis of the behaviour of a compaction drive - solution gas drive reservoir,
JPT(Sept. 1976), 1107.
[5] van Everdingen, A.F. and Hurst, W.
The application of the Laplace transformation to flow problems in reservoirs,Trans. A/ME 186 (1949), 305.
[6] Carter, R.D. and Tracy, C.W.
An improved method for calculating water influx, Trans. A/ME 219 (196), 415.
[7] Fetkovitch, M.J.
A simplified approach to water influx calculations-finite aquifer systems, JPT (July 1971), 814.
[8] Tamer, J.
How different size gas caps and pressure maintenance programs affect the amount of recoverable oil, Oil Weekly
(12 June 1944), 32.
[9] Coats, K.H., Tek, M.R. and Katz, D.L.
Method for predicting the behaviour of mutually interfering gas reservoirs adjacent to a common aquifer, Trans.
A/ME 216 (1950), 247.
[10] van Everdingen, A.F. Timmerman, E.H. and McMahon, J.J.
Application of the material balance equation to a partial water drive reservoir, Trans. A/ME 198 (1953), 5l.
[11] Stone, H.L. and Gardener, A.O.
Analysis of gas cap or dissolved gas drive reservoirs, SPEJ (June 1961),92.
[12] Wooddy, L.D. and Moscrip, R.
Performance calculations for combination drive reservoirs, Trans. A/ME 207 (1956), 128.
[13] SchiIthuis, R.J.
Active oil and reservoir energy, Trans. A/ME 118 (1936), 33.
[14] Poston, S.W., Lubojacky, R.W. and Aruna, M.
Maren field - an engineering review,lPT(Nov. 1983),2105.
[15] Blanton, T.L.
Deformation of chalk under confining pressure and pore pressure, Paper EUR 41, Proc. Europ. Off Pet. Conf.
(1978),327.
[16] Newman, G.H.
Pore volume compressibility of consolidated friable and unconsolidated reservoir rocks under hydrostatic loading,
IPT(Feb. 1973), 129.
[17] Pirson, S.J.
Elements of Oil Reservoir Engineering, McGraw Hill, London (1950).
[18] Dake, L.P.
Fundamentals of reservoir engineering, Dev. Pet. Sci. 8 Elsevier, Amsterdam (1978).
[19] Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M. and Whiting, R.L.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGraw Hill (1960).
[20] Muskat, M.
Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Porous Media, IHRDC (1937).
172 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[21] Muskat, M.
Physical Principles of Oil Production, IHRDC (1949).
[22] Newman, G.H.
The effect of water chemistry on the laboratory compression and permeability characteristics of some North Sea
chalks,lPT(May 1983), 976.
[23] Tehrani, D.H.
An analysis of a volumetric balance equation for calculation of oil in place and water influx, 1PT, (Sept. 1985),
1664.
 Chapter 11

Secondary Recovery and Pressure

Maintenance

Pwh Pressure ~
Secondary recovery techniques involve sup- Surface ..----+---<l~---------
plementing the natural energy of a petroleum \
\
reservoir by the injection of fluids, normally water
\ Water gradient
or gas. When this is done such that average reservoir \
pressure is held constant, i.e. reservoir volumetric \
\
rate of production is equal to reservoir volumetric .c \
\
0.
rate of fluid replacement, then the process is known o
Q) \
\
as pressure maintenance. The level of pressure \
\
maintenance in oil production is usually just above
1
\
\
bubble-point pressure such that injection costs are \
\
minimized. Since production rate is also dependent
on reservoir pressure gradients, then the choice of Hydrostatic?\ Pressure maintenance
gradient \ operating pressure
pressure maintenance level will also include rate Reservoir \ I
consideration. In order to provide the capability for datum _-------.---e-----+---
natural flow to surface under high water cut, the depth
t
Original pressure of
selection of pressure maintenance level might be overpressured reservoir
determined as shown in Fig. 11.1. When the
reservoir condition volumetric rate of fluid replace-
ment is equal to the reservoir condition volumetric Fig. 11.1 Operating pressure for natural flow in originally
rate of production, the technique is known as overpressured undersaturated oil reservoir under
complete voidage replacement. In practice, any pressure maintenance.
fraction of voidage could be replaced if it provides
an optimum recovery scheme. Proper design of a fluid properties and saturations, rock characteristics
secondary recovery scheme is best performed after a including heterogeneity of permeability, reservoir
period of primary recovery, in order to observe the dip angle, reservoir geometry and lateral continuity,
dynamic response of the reservoir. In offshore field flow rates and well locations. Firstly, however, the
development this is not usually possible and pressure principles of fluid displacement in secondary recov-
maintenance is implemented early in field life. ery are reviewed.
The efficiency of secondary recovery and pressure
maintenance schemes can be explored by reference 11.1 DISPLACEMENT PRINCIPLES
to the physical processes occurring. It is assumed
that the injected fluid is immiscible with the dis- The displacement of oil by water or gas under
placed hydrocarbon. We will consider the effects of immiscible conditions occurs both microscopically

173
174 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

and macroscopically in a reservoir. On the micro- (since relative permeabilities are considered satura-
scale we consider the distribution of trapped oil in tion dependent) as follows:
pores swept by displacing fluid. The distribution of
residual oil will depend on competing viscous, kk A
1 + 1.127E-03-'-0-
capillary and gravitational forces and is particularly qTl_lo
influenced by pore size, pore geometry, wettabili.ty fD=------~~l-+-{-I-IW-L.-kO-}----~
and displacement rate. The laboratory determina-
tion of residual oil saturation in core plugs provides kw 1_10

an estimate of the microscopic displacement efficien-

cy, through measurement of an ultimate residual oil This expression is given in field units where the
saturation 50r(ULT) for the pore scale recovery injection rate qTis in RB/D, the cross-sectional area
process: A is in ft 3 , the absolute permeability k is in mD, the
1-5 ·-5 viscosities of oil and water, 110 and Ilw, are in cp, the
Recovery factor(ULT) = WI ar(ULT) densities of oil and water (y) are in terms of specific
1 - 5 wi gravities relative to water at 60°F, 14.7 psia, the dip
The value of 50r(ULT) may be less than 10% of angle <X is in degrees and by convention is positive
pore volume, for low rate gravity drainage of oil for updip flow. The terms dP jd5 w and ()5w1()x are
below an injected gas cap, to over 40% in a high rate both negative and are normally considered small
linear water injection in which imbibition between enough to neglect.
advancing fingers is restricted. Under semi-steady state conditions, the flow of oil
On an interwell scale, the driving force for into a well bore is given by the radial flow equation
displacement is represented by a potential gradient including mechanical skin as follows:

~ 2:;::"" (In ~ - 0.75+ s)

(or datum corrected pressure gradient) between an
injection well and a producing well. At some p- p wf
economic limiting condition of production rate or
fluid cut, the recovery efficiency is represented in
terms of an average oil saturation in the reservoir. In field units, where rate is in RB/D, pressures in
We may distinguish between an average saturation psia, length terms in feet, permeability in mD and
in the swept region of the well pattern 50r(swept) and viscosity in cP, the equation is as follows:
an average residual oil saturation in the whole
- 141.2 qo 110 ( re )
reservoir including non-contacted or swept regions P - P wf = k. k ro h In;:, - 0.75 + 5
Sor. This latter oil saturation should be the same as
the material balance residual oil saturation. The term {qo BJ(P- P wf)} is known as a productiv-
1 - SWi - Sor(swept) ity index (PI) and has a particular dependence on kh
Recovery factor (swept zone) = as well as on saturation and pressure influenced
1 - 5 wi
terms.
For injection wells an expression known as the
1- SWi- Sor injectivity index (II) can be similarly described using
Recovery factor (material balance) = --~,---~
1- 5 wi the difference between the flowing bottom-hole
pressure P wf and the average reservoir pressure P, in
For a homogeneous reservoir with constant injection
conjunction with the water injection rate Qi in
rate and incompressible fluids, the water cut or gas
RB/D:
cut will be controlled by the saturation at a produc-
ing well. Welge's equations allow a representation of II = Qi 0.00708 (k·krw·h)
the producing well performance in terms of the
average material balance saturation Sw, the produc-
ing well saturation 52, the fractional oil flow /02 at
Pwf-P
f'w[ln ~ -0.75+ S1
the producing well, and the gradient of the fractional
flow curve at the saturation 52, i.e. where k. kr is the same as the effective fluid
permeability k e .

~
S. S, + to2 [ (dt/~)" 1 Well inflow equations are linked to pressure loss
calculations in production strings to evaluate pro-
ducing rates consistent with wellhead choke and
The fractional flow of displacing phase (water or separator conditions. The particular influence of keh
gas) is given as a saturation dependent expression at well locations may influence the total well number
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 175

requirements for a given voidage replacement

scheme. In water saturated regions of many reser- sOr t. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 1 . 0
voirs, diagenetic damage to pore space may have
reduced absolute permeability by several orders of
magnitude compared with that in the oil zone. In Sf In this region
such instances the injectivity of water into an oil ko is at saturation 3
en
zone may prove more attractive than injection into SWj
the water at an oil-water contact, even though the
relative permeability to water in the presence of SWd ~'tLLLLL,(LLLLLI.~~WLtL;~~~£LfJ
residual oil may be less than 30%. X=O Xf
X ----
Fig. 11.2 Saturation profile before breakthrough.
11.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING
SECONDARY RECOVERY AND
PRESSURE MAINTENANCE SCHEMES k'
M' =~. flo
11.2.1 Mobility ratio flw k' 0
Figure 11.3 shows results of experimental data from
The mobility ratio expresses the ratio of the mobility 5 spot patterns for water-oil, gas-oil and miscible
of the displacing phase to the mobility of the displacements. The effect of the volume of displac-
displaced phase. If we consider the case of water ing fluid injected on total swept area after break-
displacing oil, then through can also be represented as a function of
mobility ratio. Using data 11O] for a direct line drive,
Mobility of water = A. w and representing the number of displace able
effective permeability to water volumes injected as V d , Fig. 11.4 has been prepared.
In this figure the numerical value of Vd is (volume of
viscosity of water injected fluid/(I-S wi -Sor)PV).

11.2.2 Reservoir dip angle

Similarly, Reservoir dip has an effect on gravity stabilization
A.o = kolflo during immiscible displacement and, by inspection
of the fractional flow equation, it can be seen that
It is clear that the effective permeabilities of oil and dip angle influences oil cut. As shown in Fig. 11.5,
water are saturation and direction dependent. The the magnitude of the effect of dip angle on fractional
mobility ratio could therefore be expressed at any flow depends on the wetting preference of the
saturation condition during a displacement. In rock-fluid system and on the direction of displace-
general usage, the water mobility is frequently ment. Compared with the fractional flow curve of a
defined at the average water saturation in the water horizontal reservoir with no particular strong wet-
contacted region of a reservoir. For efficient dis- ting preference, a strongly oil wet horizontal reser-
placement this is often represented as a piston front voir will show a higher water cut at a given
condition. As shown in Fig. 11.2, a plot of water saturation, and a strongly water wet one will show a
saturation distribution versus distance (x) from the lower water cut at the same saturation. At any given
injection point in a linear system, the frontal wettability the fractional water flow for up dip
saturation Sf occurs at position xt- The mobility ratio displacement of oil by water will be lower at a given
prior to breakthrough at a well (location x=L) will saturation than for down dip flow. This is a direct
use result of gravity stabilization of fluids of differing
densities. Increasing reservoir dip angle accentuates
the stabilization for up dip flow and decreases stabi-
lization for downdip water flow. For gas injection,
the fractional flow equation indicates that better
gravity stabilization will be obtained by updip
A particular case of mobility ratio representation injection with downdip gas flow at high reservoir dip
known as end-point mobility ratio (M') defines kw as angles.
kw at Sor and ko as ko at Swi: The density difference between immiscible fluids
176 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

EAbt
1.0

.c:
Ql

...
::J
o 0.9
£
~
o0)
..0
...
0.8
'0
>. Upper range
o
c: / experimental data

-
0)
'0
~ 0.7 Lower range /
0)
experimental data
C-
O)
0)
I Best I correlation line
3
til
06

0.5~ ______~____~__~~~~~~~________~____~__~~~__~~~_
0.1 5 10
Mobility ratio

Fig. 11.3 Effect of mobility ratio on areal sweep efficiency at breakthrot,.Jgh: 5 spot pattern (after!3I).

1.0 _ _ _ _
0.75-_ _ _ __

0.4 Direct line drive

0.3 Areal sweep efficiency ( EA)

vs. mobility ratio (M)
for different displaceable
0.2 pore volumes of injected fluid (Vd )

0.1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10

Mobility ratio I M -

Fig. 11.4 Direct line drive areal sweep efficiency against mobility ratio for different displaceable pore volumes
(Vd = volume of injected fluid) of injected fluid. (Data from!10I.)
PV(1-Swi - Sor)
 11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 177

Horizontal reservoir, It should be noted that for an end-point mobility

strongly oil wet ratio of unity (M' = 1) the displacement is uncon-
ditionally stable at any rate.
Increasing dip
angle for I BASE CURVE (horizontal reservoir)
with no strong wetting preference
up - dip water
injection (down
(a) Updip flow ( b) Downdip flow
(downdip y Horizontal reservoir,
flow)
,, strongly water wet
,
~/,
I
I
I

t
I
I I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I / ------
Increasing dip angle Segregated displacement
I I for down - dip water
I I
I injection (updip flow)
I
I Fig. 11.6 Segregated displacement. (a) Updip (positive)
I
flow, (b) downdip (negative) flow.
o~~~----------~
1.0
Sw-

Fig. 11.5 Effect of dip angle and wettability on fractional 11.2.3 Reservoir heterogeneity
flow.
Although reservoir heterogeneity can imply many
variations in rock properties at different scales of
may lead to segregation. In steeply dipping reser- influence, only permeability variation will be consi-
voirs, the gravity segregation forces may dominate dered for the present. So far the representation of
capillary forces, and displacement behaviour is reservoir performance by use of a fractional flow
controlled by viscous: gravity force ratios. The equation has assumed a hom'Jgeneous reservoir with
mechanism of this process has been presented by constant vertical and lateral permeability character.
Dietz and others [13, 15] and involves the calculation of The fractional flow curve can, however, be used in
a critical displacement rate. For rates less than the performance analysis of systems with vertical
critical, the displacement is stable and underrun or permeability variation. When there is no cross-flow
override of displacing fluid through tongue forma- between layers, then the methods of Stilesl211 and
tion should not occur. If the end-point mobility ratio Dykstra and Parsons l23 ] may be appropriate in
is defined as M', displacing fluid subscripted D, and generating fractional oil flow performance. When
the dip angle (X considered positive for updip flow, there is pressure communication between vertical
then, as indicated in Fig. 11.6, we have: layers or different rock properties, static or dynamic
pseudo-relative permeability functions have to be
in Darcy units generated [24, 25, 9]. In Fig. 11.7 a vertical section
through a northern North Sea production well has a
kk~DA (PD-po)g'sin(X permeability profile as shown. In reservoir analysis,
qeri! = 1.0133 X 106 !lD (M' -1) the connection between vertically adjacent sands is
important, as well as the degree of contrast in
in field units permeability in a given unit. Where a non-reservoir
4.9 x 10- 4 k k~D A (YD-Yo) sin(X interval is indicated by core and log in a given well,
qeri! = !lD (M'-l) the geometry of the non-reservoir material becomes
significant in assessing whether or not vertical sand
The field units used above are as follows: connections will occur around the non-reservoir unit
at some distance away from the well. The combina-
qcril = rb/day; tion of core absolute permeability data, with well
k =mD' test derived effective permeability, and with dyna-
A = ft2., ' mic RFT response in new wells drilled in producing
Y = res.cond.specific gravity relative to water fields, allows judgement of these possibilities, Figure
at standard conditions; 11.8 shows RFT data obtained in a Dunlin well in
= degrees; the Brent Sand region of the UKCS North Sea
= centipoise.
 178 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Core permeability (Dorcy)

compared with detailed sedimentological analysis of
0,,~__~~3r-_4r-_5T--r6__+7__T8__T9__~10~~11~12
nearby core [43]. The degree of vertical connection
between sand bodies is suggested from the RFf
Tarbert Sands
gradients and may be matched by reservoir simula-
tion.
The effect of characteristic sand body types on the
flow of injected water and on oil displacement may
Upper Ness Sands be anticipated [26] with reference to Figs 11.9 and
1001-_ _
11.10. In Fig. 11.9 the depositional environment
represents channel sands developed as a lateral
accretion surface. Without further significant di-
"C
C
C
~

o
E agenetic alteration the gamma ray profile and core
'0
c.
permeability profile may be as sh.£lwn. The unit
o Lower Ness Sands
permeability thickness product (kh) would be
obtained from 'Lkjhj by subdivision into n sublayers.
;;: 200 Water injection into such a sand body would
probably result in the combination of gravity forces
and viscous forces giving a profile with poor vertical
Etive Sands
sweep as shown. The sweep will depend particularly
on the permeability contrast and the bed thickness.
Figure 11.10 shows the behaviour of a bed with
the same (kh) product as the channel sand but with
300 Rannach Sands the higher permeability sands at the top of the unit.
This arrangement frequently results from bar sand
3 4 6 8 9 10 11 12
deposition. In waterflooding such a unit, the viscous
and gravity forces counteract each other and a more
Fig. 11.7 Permeability distribution through a vertical
efficient sweep may be obtained. Pseudo-relative
section of a Brent Sand well in the northern North Sea
(UKCS). permeability curves are required if such units are to
RRI/ERC
envIronmental Brent sand
Interpretation subdIVISion
\~ based on nearby
Ii well 211/24·2

\.."
1'&
\~
\" Upper JUI'tlSSIC shales

9000 i~
\'&
I'" ----------f------1
\ ExtenSive manne Upper Brent sand
9100 \ sheet sands ( TARBERT)
I - - - - - - -- - - f - - - - - - - - I
\ Localised bar sands

9200 \
Localised bar sands
I Middle Brent sand
\ CorrelatIVe mouth (NESS I
:: 9300 , _____ -0 I\ bar/tidal flats complex

.c ~ I
~ 1 I
~ 9400 \ \
\ \
~ I Lower

\
ExtenSive shallow Micaceous Brent

~
9500 manne sheet sand sand sand
(RANNOCH)

\
9600 --------------------,\0\ \ ExtenSIVe manne
prodelta shale
-C;tto~i;'a~d body--~'
\ \ ----------
I Dunlm Shale

9700~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~
5200 5400 5600 5800 6000 6200 6400
Pressure (psig)
Fig. 11.8 RFT pressure response in a producing reservoir (after [29J).
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 179

Permeability~

Depth

( a) Unfavourable

Fig. 11.9 Effect of unfavourable permeability distribution in waterflooding.

Sea level

Fine sediment in
deeper quiet water~

GR GR
profile (A) profile (B)

Note 'Theverticol sequence (at profile B) isthe same as the lateral sequence being
deposited at one time

Permeability~

( b) Favourable

Fig. 11.10 Effect of favourable permeability distribution in waterflooding.

180 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

be represented as single layers in numerical calcula-

tions.
Even very thin, low permeability layers sand-
wiched between higher productivity sands can be
. \ _-n------ ------
Original oi I water contact

significant. A thin 1-2 ft very micaceous sand near ___ --- - - - 'i'........... Proposed sIte
.
the top of some North Sea Rannoch Sand reservoirs .......... --- for injector
[431 has had, for example, a major effect on water- ...............
..... Poorly characterised faults
flooding. The micaceous sand is not a total seal, but

~<J:,~
under dynamic conditions prevents vertical move-
ment of injected water. This particular situation has
been described by Dake [371. In a particular example,
the consequence of ignoring its presence in water-
flood calculations is to predict water breakthrough Proposed oil producer
significantly later than reality.

11.2.4 Reservoir geometry and

continuity
Fig. 11.12 Effect of in-reservoir fault$ on injection/
Sandbody continuity is largely determined from production well locations.
integration of detailed sedimentological observa-
tions with petrophysical and pressure data. The
vertical pressure gradients measured in dynamic and resulting poor sweep efficiency. Figure 11.12 shows
static reservoir environments by RFT tools have how characterization of partly sealing faults may
probably allowed the greatest advances in prediction influence design location of water injection wells.
of continuity. It is fairly obvious that the continuity Recognition of effective dynamic separation of reser-
and directional aspects of sandbodies have signifi- voir beds in complex depositional environments
cance in the design of water and gas injection leads to the design of separate injection production
facilities. Effective vertical communication domin- facilities for efficient reservoir management. This is
ates the distribution of gas in gas injection schemes, illustrated in Fig. 11.13.
whilst lateral connections and permeability contrast
are significant in design of water injection schemes.
The areal geometry of a reservoir will influence well
spacing and, if offshore, will influence the location 11.2.5 Production rate effects
and number of platforms required. The position of
production and injection wells with respect to faults In homogeneous systems there is a lot of evidence to
and original oil water contacts is important. Figure support the contention that rate of oil production, or
11.11 shows the effect of a high rate oil producing injection rate, does not affect commercially recover-
well in the distortion of an oil-water contact with able oil volume. This assumes that the velocity of oil
in a linear geometry is in the order of 0.1-1 m/day
and that well spacing ensures high sweep efficiency.
In offshore oilfield production, current economic
factors require high initial production rates in order
to payoff capital investment. A rule of thumb for a
reservoir is to base peak plateau rate on about 10%
of the recoverable reserve per annum, or else on
about 4% of stock tank oil initially in place
Fault (STOIIP) per annum. This is in contrast with
control traditional onshore operations where peak rates may
be around 1-2% of recoverable reserve per annum.
. Current
01/ water Contact Economic factors set the target rates - reservoir
Ori9in"Ol~ii;at;~c(j;;t~ct- - --- - -- characteristics determine whether they are reason-
able and prudent.
Reservoir heterogeneity and geometry can lead to
lower recoveries than might have been calculated
Fig. 11.11 Effect on oil-water contact. assuming homogeneous properties. The effect of
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 181

6000

<X
en
~ 5500
en
>
I-
::
o 1.7.1979
o
o
-
en 1.10.1979 141980
1.1.1980 . .
o 5000 Tarbert I U. Ness
f
::s
UI
UI
f
Q.
"-
'0
>
"-
CD
1.4.1979
~ 4500
0:: Start of
water injection

l
L. Nessi Etivel Rannoch 1.4.1980

4000 1.10.1979 1.1.1980

% m ro w
Cumulative production (106 STB)
Fig. 11.13 Pressure history in the UKCS Dunlin reservoir showing dynamic separation of major reservoir units (after [291).

Well

Oil-- .... Oil

Streamline

OWC~------~-----7-- --------~------~OWC

Isopotential line

Fig. 11.14 Cross-section of a stable water cone.

reservoir flow rate must be reviewed in the context munication may require lower rates to promote
of competing forces of capillarity, gravity and cross-flow by imbibition from low permeability to
viscous flow. These operate at both pore scale and higher permeability regions.
interwell scale to differing degrees. Gravity drainage In a homogeneous reservoir, analysis of the radial
mechanisms require low rate and high dip angle to flow behaviour of reservoir fluids moving towards a
promote segregation. Reservoirs with high per- producing well shows that the rate dependent
meability contrast but having vertical pressure com- phenomenon of coning may be importantI55 ]. Coning
182 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

behaviour has been studied analytically [4.17.18), and in ( a ) Low rate: stable

_} __ (:',~2 .~,
reservoir simulation modes[!9.20), and requires average
saturation dependent well pseudo-functions to rep-
resent well performance in Cartesian grid cell
simulators. Figure 11.14 shows the potential and dX ~ ......
stream line contours around a producing well. The --- -------- ····0;1
effect of increasing fluid velocity and energy loss in Water O~C
the vicinity of such a well leads to the local distortion
of a gas-oil contact or a water-oil contact. The gas ( b ) Critical rate
and water in the vicinity of the producing wellbore
can therefore flow towards the perforations. The
relative permeability to oil in the pore spaces around -r---- . . . . . .
dX }dr
·<1>1
the wellbore decreases as gas and water saturation
increase. The local saturations can be significantly - ---- .......... ·4>2
different from the bulk average saturations (at
distances such as a few hundred metres from the
wellbore) as indicated in Fig. 11.15. The prediction Fig. 11.16 Cone stability. (a) Low rate: stable, (b) critical
of coning behaviour is important since it leads to rate.
decisions regarding (a) preferred initial completions,
(b) estimation of cone arrival time at a producing
well, (c) prediction of fluid production rates after From the viscous gravity balance
cone arrival and (d) design of preferred well spacing. ~<1>' = g' X (Pw-Po)
Therefore,

-- --
For field units with <1>' in psi, P in specific gravity and
~Oil g' = 0.433 psi/ft-g/cc, the viscous gravity balance
equation for cone height is

Fig. 11.15 Water and gas cone formation. x= 0.433 (Llp)

The nomenclature of coning recognizes a stable cone To progress any further in analysis the reader is
as existing in steady state conditions where gravity directed to the works listed in the references at the
and viscous forces are balanced. An unstable cone is end of this chapter[2.14.17.18.19.20.48.55).
one that is in the process of advancing or receding.
The maximum producing rate at which a stable cone 11.2.6 Well locations and patterns
can exist is known as the critical production rate for
coning - higher rates will cause an advance towards The development well pattern was established for
the perforations. At the critical production rate the onshore fields from analysis of areal sweep efficien-
elevation of the cone from the bulk fluid contact is cy. It is more difficult to apply in offshore develop-
known as the critical cone height. A fairly simplistic ment and development from pad locations. The
representation of the maximum oil potential gra- main arrangements of wells are shown in the
dient possible for a stable cone can be written in following figures and paragraphs.
terms of cone height x and the potential <1>' (or
datum corrected pressure). Referring to Fig. 11.16, (a) Patterns
(a) shows the potential gradient for a stable water The majority of well patterns defined historically pay
cone and (b) shows the gradient at critical rate. Note no attention to gravity effects in dipping reservoirs
that at critical rate or to vertical heterogeneity. Areal sweep efficiency
at breakthrough and recovery efficiency calculations
d<1>' d<1>' are often determined by consideration of wells in
dr dx particular pattern units. The most frequently cited
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 183

o Producing well 0-0-0-0-0

1 1 1 1 I
~ Injection well 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ·1
1 1 1 1 1
/1-~-~-/1-~
1 1 1 I 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Five-spot 0-0-0-0-0
1 1 1 I 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 Direct
o.!.o.!..o.!..o.!..o 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 I ~-~-/1-/1-/1 line drive
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
-~-~-~-~- ~ 0 ~ 0 t
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ~--~--~ ~ ~
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
I i I
0-0-0-0-0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ~--~--~--~--~
I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 I I Staggered ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ Nine-spot
- ~-~-~-/1-
line drive
Fig. 11.17 Well patterns for areal sweep.

patterns are shown in Fig. 11.17 as the five spot, nine Crestal injection is usually reserved for gas injec-
spot, direct line drive and staggered line drive. tors, although in shallow dips pressure maintenance
Inverted patterns are those with injector locations with water injectors may provide a pressure support
and producter locations exchanged. that flank wells alone cannot achieve. The conver-
sion of mid-dip producers to injectors after break-
(b) Well arrangements recognizing structural dip - through may be possible in some reservoirs to
Figure 11.18 shows the arrangements frequently minimize interwell gradients. For analytical pur-
encountered for dipping reservoirs. The peripheral poses, well patterns may be analysed as segments of
water injection scheme is probably the most com- line drives, although reservoir simulation is more
mon. Its success depends on low pressure gradients frequently employed.
between producers and injectors so that reservoir
energy is restored quickly and pressure maintenance 11.3 QUALITY OF INJECTION FLUIDS
can be employed. The ratio of producers to injectors AND DISPOSAL OF BRINES
depends very much on the permeability in the water
zone. In some North Sea reservoirs diagenetic The design of secondary recovery and pressure
damage has reduced water zone permeability by two maintenance schemes requires attention to the
orders of magnitude in comparison with oil zone quality of injection fluids and their compatibility
permeability. ;"""------.... ........
__ --Il.---Il.- ........ o~/ 0 0 " Flank water
" / 0 \ encroachment and

/
/ ;'
~,..

0 0
"~ .
\ Peripheral
/
/
0 /1
/1
/1
\ crestal gas
I injection
£ 0 0 I water
/
I ~
/1 0
/
/
1 0 0 J injection \ 0 0 /
\ / \ 0 /
\ 0 0 0 /1
",....... ____ -
\ 0 0 /
/1 ~CJ / ...-/
" ....... /1 _ _ _ _ /1...-
O,../' .......",-/Gas injector
",-/ or producer
Oil producer Primary or
/1Injectors
later converted Oil producer secondary
o Producers to water injector gas cap
after breakthrough

Fig. 11.18 Well arrangements for dipping reservoirs.

184 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

with reservoir fluids, as well as attention to reservoir growths, as shown in Fig. 11.21. Filtering is designed
displacement efficiency. In the same context we may to a degree which prevents formation plugging with
consider the disposal of non-hydrocarbon produced fines. The sea water must be demonstrated to have
fluids. It is beyond the scope here to deal with these compatibility with formation water and must not
matters in any detail, and the reader is referred to lead to destabilization of clay material in the pore
the reference list for more information [1,31,34,39,42,51, structure. The viscosity of injection water may be
541. In Fig. 11.19 the schematic plan view of the significantly higher than formation water as a result
production facilities designed for the Magnus field of temperature difference, and injectivity calcula-
(Quadrant 211 of UKCS) is shown. The general tions are generally made using the higher viscosity.
arrangement shows the platform and subsea wells for Produced fluids entering the inlet separator
oil production by water injection, together with undergo primary separation into oil, water and gas
pipeline transport of produced hydrocarbons. Figure
11.20 is a simplified flow sheet indicating the
principal components of an offshore production- UKCS
injection system. Sea water must be filtered and Block 211/7
de aerated and biocides added to prevent bacterial

/
/
UKCS

,,
I
I Block 211/12

I
/
I
I
I

+
\
I ----..... 20" Gasline to FLAGS line
./
I 24" Crude oil pipeline

, J}
I \ to Ninian and Sullom Voe
Limit of
\ •• •••••••• L. platform wells
\ I
\ I
,
• Oil producer
\ I
( o Water injection

,,
\
,..
\
)
(
() Producer/injector

D Subsea wellhead
, I
I \
'J\ The length of the Magnus field
from NE to SW is about 16km.
II ,,/ "
, I
l) Fig. 11.19 Magnus Field - schematic plan view of production facilities.
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 185

1 Water lift pump

2 F il lers, deaerators
3 Water injection pump
4 Oily water treatment
15~ "" " "
t : "
10 10 10 5 Coolescer
D ····:·.<J .. ··(h··Cl·· 6 Storage cell
16 : : 7 Flash drum
14 --: I 8 Inlet separator
13
9 Production manifold
lOGos separator/compressor
Pipeline option
11 Injection compressor
12 Art iculated loading platform
13 Metering station
14 Flore
15 Gas sales option
16 Scrubber

Production
plalfarm Sea level

Sea bed

Fig. 11.20 Simplified flow sheet for offshore secondary recovery/pressure maintenance.

Turbidity
r' '--.
,, ,
,,
, Measurement point
D. E. bulk
hopper
' T ~

o
Res~ ~ Cl 2 Turbidity
I ,
, I
, I

,
'T'
Anti scale
Hypochlorite I
(when req'd )
Biocide :
(if req 'd) :
To vacuum
Serv i ce water pumps
pumps
Seawater
inlet

,
... ,
, I I

Overboard tower I
,

06
I
dump pumps
, Injection :

O\".- _. . 0 .....
To injection
OxYgen : , ,.0..... ..... - - .,;
,-' , Pt•• ) wells
I , scov.
I I
'_ ... Overboard
Turbidity Diss. dump Corr ls'n Diss. Corr's ' n
O2 02 probe
Overboard
dump

Fig. 11.21 Example of offshore UKCSwater injection layout.

186 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Fuel gas
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
___________ I

Gas

I
Compressor Compressor Knockout
Knockout drum
Knockout
drum
drum Crude NGL pumps
To closed drains recycle
(no hydrocarbon flow)

~------------------~

To
storage
separators coolers separators

Test separator
to pipeline
or tanker

Fig. 11.22 Example of offshore UKCS process layout.

phases, as shown in Fig. 11.22. There is a facility for the tankers to take up preferred orientation with
fluids from this separator to be flared in the event of respect to winds during loading (Fig. 13.3).
emergency. All gases separated at decreasing press- When gas is reinjected into the reservoir, injectiv-
ures and temperatures in the separator train may ity may be impaired over a period of time by
undergo liquid knockout, scrubbing and compress- precipitation in the formation of greases from
ion for gas sales or reinjection. The products from compressor lubricants, and workover treatments
the final coalescer represent the final separation may then be required. The gases injected may
condition and water passes to the oily water treater change PVT properties in the gas cap as they will
(Fig. 11.23) before disposal into the sea, and oil generally be leaner than the original gas. This may
passes perhaps to temporary storage or direct to a have an influence on displacement calculations.
pipeline/pump system. For offshore loading of crude When the reinjection gas is a mixture from several
oil into tankers, a lower vapour pressure crude is reservoirs, the change in PVT properties may be
required than for pipeline transportation, and final even more significant. For reinjection at miscible
separator conditions therefore differ. In North Sea rather than immiscible pressures with oil, the gas
operations the tanker loading is often facilitated by composition also requires careful control.
use of an articulated loading platform which allows

Examples

Example 11.1
Show the effect on productivity index of oil viscosity for oils of increasing 'viscosity' in the range 0.5 cp, 5 cp,
50 cp, 500 cp, 5000 cpo Assume the reservoir properties are as follows: re = 1500 ft, rw = 0.5 ft, s = +4, kro
= 0.6, h = 100 ft and k = 1325 mD.
Example 11.2
Estimate the ratio in injectivity indices for calculations assuming injection water is colder than formation
water (f.A.w = 0.55 cp) and calculations assuming it is the same temperature as formation water (f.A.w = 0.35 cp)
in a particular reservoir.
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 187

Adjustable wier
Praduced water train flow spliller-
box '-.
LP flare To sea via

o
45 minute retent ion time
30"caissan
Oily water surge tank
I

___ 1_ salids~pr-u_m_p_~~~~
Emergency
overflow O Oilta H.C.
to sea section
Sand to sea
drains tanks

SW from SW
return HDR Seawater train

01 Oil storage/water-
surge tank Seawater CPS unit

L NL L I---...--.:_--':'~ 3 ·100 MB/D To sea via

o.;~;. 6
30" caisson
Oily water to
Oil to 2nd
drains tanks Oily water to seawater-
stage separator
CPS unit
Emergency LP Oil to H.C.-
fl section of Oil to H.C. section
overflow to sea ore drains tanks of drains tanks
From :
dlSolterL _
Drains tanks simp.lified (API separotor principle)
Note : Gravlly flow unless pump shown

Fig. 11.23 Maureen field oily water treatment (after 131 1).

Example 11.3
A line drive water injection scheme is being operated in a reservoir of length 1 mile between injection and
production wells, and of cross-section dimensions 4 miles wide by 98 ft net thickness. The average porosity is
25% and the relative permeability to water in the presence of the residual oil saturation of 30% is 0.4. The
relative permeability to oil at the initial water saturation of 30% is 0.85. The oil viscosity at reservoir
conditions is 3.4 cp and the water viscosity is 0.4 cpo The water formation volume factor for injected water is
1.005 RBIBBL. Estimate the areal sweep efficiency of the scheme after 10 years if the average daily water
injection rate is 53 000 BBLIday.

Example 11 .4
An oil well is perforated to within 50 ft of a static water table. At reservoir conditions the specific gravity of
the formation water is 1.01 and the specific gravity of the oil is 0.81. For a stable cone to form just below the
lowest perforation what is the maximum potential difference (datum corrected pressure differential) that can
be allowed during production?
188 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

References

[1] Hancock, W.P.

Development of a reliable gas injection operation for the North Sea's largest capacity production platform, JPT
(Nov. 1983), 1963.
[2] Muskat, M.
The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Porous Media, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. (1937).
[3] Craig, F.F.
The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Water Flooding, SPE Monograph Vol 3 (1971), Soc. Pet. Eng., Dallas, Texas.
[4] Muskat, M.
Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., NY (1950).
[5] Welge, H.
A simplified method for computing oil recovery by gas or water drive, Trans. AIME 195 (1952),91.
[6] Warren, J.E. and Cosgrove, J.l.
Prediction ofwaterflood behaviour in a stratified system, SPEJ (June 1964), 149.
[7] Abernathy, B.F.
Waterflood prediction methods compared to pilot performance in carbonate reservoirs, JPT (March 1964), 276.
[8] Calloway, F.H.
Evaluation of waterflood prospects, JPT(Oct 1959),11.
[9] Dake, L.P.
Fundamentals ofreservoir engineering, Dev. Pet. Sci. 8 (1978). Elsevier, Amsterdam.
[10] Dyes, A.B., Caudle, B.H. and Erickson, R.A.
Oil production after breakthrough - as influenced by mobility ratio, Trans. AIME 201 (1954), 81.
[11] Kimber, O.K., Caudle, B.H. and Cooper, H.E.
Areal sweepout behaviour in a ninespot injection pattern, Trans. AIME 231 (1964), 199.
[12] Hubbert, M.K.
Darcy's law and the field equations of the flow of underground fluids, Trans. AIME 207 (1956), 222.
[13] Dietz, D.N.
A theoretical approach to the problem of encroaching and by-passing edge water, Proc. Akad. van Wetenschappen,
Amsterdam (1953), V56-B, 83.
[14] Richardson, J.G. and Blackwell, RJ.
Use of simple mathematical models for predicting reservoir behaviour, JPT (Sept. 1971),1145.
[15] Hagoort, J.
Displacement stability of water drives in water wet connate water bearing reservoirs, SPEJ (Feb. 1974),63.
[16] Berruin, N. and Morse, R.
Waterflood performance of heterogeneous systems, J PT (July 1979), 829.
[17] Chierici, G.L., Ciucci, G.M. and Pizzi, G.
A systematic study of gas and water coning by potentiometric models, JPT (Aug. 1964),923.
[18] Sobocinski, D.P. and Cornelius, A.J.
A correlation for predicting water coning time, JPT(May 1965), 594.
[19] Chappelear, J.E. and Hirasaki, G.J.
A model of oil-water coning for 2D-areal reservoir simulation, Trans. AIME 261 (1976), 65.
[20] Letkeman, J.P. and Ridings, RL.
A numerical coning model, SPEJ (Dec. 1970),418.
[21] Stiles, W.E.
Use of permeability distribution in waterflood calculations, Trans. AIME 186 (1949).
[22] Koval, E.J.
A method for predicting the performance of unstable miscible displacement in heterogeneous media, Trans. AIM E
228 (1963), 145.
[23] Dykstra, H. and Parsons, RL.
The Prediction of Oil Recovery by Waterflooding, Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States, API, NY (1950),
160.
[24] Hearn, c.L.
Simulation of stratified waterflooding by pseudo relative permeability curves, JPT (July 1971), 805.
[25] Kyte, 1.R and Berry, D.W.
New pseudo functions to control numerical dispersion, SPE (August 1975), 269.
[26] Archer, J.S. and Hancock, N.J.
An appreciation of Middle Brent Sand reservoir features by analogy with Yorkshire coast outcrops, Paper EUR
197, Proc. Europ. Off Pet. Cont (1980),501.
11 SECONDARY RECOVERY AND PRESSURE MAINTENANCE 189

[27] Nadir, F.T.

Thistle field development, Paper EUR 165, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1980),193.
[28] Bishlawi, M. and Moore, R
Montrose field management, Paper EUR 166, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1980),205.
[29] van Rijswijk, J. et al.
The Dunlin field - review of field development and performance to date, Paper EUR 168, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet.
Cont (1980),217.
[30] Stewart, L.
Piper field - reservoir engineering, Paper EUR 152, Proc. Europ. oft Pet. Cont (1980),33.
[31] Nichols, J.H. and Westby, K.A.
Innovative engineering makes Maureen development a reality, Paper EUR 231, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont
(1980), 185.
[32] Tyler, T.N., Metzger, RR. and Twyford, L.R.
Analysis and treatment of formation damage at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. JPT (June 1985) 1010.
[33] Gesink, J. CF. et a!.
Use of gamma ray-emitting tracers and subsequent gamma ray logging in an observation well to determine the
preferential flow zones in a reservoir. JPT (April, 1985) 711.
[32] Kingston, P.E. and Niko, H.
Development planning of the Brent field, J. Pet. Tech. (1975), 1190.
[33] Marcum, B.L., AI-Hussainy, R etal.
Development of the Beryl 'A' field, Paper EUR 97, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1978),319.
[34] Hillier, G.R., Cobb, R.M. and Dimmock, P.A.
Reservoir development planning for the Forties field, Paper EUR 98, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1978),325.
[35] Diehl, A.
The development of the Brent field, Paper EUR 108, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1978),397.
[36] Dufond, R. and Laffont, M.
Frigg, the first giant gas field in the northern North Sea, Paper EUR 110, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1978),407.
[37] Dake, L.P.
Application of the repeat formation tester in vertical and horizontal pulse testing in the Middle Jurassic Brent
sands, Paper EUR 270, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Conf. (1982),9.
[38] Tosdevin, M.
Auk Lower Zechstein - drainage mechanism model, Paper EUR 298, Proc. Europ. Oft Pet. Cont (1982),207.
[39] Hughes, CT. and Whittingham, K.P.
The selection of scale inhibitors for the Forties field, Paper EUR 313, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1982),341.
[40] Simmons, P.E.
North Sea offshore compression - future needs, Paper EUR 331, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Cont (1982),511.
[41] Steele, L.E. and Adams, G.E.
A review of the N.North Sea's Beryl field after seven years production, Paper SPE 12960, Proc. Europ. Pet. Cont
(1984),51.
[42] Dawson, A.P. and Murray, M.V.
Magnus subsea wells: design, installation and early operational experience, Paper SPE 12973, Proc. Europ. Pet.
Cont (1984),133.
[43] Robertson Research International/ERC Energy Resource Consultants Ltd
The Brent Sand in the N. Viking Graben, N. Sea - A Sedimentological and Reservoir Engineering Study, RRIIERC,
Llandudno, N. Wales (1980).
[44] Jordan, J.K., McCardell, W.M. and Hocott, CR.
Effects of rate on oil recovery by waterflooding, Oil GJ (13 May 1957), 99.
[45] Deppe, J.C
Injection rates - the effect of mobility ratio, area swept and pattern, SPEJ (June 1961), 81.
[46] Arps, J.J. eta!'
A statistical study of recovery efficiency, API Bull14D (1967).
[47] Craft, B.C and Hawkins, M.F.
Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc., NJ (1959).
[48] Smith, CR.
Mechanics of Secondary Oil Recovery, Reinhold Pub., NY (1966).
[49] Sandrea, R and Neilsen, R.
Dynamics of Petroleum Reservoirs under Gas Injection, Gulf Pub!., Houston, Texas (1974).
[50] Poettmann, F.H.
Secondary and Tertiary Oil Recovery Processes, Interstate Oil Compact Commission (1974).
190 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[51] Patton,C.C.
Oilfield Water Systems, Campbell Pet Series, Norman, Ok!. (1977).
[52] Reznick, A.A., Enick, R.M. and Panvelker, B.
An analytical extension of the Dykestra-Parsons vertical stratification discrete solution to a continuous realtime
basis, SPEJ 24 (Dec. 1984),643.
[53] Thomas, W.A.
North Sea development: historic costs and future trends, SPE 12984, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1984),227.
[54] Tinker, G.E.
Design and operating factors that affect waterflood performance in Michigan, JPT (Oct. 1983), 1884.
[55] Hurst, W.
Reservoir Engineering and Conformal Mapping of Oil and Gas Fields, Pennwell, Tulsa (1979).
 Chapter 12

Improved Hydrocarbon Recovery

12.1 TARGETS mate potentially recoverable oil by improved proces-

ses.
The recovery of light and medium gravity oils by In addition to the potential for further recovery
displacement with gas and water, and the recovery from reservoirs containing distributions of residual
of relatively dry gases by expansion, can be consi- oil, there must be consideration of techniques to
dered conventional recovery processes: These tech- develop reservoirs which might not be developed by
niques lead to gas recovery factors in the range conventional processes. In this latter category we
70-80% and oil recovery factors in the range may consider higher viscosity heavy oil (API gravity
20-50%. Any improvement to gas recovery is very less that 20° API), high pressure gas condensate
limited in terms of design of the recovery mechan- reservoirs and volatile oil reservoirs, and very low
ism, and efficiency increase mainly involves accel- productivity (low permeability-thickness) oil and gas
eration of income through well location, well com- reservoirs. This chapter is designed solely as an
pletion and compression choice. Oil recovery pro- introduction to possibilities in improved hydrocar-
jects, on the other hand, appear to offer significant bon recovery and the bibliography and reference list
potential for further reducing residual oil saturation at the end of the chapter should be used as an entry
([,2,3,4,6,7,8,11). In practice, however, the distribution of into the more detailed literature.
residual oil in a reservoir is of particular significance;
more so than the total oil volume. It can be argued
that infill drilling is an effective improved recovery 12.2 THE INFLUENCE OF RECOVERY
process (83) as is increasing produced water handling MECHANISM IN RESIDUAL OIL
facilities. The term residual oil implies nothing
absolute about oil saturation and it is process and In a fully contacted region of a homogeneous oil
reservoir property dependent. Distinctions can be reservoir undergoing displacement, the competing
made about microscale and macro scale definitions of forces of viscous flow, capillary redistribution and
residual oil saturation, and Table 12.1 shows some of gravity segregation will influence local oil saturation.
the possible terminology. Measurement of residual The pore geometry of the system will particularly
oil saturation in the field may be by logging influence capillary trapping of oil. The ratio of
methods, core recovery with fluid control and by gravitational to capillary forces is represented by N B
material balance. These techniques are discussed in the Bond number (= g'k (Pw-Po)/(<j>o cos 8)) which
the literature and Fig. 12.1 shows some data on has a value around 10- 6 in normal waterfloods. For
comparative measurements. Near wellbore residual systems modelled by core flood experiments, gravity
oil measurements may be influenced by stripping in forces have in general been neglected and a term
the vicinity of an injection well and thus underesti- Capillary number (Nc ) is used to represent the ratio
191
192 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 12.1 Residual oil saturation (Sor and So)

System Microscale Macroscale

1-0 linear system Sor from core floods in totally So from material balance. No indica-
bounded system. 100% sweep tion of sweep.
contact.
2-0 cross-section Core flood data may be applied in So from material balance. Cross-
analysis. Need to validate if gravity flow possibility. Vertical sweep
effects important. < 100%. Areal sweep assumed
100%.
2-0 areal system Core flood data may require So from material balance. So in
modification in thick sections. contacted region contrasts with So in
Heterogeneity modification. uncontacted regions. Near wellbore
So can be different from other
regions.
3-0 systems Core flood data only useful in So from material balance generated
discrete regions. Use of pseudo- from integration throughout system.
functions.
All systems - flood out conditions Usual to provide estimate of Sor at Practical. So limits are attained at
less than 1 part oil 1000 in flowing economically limiting oil rates or oil
effluent in core flood experiments. cut in produced fluids. These
Approach to Sor depends on conditions relate to well and
wettability, viscosity ratio and core gathering centre design capabilities
heterogeneity. to handle fluids. Could be changed
in changed economic climate.

Residual oil saturation (12910'-12920')

16

LlL(TDT-L)"
•
LlL(TDT-K)
•
Conventional core analysis··
•
Open -hole logs
•
CCI

End point relative permeability

~ t

• This is a modified TDT-K with TDT-G electronics source-detector

spacing of 60cm. Readings are taking while stationary .
•• Saturation of core plug at 12,918ft is omitted. The saturation of this
plug was more than 2.5 standard deviations from the average.

Fig. 12.1 Residual oil measurements by different techniques in the interval of a single well (after [351).
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 193

between viscous and capillary forces and its effect on only a limited range of field operation for potential
oil saturation. gradients and superficial velocity, and these factors
The most frequently used form of the capillary together with effective permeability improvement
number is that of Moore and Slobod (1956) cannot be changed sufficiently to give much change
V/-tD in Sor. At very low displacement rates, which may
N =-...:.-=:.- approach spontaneous imbibition, capillary forces
c acos e represented by acose are dominant and may control
Taber in a review paper entitled Research on Sor. The potential for reduction of residual oil
enhanced oil recovery: past, present and future [21J has saturation is concentrated on modification of the
summarized different formulations of the capillary terms, the most significant being a. In the limit, a
number in the years 1935 to 1979. The general becomes zero as all fluids in a system become
relationship for core plugs and bounded linear flow miscible. Miscible displacement processes therefore
systems suggests that the form of the relationship Nc appear very attractive, but in practice their efficien-
against Sor is as shown in Fig. 12.2. In this figure Sor cy will be controlled by reservoir heterogeneity,
is the equilibrium average oil saturation remaining in equilibrium approach and economic factors. Low
the core plug, Soi is the initial uniform oil saturation, interfacial tension (1FT) systems are another
V is the apparent or superficial velocity of the approach to reducing residual oil saturation, and
displacing phase and is equal to the constant several processes have worked well in laboratory
volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-section conditions. The reservoir heterogeneity and adsorp-
area of the core plug face, /-tD is the Newtonian tion of chemical agents inducing the 1FT (surfac-
viscosity of the displacing phase, a is the interfacial tants) tend to lead to adverse economics in field scale
tension between the displacing phase and the oil and applications. The stability of surfactants at reservoir
e is the upstream equilibrium contact angle. Units conditions of temperature and salinity is also ques-
are generally Darcy units with a in dynes/cm. The tionable. The same comments apply to high viscosity
interpretation of these data in terms of conventional polymer fluids which could be added to displacing
recovery and enhanced oil recovery potential water to increase the viscosity term in the capillary
focuses on an extrapolation and scaling of the number. The mechanisms for oil displacement using
laboratory phenomena to field conditions. The flat, polymers are complex and involve non-Newtonian
essentially constant Sor portion of the figure is flow. Their particular interest at present seems more
considered equivalent to conventional field scale in the role of diverting agents where they may enter
displacement mechanisms and covers several orders a flooded-out high permeability region and divert
of magnitude of displacement velocity at normal flood water into less permeable higher oil saturation
field interfacial tension and wettability conditions. regions. The improved oil recovery mechanisms may
Through Darcy's law for linear systems, the group be considered for conventional oils under the gener-
kkrtl.cf>/L can be equivalenced to the group ViLD, al headings of permeability improvement, miscible
where flcf>/ L is the potential gradient, k the absolute processes and chemical processes. Non-conventional
permeability and kr the saturation dependent rela- systems are then considered as heavy oils and high
tive permeability. For practical purposes there is pressure gas condensates.

1.0

12.3 PERMEABILITY IMPROVEMENT

0.75

o This topic focuses attention on the near wellbore

~ 0.50 region. Improvement can be considered in terms of
o
(f) increased rate of oil production without increase in
0.25
ultimate volume of recovery (an acceleration pro-
ject) and in terms of increased total volume of
recovery. Well workover activities may be consi-
dered as acceleration projects while massive fracture
projects may open up otherwise unrecoverable
-"/-Lo
NC = (TeasB hydrocarbons.
Well productivity improvement can be most easily
Fig. 12.2 Capillary number correlation. understood by reference to the semi-steady state
194 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

radial flow equation for oil flow III an isotropic changes causing decrease in permeability, injection
horizontal system, i.e. fluid incompatibility including plugging, precipita-
tion and destabilization of natural formation ce-
qo 2nkk ro h
--- ments. These factors are largely obvious and receive
P-Pwf flo [r
In;: -! + SJ
considerable attention in the literature.
The extension of the simple isotropic radial flow
system under semi-steady state conditions to strati-
In Darcy units qo is the reservoir condition fied heterogeneous reservoir performance under
volumetric oil flow rate, P the volumetric weighted transient flow control (particularly in low permeabil-
average reservoir pressure, P wf the flowing bottom- ity reservoirs) introduces considerable analytical
hole pressure at the sand face, k the permeability of complexity. The analysis of permeability improve-
the bulk formation, k ro the relative permeability to ment in real heterogeneous reservoirs requires
oil at a saturation in the vicinity of the well, h is the recognition of proper models for perforation, frac-
average net thickness of the tested interval, flo is the turing, acidization and rate dependent sand particle
oil viscosity at reservoir conditions, re is the radial flow. These models are not generally validated and
distance from the well to the external boundary of productivity improvement tends to be assessed
the system, r w is the radius of the effective well bore simplistically on economic criteria, i.e. costs of
and S is the skin which causes an incremental treatment versus incrementally assigned production
pressure change in the real system compared with increase.
that of a system with bulk formation properties.
Hawkins defined the relationship between the radius
of the skin zone around a well and the permeability
ks in this zone to the bulk formation permeability as 12.4 MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT
follows (see Chapter 9): MECHANISMS

[ rs J[k - ksJ
S = In ~ ---,;:-
The displacement of oil by non-aqueous injection of
hydrocarbon solvents, lean hydrocarbon gases or
high pressure non-hydrocarbon gases such as CO2 ,
It is clear that when k ks
> then S will be positive, N2 or flue gases are generally described as miscible
and if they are equal S will be zero. The effect of floods. The various conditions of pressure, tempera-
hydraulically fracturing wells or acidizing them may ture and composition that are required for miscibil-
ks k
be to make > and S then becomes negative. The ity (i.e. the elimination of an interface between
effect on near wellbore pressure is shown on Fig. residual oil and the displacing fluid), whether on first
12.3 in terms of pressure drops across a skin zone contact or after multiple contacts, are dealt with
compared with the zero skin case. The magnitude of comprehensively in the literature.
IlPs is influenced by many factors including drilling, An important factor in most improved oil recov-
drilling fluids, mud cake invasion, borehole rugosity, ery processes is that of mass transfer between the
perforating techniques, completion fluid interaction displaced and displacing phases. In a multicontact
with formation and formation fluids, saturation system, residual oil behind the displacement front
r- may be stripped of light and intermediate fractions,

11/
reducing substantially the residual oil saturation.
This mechanism is known as vaporizing gas drive.
The phase behaviour for miscibility is indicated in
Fig. 12.4, where an extended vapour liquid tie line

!. . . .
from the two phase region must not pass through the

". ---
-+-J<---- Pwf for S = negative oil composition. It is therefore clear that miscibility

Ijl
~Ps : "
between lean gas and oil will occur at pressure P 2 but
not at pressure Pl. The minimum miscibility press-
~ Pwf for S = 0
ure can be defined in such a diagram as the pressure
~Ps at which the oil composition lies just to the right of
If
• - - - - - P wf for S = positive the limiting tie line passing through the critical point .
Another mechanism called condensing gas drive
I wellbore
involves the transfer of intermediate components
from the displacing gas to the residual oil and results
Fig. 12.3 Pressure distribution around producing well. in a swollen residual oil. The resultant oil is of lower
12 IMPROVEDHVDROCARBONRECOVERV 195

conventional operations exists, so that the character-

istics of the scheme can be defined and evaluated.
Several fluids are potentially capable of attaining
miscibility with residual oil. The more usual ones
together with fluid properties are summarized in
Table 12.2 for reservoir conditions of 4000 psia and
200°F.
Experience in the USA has indicated that LPG
and NGL can be used in slugs in excess of 10% PV,
but the risk and expense in using them may not be
enough to balance their immediate sale value.
Rich hydrocarbon gases have found use in
relatively low pressure environments in condensing
gas drive mechanisms.
Lean hydrocarbon has a relatively high miscibility
pressure as measured from slim tube experiments.
Recent North Sea experience suggests that rein-
C7+ C 2 -6 jected gas cushions at pressures below expected
Fig. 12.4 Miscibility in a vaporizing gas process. miscibility undergo significant mass transfer and
approach a vaporizing gas drive process.
Carbon dioxide has been shown experimentally to
viscosity and has an increased oil permeability. be superior to dry hydrocarbon gas in miscible
These volume effects can be significant even when displacements. Heavy hydrocarbons are volatilized
full miscibility is not attained. In an ideal process, into the gas phase, and under favourable pressure
the swelling and mobilization of the disperse, discon- and temperature conditions there is a rapid
tinuous residual oil phase leads to the formation of approach to miscibility.
an oil bank which may then itself scavenge residual Nitrogen has a higher miscibility pressure than
oil as it moves through the formation. Trapping CO 2 or hydrocarbon fluids but is less effective. Flue
behind the oil bank is prevented by the existence gas has been considered in miscible processes as it is
there of miscible conditions, or at least a very large predominantly nitrogen, with CO2, O 2 and S02' The
capillary number. Where the formation is contracted presence of additional compounds increases mis-
by the miscible solvent it is expected that oil recovery cibility pressure.
is complete. Heterogeneity and non-equilibria there-
fore lead to less than ideal recovery. The oil bank
formed by mobilization of previously residual oil 12.5 MISCIBLE FLOOD APPLICATIONS
may in many instances be of low oil saturation in the
presence of the previous displacing fluid (i.e. water). Displacement stability and the potential for gravity
Consequently, the fractional flow of oil may be very override must be considered in the evaluation of
low in early time. In implementation of pilot miscible schemes [9,6,5,27,31,32.3 4,36,77]. Stability problems
projects in offshore fields, the conclusion is that are likely to be the least with CO 2 which will tend to
projects must be started while cash flow from be gravity stable, although viscous instability may

TABLE 12.2 Properties of miscible fluids

Fluid or solvent Reservoir condition Formation volume Viscosity (cp)
density factor
RBIMSCF
Light reservoir oil 646 (40) 267 0.2-0.5
Liquefied petroleum gas 450 (25-30) 0.08
Rich hydrocarbon gas 300 (19) 0,66 0,02-0.03
Lean hydrocarbon gas 190 (12) 0.80 0.015-0.025
Carbon dioxide 650 (41) 0.50 0.055
Nitrogen 240 (14,6) 0.95 0.026
196 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

250

225

200
Fresh water
175
--.J
(()
(()
........
l.J... 150
u 100 000 ppm
if)
salt water
>.
~ 125
:.c::J
0
If)
100
C\I
0
u
75
~--- 200 000 ppm
salt water
50

25

Pressure, PSIA
Fig. 12.5 Solubility of CO2 in water at 100°F (after [64)).

cause concern and will accentuate effects of slug Nearly twice as much CO 2 would be needed as N2 to
breakdown caused by heterogeneity. Ideal reservoir occupy one reservoir barrel of pore space. In
candidates in a gravity stable miscible process should addition, CO2 is soluble in formation water, as
have steeply dipping beds of good permeability or shown in Fig. 12.5, is more corrosive than N2 and is
else be high relief reservoirs with high vertical more expensive to produce than N2.
permeability.
Classic examples of field miscible schemes are the
Weeks Island gravity stable CO 2 displacement and 12.6 CHEMICAL FLOOD PROCESSES
the Golden Spike LPG flood. In the North Sea, a
degree of miscibility has been achieved with tempor- Chemical processes for oil displacement are depen-
ary gas reinjection in the Beryl field and into the dent on changes in Il, 0, 8 and on the capillary number
Statfjord formations of the Brent and Statfjord [12,7,8,15,17,22J. Caustic solutions have been reported to

fields. The fluid choice for miscible displacement change reservoir rock-fluid wettability and generate
projects in North Sea reservoirs is firstly with in situ surfactants, although it appears that results
hydrocarbon gas and secondly consideration of the are unpredictable. Wettability change alters both
relative merits of CO2 and N2. Offshore generation shape and end-points of relative permeability curves
of CO2 or N2 will require additional platform and thus leads to improved fractional flow and
facilities which may render projects uneconomic. reduced residual oil saturation in favourable condi-
tions.
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 197

Polymer applications are centred on thickening of Although many real systems will be significantly
injection water with water soluble polymers and more complex, a pseudo three-component system
either use as diverting agents or in the consequent can be used to represent phase behaviour at varying
improvement in mobility ratio and increased sweep compositions. The usual representation (Fig. 12.7) is
efficiency [20,22]. The polymer solutions are in general in the form of equilibrium ternary diagrams with
non-Newtonian in behaviour. 100% surfactant concentration at the top, 100%
Biopolymers such as xanthan gums exhibit de- brine to the left and 100% oil to the right.
creased viscosities at high flow rates and are known Depending on the overall composition, an equilib-
as shear thinning fluids. Polyacrylamides tend to
have increased viscosity at higher rates and are Typen -
viscoelastic. Most polymer systems considered for 100%
oil displacement are prone to adsorption on reser- Surfactant
voir rock surfaces, particularly shaly sites, which
decrease their effectiveness. For application in high
temperature, high salinity environments, the ther- Point A equi librates to
mal stability of polymer systems must be demons- oil and microemulsion
trated. Figure 12.6 shows the results of a test at
205°F on 0.15% polymer solutions in 33000 ppm
TDS brine with dissolved oxygen less than 0.02 ppm.
The thermal degradation of both polyacrylamide
and xanthan solutions was essentially complete in a
few hundred days, whereas targets of at least five 100% / -:::,:;:::~:;::::::;::::,::::;'=i:::i::;;;;;~ 100%
years might be set. The particular interest in Brine.o::: Oil
polymer solutions in stratified reservoir systems is in
blocking high permeability depleted layers and Type rr+
allowing displacement in the lower permeability
thickness layers. The process becomes unattractive 100%
Surfactant
when significant cross-flow between layers exists as
the polymer solution may become ineffective some
distance from the wellbore.
Surfactant processes concentrate on reduction of Point A equilibrates to
microemulsion and brine
interfacial tension to increase capillary number and
reduce Sor in the swept zone. The basic ingredients
in a surfactant system are oil, brine and surfactant
(plus consurfactants such as alcohols).

100 100% 100%

Bri ne -=::lL.........L---'--"---'----''---''--....L---'--," 0 iI
\\
~
80
\ ,, Polyacrylamide Type ill
'iii
0
0
II)
, 100%
'50 Surfactant
\\
C
c:
'6>
60 ,
-
';:
\\ Point A equilibrates to
0
oil and microemulsionand brine
0 ,\/xanthan
Q) 40
CI
~ ,
...
Q)
0 \,
20
",
Q)
a..

o~ __-+____~__~~__~~__
0,1 100% 100%
Days stored at 205 0 F ----- Brine ~,"""-,",,-,,,.::..J<.:.~::...:;.J'-'-"-"""""'><:":''"''''''.:....:.>O~Oil

Fig. 12.6 Thermal stability of polymer solutions (after [12]) Fig. 12.7 Surfactant-brine-oil ternary diagrams.
198 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 12.3 Equivalent terminologies

Winsor Nelson and Pope Reed and Healy
Type I Type 11- Lower phase (microemulsion)
Type II Type 11+ Upper phase (microemulsion)
Type III Type III Middle phase (microemulsion)

rium can exist in which one, two or three phases are

present. The current North Sea interest is in low Oil
surfactant concentrations, introduced into a reser- .........................................
.........................................
.........................................
voir in a saline aqueous phase. Under such condi- .........................................
.........................................
tions a single-phase system is unlikely with any .........................................
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.........................................
F]ow in
:::::::::
......... Microemulsion ::::::::::
......... .
Flow out
.,.
practical surfactant. In multiphase environments a .........................................
::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::
homogeneous phase containing oil, brine and surfac- .........................................
.........................................
.........................................
tant, and known as a microemulsion, can form. The
microemulsion can be considered in thermodynamic Brine
equilibrium with any other phase present in the
system. The terminology of surfactant system-phase Fig. 12.8 Equilibrium representation of phase distribution
diagrams has developed through Winsor [8], Nelson in a cell- a three-phase system at some location in the
and Pope [23] and Reed and Healy [8] and is approx- reservoir at some time.
imately equivalenced in Table 12.3 Following the
Nelson and Pope nomenclature, II indicates a
two-phase system and III a three-phase system. As Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance
shown in Fig. 12.7, the Type 11- system equilibrates rr- ITt
r-------------~---r----------~
with a lower microemulsion phase and an upper
excess oil phase and is characterized with the lines of
negative slope in the two-phase region. 1
~
Excess oil i
i
i
Upper phase
microemulsion
The Type 11+ system shown in Fig. 12.7 equili- ~ . I I
brates with an upper microemulsion phase and a '0 [Middle phase i
lower excess brine phase and has tie lines with a r::: Imicroen;'ulsion i
positive slope in the two-phase region. The Type III i i
I
.2 Lower phase!
system in Fig. 12.7 equilibrates with a middle ~ microemulsion ! I
microemulsion phase, an upper excess oil phase and : I
a lower excess brine phase. Shinoda and others (!2,17] i
have demonstrated that the Type III condition
Bop, the optimal point
corresponds to a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance in
the middle phase which will lead to maximum oil B, balance variable..--
mobilization. A Type III condition during chemical Fig. 12.9 Shinoda diagram (after (121).
flood displacement may therefore be an important
target in flood design. It is, however, inevitable that
during the passage of any chemical mixture between point is called the phase inversion temperature (7],
an injection location and a production location there PIT; when B is salinity the balance point is known as
will be changes in mixture composition and a optimal salinity. Surfactants must therefore be
continuous change in phase equilibrium. Pope and formulated for performance at a PIT equivalent to
Nelson [24] have demonstrated that, for practical the reservoir temperature. Salinity can sometimes be
purposes, flood performance can be calculated as a modified from high to low by preflush, but this
number of equilibrium steps, as illustrated in Fig. introduces the possibility of formation damage in
12.8. There are a number of parameters that, for a clay sensitive sands.
given surfactant-oil system, will alter the position of The main options in surfactant flooding with
hydrophilic-lipophilic balance. Figure 12.9 shows a preselected optimal surfactants are either (i) lower
plot known as a Shinoda diagram in which the volume, higher concentration surfactant slug, chased
balance variable B is plotted against the fraction of by a mobility control polymer, or (ii) lower concen-
total fluid (oil + brine + microemulsion) that is tration surfactant in flood water without polymer
microemulsion. When B is temperature, the balance chase. The onshore North American experience,
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 199

(Single 5-spot pattern shown)

Fig. 12.10 Chemical flooding, micellar polymer.

mainly using petroleum sulphonate surfactants and ethylene oxide group (-CH 2 CH 2 0-) . These synthe-
their derivatives, tends to be of the higher concen- tic surfactant systems are designed to equilibrate in
tration slug type, as shown in Fig. 12.10 122J. For the Type III to Type 11+ phase systems. With
offshore North Sea reservoirs the interest has increasing salinity the phase system moves from
focused on the low concentration synthetic surfac- Type III towards Type 11+ and is analogous to the
tant additive to a seawater high volume flood . The shift from Type 11- through Type III to Type 11+
circumstances leading to this route have recently shown in Fig. 12.11 and reported for petroleum
been discussed by Grist et al. 115J and centre on the sulphonate systems. In this context, low salinity
difficulties of offshore handling bulk chemical in might be around 6000 ppm TDS and high salinity
volumes needed for higher concentration slugs. A around 120000 TDS.
concentration target for the seawater additive sys- For low surfactant concentration in continuous
tem appears to be around 1-2% . The philosophy seawater floods, the majority of effort at present is
adopted in the design of a low concentration concentrated on surfactant chemical formulation to
surfactant flood involves development of a surfac- meet optimal condition. The adsorption of surfac-
tant which exhibits Type IIIJII+ behaviour and tant on the particular reservoir rock is considered
stability at reservoir temperature and salinities and sacrificial in these circumstances and although it can
which has an acceptable adsorption character in the be quantified it probably cannot be changed much.
specific reservoir. It has been shown that minimum, If adsorption is too great to give an economic flood
even though perhaps significant adsorption occurs then that surfactantlreservoir system should be
around the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance condition. rejected. Preliminary surfactant interest can be
Synthetic surfactants, although costly, can be manu- assessed from ability to mobilize oil from a static
factured with relatively narrow molecular weight residual column and is a precursor to laboratory core
distributions. A potentially interesting group floods . In core floods a comparison is made between
of oxyalkylated suplhanates with high temperature recovery after waterflooding at reservoir tempera-
and high salinity tolerance has been identified by ture and recovery after surfactant flooding at reser-
Mattax et al. 1I2J and has a formulation voir temperature and at preferred concentration .
CnO(EO)xC3S03Na where (EO) represents an Although there is no particular consensus in the
200 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 12.4 The screening of potential surfactants for use in field operations
Define reservoir salinity and surfactant concentration range.
!
Find surfactants having optimal salinity above and below resident brine salinity and check phase representations.
!
Blend surfactants at reservoir temperature using equal volumes of reservoir brine and crude oil.
!
Select formulation so that oil solubility is largest at a given blend and concentration.

Define phase equilibria for salinity scan.

!
Check adsorption characteristics in flow loop using surfactant composition, heat change and adsorption isotherm
techniques.
!
Initiate short and long core flood tests at reservoir conditions and model results using compositional simulator.
!
Tune simulator parameters and predict key core flood outcome.

Run experiment for validation.

!
Use simulator to design pilot flood.
!
Run pilot flood and retune simulator.
!
Design field flood or next pilot.

literature, it is suggested that tests should eventually (f) metal content (Ni; V; =500 ppm);
be conducted on reservoir zone core lengths up to (g) asphaltene content (up to +50% weight).
2 m. This incidentally indicates that some pre- Any particular heavy oil may have some of these
planning is necessary if preserved core of in situ properties and there is nothing absolute in any
wettability is to be available. The core experiments classification.
will show an upper boundary to recovery potential A method proposed by Yen has been used [61] to
since residual oil saturations will be those of a distinguish the pseudo-ternary composition and ori-
completely swept zone. The combination of phase gin of heavy oils. The presentation shown in Fig.
equilibrium experiments and core flood experiments 12.12 is based on vacuum distillation of the crude oil
will allow calibration of a linear surfactant core flood which results in a volatile component, mainly hydro-
simulator, of which several versions have been carbons and a pot-residue. The residue is mixed with
described. A general approach to assessing surfac- cold n-pentane which separates asphaltene from
tant reservoir system potential is shown in Table polar compounds. The crude oil composition as
12.4. plotted on the ternary diagram can be used to
distinguish thermally mature oils from weathered
and biodegraded heavy oils.
12.7 HEAVY OIL RECOVERY North Sea heavy crude oils are not very well
documented. Table 12.5 illustrates some characteris-
12.7.1 Characterization of heavy oil tics of heavy crudes in the UK sector. The majority
of these oils are not heavy in a world wide
A generalized classification of heavy crude oil characterization, but are in offshore reservoirs diffi-
considers an association of the following properties: cult to develop for many reasons.
(a) low API gravity -less than 20°; Table 12.6 contrasts some selectee examples of
(b) high viscosity at normal reservoir conditions heavy oils from other parts of the world.
(/La> 20cp); It is clear that some recognition of the characteris-
(c) poor reservoir mobility (k"l/Lo); tics of heavy oil crudes from around the world might
(d) dark colour; be used to guide expected properties from heavy oils
(e) sulphur content (> 3% weight); to be found in the UKCS. In the USA some 127 x
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 201

100%
Asphaltene

Yen classification
based on vacuum
distillation and n-pentane
solubility of pot residue

100%L.-----....;.:.:..:..::.~---l. l00 % Polars

Hydrocarbons (gas.oil +resin)
Invariant point moves continuously (volatiles)
from 100% brine point to 100%
oil point as salinity increases
Fig. 12.12 Yen classification.
Fig. 12.11 Effect of balance variables on phase
distribution. Invasiant point moves continuously from
100% brine point to 100% oil point as salinity increases.

TABLE 12.5 Characferistics of UKCS heavy crude oils

Reservoir condition
UKCS Gravity Temperature Viscosity Reservoir
quadrant tAPI) (OF) (cp)
2 20.5-24 120 8-14 Sandstone
3 11-15 115 150-2750 Sandstone
9 15-26 120 (30) Sandstone
14 25 175 4 Sandstone
16 23 130 5 Sandstone
206 23 135 3.5 Sandstone

TABLE 12.6 Examples of heavy oil reservoirs

Field Country Oi/gravity Estimated viscosity
cp, (rc)
Gela Italy 8-13 80-220
Ragusa Italy 19 25
Duri Sumatra 20 (25)
Darius Iran 12-20
Harbur Oman 18-23
Karatchok Syria 19-23
Bati Raman Turkey 12.5 650
TiaJuana Venezuela 12 3700
Jobo Venezuela 8 6200
Lloydminster Canada 10-18 3000
Cold Lake Canada 10-12 100000
San Miguel USA. Texas 12-15 80-100
Kern River USA. Texas 14 4200
Midway Sunset USA, California 14 1600
202 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 12.7 Heavy oil resource distribution in USA

Heavy oil as percentage of all crude (STOIIP) 50%

Heavy oil production as percentage of all crude (annual) 8%
Heavy oil gravity: 20-25°API 48%
less than 20° API 52%
Heavy oil reservoir depths
less than 500 m 20%
between 500-1000 m 35%
more than 1000 m 45%
Heavy oil reservoir lithology
limestone reservoirs 3%
sandstone reservoirs more than 3 m thick and 40%
shallower than 1000 metres

109 STB of heavy crude oil in place has been 2000

identified [611. This figure excludes tar sands and is
1000
similar to the volume of medium and light oil
historically identified. The US experience in dis- 500
tribution of heavy oil in terms of gravity, reservoirs
and depths might also serve as some kind of guide to
expectations, and the figures are given in Table 12.7. 100
These data from a mature exploration area show Q. 50
that heavy oil is widespread geographically and that 0

volumes in place approach that of conventional oil.

,
~
'iii
The tables show us nothing of the reservoir sizes and 0 10 ,
0
only suggest that production from heavy oil reser- II>

"
voirs is disproportionately small. Recovery factors > 5
from heavy oil reservoirs are not a good guide to
their potential since they are production process
1
"'-.""
dependent. In the North Sea the heavy oil reservoir •••• ......._ 30° API ,
•••••• Water - __ ~rudeoll
potential is linked through economic considerations ....
to reservoir size, geometry, water depth and subsea
depth, as well as reservoir rock and fluid properties. .....................
0.1 '--_-1-_----1_ _--'-_----1---'=---'-_-1
12.7.2 Properties of heavy oil 100
Temperature. dea F.
reservoirs
Fig. 12.13 Relationship between viscosity and temperature
Many of the North Sea examples of heavy oil
reservoirs are found in relatively young, friable
sandstones of Palaeocene and Eocene age. Reser- solid CO 2 for transportation to a laboratory. The
voir rock and fluid properties are often difficult to reconstituted samples may not reflect in situ reser-
obtain as coring can be unsuccessful and the fluids voir stresses when used in conventional processes for
may not flow to surface. Oil viscosity at reservoir measuring porosity and saturation. Friable and
conditions may be roughly estimated from dead oil unconsolidated sands can exhibit high pore volume
viscosity where the oil is relatively gas free. Figure compressibilities in comparison with the often used
12.13 shows the form of relationship between oil literature values of Hall around 2 x 106 psi-I. Table
viscosity at surface and reservoir temperature condi- 12.8 illustrates some pore volume compressibilities
tions for different gravity oils. Cores may be more in reservoir rocks having porosities greater than
successfully obtained from friable sands using rubber 20%.
sleeved or fibre glassed core barrels, typically The pore volume compressibility is important in
providing 7 m core lengths. At surface, the reco- correlating core and log data at the same in situ
vered core may be quick frozen and packed with stress condition. The interpretation of porosity from
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 203

TABLE 12.8 Pore volume compressibility of reservoir rocks

Reservoir rock Surface porosity Pore volume
(Frac) compressibility
(psi- 1)
Oilfield sands (Hall) 0.25 1.75 X 10--6
Frio sand 0.30 3.5 X 10--6
Berea sand 0.21 3.4 X 10--6
Weakly cemented sand 0.30 5.8 X 10--6
Athabasca sand 0.33 5.0 X 10--6
Ottawa sand (c-109) 0.345 10.8 x 14.5 x 10--6
North Sea Chalk 0.39 > 20 X 10--6

formation density logs and their derivatives has been 12.7.3 Production characteristics
reasonably successful in open-hole conditions. It of heavy oil reservoirs
should, however, be recognized that mud filtrate
invasion and oil displacement is likely to be very Porosity distribution and oil saturation are required
low, and the density of fluid in the interpreted zone for determination of hydrocarbon in place for a
is best represented by that of the heavy oil. Figure heavy oil rese~~r, i.:..e._
12.14 shows a density log response in an Eocene STOHP = AhN (So <1»
heavy oil reservoir from the North Sea [581. Using a Boi
mud filtrate density rather than an oil density in the
porosity calculation leads to an overestimation by 3 where A = area, TiN = net thickness, So = saturation,
porosity percentage units. (j) = porosity and Eoi = initial oil formation volume
factor. However, it is flow properties that determine
performance. The key parameter in the flow of
Gamma roy Formation density heavy oil in a reservoir is the mobility, which at some
API units RHOB(g/cc)
given reservoir pressure (P), temperature (1) and
o 100 2.0 2.5
saturation (S) may be written as [kkro/!-to]s,p, T where
Top of
Lower k is the formation permeability, k ro the relative
Eocene permeability to oil and /-Lo the oil viscosity.
The effect of the term [kkroi!-to]s,P,T on semi-
steady state radial flow productivity index is drama-
tic. In the relationship for PI
2rtkkro h
PI= ~
p-pw/
!-to[ loge !:!.
rw - 4"3 1
+S

Average
the particular effect of variation in viscosity is shown
4>=0.30 in Fig. 12.15.

-
~

~ 250·
300

"-
~ 200
til 150
a. 100
\.
Bose of
1...--'-_ _ _.........1- Lower

Eocene
Fig. 12.14 Porosity interpretation from FDC log in North
50
'. 10- 20
Oil viscosity (cp)
30 40

Sea heavy oil well. Fig. 12.15 Effect of oil viscosity on PI.
204 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

This illustrates one of the reasons why thermal fluences the nature of any improvement in per-
expansion of oil and reduction in viscosity by the meability. From. a design standpoint, particular
addition of thermal energy is attractive for heavy oil consideration must be paid to rock debris flow,
systems. Introduction of carbon dioxide in a heavy proppants and rock strength. The time changing
oil reservoir can also lead to viscosity reduction of magnitude of improvement as saturation and press-
the oil in some circumstances. The effect of the ratio ures change is important in the economic assessment
between oil viscosity and water viscosity on fraction- of improvement. Uncertainties are attached to the
al flow of water in horizontal homogenous reservoirs description of induced fractures and acidized per-
can also be illustrated as in Fig. 12.16. meability and the proper representation of dual
porosity/permeability.
Relative permeability improvement relates to
wettability change as well as to changes in irreducible
saturations. The mechanisms of relative permeability
In
III change are not well understood and are not capable
.::- 1.0 of being incorporated directly in productivity design.
Relative
5 permeability Temperature change, as well as introduction of
~ 0.8 relationship chemicals such as caustic solutions, may shift relative
permeability curves as shown in Fig. 12.17. These
=0.6
~
>-
changes are observed empirically with particular
:cCI reservoir rocks and may be partly controlled by pore
~ 0.4 filling minerals.
!
:s~ 0.2 1.0
70 deg F
,, Uncertainty:-
CD mechanisms
0::
not well
0.8 understood

:k,w
,
1.0 , t 0.6 ,,,
, I
: Not always
0.8 .0
10/1 · JLo
Ra t 10 JLw
0.4 .4 an effect solely
I , " of temperature

-.
I
,,<'
I
0.6 I 0.2
I
,
0.4 I
I
I
' .
I
I Fractional
I flow in Sw-
0.2 I
I
/ horizontal reservoir Fig. 12.17 Effect of temperature on relative permeability.
, I
,"
O~~L---L---~~~~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 12.8 THERMAL ENERGY
Water saturation (frac PV)
The introduction of thermal energy into a heavy oil
Fig. 12.16 Effect of heavy oil viscosity on fractional flow of
water. reservoir should result in improvement in productiv-
ity. The economics of a particular process can be
Improvement in the productivity of heavy oil assessed in terms of an energy balance as cost of
reservoirs can be considered through modification of total energy as compared with value of the product
the terms in the following relationship: after operating costs and taxes. Thermal injection
k· k ro processes include steam soak, steam drive, hot water
Productivity ex: - - - drive and a variety of combustion processes from
!to forward to reverse and from air to oxygen with and
Increase in permeability may be achievable through without water injection (see Figs. 12.18-12.20). In
fracturing and acidization of reservoir rock. The all these processes, consideration must be given to
reservoir lithology and heterogeneity obviously in- the volume of the heated zone and the mechanisms
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 205

HUFF (injection phase) SOAK (shut-in phase) PUFF (production phase)

days to weeks days weeks to months
Dissipating
heat
thins
oil

Fig. 12.18 Cyclic steam simulation.

Stack gas Production fluids (oil, gas and water)

scrubber separation and storage facilit ies

Injection
well

Fig. 12.19 Steam flooding.

206 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Production well

1 Injecled air and waler zone (burned oul) 5 Condensing or hoI water zone
2 . Air and voporil.ed · woler zone (50° - 2OQoF obove initial temperolure)
3. Burning 'ront and combuslion zone (6Q00-1200°F) 6 .0il bonk (near iniliol lemperolure)
4. Steam or vaporizing zone (appro• . 4OQoF) 7. Cold combustion zone

Fig. 12.20 In-situ combustion.

of heat transfer which result in productivity improve- rocks and reservoir fluids together with tempera-
ment. For details of the various processes and ture, pressure and saturation dependent empirical
explanation of mechanisms there is a wealth of relationships for relative permeability, capillary
current literature [2,3,4,61,62J. The volume of a heated pressure and PVT properties. Some of these data
zone in a reservoir, designated Vrh , can be repre- can be obtained quite satisfactorily from correlations
sented for consideration of thermal properties in the and others require specific determination for a given
following form: reservoir fluid-rock system. Typical data required in
calculations of thermal processes are shown in Table
V rh = Complex function 12.9. The characterization of reservoir transmissibil-
ity and continuity is probably a greater uncertainty
Recoverable ] [Thermal ] [Heat ] [
[ latent ] than any error in fluid and rock properties intro-
heat diffusivity capacity Time
duced by use of literature correlations.
In processes typically considered for thermal
Thermal
[ conductivity ]2 [!~mperature gradient
lDJector - producer
] stimulation of heavy oil reservoirs, gravity override
of hot gases, particularly steam, will be important.
Steam properties will also be important. Steam
The heat capacity (C) is applied to reservoir rocks properties indicate that superheat at elevated reser-
and fluids; thermal conductivity (A.) and thermal voir pressures and temperatures is not prop-
diffusivity (D = IJCp) are applied to the reservoir ortionately beneficial. For deep reservoirs steam
and the rocks overlying and underlying the reser- may not condense. The critical point for steam is
voir. It is clear also that reservoir structure, hetero- shown in Fig. 12.21 as 3206.2 psia and 705.4°F.
geneity and geometry will influence well spacing and Appreciable latent heat release is not achieved at
heat transfer. In order to solve equations for heated pressures greater than 2200 psi, equivalent to a
zone volume , consideration of full three- depth of some 5000 ft SS in a normally pressured
dimensional geometry is important as fluid density reservoir. Steam override mechanisms have been the
differences (i.e. steam, combustion gases, oil, water) subject of laboratory investigations and results
play an important role in displacement efficiency. support the current interest in application of hori-
Data requirements include thermal properties of zontal well technology.
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 207

TABLE 12.9 Example data requirements for steamdrive analysis

Typical value or units
System Property Source 51 units Field units
Oil Density (21°C) Measured 912.7kg/m 3 23.5° API
Compressibility Calculated 0.00073 Pa-1 5 x 10-6 psr 1
Coet. thermal expan. Measured 0.00052 K-1 0.00029°F""1
Heat capacity Measured 1.963 kJ/kgK 0.469 Btu/lbOF
Viscosity Measured (fn T) 5 mPa at 373 K 5cpat21~F

Water Density kg/m 3 Ib/ft3

and Compressibility Pa-1 psi-1
Steam tables
steam Heat capacity kJ/kgK Btu/lbOF
Latent heat kJ/kg Btu/lb
Reservoir Heat capacity Correlation (Lit.) 1.7MJ/m3 K 25.3 Btu/ft30F
rock Thermal conductivity Correlation (Lit.) 238 kJ/m-day-K 38.16 Btu/tt-dayOF
Permeability Measured fLm 2 mD
Pore volume compressibility Measured Pa-1 psi-1
Porosity Measured fraction fraction
Overburden Heat capacity Correlation (Lit.) 1.4 MJ/m 3 K 21 Btu/ft30F
and underburden Thermal conductivity Correlation (Lit.) 96.3 kJ/m-day-K 15.5 Btu/tt-day-OF
Oil-water Relative permeability Measured
Capillary pressure Measured Pa psi
Gas-liquid Relative permeability Measured
Capillary pressure Measured Pa psi
Solubility (P, T) Measured m3 /m 3 SCF/STB

12.9 GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS

A pressure-temperature phase envelope of a hydro-
carbon mixture known as a gas condensate is shown
in Fig. 12.22 for a constant composition system. It
can be seen that if the reservoir temperature of the
gas phase mixture is above critical and below the

Liquid Gas

P,TRES

\"'rii:
T:
\' .....:.
J \ '\

Pressure ( bar) __ ,/
/ 'dI! \ \
_ - - - Critical ,/ Jl \
_- point ,,/,,-' I ~
/" /i
J

t 300
,,/
//
,.,.,.,.,.,. ( 3206.2 psia
and 705.4°F)
·d --
.,......... '
.,;","
;'/:/
/')'
/

/i
: I
I

u " -----
50% \i'l~ __ ----
--""",.,;
/"
/"/'
°I- 200
I
I
,/
~~~~~~~------------
01 ,.
~~~_I~~ ·d____ - - - _----------
-- ",,~
100
Temperature - -
Fig. 12.21 Properties of steam. Fig. 12.22 Gas condensate phase diagram.
208 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

cricondentherm then, during isothermal pressure volume expansion is showh for three samples with
reduction, the liquid content of the mixture may different single stage separator gas-oil ratios in Fig.
increase and then decrease in a phenomenon known 12.23. .
as retrograde condensation. This behaviour is char- The magnitude and location in the reservoir of
acteristic of a gas condensate. In additi0n the API liquid drop out from a condensate reservoir under-
gravity of resultant stock tank oil is likely to be going ~ressure depletion i~ vital to the design of a
greater than 45° and producing gas-oil ratios are produdtion scheme. It might be predicted from
often in excess of 3000 SCF/STB. The stock tank radial flow pressure drop and constant volume
liquid is often very pale yellow in colour and the depletion data where liquid drop out might occur [661.
Watson characterization factor (Kw) of the C7+ The non-equilibrium conditions occurring around a
fraction is significantly different from black oils. A wellbote might invalidate Such a calculation. Rela-
typical Kw is around 12 for a condensate system and tive permeability and oil ttapping phenomena will
11.90 for a black oil using the relationship between playa large part in well productivity. Figure 12.24
liquid specific gravity (y) and molecular weight (M) shows schematically a liquid saturation and pressure
as follows: profile in radial flow towards a well bore of radius rw'
Kw = 4.5579 M (0.15178) Y-0.84573 The mechanisms of liquid drop out and its effect
on hydrocarbon recovery and well productivity are
The Kw factor can be used to check if liquid not yet fully understood. For more detail the reader
samples are indeed characteristic of the condensate. is referred to the current literature. Condensate
Sampling gas condensate reservoirs is notoriously PVT properties require matching with equations of
difficult because of proximity to critical conditions state, and validation depends as much as anything on
and retrograde behaviour. Bottom-hole sampling representation of the well stream fluid in sampling.
may frequently fail to represent total reservoir fluid, Relative permeability behaviour of condensate sys-
and recombined surface separator samples in these tems are also the subject of considerable uncertain-
particular conditions are often preferred. Table ty. The numerical modelling of gas condensate
12.10 shows an example of a separator gas and liquid reservoir systems is limited by proper representation
composition from a condensate reservoir. Liquid of flow physics and thermodynamic behaviour in
drop out character during isothermal constant addition to normal reservoir description.

TABLE 12.10 Condensate analysis (after [86l )

Oil flow rate 525 BOPD

Gas flow rate 13475 MSCFD
Natural gas analysis Oil analysis
146°F Separator temperature 157.6° F
664.7psig Separator pressure 707.2 psig
2.1401blft Flowing density 226.6 Ib/BBL
705 580 Ib/day Mass flow 232440 Ib/day
Mole % Mole %
0.59 Nitrogen 0.04
2.09 Carbon dioxide 0.63
83.84 Methane 13.37
7.63 Ethane 4.56
3.01 Propane 4.57
0.49 Iso-butane 1.49
0.95 n-butane 4.16
0.36 Iso-pentane 2.55
0.40 n-pentane 3.36
0.52 Hexanes 10.30
0.12 Heptanes + 54.97
Gas gravity = 0.6942 Specific gravity C7+ 0.7802
H2 S 10ppm Avg. mol. wt. C7+ 143.4
Avg. S content C7+ 0.03% wt
KwC7+ from:
4.5579 M 0.15178 Y -0.84573
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 209

40

GOR = 5000 SCF/STB (single stage)

i
II)
30
...
(.)

II)
a.
GOR = 7000 SCF/STB
c::
.~ 20
~
.2
cII)
"C
'g. 10
:J GOR=30000 SCF/STB
-
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Pressure (psia)
Fig. 12.23 Liquid content during isothermal constant volume expansion of some condensates.

pressure p~~)••••••••••••••••••••••
.... ....... ,.,

.'
.. ' .. ' .. ' .. '
. . / Non - equilibrium
... ~ liquid drop out

;;
-, "
........ gnd kr effects .
,. .....
.'
,,-

t
Revaporisation •• ·'·,, 'd t t' t
t -.. . -.. .
Liqu~_~-u!.a..!~"- _
mechanisms••• • " - -_
*,,,,,.,- ...J
a. ••" , ....... (J)

------------_
............. ."

~~ ... Max saturation

Well bore influence according to
on compositional constant volume
transport depletion

r--

Fig. 12.24 Pressure and saturation profiles.

Production methods for gas condensate reservoirs

include [37]: The water drive mechanism may be appropriate for
high pressure reservoirs where dry gas compression
(a) pressure depletion; and reinjection could be costly - this would be
(b) pressure depletion with dry gas recycling; particularly true in offshore development of deep
(c) partial or full pressure maintenance by water reservoirs.
drive. Partial pressure maintenance in gas condensate
210 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

reservoirs is conducted with the aim of keeping For each 1 STB of liquid produced the number of
pressure above dew-point. Gas recycling is a misc- moles (n) produced is therefore
ible recovery process with mass transfer between R (62.4)p (5.615)
advancing dry gas and wet gas in the pore space.
n = 379.4 + Mo
After contact of all wet gas and recovery of liquids at
surface conditions, the reservoir should contain a The molecular weight of the reservoir condition fluid
single-phase leaner gas which is itself recoverable by (MW}res can therefore be estimated from
pressure depletion or blowdown as if it were a dry W
gas reservoir. A design drawback to the recovery (MW)res=-
process is viscous instability which is accentuated by n
reservoir heterogeneity. Since wet gas might have a The reservoir condition gas condensate gravity
significantly greater viscosity at reservoir conditions (Yg)res is therefore
than dry gas, as well as a greater density, the
displacement will then tend to be unstable in terms (MW)res
(Yg)res = 28.97
of Dietz criteria (Chapter 7), and gravity override
may occur at quite low rates. The critical properties of the gas condensate can
In consideration of processes involving water then be obtained from the pseudo-critical property
drive in gas condensate systems, one of the signifi- chart (see Fig. 4.7) or by use of Kay's rule, if
cant uncertainties is trapped gas saturation at high reliability is placed in the compositional data. At the
pressure and the effects of pore geometry, capillary pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure in the
number and Bond number on its magnitude. At low reservoir the Standing and Katz chart (Fig. 4.7) can
rates it is possible that some trapped gas could be be used to derive a value for Z at datum. The gas
recovered during blowdown, although the mechan- condensate formation volume factor Bgj at initial
ism would be a complicated three-phase process. datum conditions, P (psia) and T eF), is thus
Pressure depletion alone would result in unaccept- 0.02829 z (T+460)
able recovery factors in most instances, and ultimate B gj = P RCF/SCF
recovery can be judged from laboratory simulation
of a constant volume depletion using a valid fluid The reservoir hydrocarbon pore volume estimated
sample. The performance prediction of a gas volumetrically is related to the standard condition
condensate using the laboratory PVT data assumes volume Vsc as
that liquid saturation remains below some critical
value and is thus immobile. The determination of V
sc
= AhB."'S
n 'f' g SCF
the dry gas and oil in place equivalent to the wet gl
condensate volume can be estimated as follows. where A is the effective hydrocarbon reservoir area
From PVT laboratory data the following informa- in ft 3 , h n is the effective hydrocarbon net thickness,
tion is available: <Ii is the volume weighted average porosity and Sg the
R = total gas-oil ratio ofthe system (scflstb); average saturation of gas condensate in the hydro-
p = liquid density (glcm 3 ); carbon region.
Yg = gas gravity (relative to air = 1); At separator conditions the dry gas is that fraction
Mo = molecular weight of liquid (estimate from of the total moles of reservoir fluid that are gas, i.e.
Mo = 44.3p/[1.03 -p].
Assuming that one pound mole of gas occupies a Dry gas volume = Vsc { RI379.4
n
)
SCF
volume of 379.4 ft3 at 60°F and 14.7 psia, and that
water has a density of 62.4 Ib/ft 3 at the same Similarly, the oil content at stock tank conditions is
condition, the weight of oil and gas produced at given by
stock tank conditions for each 1 STB liquid is W as
follows: Vsc
N=R
W = (5.615 x 62.4 x p). + (RY~7~:·97) Table 12.11 shows the type of information available
from a laboratory constant volume depletion and
Table 12.12 indicates that liquid recovery is quite
poor. It is this result that focuses interest in dry gas
recycling and pressure maintenance/waterdrive pro-
jects. Recovery calculations must, however, consid-
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 211

er the effects of reservoir heterogeneities and can be treated as a black oil system. Below bubble-
constraints imposed by well bore conditions and point, oil and gas mobility and reservoir hetero-
processing equipment. Economic considerations are geneity control performance. Compositional
particularly important in evaluation of gas conden- approaches to reservoir calculations are used [71] and
sate potential. equilibrium constants (k-values) are required to
predict molar relationships between phases. Equa-
tions of state may be used to calculate the behaviour
12.10 VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS of the original fluid composition during production.
These equations of state often require tuning of
Above bubble-point pressure a volatile oil reservoir coefficients using PVT data.

TABLE 12.11 Constant volume depletion data: example system

Distribution of original fluid between separation stages

Primary separation at 500 psig and 220°F
Gas 912.87 MSCF/MMSCF original fluid
Gas products C3 : 814 galions/MMSCF original fluid
C4 : 489 galions/MMSCF original fluid
Cs+: 997 galions/MMSCF original fluid
Second stage separation at 100 psig and 120°F

Liquid 109.14 BBUMMSCF original fluid

Gas 8.26 MSCF/MMSCF original fluid
Gas products C3 : 10.6 galions/MMSCF original fluid
C4 : 5.1 galions/MMSCF original fluid
Cs+: 6.3 galions/MMSCF original fluid
Stock tank fluid o psig and 60°F
Liquid 102.64 STB/MMSCF original fluid
Gas 5.47 MSCF/MMSCF original fluid
Total plant products in wellstream fluid
C3 878 galions/MMSCF original fluid
C4 564 gallons/MMSCF original fluid
Cs+ 5416 galions/MMSCF original fluid
Reservoir fluid initially at 5750 psig

TABLE 12.12 Recovery of fluids by depletion

Pressure Original fluid Stock tank Second stage Primary separator Cs+ plant
(psi) recovery liquid recovery liquid recovery gas recovery recovery
(SCF/SCF) (STB/STB) (SSBBUSSBBL) (SCF/SCF) (gal//gal/)
5750 0 0 0 0 0
5000 0.0727 0.0445 0.0446 0.0746 0.0502
4000 0.2052 0.0847 0.0851 0.2157 0.1093
3000 0.3720 0.1074 0.1079 0.3958 0.1610
2100 0.5434 0.1195 0.1203 0.5821 0.2051
1300 0.7040 0.1289 0.1288 0.7568 0.2450
212 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Examples
Example 12.1
Using the Stalkup relationships shown in Figure A12.1 (see Appendix II) estimate the breakthrough
sweepout efficiency and the dominant flow regime in the following displacements. For five spot patterns
assume the Darcy flow velocity can be approximated by 1.25 qin/hl in field units and the viscous gravity force
ratio is given by 2050""ULI(khdp). The reservoirs have not been waterflooded previously.
(a) On a five spot pattern with L = 1500 ft and thickness h = 70 ft a gas is being injected at 4000 RB/d. The
reservoir condition densities of gas and oil are 0.4 and 0.8 g/cm3 . The viscosity of the injected gas is 0.02
cp and the oil viscosity is 0.5 cpo Assume that the permeability of the reservoir is isotropic, and can be
represented as 130 mD.
(b) On a five spot pattern with L = 2000 ft and thickness 50 ft, carbon dioxide is being injected at 1000
RB/d. The density and viscosity of CO2 at reservoir conditions are taken as 0.64 g/cm 3 and 0.055 cpo
The oil density and viscosity at reservoir conditions are 0.75 g/cm 3 and 0.36 cpo Assume that the
horizontal permeability is represented as 3 mD and the vertical permeability by 1 mD.

Example 12.2
A simple surfactant system has been discovered. It has only a single- and a two-phase region and can be
represented on a ternary diagram, with oil-brine-surfactant being the components.
The following phase equilibrium data have been obtained for the two-phase part of the system. A is in
equilibrium with B. The compositions are in weight percent.

A B
Surfactant Oil Surfactant Oil
0 2 0 98
9 9 2 97
18 18 4 95
25 32 6 92
27 40 11 84
26 55 17 74

(a) Plot the data and construct the phase envelope. Estimate the composition ofthe plait (critical) point.
(b) What is the composition and weight fraction for the equilibrium separated phases for 200 g mixture of
total composition 4% surfactant, 77% oil?
(c) What weight of surfactant must be added to 100 g of 20% oil in brine mixture to make it just single
phase? What is the composition of this final mixture?
(d) What is the composition of the mixture when 150 g of a solution containing 10% oil, 40% surfactant is
added to 150 g of a solution 50% oil, 40% surfactant?
(e) What is the composition of the resulting phases when 100 g of a solution composed of 12% surfactant
5% oil is added to 100 g solution composed of 20% surfactant, 7?% oil?

Example 12.3
Contrast development by steam stimulation/injection and conventional water injection on a 9 acre five-spot
pattern of a reservoir sand containing 150 cp oil at the reservoir temperature of 100°F. The sand is 60 ft thick
and has a permeability to oil at reservoir temperature of 1000 mD. Assume the steam is injected at a bottom
hole temperature at 380°F with a quality ratio (fsdh) of 0.75. The wellbore radius is 0.5 ft. Other thermal
data may be assumed as follows:

Enthalpy of liquid water at Tres (hw(Tr)) = 69 Btu/lb m

Enthalpy of liquid water at Tsteam (hw(Ts)) = 355 Btu/lb m
Latent heat of vaporization at Tsteam (L vdh ) = 845 Btu/lb m
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 213

Heat capacity of reservoir (M R ) = 35 Btu/ft 3 - of

Heat capacity of surrounding rocks (Ms) = 45 Btuife - of
Thermal diffusivity of surrounding rocks «(Xs) = 0.75 ft 2IDay
In the five spot pattern the side distance, L', is related to the well spacing in acres/pattern, A, by the
relationship L' = 208.71 (A)o.s. The steady state flow resistance for injectivity and productivity is considered
equal and can be represented by
1 1 I1P 141.21la Fo
I J

where I1P is the pressure difference at bottom hole flowing conditions between injectors and producers (psi).
qinj is the injection (or production) rate in rb/d
/-La is the reservoir condition oil viscosity (cp)
h is the reservoir thickness (ft)
Fe is the pattern geometric factor, which for the five spot is 2 [In(L' /rw) - 0.9640]

For a steam heated injector and a cyclic steam stimulated producer assume that the flow resistance
compared to non-steam injection reduces by a factor of 5. The minimum flowing bottom hole pressure
permitted in the shallow reservoir is 200 psi and the maximum bottom hole injection pressure is 900 psi.
Steam injection should be planned until the steam zone occupies 50% of the pattern volume, for times
between 1 and 2.5 years from the start of injection.

Example 12.4
Determine the dry gas volume and liquid volume at standard conditions for a gas condensate reservoir with
the following characteristics:
Net thickness = 300 ft
Effective radius = 3 miles
Average porosity = 18%
Average connate water saturation = 25%
Reservoir temperature at datum = 210°F
Reservoir pressure at datum = 4500 psi
Separator liquid gravity = 57.2° API
Separator gas gravity (reI air) = 0.58
Total gas-oil ratio = 5000 scf/stb

References
[1] Bond, D.C. (Ed.)
Determination of Residual Oil Saturation, Interstate Oil Compact Commission (1978), Oklahoma.
[2] PoeUman, F.H. (Ed.)
Secondary and Tertiary Oil Recovery Processes, Interstate Oil Compact Commission (1974), Oklahoma.
[3] Latil, M.
Enhanced Oil Recovery, IFP Publications, Graham and Trotman, London (1980).
[4] van Poollen, H.K.
Fundamentals of Enhanced Oil Recovery, Penwell Books, Tulsa (1980).
[5] Klins, M.A.
Carbon Dioxide Flooding, IHRDC, Boston. (1984).
[6] Stalkup, F.I.
Miscible Displacement, SPE Monograph No 8, Soc. Pet. EngL, Dallas (1983).
[7] Shah, D.O. (Ed.)
Surface Phenomena in Enhanced Oil Recovery, Plenum Press, NY (1981).
[8] Shah, D.O. and Schechter, R.S. (Eds)
Improved Oil Recovery by Surfactant and Polymer Flooding, Academic Press (1977).
[9] Katz, M.L. and Stalkup, R.I.
Oil recovery by miscible displacement, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo London (1983), RTD 2 (1).
214 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[to] Thomas, E.C. and Ausburn, B.E.

Determining swept zone residual oil saturation in a slightly consolidated Gulf Coast sandstone reservoir, JPT
(April 1979), 513.
[11] Bath, P.G.H., van der Burgh, and Ypma, J.G.J.
Enhanced oil recovery in the North Sea, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo London (1983), AID 2 (2).
[12] Mattax, C.C., Blackwell, R.J. and Tomich, J.F.
Recent advances in surfactant flooding, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo London (1983), RID (3).
[13] Putz, A., Bosio, J., Lambrid, J. and Simandoux, P.
Summary of recent French work on surfactant injection, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo London (1983), RTD 2 (4).
[14] Kuuskraa, V., Hammershaimb, E.C. and Stosor, G.
The efficiency of enhanced oil recovery techniques: a review of significant field tests, Proc. 11th World Pet. Congo
London (1983), RP13.
[15] Grist, D.M., Hill, V.P. and Kirkwood, F.G.
Offshore Enhanced Oil Recovery, IP 84-008 reprinted from Petroleum Review (July 1984),40.
[16] Passmore, M.J. and Archer, J.S.
Thermal properties of reservoir rocks and fluids, In Developments in Petroleum Engineering-I. (Ed. Dawe and
Wilson), Elsevier, Amsterdam (1985).
[17] Archer, J.S.
Surfactants and polymers-state of the art, Proc. Conf on Improved Oil Recovery, Aberdeen (Nov. 1984), SREA.
[18] Macadam, J.M. .
North Sea stimulation logistics and requirements, SPE 12999, Proc. Europ. Off. Pet. Conf London 1984, Soc. Pet.
Engr.
[19] Cooper, R.E. and Bolland, J.A.
Effective diversion during matrix acidisation of water injection wells, OTC 4795, Proc. 16th Ann. OTe, Houston
(1984).
[20] Sorbie, K.S., Robets, L.J. and Foulser, R.W.
Polymer flooding calculations for highly stratified Brent sands in the North Sea, Proc. 2nd Europ. Symp. on
Enhanced Oil Recovery, Paris (1982).
[21] Taber,J.J.
Research on EOR, past, present and future, In Surface Phenomena in EOR (Ed. Shah), Plenum Pub, NY (1981),
13.
[22] Shah, D.O.
Fundamental aspects of surfactant polymer flooding processes, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR, Bournemouth
(1981), l.
[23] Nelson, R.C. and Pope, G.A.
Phase relationships in chemical flooding, Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 18 (5), (1978),325.
[24] Pope, G.A. and Nelson, R.c.
A chemical flooding compositional simulator, SPEJ 18 (1979), 339.
[25] National Petroleum Council
Enhanced Oil Recovery, NPC Report (June 1984), Washington.
[26] Coulter, S.R. and Wells, R.D.
The advantage of high proppant concentration in fracture simulation, JPT (June 1972), 643.
[27] Doscher, T.M., Oyekan~ R. and EI-Arabi
The displacement of crude oil by CO2 and N2 in gravity stabilised systems, SPEJ 24 (1984), 593.
[28] Whitson, C.H.
Effect of C7+ properties on equation of state predictions, SPEJ 24 (1984), 685.
[29] Bang, H.W. and Caudle, B.H.
Modelling of a miscellar/polymerprocess, SPEJ (1984), 617.
[30] Thomas, C.P., Fleming, P.D. and Winter, W.W.
A ternary, 2 phase mathematical model of oil recovery with surfactant systems, SPEJ 24 (1984), 606.
[31] Chase, C.A. and Todd, M.R.
Numerical simulation of CO2 flood performance, SPEJ (1984), 597.
[32] Kantar, K. et al.
Design concepts of a heavy-oil recovery process by an immiscible CO 2 application, JPT (Feb. 1985),275.
[33] Fulscher, R.A., Ertekin, T. and Stahl, C.D.
Effect of capillary number and its constituents on two phase relative permeability curves, JPT (Feb. 1985),249.
[34] Reitzel, G.A. and Callow, G.O.
Pool description and performance analysis leads to understanding Golden Spike's miscible flood, JPT (July 1977),
867.
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 215

[35] Kidwell, e.M. and Guillory, A.J.

A recipe for residual oil saturation determination, JPT (Nov. 1980), 1999.
[36] Perry, G.E. and Kidwell, C.M.
Weeks Island'S' sand reservoir B gravity stable miscible CO 2 displacement, Proc. 5th Ann. DOE Symp. EOR
(1979).
[37] Wilson, D.e., Prior, E.M. and Fishman, D.M.
An analysis of recovery techniques in large offshore gas condensate fields, EUR 329, Proc. Europ. Pet. Coni
London (1982), Soc. Pet. Eng.
[38] Sigmund, P. et at.
Laboratory CO 2 floods and their computer simulation, Proc. 10th World Pet. Congo 3 (1979), 243.
[39] Katz, D.L. and Firoozabadi, A.
Predicting phase behaviour of condensate/crude oil systems using methane interaction coefficients, JPT (Nov.
1978), 1649.
[40] Rathmell, J., Braun, P.H. and Perkins, T.K.
Reservoir waterflood residual oil saturation from laboratory tests, JPT (Feb. 1973), 175.
[41] Schechter, R.S., Lam, e.S. and Wade, W.H.
Mobilisation of residual oil under equilibrium and non equilibrium conditions, SPE 10198, Proc. 56th Ann. Fall
Mtg. (1981), Soc. Pet. Eng.
[42] Mahers, E.G. and Dawe, R.A.
The role of diffusion and mass transfer phenomena in the mobilisation of oil during miscible displacement, ProC.
Europ. Symp. EOR (1982).
[43] Wall, e.G., Wheat, M.R., Wright, R.J. and Dawe, R.A.
The adverse effects of heterogeneities on chemical slugs in EaR, Proc. lEA Workshop on EOR, Vienna (Aug.
1983).
[44] Aziz, K.
Complete modelling of EaR processes, Proc. Europ. Symp. EOR, Bournemouth (1981), 367.
[45] Bristow, B.J.S. de
The use of slim tube displacement experiments in the assessment of miscible gas projects, Proc. Europ. Symp.
EOR, Bournemouth (1981), 467.
[46] Wilson, D.C., Tan, T.e. and Casinader, P.C.
Control of numerical dispersion in compositional simulation, Proc. Europ. Symp. EOR, Bournemouth (1981), 425.
[47] Claridge, E.L.
CO 2 flooding strategy in a communicating layered reservoir, JPT(Dec. 1982),2746.
[48] Koval, E.J.
A method for predicting the performance of unstable miscible displacement in heterogeneous media, SPEJ (June
1963), 145.
[49] Metcalfe, R.S.
Effects of impurities on minimum miscibility pressures and minimum enrichment levels for CO 2 and rich gas
displacements, SPEJ (April 1982), 219.
[50] Jennings, H.Y., Johnson, e.E. and McAuliffe, e.D.
A caustic waterflooding process for heavy oils, J PT (Dec. 1974), 1344.
[51] Melrose, J.e. and Brandner, e.F. .
Role of capillary forces in determining microscopic displacement efficiency for oil recovery by waterflooding,
J.Can. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1974),54.
[52] Chesters, D.A., Clark, e.J. and Riddiford, F.A.
Downhole steam generation using a pulsed burner, ProC. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR Bournemouth (1981), 563.
[53] Lemonnier, P.
Three dimensional numerical simulation of steam injection, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR 7Bournemouth (1981),
379.
[54] Risnes, R., Dalen, V. and Jensen, J.r.
Phase equilibrium calculations in the near critical region, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR Bournemouth (1981), 329.
[55] Sayegh, S.G. and McCafferty, F.G.
Laboratory testing procedures for miscible floods, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR Bournemouth (1981), 285.
[56] Vogel, P. and Pusch, G.
Some aspects of the injectivity of non Newtonian fluids in porous media, Proc. 1st Europ. symp. EOR
Bournemouth (1981),179.
[57] Brown, C.E. and Langley, G.O.
The provision of laboratory data for EaR simulation, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR Bournemouth (1981), 81.
216 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[58] Archer, J.S.

Thermal properties of heavy oil rock and fluid systems, Proc. Conf. Problems Associated with the Production of
Heavy Oil, Oyez Scientific and Technical Services (March 1985).
[59] White, J.L. Goddard, J.E. and Phillips, H.M.
Use of polymers to control water production in oil wells, JPT (Feb. 1973), 143.
[60] Bing, P.e., Bowers, B. and Lomas, RH.
A model for forecasting the economic potential for enhanced oil recovery in Canada, J. Can. Pet. Tech.
(Nov.-Dec. 1984),44.
[61] Meyer, R.F. and Steele, e.T.
The future of heavy crude oils and tar sands, Proc. 1st Int. Conf. (June 1979), UNITAR (McGraw Hill Inc., NY).
[62] Offeringa, J., Barthel, Rand Weijdema, J.
Keynote paper: thermal recovery methods, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EaR Bournemouth (Sept. 1981),527.
[63] Nakorthap, K. and Evans, R.D.
Temperature dependent relative permeability and its effect on oil displacement by thermal methods, SPE 11217,
Proc. 57th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (Sept. 1982).
[64] Okandan, E. (Ed.)
Heavy Crude Oil Recovery, Nato ASI Series, Martinus NijhoffPub. (1984), The Hague.
[65] Spivak, A. and Dixon, T.N.
Simulation of gas condensate reservoirs, SPE 4271, 3rd Symp. Numerical Simulation (1973), Houston.
[66] Dystra, H.
Calculated pressure build up for a low permeability gas condensate well, JPT (Nov. 1961),1131.
[67] Ham, J.D. Brill, J.P. and Eilerts, C.K.
Parameters for computing pressure gradients and the equilibrium saturation of gas condensate fluids flowing in
sandstones, SPE J. (June 1974), 203.
[68] Saeidi, A. and Handy, L.L.
Flow of condensate and highly volatile oils through porous media, SPE 4891, Proc. California Reg. Mtg. (April
1974), Los Angeles.
[69] Fussell, D.D.
Single well performance prediction for gas condensate reservoirs, JPT (July 1973), 860.
[70] Eaton, B.A. and Jacoby, R.H.
A new depletion performance correlation for gas condensate reservoir fluid, JPT (July 1965), 852.
[71] Ruedelhuber, F.O. and Hinds, R.F.
A compositional material balance method for prediction of recovery from volatile oil depletion drive reservoirs,
JPT(Jan. 1957),19.
[72] Firoozabadi, A., Hekim, Y. and Katz, D.L.
Reservoir depletion calculations for gas condensates using extended analyses in the Peng-Robinson equation of
state, Can. J. Chern. Eng. 56 (Oct. 1978),610.
[73] Katz, D.L.
Possibility of cycling deep depleted oil reservoirs after compression to a single phase, Trans. AIME 195 (1952), 175.
[74] Sprinkle, T.L., Merrick, RJ. and Caudle, B.
Adverse influence of stratification on a gas cycling project, JPT (Feb 1971), 191.
[75] Holst, P.H. and Zadick, T. W.
Compositional simulation for effective reservoir management, JPT (March 1982), 635.
[76] Fernandes Luque, R., Duns, H. and van der Viis, A.e.
Research on improved hydrocarbon recovery from chalk deposits, Proc. Symp. New Technologies for Exploration
and Exploitation of Oil and Gas Resources, Luxembourg (1979), Graham and Trotman.
[77] Perry, G.E.
Weeks Island'S' sand reservoir B gravity stable miscible CO 2 displacement, SPEIDOE 10695, Proc. 3rd Jt. Symp.
EaR (April 1982), 309.
[78] Elias, R., Johnstone, J.R. and Krause, J.D.
Steam generation with high IDS feedwater, SPE 8819, Proc. 1st Jt. SPEIDOE Symp. EaR, Tulsa (April 1980), 75.
[79] Greaves, M. and Patel, K.M.
Surfactant dispersion in porous media, Proc. 2nd Europ. Symp. EaR, Paris (Nov. 1982),99.
[80] Rovere, A., Sabathier, J.C. and Bossie Codreanu, D.
Modification of a black oil model for simulation of volatile oil reservoirs, Proc. 2nd Europ. Symp. EaR, Paris
(Nov. 1982),359.
[81] Monslave, A., Schechter, RS. and Wade, W.H.
Relative per me abilities of surfactant, steam, water systems, SPEIDOE 12661, Proc. SPEIDOE Fourth Symp. EaR
(April 1984), 315.
12 IMPROVED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY 217

[82] Bragg, J.R. and Shallenberger, L.K.

Insitu determination of residual gas saturation by injection and production of brine, SPE 6047, Proc. 51st Ann. Fall
Mtg. (1976).
[83] Driscoll, V.J. and Howell, R.G.
Recovery optimization through infill drilling concepts, SPE 4977, Pmc. 49th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1974).
[84] Kyte,J.R.etal.
Mechanism of water flooding in the presence of free gas, Trans. A/ME 207 (1956), 915.
[85] Weyier, J.R. and Sayre, A.T.
A novel pressure maintenance operation in a large stratigraphic trap, JPT (Aug. 1959), 13.
[86] Whitson, C.H.
Practical aspects of characterising petroleum fluids, Proc. Conf. North Sea Condensate Reservoirs and their
Development, Oyez Sci. Tech. Servo (May 1983), London.
[87] Prats, M.
Thermal Recovery, SPE Monograph Vol 7, Soc. Pet. Eng (1982), Dallas.
[88] Coats, K.H.
Simulation of gas condensate reservoir performance. JPT (Oct. 1985),1870.
[89] Schirmer, R.M. and Eson, R.L.
A direct-fired down hole steam generator- from design to field testJPT (Oct 1985), 1903
[90] Nierode, D.E.
Comparison of hydraulic fracture design methods to observed field results JPT (Oct. 1985), 1831.
[91] Weiss, W.W. and Baldwin, R.
Planning and implementing a large-scale polymer flood. JPT (April 1985), 720.
[92] Kilpatrick, P.K., Scriven, L.E. and Davis, H.T.
Thermodynamic modelling of quaternary systems: oillbrine/surfactant/alcohol. SPEJ 25 (1985), 330.
[93] Clancy, J.P. et. al.
Analysis of nitrogen injection projects to develop screening guides and offshore design criteria. JPT (June 1985),
1097.
 Chapter 13

Factors Influencing Production

Operations

This chapter is concerned with providing a brief

introduction to the principal elements of production
systems. The total field of production engineering is
very much wider than the subject matter of this
chapter and can comprise:
(a) Reservoir performance
Completion intervals, perforations perform-
ance, completion practices, completion
equipment;
(b) Well equipment
Stress analysis for tubulars and packers,
corrosion/erosion considerations, tubular
selection, packer selection, wellhead selec-
tions, safety valves, wireline services/
facilities;
(c) Well performance analysis
Natural flow performance, artificial lift re-
quirements, performance analysis, predic-
tion;
(d) Stimulation and remedial operations
Acidization, fracturing, recompletions re-
drilling, remedial acceleration. Fig. 13.1
shows a jack-up rig used for a workover at a
remote jacket.
(e) Oil and gas processing
Separation, sweetening, dehydration;
(f) Produced water and injection water treatment.

13.1 THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

The total production system is a complex, multiwell, Fig. 13.1 Jack-up rig being used to work over a well on a
possibly multireservoir, system of producing wells, remote jacket platform. (Photo courtesy of BP.)

218
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 219

1400 1000
Intermed iate
compressor
station

Fig. 13.2 Complex system of reservoirs, pipelines and stations in a gas field development.

flowlines, primary process facilities and delivery of production engineering is the evaluation of
lines (Fig. 13.2). producing system characteristics and their interac-
The rates of production required will be checked tions so that maximum, optimum or design rates of
by a combination of technical factors - especially production can be maintained at minimum costs.
reservoir and well characteristics - and of economic The analysis of an existing system to identify bottle-
factors - contract quantities, capital investment and necks or constraints and to modify such a system
market requirements. One of the primary purposes for improved performance (debottlenecking) is an
important aspect of production engineering.
Offshore alternatives to fixed platform develop-
ments are shown in Fig. 13.14. The use of subsea
wellheads is more appropriate in deeper water
fields, or where wells are required beyond deviation
angles of platform wells.
At this stage, the principal concern is the design
of one representative element of a production system
- one producing well. This comprises the associated
reservoir volume, the well bore and flow string,
surface control chokes and delivery to the flowline.
Interaction with other elements of a complex system
is assumed to be defined by constraints on flowline
pressure and/or well flow rate. Figure 13.3 shows
offshore loading of oil to a tanker, a common
alternative to oil transportation by pipeline.
Flow from the reservoir to the flowline through
the three elements concerned - the reservoir, the
flow string and the choke system - is the system to be
considered (Fig. 13.4).
The principal objectives are to determine the
initial deliverability of a well under specified condi-
tions. The further considerations of changes in
deliverability and prediction of artificial lift or
compression requirements belong in a more
advanced treatment.
Fig. 13.3 Offshore loading of oil by tanker from a spar.
(Photo courtesy of BP.)
220 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

between flow rate q and draw down (P - P wf)' and at

anyone instant of time the relationship would be
linear with P wf. The flow rate of a well is then
determined uniquely by a specified flowing bottom-
Flowhne
hole pressure.
In practice, productivity index will vary with flow
rate if the range is large and inertial effects arise, will
vary with pressure if gas evolves, with effective oil
permeability, and with time as oil, gas and water
saturations and viscosities change.
f-------- Tubing Particular care is needed in planning if test rates
are artifically restricted to values very much lower
than anticipated development well rates, and when
straight line extrapolation may be over-optimistic.
The complete relationship between flow rate and
drawdown (or flowing bottom-hole pressure) is
defined as the inflow performance relationship
Pwf ReservOIr (IPR).
For an oil well with no inertial effects an equation
can be written
Fig. 13.4 The flow system.
q ~[ constant· kh]
~ 3
JF kroBo dP
~o
loge r w - 4" +S P wf
13.2 RESERVOIR BEHAVIOUR IN
PRODUCTION ENGINEERING where ~O> Bo are functions of pressure, and k ro is a
function of saturation.
It is evident that no more oil or gas can be produced Above the bubble-point, the produce ~o is
from a well than will flow into that well from the approximately constant and kro is I at irreducible
reservoir, and any study of well performance must water saturation, so that the PI is approximately con-
start with an assessment of reservoir/well interac- stant for these conditions if inertial effects are absent.
tions. If the pressure near the well bore drops below the
For production engineering purposes a fairly bubble-point, or if inertial effects become significant
simplified criterion of reservoir behaviour is needed, at high rates, then the PI is not constant, and the
rather than advanced reservoir engineering, and IPR becomes curvilinear.
idealized radial flow equations are modified for this
purpose. 13.2.2 Dimensionless IPRs for oil wells

13.2.1 Productivity index and well It has been found that the curvature of the inflow
inflow performance performance relationship is reasonably well fitted by
a quadratic equation for a very wide range of
A simple index of well performance is the productiv- reservoir conditions. A general dimensionless
ity index (PI) of the well, defined by quadratic equation can be defined as
rate of production ____
PI = J = - - - ' - - - -
drawdown
q
P- P wf
9..
qmax
= 1_ a(~)
P
_(I-a )(~)2
P
where q = rate of production m 31D or bID, P =
reservoir average or static pressure, P wf = flowing where P = reservoir average, static pressure, qmax =
bottom-hole pressure at the rate q. hypothetical rate at zero bottom-hole flowing press-
The use of this index implies that it is a constant ure, Pwf = flowing bottom-hole pressure at the rate
characteristic of a well, which is by no means true, of q. The factor a was found by Vogel [6[ to be 0.2,
but it has long been used as a basis for representing and the Vogel dimensionless IPR is
well productivity, and as a basis for analysis.
For a constant PI a linear relationship would exist 9..
qmax
= 1 - 0.2 [ ~P ]_ 0.8 [ ~P ]2
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 221

Theoretically this relationship should be used T = mean temperature (absolute)

below the bUbble-point pressure and a linear rela- z = gas deviation factor
tionship above the bubble-point, but as a first f = friction factor (see Fig. 13.5)
approximation to the curvilinear IPR the Vogel L = tubing length
relationship will be considered adequate at this S = dummy variable = constant YgHIZT
stage. Obviously simulation studies could generate H = vertical depth to tubing shoe
IPRs for complex conditions but this is rarely an
objective of production engineering. When f is a Fanning friction factor, and Q is in
MMCSF/d, d in inches, L in feet, P in psi and Tin
13.2.3 IPRs for gas wells degrees Rankine, then the constant is 0.1. .
When field data is available for matching it may be
It has been conventional for many years to test gas possible to derive a locally valid equation:
wells at a series of flow rates and to express the
2 a (Pw / - b P?)d5
results in the form of a back pressure equation: Qb = L
Q = constant (p2 - P wit which can be used for different flow string diameters
where n is expected normally to have a value and drilled depths of wells.
between 0.5 and 1.0. This equation enables a further plot of P wf against
Alternatively, data may be expressed in the form rate to be established, as shown in Fig. 13.6.
Tubing flow characteristics can be established for
pz - Pwi = AQ + BQ2 a range of diameters and specified wellhead press-
In each case it is possible to fit observed data and ures, and the intersections with the IPR for the well
to generate a complete IPR plot of P wf against rate establishes the well deliverability for those condi-
q. tions.
Having considered the reservoir performance -
the deliverability from reservoir to well bore - the 13.3.2 Flow of oil
next element of the system is the wellbore itself - the
determination of the flow rate that can be sustained The flow of crude oil in a well bore can be very
from the reservoir depth to the wellhead. complex, since under most conditions pressures will
fall below the bubble-point and gas will be evolved
from solution.
13.3 WELLBORE FLOW With a very large pressure drop from reservoir to
wellhead, the local ratios of gas to oil will change
The general assumption will first be made that a substantially due to gas expansion and to continued
specified wellhead pressure should be maintained. increasing evolution of gas. Under these conditions
Alternative cases will be considered thereafter. the patterns or regimes of flow possible in two-phase
flow may change continuously, and the calculation
13.3.1 Flow of gases of local density and friction loss can be difficult.
Since the majority of the head loss in wellbores is the
Although the flow of gas in a wellbore is not strictly hydrostatic head, it is important to use accurate
single-phase (since gas must be saturated with water volumetric data on the gas and oil concerned, but
at reservoir temperature), it can frequently be even complex iterative calculation is subject to
approximated as such, and an approximate analytic- substantial error in calculating overall pressure
al equation used to describe the pressure drop:flow drops.
rate relation in the wellbore. Such an equation is There can be no simple single equation for flow
(Pwi- e' P?)ds s 1o.S under these conditions, and a simple approach
usually involves the use of generalized pressure
Q.c = constant [ (e S - 1) YgTfzL traverses or lift curves, unless such traverses have
been specifically established for a field.
where Qsc volume rate of flow of gas at standard
= Figure 13.7 illustrates a typical set of pressure
conditions traverses where pressure: relative depth relations for
Pwf = flowing well pressure one single flow rate and a series of gas-liquid ratios
Pt = wellhead pressure are illustrated. The use of these can be justified (21.35J
d = pipe internal diameter because the principal element in the head loss is the
Yg = gas specific gravity relative to air hydrostatic term; densities of oil and gas vary only
 ~

Karman number, NRfi = ~ I gc d.6Pf

fJ- 2pL
10Z 2346810' 3 4 6 8 10' 2 34 6810~ 4 G81e!' 4 6 8 107
.06
\
.O~
II / 21
3
\ _II~T~.. I- ~
_04 20
ol)i~v ~ l-
r\ 12
f'y . :::;::---l--- t- 19
.03 e
\ <'Q
\O~ '~f v=
- 6 18
'% __ l)i~~t::: ~ 4
t\ ~~
.... .02 ~I--- 3 17
a. N
t\ i5~ \r' '4
<l > J"" ~~Vl--~
~\,~~' ~f::::::I-~ 2
'0 -l ,~ ::.- f-
" Cl.. Inside diameter, > <l -l
c>C\J o'~ ~I--~
-t-. inches . f- I~ ~ ~
0+-"
.: l' 1..& '1> 1',
~~ t-- ~
~~~
]..--
~ "~
_01 14
.E \ ~ p- "tI
c" ~
,.. " m
0+- .008 13 -II:!; -f
c
0
.. ~ /ff'
\
~ .: :a
0
~ ./ f- 12 .E r
.~
.006 <-
~~ "'" ~ ......... m
'+- .E
"
II ~~ II
c:
Cl .OO~
Inside diameter,- r- c
c 0 s::::
-/~I .iii
'cc /l-- \ ~ ~ t-- inches .!!! m
.004 3:~ --- 10 z
C ~ 2 E
LL If) C)
~ ~/V
--
~ t:;f-
~~'-- 4
8
9
c
Z
.003 ...0
& ,-'
·s .
• -
SrnOOfhf~ I-- 20 1-1-
- I:- m
m
Ubtng 8 :a
&
-./
Based on the Colebrook function t-- 1-1-
Z
.002 F:>
E
"tI
NR If
if1 _-- 4 Iog [ 3.72 d + 1255] f- 6 :a
where: Z
t- ~ 0
absolute roughness, E =0.00065 inches =ti
.001102 i LL11 _n-.l--------.L I I I I I II I 4
r
4 6 8 Icr 3 4 6 8 10' 2 3 4 6 8 10~ 2 4 6 8 10 6 4 6 8 10 7
m
en
dvp »
z
Reynolds number, NR=----;:z-
c
"tI
::D
Fig. 13.5 Friction factors in smooth pipe. »
~
(;
m
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 223
over small ranges; viscosity is not a factor in the
highly turbulent flow involved; other factors are of
minor importance. It must be remembered that the
depth scale is in no sense an absolute one - only the
intervals existing between points of different pres-
sure are represented, not their positions in space.
For example, referring to Fig. 13.7 at a rate of
1500 bid in a flow string of diameter 4 in., a wellhead
pressure of 200 psi is specified for a well with a
gas-oil ratio of 200 SCF/b. This gives a relative
depth of 2550 ft. The reservoir depth is assumed to
be 5000 ft below this, i.e. at a relative depth of 7550
Max. rote for the ft (point B). The pressure at this point is found to be
specified diameter and 1520 psi at point C. This constitutes one point on the
wellhead pressure flowing bottom-hole pressure: rate relation. Refer-
ence to further pressure traverses gives plots of
Rate q additional data points, to generate an operating
Fig. 13.6 Gas well performance. relationship as shown in Fig. 13.8.

Pressure in 100 psig

4 8 12 162016 20 24

Vertical Flowing Pressure Gradients

(All oil)
Tubing Size 4 in I.D.
Producing Rate 1500 Bbls/Day
Oil API Gravity 35° API
Gas Specific Gravity 065
Average FlOWing Temp. 140°F
3

.
4

.!
0
0
52 5
c
.c

~
-'
6
Well
depth
5000ft
7

B
o
8

10

lIiL\i
't,~~~~
6'00 'bo '00 ~Da

'bo

Fig. 13.7 Example flowing pressure gradient.

224 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

which must be lower than any temperature

likely to occur;
(b) a hydrocarbon dew-point - the temperature
at which liquid hydrocarbons will condense
from the gas stream, which also must be
lower than any temperature likely to occur;
(c) a delivery pressure;
~r-----­ (d) a calorific value (possibly associated with the
VI
VI
~
gas density in an index of burner performance
a.. or suitability);
Inflow
Performance
(e) severely restricted maximum values of acid
Relationship gas content - carbon dioxide and hydrogen
(IPR) sulphide - which are corrosive and, in the
latter case, toxic.
All natural gases are produced saturated with
Rate
water vapour, since they coexist in the reservoir at
reservoir temperature with interstitial water in the
Fig. 13.8 Oil + water (+ gas) well performance. reservoir. Also, nearly all natural gases contain
small proportions of higher molecular weight hydro-
carbons which will condense on reduction of temper-
13.4 FIELD PROCESS FACILITIES ature. Even the driest gases, of carbonaceous origin,
will precipitate a few parts per million (on a volume
Field processing involves all the mass, heat and basis) of liquid hydrocarbons. Very rich condensate
momentum transfer processes that are necessary to: streams may produce more than 1000 m3 liquid
condensate per million m3 of gas produced.
(a) meet sales or delivery specifications of hydro-
carbons (whether to pipeline or tanker);
13.5.1 Processing of dry natural gas
(b) optimize the economic value of hydrocarbons
produced;
The first requirement, at the wellhead, is to take
(c) meet any statutory requirements for the steps to remove water and water vapour before
disposal of any part of the production; delivery to a pipeline. Water and hydrocarbons can
(d) meet any specification necessary for fluids for
combine together to form crystalline materials
re-injection into the reservoir.
known as hydrates. These icelike materials are
In some cases the objectives are easily met by very dependent upon both pressure and temperature, but
simple processing, but in other cases moderately are in general formed only at low temperatures
sophisticated processing will be necessary - particu- (generally below 70°F). The expansion of gas
larly where delivery is to a tanker, so that a stable, through valves and fittings can cause such locally low
low vapour pressure product must be delivered. In temperatures, even when ambient temperatures are
the case of offshore fields, offshore processing may above hydrate formation temperatures.
be supplemented, or duplicated, by onshore proces- Consequently, gases must generally be dried,
sing, as in the case of the UK east coast gas process heated or inhibited very near to the wellhead, if
plants for gas, and the Sullom Voe terminal for wellheads, flowlines and pipelines are not to be
crude oil handling. Increasingly, also, associated gas subject to the hazard of hydrate blocking. Hydrates
streams are processed for liquid recovery before gas are inhibited by the presence of alcohols, and
is flared, and such liquid recovery will usually be methanol and glycol may be used as inhibitors.
necessary to meet sales gas specifications.
13.5.2 Natural gas dehydration

13.5 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING A typical process flow stream for the offshore
processing of natural gas is shown in Fig. 13.9. The
A sales specification for a natural gas will usually well stream is passed to a simple separator (knock
involve: out drum) in which free liquid is separated. The
(a) a water dew-point - the temperature at which (wet) gas is then heated and passed to a drying
water will condense from the gas stream, column. Drying may be effected by:
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 225

dry desiccant process (e. g. silica gel); gas from one or more reservoirs, or fields (some
liquid counterflow process (e.g. ethylene glycol). sweet, some sour), was to be commingled in a single
The schematic of Fig. 13.9 shows a liquid coun- pipeline system would offshore sweetening normally
terflow process. The gas passes in counterflow be conducted. In this case, the offshore processing of
through a column equipped with a few bubble cap a small part of the total gas stream might be more
trays, sieve trays or valve trays, and is stripped of attractive than the onshore processing of a very large
water by the glycol. The wet glycol is passed to a gas flow.
regenerator where water is boiled off, and the dry Sweetening is accomplished in a manner similar to
glycol is recirculated to the column. that of dehydration, i.e. counterflow with a suitable
The dry gas passes to a pipeline. The drying wash agent in a bubble cap tower. For CO 2 removal
processes also knock out hydrocarbon condensate. only, suitable wash agents are:
This is recovered by simple separation, the light amine wash;
hydrocarbons involved separating very easily from potassium carbonate wash.
water. For hydrogen sulphides removal:
In production from offshore natural gas reser-
voirs, there is rarely sufficient condensate produced amine - ethanolamine or diethanolamine;
to justify a separate pipeline, and the condensate is patent processes - Sulfinal and Vetrocoke.
usually spiked back in to the dry natural gas line for Other processes are also available.
recovery in onshore processing.
13.5.4 Onshore processing
K.O. Heater Separator
The processing necessary to meet dew-point speci-
Well fications is normally a moderately cheap refrigera-
Stream tion process. Figure 13.10 shows a typical process
I
I
flow diagram. The intake gas is first chilled by heat
Test
stream
exchange with the cool processed gas, glycol being

Separator

Slug catcher
Condensate
skimmer
r-------
r
r
r Condensate
I '---,-_.J
: ,---L-.....,.

: '--.,_--J
r
rL ______ _

Wet condensate

Gas to Heater
shore
Water dump

Separator
Fig. 13.9 Offshore dehydration (S.North Sea).
Scrubber

I
r
L ___ _
13.5.3 Natural gas sweetening
Sweetening is the process of removing acid gases Sales
from natural gas. If an offshore field has a significant
content of acid gases and a dedicated pipeline to
shore, the normal procedure would be to transport
the sour gas to shore after dehydration (inhibiting if
necessary) and to sweeten the gas on shore. Only if Fig. 13.10 Onshore processing.
226 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

added to inhibit hydrate formation. The gas then lines, the accurate metering of mass is desir-
passes to a refrigeration unit (either using freon as a able for equity considerations. For tanker
refrigerant, or less efficiently propane from the transport; a stringent vapour pressure speci-
condensate stream) where it is cooled to -18°C. The fication is necessary - crude stabilized at 1
resulting gas-liquid mixture is separated, the cool atmosphere and ambient temperature if
gas being heated first by heat exchange with incom- necessary, together with maximum retention
ing gas, and then by a fired heater before measure- of intermediate hydrocarbons is desirable;
ment and transfer. The liquids are boiled off to (b) the separation of gas to meet vapour pressure
separate water, condensate and glycol. Liquids from specification, and possibly the processing of
slug catchers and knockouts are blended in, and the the gas to meet a sales specification;
resulting stream stabilized to give a stable conden- (c) the separation of produced water, and the
sate fraction and a non-specification gas stream. This breaking of any produced emulsions to meet
latter is ideal for fuel. a refinery specification;
(d) the removal of any noxious or toxic materials
13.5.5 Calorific value - especially hydrogen sulphide - from the
crude oil prior to delivery;
If no inert gas is present, and dew-point specifica- (e) the removal of salt to meet a refinery speci-
tions are met, a dry natural gas will meet the usual fication. This can be a problem when crude
calorific value/density specifications. If there is a oil is produced with small proportions of
significant content of nitrogen, enrichment may be water and first stage separation occurs at high
necessary if the gas is to be put into a national grid. temperatures. Under these conditions, the
This is done by adding propane (or liquefied produced water can flash to the vapour
petroleum gas) in small quantities. Alternatively, a phase, leaving salt as a residue. Simple
large industrial user may take a non-specification gas freshwater washing is the only necessary
using burners designed for the appropriate calorific process, but this then involves further water
value. In the rare cases where the high paraffin separation.
content of gas (C2H 6 , C3Hs) gives an excessively
high calorific value, this can be reduced by dilution
13.6.1 Light oil processing
with nitrogen.
In this case, gas-oil separation is the major objec-
13.5.6 Compression tive, together with maximum recovery of intermedi-
ate hydrocarbons. The process adopted will depend
When compression is needed to meet a delivery
primarily on the subsequent use of gas. Where gas
specification (as will always be the case with a
surplus to fuel requirements is simply to be flared,
depletion gas field, and usually with water drive gas
gas stream processing will not be justified, as liquids
fields), the necessary compression is preferably will not be recovered to any significant extent from
installed as far upstream as is possible (i.e. near the
the gas stream. In this case optimization of the
wellheads). This reduces compression power re-
separation process is highly desirable, and a process
quirements, and only where pressure losses between involving several (3-4) stages of separation with
field and final process plant are small will compress- carefully designed separator pressure will be neces-
ion be installed at the process plant.
sary.
Optimization of a separator process can yield a
few extra percentage points of stabilized liquid and
13.6 CRUDE OIL PROCESSING can make a difference of one or two degrees in the
API gravity of the product. With a large crude oil
The processing of crude oil will have as its objec-
flow this can be highly significant in cash flow terms.
tives:
When gas is to be disposed of by a sales outlet, the
(a) production of a liquid stream which meets a associated gas will be processed to recover in-
transport specification. In the case of pipeline termediate hydrocarbons and obtain a sales gas
transport to an onshore process plant, the specification. In this case, the liquids will be spiked
vapour pressure specification will not be back into the crude oil stream and recovered in this
stringent. However, with common carrier way.
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 227

13.6.2 Separator design considerations The gas phase may pass through a coalescer in
which liquid droplets impinge, coalesce and drip
Separator vessels may be very simple, or may back into the liquid phase. After the coalescer, the
contain several separation elements, depending gas passes through a demister section (a pad of wire
upon the difficulty of processing. Figure 13.11 shows mesh), further to entrap and coalesce entrained
a separator of moderate complexity. The well stream liquid droplets.
impinges upon a deflector which effects a crude In the gas region of a separator, gas velocity is the
separation of liquid and gas, the liquid being critical design factor, and a rule of thumb expression
decelerated and deflected to the lower part of the for maximum gas velocity is
vessel. A weir retains a high liquid level and, behind
this weir, water separates and a level controller
maintains an oil-water level within limits. Oil spills
over the weir, and gas bubbles can rise and separate
v- elpo ;. psr
upstream and downstream of the weir. The impor- where V is the critical entrainment velocity (ft/s.), C
tant factor in this phase of separation is the residence is the separator coefficient (empirical, about 0.35-
time, and separators are usually designed to give a 0.50 ft/s.), Po> Pg are fluid densities. Level controls,
residence time of three to five minutes. level warnings and shutdown systems will keep the
separator working within its design limits.
With multiple stages of separation, the pressures
and temperatures of each stage of separation are
important to the efficiency of separation (Fig.
13.12). Optimum values can be found by laboratory
experiment on field samples, or by computation.
13.6.3 Foaming problems
With light gassy crude oils, a separation problem can
Fig. 13.11 Three-phase separator. occur if foams form with flow through the restric-

Gas to pipeline
or reservoir

NGL

~---,--U---Pipe line

Water

Oily water

Water
treatment
L...-_ _ _ _--'-_~_ Water dump

Fig. 13.12 Multistage separator.

228 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

tions of a typical separation system. In this case, the done in a heater (direct or indirect fired) upstream
residence times necessary for foams to drain effec- of the first stage separator, or in a combined
tively and break can be prohibitive and separation heater-treater.
highly inefficient. The most effective remedy is After first gas and water separation, the oil may
chemical foam breaking, the addition of a silicone pass to a heated storage tank where very long
liquid upstream of the separators being highly residence times may give the necessary separation.
effective in promoting foam drainage and break- When stable emulsions are formed and are a
down. problem which cannot be remedied by heat and
settling time, chemical demulsifiers may be used.
13.6.4 Wax problems When used they should be applied as far upstream as
is possible - possibly by injection at a downhole
Light oils are generally paraffins, and the heaviest pump intake or at least below the wellhead.
components may be paraffin waxes. These waxes Chemical treatment followed by heat treatment
may precipitate if the temperature falls below some will deal with most problems, but in a few cases of
critical value, and wax build-up in well tubing very obstinate emulsions, electrostatic precipitation
strings, flowlines and pipelines may occur. Again may be necessary as a final last resort.
chemical treatment is effective; chemical inhibitors
apparently acting to prevent growth and crystal
development of the wax. Alternatively, trace heat-
13.8 PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT
ing or periodic heat treatment and scraping can be
used to remove wax after it has built up.
There are stringent specifications for the disposal of
water within oilfields - disposal into the North Sea
13.7 HEAVY OIL PROCESSING currently requiring a hydrocarbon content of less
than 50 ppm. This requires that water from all stages
With heavy oils, gas-oil ratios are usually low, and it of separation and any oily slops or washings should
is the separation of produced water that is the be cleaned before disposal.
greater difficulty - the high viscosity of produced The essential procedures are mainly gravity set-
crude greatly retarding gravity settling of water. tling, oily skimmings from a series of settling tanks
Additionally, heavy crude oils have a greater prop- being recirculated and the final water being treated
ensity to emulsion formation than have lighter in a plate or a foam coalescer before disposal. Most
crudes. systems installed are capable of reducing the hydro-
The first procedure adopted in difficult cases is to carbon content to less than 30 ppm. Figure 13.13
heat the well stream to reduce viscosity. This may be shows a typical schematic.

Oilywaler Oilywaler
~
Gas loslops 10 slops
.E!
g
Co
3l
E
o
Lt

-------
Bubble coeleser
Oilywaler
10 slops

Sand 10 sea

To sea
via caisson
Fig. 13.13 Produced water treatment on offshore platform.
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 229

13.9 INJECTION WATER TREATMENT The final treatment is likely to be a bactericide

addition.
Water for injection may need to be highly purified
before injection into a reservoir. Fine solid materials
may plug formations, organic material or bacteria 13.10 CRUDE OIL METERING
may generate slimes, and oxygen may promote
bacterial growth and cause corrosion. Metering of crude oil and gas streams is necessary
The degree of solids removal necessary is a matter for transfer and sales purposes, and for fiscal
for experiment and experience, and in the North purposes.
Sea very fine filtration and virtually no filtration Metering of crude oil into a common carrier
have both been adopted with success. Offshore, the system requires particular care since volumes of
water supply will usually be taken from a level mixing of different crudes is not the sum of the
where suspended solids and dissolved oxygen are volumes of the component crude oils. This requires
low - which will be an intermediate depth. that each contributor with a common pipeline
A biocide will be used at the pump intake - system should maintain a record both of volume
sometimes by in-situ electrolysis of sea water - delivered, and of the density of the material deliv-
followed by a coarse filtration at the surface. ered, and keep records of the overall compositions.
De-aeration, either by counterflow in a column or by Only then can the production from a common
vacuum de-aeration, will be followed by the addition carrier system be allocated equitably back to the
of any oxygen scavenger (sodium sulphite) and contributors.
further filtration. This filtration, depending on the Crude oil streams are metered by turbine meters
degree of filtration needed, may be by means of: for the most part, although other types of meter are
under study. The turbine meters themselves are
(a) sand and/or anthracite graded beds;
calibrated regularly by means of meter provers - a
(b) diatomaceous earth/asbestos filter cakes; positive displacement device which delivers a mea-
(c) polypropylene filter cartridges.
sured quantity through the meter. This itself is
The diatomaceous earth filters are capable of recalibrated by means of calibrated tanks.
removing practically all solids down to one micron Gas flow rates are usually metered by orifice
should this be necessary. meter, with density being recorded simultaneously.

Sub-sea Sub -sea

system systems ........

Tension leg platform Semi-submersible Tanker base system

Fig. 13.14 Deeper water development alternatives.

230 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Examples
Example 13.1
(a) A well 6000 ft deep is flowing 2000 bid at a GOR of 200 SCFlbarrel on a 4 in. flow string. If the
wellhead pressure is 400 psi, what is the estimated flowing bhp?
(b) A well 5000 ft deep has a flowing bhp of 1200 psi producing 3000 bid at a GOR of 500 SCFlbarrel. What
is the estimated wellhead pressure?

Example 13.2
A drill stem test on a well indicates a flowing bottom hole pressure of 1500 psig at a rate of 3315 bId, with a
reservoir static pressure of 2600 psig. The well depth is 5500 ft deep, and the GOR is 200 SCFlbarrel. The
Vogel IPR relationship is assumed to apply.
If a flowing wellhead pressure of 400 psig is needed on production, evaluate and comment on the
performance of a 4 in. flow string for the well.

Example 13.3
Determine the size of a horizontal separator to separate 1000 m3/day of crude oil from its associated gas (SG
= 0.75) at a pressure of 20 bar and a temperature of 40°C. The oil residence time should be 3 min and the
oil-gas interface should be half way in the separator volume. The oil has a density of 796 kglm3 and a
solution gas-oil ratio of 95 m 3 /m 3 oil at O°C and 1 bar. The density of air at O°C and 1 bar is 1.275 kglm 3 . The
design ratio of diameter to length, seam to seam should be between 3 and 4 and the separator must be at
least 3 m in length. The maximum gas velocity in the separator is given in mls by

Umax = 0.125 [
PL-Pg
Pg
]0.5
References
[1] Katz, D.L.
Overview of phase behaviour in oil and gas production,JPT (June 1983), 1205.
[2] Nind, T.E.W.
Principles of Oil Well Production, McGraw Hill, NY (1981).
[3] Gilbert, W.E.
Flowing and gas-lift well performance, API Drill. Prod. Practice (1954), 126.
[4] Frick, T.e. (ed.)
Petroleum Production Handbook Vol. 1 (Mathematics and production equipment), SPE (1962).
[5] Vogel, J.V.
A field test and analytical study of intermittent gas lift, SPEJ (Oct. 1974),502.
[6] Vogel, J.V.
Inflow performance relationships for solution gas drive wells, JPT (Jan. 1968),83.
[7] Steele, R.D.
Engineering and economics used to optimize artificial lift methods, OGJ (Dec. 1976), 107.
[8] Patton, C.C.
Oilfield Water Systems, Campbell Pet. Series, Norman (1977).
[9] Boles, B.D.
Subsea production control (Beryl field), SPE 12971, Proc. Europ. Pet. Cont (Oct. 1984), 117.
[10] Dawson, A.P. and Murray, M.V.
Magnus subsea wells: design, installation and early operational experience, SPE 12973, Proc. Europ. Pet. Cont
(Oct. 1984), 133.
[11] Patel, M.H., Montgomery, J.1. and Worley, M.S.
A new concept in floating production systems, SPE 12986, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. (Oct. 1984),245.
[12] Wray, C.R.
The fundamental issues in future field development concepts (100 - 250 m waterdepth), SPE 12987, Proc. Europ.
Pet. Cont (Oct. 1984),257.
[13] Ryall, M.L. and Grant, A.A.
Development of a new high reliability downhole pumping system for large horsepowers, EUR 276, Proc. Europ.
Pet. Cont (Oct. 1982),49.
13 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS 231

[14] van Staa, R.

Separation of oil from water, EUR 278, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. (Oct. 1982),73.
[15] Hankinson, R.W. and Schmidt, T.W.
Phase behaviour and dense phase design concepts for application to the supercritical fluid pipeline system, EUR
330, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1982),505.
[16] Simmons, P.E.
North Sea offshore compression - future needs, EUR 331, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1982), 51l.
[17] Thambynayagam, R.K.M. and Bristow, P.G.
Design calculations for three phase flow behaviour in wells and flowlines and some problems in their application to
the North Sea, EUR 358, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1982), 71l.
[18] Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P.
A study of two phase flow in inclined pipes, fPT (May 1973), 607.
[19] Aziz, K., Govier, G.W. and Fogarasi, M.
Pressure drop in wells producing oil and gas, f. Can. Pet. Tech. (July - Sept. 1972),38.
[20] Taitel, Y., Bornea, D. and Dukler, A.E.
Modelling flow pattern transitions for steady upward gas-liquid flow in vertical tubes, A/ChEf (May 1980), 345.
[21] Brown, K.E.
The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Penwell Books, Tulsa (1980).
[22] Nisbet, R.c.
Efficient operations in a mature oil and gas producing area, SPE 7797, Proc. Prod. Symp. Tulsa (Feb. 1979),15.
[23] Brown, K.E.
Gas Lift Theory and Practice, Petroleum Publishing Corp. (1973).
[24] Wottge, K.E ..
Piper field: Surface facilities operating performance and problems experienced, EUR 153, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf
(Oct. 1980),45 (Vol. 1).
[25] DeMoss, E.E. and Tiemann, W.D.
Gas lift increases high volume production from Claymore field, EUR 189, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980),429
(Vol. 1).
[26] Ross, D.M., Spencer, J.A. and Stephen, D.D.
Artificial lift by electric submersible pumps in Forties, EUR 190, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980),437 (Vol. 1).
[27] Wachel, J.C. and Nimitz, W.W.
Assuring the reliability of offshore gas compression systems, EUR 205, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980),559
(Vol. 1).
[28] Taylor, F.R.
Simulation: a new tool in production operations, EUR 208, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980), 17 (Vol. 2).
[29] Planeix, J.M. and Macduff, T.
The characteristics of shuttle and buffer tankers for offshore fields, EUR 213, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980),
43 (Vol. 2).
[30] Jones, G., Buysse, A.M., Porter, R.H. and Stubbs, J.
Modelling the Brents System production facilities, EUR 228, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980), 159 (Vol. 2).
[31] Nichols, J.H. and Westby, K.A.
Innovative engineering makes Maureen development a reality; EUR 231, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf (Oct. 1980), 185
(Vol. 2).
[32] Mitchell, R. W. and Finch, T.M.
Water quality aspects of North Sea injection water, EUR 33, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. (Oct. 1978),263 (Vol. 1).
[33] McLeod, W.R.
Prediction and control of natural gas hydrates, EUR 116, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf. (Oct. 1980),449 (Vol. 2).
[34] Allen, T.O. and Roberts, A.P.
Production Operations (Vols 1 and 2), Oil and Gas Cons. Int. (1978).
[35] Aziz, K., Eickmeier, J.R., Fogarasi, M. and Gregory, G.A.
Gradient Curves for Well rlnalysis and Design, Can. Inst. Min. Met. Monogr. Sp. Vol. 20 (1983).
[36] Arnold, K.E.
Design concepts for offshore produced water treating and disposal systems, fPT (Feb. 1983),276.
[37] Arnold, K. and Stewart, M.
Designing oil and gas producing systems, World Oil, (March 1985) 69, (Nov. 1984) 73, (Dec. 1984) 87.
[38] Geertsma, J.
Some rock-mechanical aspects of oil and gas well completions, EUR 38, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf, London (1978),
301, Vol. l.
[39] Mukierjee, H. and Brill, J.
Liquid holdup correlations for inclined two phase flow, fPT (May 1983),1003.
232 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[40] Goland, M.
Production Engineering (1986) IHRDC, Boston.
[41] Cox,J.L.
Natural Gas Hydrates; Properties, Occurrence and Recovery. Butterworth (Ann Arbor Science Books), 1983.
[42] Ashkuri, S. and Hill, T.J.
Measurement of multiphase flows in crude oil production systems. Petroleum Review (Nov. 1985),14.
[43] Baker, R.C. and Hayes, E.R.
Multiphase measurement problems and techniques for crude oil production systems. Petroleum Review (Nov. 1985)
18.
[44] Jamieson, A.W. etal.
Multiphase flow measurements at production platforms. Petroleum Review (Nov. 1985),23.
[45] Brown, K.E. and Lea, J.F.
Nodal systems analysis of oil and gas wells. JPT (Oct 1985) 1751.
[46] El-Hattab, M.1.
Scale deposition in surface and subsurface production equipment in the Gulf of Suez. JPT (Sept. 1985). 1640.
[47] Beggs, M.D.
Gas Production Operations. aGel (1984).
[48] Eissler, V.C. and McKee, R.E.
Offshore production operations. JPT (April 1985) 583.
[49] Giles, A.J.
Arun Field high pressure gas reinjection facilities. JPT (April 1985) 701.
 Chapter 14

Concepts in Reservoir Modelling and

Application to Development Planning

In this chapter the principles of modelling using properties away from direct well control. An interac-
reservoir simulators are presented, and emphasis is tive analysis of geological models results from testing
placed on reservoir description and displacement their predictions against new well data using fluid
mechanisms. The application of reservoir models in flow and vertical pressure gradients. Revised geolo-
field development and resource management is gical models develop from consideration of reservoir
illustrated in the rest of the chapter. performance data as well as from new geological
evidence alone [17J. Mathematical models are de-
signed to describe reservoir volumetrics and flow
14.1 MODELS behaviour using the Darcy relationship and con-
servation of mass, together with empirical paramet-
In petroleum reservoir development a broad defini- ric relationships. Mathematical models may be
tion of modelling is adopted in which a model is any simple (tank models, linear or radial one-
device by which a predictive understanding of dimensional (I-D) displacement), or complex
reservoir performance and/or description can be (multidimensional, multiphase, multicomponent)
obtained. In this sense it may be physical, concep- flow models. Depending on the definition of the
tual or mathematical. problem and the availability of data, the choice of
Physical models include sand packs, cores and approach lies with the petroleum engineer [15J.
core plugs, Hele Shaw models and micromodels. Multidimensional, multiphase reservoir analysis
The objective in using physical models is to define requires definition of a reservoir in discrete regions
physical behaviour, flow patterns, residual satura- with given properties and rules of flow. The defini-
tions and other parameters which may define bound- tion of such regions may be cells or nodes (Fig. 14.1)
ary conditions and perhaps allow scaling to reservoir and leads to the formulation of relationships be-
conditions [6,7,9,10, IlJ. tween saturation and pressure as non-linear differen-
Conceptual models provide a basis for exploration tial equations, which can be solved approximately
of physical processes and are used to guide quantita- using finite difference [30,31, 44, 46, 47J or finite element
tive estimation. The main types of conceptual mathematics [88J. The numerical solution of these
models involved in reservoir modelling concern reservoir equations using high speed computers is
geological models [12, 26, 32, 38, 60, 66, 67, 77, 89J. Depositional known as reservoir simulation modelling. The suc-
and diagenetic history of sediments are presented to cess of a numerical model depends on two particular
account for present day observations of facies conditions, the former of which is more likely to be
character and petrophysical property distribution. In satisfied.
a predictive sense a geological conceptual model is (1) The ability of the equations to represent
used to guide the values attributed to reservoir
233
234 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

consists of adding terms in i)/iJy and iJ/iJz and in

" ...... -' ~ accounting for gravity effects.
1\
./ iI For a conservation term in stock tank units
",
il (broadly equivalent to mass, and identical if the API
Ii gravity is constant), we can write for the cell
illustrated in Fig. 14.3

\ ,.,..- ' : x+6X

Mass rate
.....
'- . t-.
-' out

Reservoir split into blocks

Write equations for flow in and out of each block Mass rate
In

Fig. 14.3 Unit cell.

Mass rate in - mass rate out

Sum of rates of inflow = = mass rate of accumulation
rate of accumulation

For the oil phase we have

Fig. 14.1 Methodology.

1+1

tl.X tl. Y tl.Z

/:it

which in the limit becomes

For the water phase we have a similar equation:

FWL_...Jt-_
Fig. 14.2 Individual cell or grid block properties. iJ [kw iJPw] -til
<l>Sw]
iJX IlwBw' iJX = iJt Bw
physics of flow and equilibrium in the For the gas phase the equation must include both
reservoir/well system. free gas and gas from solution in the oil (we could at
(2) the ability of cell or node properties to this stage ignore gas dissolved in water). The limit
represent the true three-dimensional (3-D) equation thus becomes
reservoir description, within a particular cell
of dimensions D x , D y , D z and mid-point depth
E from a reference datum. The values of cell
porosity and directional permeability are de-
fined at the cell centre (Fig. 14.2).

14.2 EQUATIONS OF MULTIPHASE

FLOW
The equations presented here show that at any
These will be illustrated in a linear system for point in space there are at least six unknowns,
simplicity. An extension to three dimensions simply namely Po> Pw , Pg, So> Sw, Sg. In order to provide a
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 235

solution we therefore require three further linking For complex geometry systems there can be no
equations defining saturation and capillary pressures analytical check on results - only comparison with
of the oil-water and gas-oil systems. gross simplified analytical estimates and reasonable-
ness. For models involving large numbers of cells,
So + Sw + Sg = 1 phases or components, the direct solution method
Peg = Pg - Po may involve excessive computer time. Algorithms
for several iterative solutions have been published
Pew = Po - P w and treat pressure and saturation in all combinations
For the three-dimensional system shown in Fig. from fully explicit (data known at start time level for
14.4 the rate of accumulation at cell is given by the time step) to fully implicit (data known at end
time level for the time step). A particularly utilized
(qO)i-Nx-Ny + (qo)i-Nx + (qo)i-l + (qo)i+l method of arranging the differential equations in
+ (qo)i+Nx + (qo)i+Nx +N y
finite difference form results in a solution known as
IMPES, meaning IMplicit in Pressure, Explicit in
1+ f I
;-1 ;+1
1-0
Saturation. Iteration procedures terminate when
convergence criteria are satisfied.
i-Nx

~
14.3 SIMULATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
2-0

~
General classification of reservoir simulators is by
dimensionality, phases or composition components,
grid arrangement and solution approach, as shown
in Table 14.1 and in Fig. 14.5.
Just about all the combinations suggested exist for
finite difference simulators. Finite element methods
which should be superior in frontal saturation
tracking are not common in a 3-D/3-phase mode.
The connection of well and operating constraints
;+Nx+Ny further serves to delineate different models. Tubing
Fig. 14.4 Flow into celli from neighbours in different flow is usually considered explicitly in a time step, as
geometries. at present any implicit treatment is excessive in
computing time. The arrangement of a simulator
The solution of these equations may be tends to be as shown in Fig. 14.6. The main program
approached by direct solution (Gaussian or matrix directs the calculation and reporting procedures, and
decomposition) or by a number of iterative algor- the substance of the simulator is contained in
ithms. For discussion of these techniques the reader subroutines.
is directed to specialist texis [45, 461. The treatment of
error in finite difference and finite element formula-
tions is important in several applications. The effects 14.4 SIMULATOR APPLICATION
of cell size and solution time step size are interlinked
in the efficiency of solution algorithms. One of the As is clear from the number of simulator combina-
most important tests of reservoir simulation accura- tions available, the selection process for a particular
cy that can be made concerns numerical dispersion task falls to the reservoir engineer. Selection is based
or the smearing of a saturation front across several on the nature and definitions of the task, the data
cells. Part of the smearing may result from the availability and the economic value of the result [15].
definition of an appropriate effective permeability Analytical analyses of a simplified representation of
solely at the boundary between two cells undergoing the reservoir and its contents can provide an insight
fluid exchange. The use of the effective permeability into proper selection of simulator tools and gives a
in the upstream cell only during a time step is basis for comparison of results. Simulations are
widespread. The problem is usually assessed by frequently conducted to provide information on the
comparing the results of an analytical Buckley sensitivity of ill-defined parameters in reservoir
Leverett [21 frontal movement with that predicted by performance prediction. Examples of such sensitiv-
I-D, 2-phase (2-P) simulation. This should provide ity parameters may well be transmissibility [kA/ L ],
an indication of required cell sizes and time steps. relative permeability, irreducible saturations and
236 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 14.1 Classification of simulators

Dimensions Phases/ Grid/node Options for

composition arrangement solution
0-0 (material 1-Pgas Cartesian (regular) Finite element
balance) 1-Pwater Cartesian (irregular) Finite difference
1-0 linear 2-P black oil-w Radial (vertical wells) - direct soln
1-0 vertical 2-P black oil-g Radial (horizontal wells) - implicit
-IMPES
2-0 cross-section 3-Pbo-w-g Nodal Semi implicit
2-0 areal Ncomponent - explicit
3-0 sector N pseudo-components Conformal mapping
3-0 full field N comp-chemical flood
- thermal process
- miscible process
- inert gas process
-volatile oil
- gas condensate

Zero: Material balance, single cell

Input processor / HCIIP

1-0:
across bedding planes (vertical) -
Definition of dimensions and
spatial positions of cells or
nodes and association with
I Pressure dependent
I properties
r--
petrophYSical properties and
fluid compositions. Calculation I Saturat ion dependent ~
of fluid distributIon and hydro I properties
corbon and water In ploce

along bedding planes (horizontal)

((. (. (. (. (. (. (. (.0
2-D:
areal Rates routine

I
Defines each wellm the reserYOlr in

II
terms of location, time on/offand
!---- baSIS for Ifs calculation of rate Any Tub,"9 flow and
cross - section constrOlnts In terms of limiting rates, pressure drop
pressures, water cuts, gas cuts etc methods

rf6ttFfi~
from Individual wells or gathenng
centres are defined helrarchlcolly

3-D:

,,1I3-dimM,ioo g~
coarse or fme Main programme Solution routine
mesh Main calhng program Gathers coeffiCients and
and logical baSIS - all matnx data for solving H Direct solutions I
H I
for simulator matenal balance and flow
equations Incorporated into
the non linear differential
Radial geometry: Iterotiye solutions
form. Selects solver choice 1

Coo';-~
subroutine from choice selected 2etc

Logarithmic cell radii

away from well bore
3600~~ Output processor
I---i Edit file record
Organisation of output record data
I
,4.Yx
L-- from solution in terms of well and
gathering centres. Transfer to edit files
for furthur analysiS of eoch time defined
H Field data comparison
for history match
I
Directions : ~ Cell location: output record

Fig. 14.5 Simulator types. Fig. 14.6 Arrangement of simulator routines.

14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 237

aquifer character. In addition, preferred well loca- -Shape of reservoir -length, width
tions and completion intervals can be studied. None -thickness distribution
of these things necessarily provide a true answer,
only a comparison with some base case set of
IGROSS ROCK VOLUMEI
assumptions.

...
-Fluids and contacts
The reasons why reservoir simulation is so attrac- - Saturation distribution
tive are fairly obvious: since a real reservoir can be

..
- Non - reservoir zones / porosity
produced only once, a series of case studies using a
simulator can explore uncertainties in data and INET IN-PLACE HYDROCARBONSI
resource management options. The validation of a - Permeability distribution
-Capillary pressure characteristics
particular simulation in a reservoir cannot be - Relative permeability characteristics
approached until the reservoir has produced for
some time (usually several years). At such time a IFLOW CHARACTERISTICS I
history match between reservoir model predicted - Fluid properties

...
- Rock compressibility
performance and field observations can lead to
- Aquifer size
improved confidence in future performance predic- - Pressure distribution
tions. The basis of a history match should include

...
well rates for all fluids, as well as static and dynamic IRESERVOIR ENERGyl
distributions of vertical and lateral pressure gra- - Well locations
- Production / injection constraints
dients. The RFT pressure response of a new well in a
producing field provides useful history match data. I RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE I
When miscible or partly miscible processes are being
modelled, or condensate/volatile oil reservoirs are Fig. 14.7 Steps needed to build a reservoir model.
modelled, then compositional matches with pro-
duced fluids are also needed. Thermal processes and 14.5 RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION IN
chemical flood matches require even more history MODELLING
match to provide confidence in performance predic-
tions. Whether a complex or a simple reservoir model is
In black oil modelling of North Sea reservoirs, the being applied, a number of steps in analysis and data
single most important history match parameter is requirements are common, and are illustrated in Fig.
transmissibility, applied to faulted (but not sealing) 14.7. The validity of the initialization reservoir
reservoir intervals, and to vertical restrictions to model is largely dependent on the geologicalm.odel
flow and which result from lithology and facies and the flow performance is linked to reservoir and
change in stratified units. production engineering description. Petrophysical

"""'''m Bulk Relative

volume (m3 ) volume

t HETEROGENEOUS Well test 14xl06 10 14

50r

300m

l;~tOMOGENEOUsl Reservoir model grid

cell
0.2 x10 6 1012

1 2m Wireline log interval 3 108

m=
5x10- 5
• Core plug 200

Geological thin section 1xlO- 7

Fig. 14.8 Relative scale of representation.

238 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING : PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(a)
- - Top Zechstein
N
- - Top Rotliegendes
t

(b) Shales GRlog Well location Sands

Channel complex
Isolated shale plug

Continuous shale
-="--+.,....--",-=
- - - - -
-- -- - -- .. Distributary mouth
Shale tongue
bar
Continuous shale

Local shale lens

...... Delta front
. . . ,

Basal marker shale - ----

- ---
-- ---------
---------
(c)
LNess -A

L Ness-B

L.Ness-C

Fig. 14.9 Examples of sandbody continuity. (a) Rotliegendes/Zechstein (North Sea, after'2'1); (b) lateral extent of sand
and shale bodies (after 1121); (c) conceptual arrangement of sands and shale in Cormorant reservoir (Ness unit)
North Sea.
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 239

analysis falls between the two since zonation and tically according to the depositional environment of
grid size scale effects must be rationalized and individual sandbodies. Deltaic models provide a
proper attention paid to pore-filling minerals , rock good example of the influence of conceptual models
type and saturation representation (Fig. 14.8) . The in reservoir simulation, and will be used here.
geological model(s) provide the main basis for The recognition of sandbody type, using core data
predicting reservoir description away from direct particularly, is of paramount importance in the
well control and some discussion of their develop- development of conceptual geological models and in
ment and uncertainty is appropriate. using them effectively in reservoir simulation . Con-
tinuity is usually represented between cells by
14.5.1 Integration of geological modification of transmissibility in any dimension or
and engineering data direction (Fig. 14.10).
The extrapolation and correlation of reservoir
The development of a valid geological model is of sands can be severely interrupted by localized
necessity an interactive process. The aim is to define faulting subsequent to deposition, which can place
vertical and lateral distribution of reservoir and reservoir and non-reservoir units against each other.
non-reservoir rock in the field (and perhaps in any The identification of faults may be apparent from
associated aquifer). This involves recognition of geophysical surveys, from geological hypotheses
lithology and facies types, correlation between well required to make correlations and from analysis of
control and matching with seismic profiles. The the pressure versus time behaviour of well tests.
particular information available for generating such The simplest sub-division of gross deltaic environ-
models tends to be cuttings, cores and log data. ments is into delta top or delta plain, and delta front.
Increasingly, development geologists are finding These may then be sub-divided as shown in Fig.
improvements in their geological models result by 14.11, which can also show characteristic facies
incorporating pressure analysis data, and some
detailed petrophysical interpretation. The particular Flow __
specialities needed by geologists working with en-
gineers on the generation of the geological
framework for reservoir simulation studies are in the
fields of sedimentology and palynofacies.
Both these specialities are directed towards an
understanding of the sedimentary processes by
which a reservoir has formed and the subsequent
diagenetic modification of pore space . Core data
provides the single most important data base and,
through analysis, a palaeogeographical reconstruc-
- Lz.

tion of the reservoir may be obtained. Since the 2k ·k A

vertical record of sediments in a well is related to the (L7
Tx (= x - direction transmissibility)= + {2)
lateral processes of setiirt1entation occurring over a Fig. 14.10 Transmissibility in cell models.
wide area at one time, such reconstructions may be
made - this adopts the principles defined in Walth-
er's law of facies [83, 84J. The association by analogy of Higher delta plain o 16 km
distributary channels ......--.
sedimentary processes in ancient systems with 10 miles
observations in modern , active systems leads to an
expectation of particular geometries in particular
sedimentary forms .

14.5.2 Reservoir geometry and shoreline sand

continuity
The typical continuity of reservoir sands and shales II
is shown in Fig. 14.9. Recognition of appropriate Low delta
continuity models will allow significant control over front - prodelta
recovery of hydrocarbons from reservoirs and influ-
ences the type of development scheme employed. In Fig. 14.11 Sub-division of the gross deltaic environment
deltaic reservoir models, continuity can vary drama- (after [80)).
240 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 14.2 Delta top characteristics

Character Dimensions Reservoir
potential
Crevasse splay Sand-silty sand interbeds; Small areal extent: Poor
laminated, current rippled. individual sands rarely
more than few sq. miles.
Few feet thick.

Natural levee Sand, silt, clay plant debris. Linear extent along Very poor
Disturbed bedding. channel for tens of miles;
few feet to tens of feet
thick.

Marsh/swamp Silt, clay, coal. Slumps and May be several square None
contorted bedding, wood, miles (time markers).
plant remains. Thickness from few inches
to tens of feet.

Channel fill Trough cross bedding; may Depends on size of the Fair to excellent depending
show fining upward distributary. Hundreds of on size
sequence. feet to tens of miles along
length. Few feet to
hundreds of feet thick.

Point bar Well sorted, medium to fine May be a mile or more Excellent
grained sand coarsens wide; several tens of feet
downward with increased thick. Multiple point bars
scale cross bedding. extend many miles.

associations for each sub-division. There are com-

plete gradations between the different divisions, and
at the upstream end the delta plain passes into a
river valley flood plain.
Tables 14.2, 14.3 and 14.4 illustrate reservoir
geometry and quality expectations from conceptual
models, using deltaic systems as an example.
Most extensive fluvial deposits occupy large areas
in lower reaches of rivers and gradually grade into
the upper deltaic plain. Sand is deposited in the
lower parts of river channels. Overbank sediments
(top of point bars, levees, crevasses splays) include
much silt and clay.
Zero ../'
In fluvial reservoir environments there is a charac- thickness
teristic sequence of sedimentary structures related to
increasing current strength. The sedimentary struc- Fig. 14.12 Crevasse splay.
tures can be used to deduce the current as follows:
(a) Plane bed
without movement
(b) Small ripples
(c) Megaripples or
INCREASING dunes DECREASING
CURRENT (d) Plane bed with CURRENT
sediment
movement
(e) Antidunes Fig. 14.13 Delta top cross-section.
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 241

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Sediment
supply

-€-:-:-:-:~~---:...---:...-:...-:...-:...-:..~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:~-:~~-:~~

Fig. 14.14 Delta progradation.

TABLE 14.3 Fluvial environments of flood plain and delta top

Single Reservoir
channels Appearance Dimensions potential

Braided
Typically upstream part of
channel
flood plain ; thickness up to
50', width 1f2 mile to 8 Excellent
miles, length may be
hundreds of miles.

Typically downstream part

of flood plain, 3-100' thick,
Meandering multiple sands of meander Excellent
channel belt may extend for many
miles.

Sediment bar Typically deltaic

~ distributaries; 10-60' thick, Fair to excellent depending
Straight channel ~ ~ ~ 100-2000' wide, up to 10 on size
.{~ miles long.

Coalesced Reservoir quality depends

channels on size and stacking
pattern.

Vertical (Map: continuous Isolated

stacking sheet) stacking
(Map: belt) (Map: discontinuous
sheet)
242 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

TABLE 14.4 Delta front characteristics

Reservoir
Character Dimensions potential
Distributory Well sorted sand grading Typically up to 80' thick and 2 Good
mouth bar downwards and outwards into miles wide. Length up to 15 miles
finer grained sediment. in cases of progradational
growth. May be smaller in
shallower water.
Interdistributary Silt and shale with sand lenses May be hundreds of square Very poor
bay and laminae, often burrowed. miles. Thickness from few inches
to tens of feet.

Barrier beach Clean well sorted sand at top Sheet-like cover of area of delta Excellent
grading into silty sand at base; lobe. Tens of feet thick. Possible
parallel laminations and local direction in tidal channel
low-angle cross beds. Pos- permeability.
sibly cut by tidal channels and
forming associated ebb-tide
deltas.

Shoreface Well sorted sand Smooth seaward and irregular Fair to good
landward margins. Few miles
wide, tens to hundreds of miles
long; may prograde and so
greatly incre~se width. Tens of
feet thick.
Basal marine sand Continuous marker shale Miles in length and width. Tens to None
association hundreds of feet thick.

, certain length of time.

~ Upper regime Observation and correlation from wells can then
4.0 A t'd ~ (rapid flaw)
lead to an expected, consistent model to explain
n '~unes
________ t
b d~ Transition reservoir distribution at a given time or horizon.
~ 1.0
PI
one e t Such a model is shown in Fig. 14.16 for a deltaic
__ v'-/'-/~ Lower regime
~ ~v~ d (tranquil flow)
system(l71• In Fig. 14.17 the reservoir character of
8. -_ ~ ::.::.'::-"'::: ~ I channel and bar sands are contrasted. The detailed
EO.l '--~~~ shapes are based on energy for sorting sediments

~
00 'IIml ~='
~ (0",,) _ :-
and result from consideration of depositional flow
regimes, tidal range and current directions. The
t:--
- Plane bed,
resultant models often contain an expectation of
0.01 Small ~ ~ vertical and lateral zonation of reservoir properties,
which are then related to quantitative estimates of
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 mm
porosity, permeability and saturation. In this exer-
Grain size
cise the proposed geological zonation must be
Fig. 14.15 Bedforms in relation to grain size and stream
compared with petrophysical zonation based largely
power (after [81, 82J). on porosity and permeability (poro-perm). The
validity of poro-perm data from core analysis and
porosity from log analysis depends very much on
Figure 14.15 depicts graphically various bedforms recognition of the effet::ts of clay minerals in the pore
and their relationship to grain size and stream space and lithological variations from the bulk
power. Under the influence of flowing water, reservoir properties. Interaction with the geological
sediment movement starts in a non-cohesive bed. At observations based on X-ray analysis and scanning
low energy conditions, a few grains start rolling and electron microscope (SEM) studies often helps
may produce horizontal laminations if sufficient explain a basis for diagenetic change in pore
sediment is available and the process continues for a character, which can be applied as a function of
 DELTA PLAIN
S~line ~ boun-
ded by dist,.ibut- DELTA FRONT
~ry chann.1
with I...... s Shoreface

Middl.~
N.SS~~

Low.,.
N.ss

Fig. 14.16 Palaeogeographic representation of complex environments (after "7)).

244 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Deltaic channel
TYPE TEXTURE PORE SPACE CAPILLARITY CONTINUITY deposits
Grain size Sorting Porosity Pore size Permeability S", Gamma ray Permeability
Feet
Top Finest Best Lowest Very fine Lowest Highest Deteriorates o

I
upwards

CHANNELS

Bottom
1 1
Coarsest Poorest
\
Highest
1
Large
1
Highest
1
Lowest Best
4
5

Top Coarsest Best Highest Large Highest Lowest Best

BARS

Bottom Finest
II
Poorest Lowest Very fine Lowest
I I
Highest Deteriorates
downwards

••••
Grain size
Fig. 14.17 Reservoir characteristics of channel and bar sands (after [761).

depth, position or saturation in a reservoir model. It direction. A reservoir simulation model must recog-
should be expected that zones exhibiting diagenetic nize the role of vertical communication between the
damage will have different irreducible saturations or sands in controlling saturation distribution and
relative permeabilities from other zones. frontal movement under dynamic displacement con-
One of the most difficult stages in constructing a ditions. A fine grid model recognizes the boundaries
reservoir model is compromising scales of observa- between sand units which might control cross-flow
tion of geological and petrophysical properties with (Fig. 14.18 (b». The boundary between sands 3 and
the scale of model grid cells (Fig. 14.8). For reasons 4 has been removed because permeability thickness
of cost and computing time, the minimization of the contrast was less than a few times, but the boundary
number of grid cells used to define a reservoir is between sands 2 and 3 is retained. The micaceous
often required. The averaging of poro-perm satura- zone is removed from the pore volume of the model
tion data in volumetric calculation is of less signifi- but its effect retained as a multiplication factor on
cance than the representation of flow properties by the harmonic average vertical permeability calcu-
pseudo-functions in stratified reservoir intervals [34J lated between sands 3-4 and 5. A similar vertical
for dynamic reservoir performance calculations. transmissibility multiplyer approach is used between
Reservoir zones should represent regions of differ- sands 1 and 2 to account for the shale wedge - a
ing flow properties, primarily dependent on net factor of zero indicates that the shale is sealing and
effective permeability thickness (kehN)' Figure 14.18 unity indicates that cross-flow is controlled by
indicates a progression in reservoir description sand-sand contact. This model has the same fluid
within a region of a cross-section model - any content and pore volume as the geological model
extension to include areal geometry leads to greater and is used to study the sensitivity to reservoir
complexity in effective transmissibility representa- description of dynamic saturation distributions.
tion. The upper diagram represents a sandy sequ- A coarse grid model of this region (Fig. 14.18 (c»
ence containing a laterally discontinuous shale and a can be developed to reduce computer time in field
continuous thin micaceous stratum. The sands are performance prediction studies. The model again
distinguishable from each other by sedimentary contains the same total fluid and pore volume as the
facies description but do not have dramatically geological model. Pseudo-relative permeability and
different permeability contrast in the bedding plane capillary pressure functions of pore volume weighted
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 245

(1) Geological representation Production

P t
P
-Flow
Pwf

r_

== == l:..x

(2) Fine grid model

[iliJ l'- -_-p_-~_-_-_~. Lr:_:_I~_~_o~_:_~ry

---
K1
TZ~O I
K2
x
transmiSSibili~y (TZ) =0-=

-
K3/4 Vertical Fig. 14.19 Contrast in pressure representation in
I
K5 f-- Vertical transmissibility factor""
I
° analytical and simulator calculations.
I , I
The problems of cross-flow and inflow to well-
(3) Coarse grid model
bores from stratified systems, together with applica-
tion of directional relative permeabilities and the
I ,I
d f'
Dynamic pseudo functions to e lOe
representation of the flow of fluids across faults and
partially displaced layers, has been discussed in the
saturation distribution in time
context of reservoir simulation by Smith [56].
I I 14.5.3 Uncertainty in reservoir
Fig. 14.18 Zonation in cross-section modelling. (a) model description
Geological representation, (b) fine grid model, (c) coarse
grid model.
The minimization of uncertainty in reservoir simula-
tion is time dependent and occurs as more reservoir
average saturation, generated from results of the simulation performance prediction is confirmed by
fine grid model, are used in the coarse grid model to historical field measurement. The history matching
demonstrate the same displacement behaviour. The process is not, however, unique since several vari-
method of Kyte and Berry [34] is most frequently ables could be modified to obtain a match. Modifica-
adopted for this purpose. Well functions may also be tions are required that are reasonable and can be
used to represent partial penetration and local radial defended on both geological and engineering
flow coning character [33]. The characterization of a grounds. Increasingly the history match procedure
well productivity index in reservoir models requires involves multidisciplinary teams of reservoir en-
modification from analytical forms since in numeric- gineers, petrophysicists and development geologists,
al models there is no concept of saturation pressure together with geophysicists as necessary. Figure 4.20
gradient within a grid cell. Potential gradients exist shows a cross-section and areal grid representation
as step changes between cells and serve to move in the Statfjord field, of a Middle Jurassic, Brent
fluids across intercell bound~ries. Peaceman [35] has reservoir used in early development planning and
shown that a semi-steady state productivity index in controlled with data from seven exploration wells. A
equidimensional (Dx) grid cells can be represented three-dimensional model on this grid base would
as follows: contain some 11400 cells. In the areal model, well
qo - constant· ko h 1 control exists in 7 cells of the total 760, about 1%.
The conceptual model of the field provides the basis
PI = p_p - [0.2(Ax) (0.2 ~X)2
wI !!oBo loge - 2 2 for inferring the properties of the other 99%.
rw re In an individual stratum, the mapping ofreservoir
characteristics, such as areal extent, thickness,
where rw = rwe-s • Subsequent work has shown that porosity, net:gross variation and permeability, in-
for cells of different sizes a good approximation over volves use of conceptual models, the validity of
a range of values can be obtained from Ax = which emerge during reservoir production. As has
(~xl·Ax2)O.5 been shown by Archer [17], reservoir mapping and
246 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

P4
P5
W13

2400

Wll
2500

Oil/woter
~ 2600 -2584.1m 2
..,=
J\ 2700

2800

2900

Fig. 14.20 Early simulation cells for the Statfjord field

study (Brent Sand) (after (16J).

,,
"'- "'-
"-
"-
"- .......
....... ........
..............
~---

a b ,/ #~

3000mO

•A 300mO

c d

Fig. 14.21 Alternative petrophysical mapping. (a) Well location, (b) permeability map 1, (c) permeability map 2,
(d) permeability map 3.

cross-section interpretation can be varied even with modelling tend to be in appropriate zonation,
a given control data set (Figs 14.21 and 14.22). inter-zone transmissibility and in saturation depen-
Development planning calls for flexibility in design dent relative permeability terms. These uncertain-
so that early key wells can be used to help ties can be explored in terms of their impact on
differentiate between model possibilities. proposed development by sensitivity studies, the
The greatest uncertainties in black oil reservoir results of which may point to the need for key well
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 247

2
~ 3
c?4
~

3
OWC~
I- •
(a) Extensive marine sand Coarsening upwards

( b) Channel sand at right angles to fault Fining upwards

2
3

(e) Channel sands parallel to fault

Fig. 14.22 Alternative sand models giving different performance predictions. (a) Extensive marine sand, (b)
channel sand at right angles to fault, (c) channel sands parallel to fault.

data. History matching measured performance many of these processes there is significant numeric-
(pressure distribution and producing fluid ratios) al dispersion which makes displacement front track-
with reservoir simulation is the only way to validate ing difficult and which may cause uncertainty in
a model. Examples, which are not unique, are performance predictions.
shown in Figs 14.23 and 14.24. -0-0-- Field measurements
In gas condensate and volatile oil reservoirs the • • • Model predictions
greatest uncertainties in addition to those mentioned
for black oils are in valid fluid properties as functions .\.0
of pressure and temperature. Sampling in these .\
reservoirs at bottom-hole conditions is generally .\
unreliable and in these particular circumstances
recombined surface samples may be preferred.
A
o.\
-----\--~-----
.____Statlc gradient
(preproduction)
In heavy oil reservoirs fluid sampling is also o •

difficult and the reservoir fluid may not flow -

.c
., \
Y•
Ci

.
o
composition may sometimes then be obtained from . Prabably need to reduce
extracting core. The interpretation of viscosity at
proposed reservoir development conditions becomes \ vertical transmissibility
around depth A

a particular uncertainty.
Schemes for enhanced oil recovery which involve
miscible processes and chemical processes often
\
have great uncertainty attached to the modelling of
physical mechanisms for displacement. This is parti- Pressure ---.-
cularly true when multicontact or partial miscible Fig. 14.23 Results from preliminary history match at given
processes are considered and for adsorption and well. (Could vary: vertical permeability; horizontal per-
microemulsion formation in surfactant processes. In meability; relative permeabilities; net pay Volume.)
 248 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

1.0 (KV=O.01MD) (KV=0.1 MD) recovery mechanisms. Fluid samples for PVT
0.8 properties. Well tests/core log data rationaliz-
t
cj
0.6
0.4
ation. Pressure regime and aquifer contribution
assessed.
(3) Development of preliminary geological model.
~ 0.2
Petrophysical data used to define porosity and
0 saturation vertical and lateral distribution. Re-
servoir engineering data added for volumetric
1.0 (KV=1MD) (KV=5MD) and dynamic analyses. Preliminary estimation
of recovery factors for potential recovery pro-
t
0.8
0.6 cesses. Analytical methods used to define
cj 0.4
stability of displacement. Assessment of vertic-
~ al and lateral heterogeneity.
0.2 (4) Preliminary economic analysis based on
0 notional cost estimates and value of products.
Assume a peak production rate for oil of, for
1.0 instance, 10% of recoverable reserve per
(KV=10MD) (KV=100MD)
annum and a plateau duration such that at least
t
0.8
0.6 30-40% of the recoverable reserve are reco-
-Observed vered at peak rate, and decline is based on
0 0.4 --- Simulated
~ 10-20% per annum (depends strongly on
0.2 heterogeneity). Estimate well requirements
00 400 800 1200 0 400
based on semi-steady state completion PI. For
gas wells consider plateau rate as fraction of
Days
reserve per annum according to typical con-
Fig. 14.24 History match of water cut development in tracts, i.e. for notional20-year life of reservoirs
Etive/Rannoch sand system by assumption of vertical containing more than 1 TCF, assume peak rate
permeability between sands (after [118J). ACQ (annual contract quantity) is 0.05 x
recoverable reserve per year until 60% of the
recoverable reserve has been produced. Facil-
14.6 APPLICATION OF RESERVOIR ity requirements should be designed for day
MODELS IN FIELD DEVELOPMENT rate offtakes where SDC is the seller's delivery
capacity - a seasonal factor having a maximum
The decision base for reservoir development is both value about 1.7.
technical and economicl1201. Onshore development (5) Develop more detail in geological model and
should proceed stepwise and is often unconstrained consider mapping and correlation options. De-
by development well locations. It should in general fine basis for net pay and rationalize geological
be cheaper than any offshore project of comparable and petrophysical definitions in zonation.
reserves. In this part of the chapter we shall Complete petrophysical analysis on standar-
concentrate on offshore field development as uncer- dized basis. Define uncertainties and represent
tainty in reservoir characteristics is more significant. net thickness, porosity, saturation and field
area (limits) in probability distributions for
14.6.1 Application Sequence each zone.
(6) Represent stratified reservoir character in per-
Perhaps the sequence of field development consid- meability contrast distributions. Check zona-
erations follows these steps: tion using capillary pressure character and
irreducible saturations. Develop relative per-
(1) Exploration drilling location chosen on basis of meability data for zones and regions in the
potential structure, mature source rocks, reser- field. Develop transmissibility modification
voir rocks, trap and migration path. Well factor maps for all interlayers.
drilled - discovery, tested and indication of (7) Represent PVT data regionally if appropriate.
commercial productivity index PI. (8) Run Monte Carlo type volumetric analyses.
(2) Appraisal wells to delineate structure and Define hydrocarbon in place level for simula-
establish fluid contacts. Core to define tion models.
sedimentology and provide basis for reservoir (9) Select cross-sections of the reservoir (along dip
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 249

axes) to ensure gravity effects on flow repre- (13) Refine field plan and consider effects of tubing
sented properly. Represent layer nature trans- flow constraints, pumps and separators and
missibility and reservoir permeability as sensi- pass results to project management with re-
tivity parameters. Examine vertical sweep effi- commendations. Define preferred well de-
ciency in analytical and reservoir simulation velopment sequence and design early data
calculations for different recovery mechanisms collection program. Plan for model updates
and well locations/completion intervals. Deter- and history matching. Represent recoverable
mine character of pseudo-functions for use in reserves as probabilistic distribution. The use
coarser grid models. Check in 1-D mode. of a number of early development wells and a
(10) Run radial simulation models to evaluate con- decline in field pressure may allow develop-
ing potential or to calculate well functions in ment of refined correlations, such as shown in
terms of saturation in some defined region. Fig. 14.25.
(11) Run three-dimensional sector models to study
both areal and vertical sweep efficiency and
sensitivity of options to reservoir description
uncertainties. 14.6.2 Recent Field Studies
(12) Extend to coarser grid full reservoir model in
three dimensions for the recovery mechanism The petroleum engineering literature contains many
selected. Study effect of well locations, rates, examples of field studies using reservoir models (see
completion and recompletion intervals and reference list). A particularly constructive example
production/operation constraints. Production is the Stiles and Bobeck (55( account of the Fulmar
profiles and facility implications used in econo- pre-development simulation study in Blocks 30/16
mic analyses are evaluated. and 30/11-b in the UKCS North Sea. The Fulmar

~ FC21 FC26 FC22 FC44 FC63 F826 F811

Morch 1978 Doc 1976 July 1979 Moyl976 Sepl.1979 Nov. 1977 Ooc, 1976

Fig. 14.25 Reservoir zonation in the Forties reservoir showing use of geological and petrophysical correlation enhanced
with RFT and production logging data. (After [1221.)
250 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

field is a stratified Upper Jurassic shallow marine Cross-section and single well studies were used in
sandstone in a faulted anticlinal structure, and addition to full field studies. An early production
contains 41° API undersaturated oil. The datum system was evaluated and installed. This employed
depth and pressure is 10000 ft SS and 5700 psi. The four production wells drilled through a subsea
reported value of oil in place is 824 x 106 STB. The template prior to installation of the main platform.
field is situated in the central sector of the North Sea The template well provided early information on
about 170 miles from Aberdeen and water depths which to improve the geological and reservoir
are some 275 ft. The development plan preferred for engineering models. Figure 14.26 shows the struc-
the reservoir employs flank water injection and ture map with west and north cross-sections indi-
temporary gas storage in the crestal region. Reser- cated, and Fig. 14.27 shows the general geological
voir studies were therefore directed at both gas and cross-section. Figure 14.28 shows the grid pattern for
water displacement of oil and coning potential. a gas coning model. Fig. 14.29 shows the north flank
cross-section model and Fig. 14.30 the west flank
models.

. ..• ...
li11i
.
IIlI
r.n
CAS(S O,2!;
- - -- ~;- ....! !!.

-- . .... '"
n'~

.
tM .. ..
. ,... "eo .."!
.... .," ,.., ,
2"1

....
. ..,"", --......
Wa.t flonk
50 ,..
""'~

....." ,..,......, ..,,.,

(fOSS MC110n
DNOt1h f lG~1l
vonseelllOll

o
. - - ' -_
. ...
IKm
......
I-
-
' 1l 4 .J.' •• ~
."'JIR Itt,ICCflOH
IN IItWGS '10 & II

Fig. 14.26 Fulmar structure map showing cross-section

locations. (After 1551.) Fig. 14.28 Fulmar gas coning radial model description.

sw NE

• •
30/16-7 FT - 4

9500

10000
'"
w
(/)
CD
KIMM.
SHALE
::)
(/)

~ 10500
w
w
u..

TRIASSIC

Fig. 14.27 Fulmar geological cross-section . (After 1551.)

14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 251

Gos
injector
9500

Oil

Woter
10000

o
4>
II>
.0
:::>
II>

~
Q; 10500 owe
I
.s::
Ci.
4>
o

~ k>200md
11000
~ 200>k>10

D > 10md

11500L-----------~-------------L------------~__________~
o 1000 2000 3000 4000
Distonce - feet
Fig. 14.29 Fulmar north flank reservoir cross-section model. (After (55].)
GAS
INJECTOR

10.000

...c
•ii: 10. 500
<1\

.....
~
I

..
;
Q.

o
1

GAS SATURATED REG ION

~ Kw/Kh - 1· 0

. - - - , Kw/kh · 0 ' 1
",--.til

1000 2000 3000 4000 500 0

DI STANCE - FEET

Fig. 14.30 Gas migration path predicted in west flank cross-section model. (After55J.)

The simulation and reservoir engineering study storage in the reservoir crest was not a good plan but
recognised that gravity forces would play an impor- that gas could be injected temporarily into the oil
tant role at planned reservoir withdrawal rates and column where it should rapidly migrate upwards.
that gas override and water underrun might be The Petroleum Engineering literature contains
reduced. The apparent lack of restriction to vertical numerous examples of reservoir simulation studies
flow however gave concern about coning and re- at all stages of field exploitation and the reader is
sulted in recommendations about completion loca- referred to the reference list for further case studies.
tions for wells. It also showed that long term gas
252 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

References

[1] Craig, F.F.

Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE Monograph, Vol. 3 (1971).
[2] Buckley, S.E. and Leverett, M.e.
Mechanism of fluid displacements in sand, Trans. AIME 146 (1942),107.
[3] Rapoport, L.A. and Leas, W.J.
Properties oflinear waterfloods, Trans. AIME 189 (1953),139.
[4] Terwilliger, P.L. eta/.
An experimental and theoretical investigation of gravity drainage, Trans. AIME 192 (1951), 285.
[5] Levine, J.S.
Displacement experiments in a consolidated porous system, Trans. AIME 201 (1954), 55.
[6] Johnson, E.F., Bossler, D.P. and Naumann, V.O.
Calculation of relative permeability from displacement experiments, Trans. AIME 216 (1959),370.
[7] Croes, G.A. and Schwarz, N.
Dimensionally scaled experiments and theories on the water drive process, Trans. AIME 204 (1955), 35.
[8] Engelberts, W.L. and Klinkenberg, L.J.
Laboratory experiments on displacement of oil by water from rocks of granular materials, Proc. 3rd World Pet.
Cong.II(1951),544.
[9] van Meurs, P.
The use of transport three dimensional models for studying the mechanisms of flow processes in oil reservoirs,
Trans. AIME 210 (1957), 295.
[10] Egbogah, E.O. and Dawe, RA.
Microvisual studies of size distribution of oil droplets in porous media, Bull. Can. Pet. Geol. 28 (June 1980), 200.
[11] Bonnet, J. and Lenormand, R
Constructing micromodels for the study of multiphase flow in porous media, Rev. d. IFP 42 (1977), 477.
[12] Archer,J.S. and Hancock, N.J.
An appreciation of Middle Jurassic Brent sand reservoir features by analogy with Yorkshire coast outcrops, EUR
197, Proc. Europ. Pet. Cont (1980),501, Vol. l.
[13] Archer, J.S. and Wilson, D.e.
Reservoir simulation in the development of North Sea oil fields, The Chemical Engineer (July 1978), 565.
[14] Archer, J.S. and Hurst, A.H.
The role of clay mineralogy on reservoir description in petroleum engineering, Proc. Clay Mineralogy Cont,
Cambridge (1985).
[15] Archer, J.S., Keith, D.R and Letkeman, J.P.
Application of reservoir simulation models in the development of North Sea reservoirs, SPE 5285, Proc. Europ.
Symp. SPE (1975).
[16] Archer, J.S. and Wong, S.W.
Interpretation of laboratory waterflood data by use of a reservoir simulator, SPE1 (Dec. 1973), 343.
[17] Archer, J.S.
Reservoir definition and characterisation for analysis and simulation, Proc. IIth World Pet. Cong., London
(1983), PD 6 (1).
[18] Havlena, D.
Interpretation, averaging and use of the basic geological engineering data, I. Can. Pet. Tech. 6 (1967), 236.
[19] Bishop, K.A., Breit, V.S., Oreen, D.W. and McElhiney, J.C.
The application of sensitivity analysis to reservoir simulation, SPE 6102, Proc. 51st Ann. Fall Mtg. (1976).
[20] Killough, J .E.
Reservoir simulation with history dependent saturation functions, Trans. AIME 261 (1976),37.
[21] Slater, G.E. and Durrer, E.J.
Adjustment of reservoir simulation models to match field performance, Trans. AIME 251 (1971), 295.
[22] Thomas, L.K., Lumpkin, W.B. and Reheis, G.M.
Reservoir simulation of variable bubble point problems, SPE1 (1976),10.
[23] Toronyi, R.M. and Ali, S.M.F.
Determining interblock transmissibility in reservoir simulators, 1PT (1974),77.
[24] Wilson, D.C., Tan, T.e. and Casinader, P.e.
Control of numerical dispersion in compositional simulation, Proc. 1st Europ. Symp. EOR, Boumemouth (1981),
425.
[25] Mrosovsky, I., Wong, J.Y. and Lampe, H.W.
Construction of a large field simulator on a vector computer, I PT (Dec. 1980), 2253.
14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 253
[26] Wadman, D.H., Lamprecht, D.E. and Mrosovsky, I.
Joint geologic/engineering analysis of the Sadlerachit reservoir, Prudhoe Bay field, JPT (July 1979), 933.
[27] Ramey, H.J.
Commentary on the terms 'transmissibility' and 'storage', JPT (March 1975), 294.
[28] Nobles, M.A.
Using Computers to Solve Reservoir Engineering Problems, Gulf Pub. (1984).
[29] van Rosenberg, D.U.
Methods for Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations, Farrar (1969).
[30] Critchlow, H.
Modern Reservoir Engineering: a Simulation Approach, Prentice Hall (1977).
[31] Society of Petroleum Engineers
Proceedings of the SPE Symposiums of Reservoir Simulation, (1973, 1976, 1982, 1985).
[32] RRIJERC
The Brent Sand in the N. Viking Graben, N. Sea - a Sedimentological and Reservoir Engineering Study, Robertson
Research IntllERC Energy Resource Consultants Ltd., Llandudno, N. Wales (1980).
[33] Chappelear, J.E. and Hirasaki, G.J.
A model of oil water coning for 2D areal reservoir simulation, SPEJ (April 1976), 65.
[34] Kyte, J.R. and Berry, D.W.
New pseudo functions to control numerical dispersion, SPEJ (Aug. 1975),269.
[35] Peaceman, D.W.
Interpretation of wellblock pressure in numerical simulation, SPEJ (June 1978), 183.
[36] Hirasaki, G.J. and O'Dell, P.M.
Representation of reservoir geometry for numerical simulation, Trans. SPE 249 (1970), 393.
[37] Robertson, G.E. and Woo, P.T.
Grid orientation effects and use of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates in reservoir simulation, SPE 6100, Proc.
51st Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE (1976).
[38] Rose, W.
A note on the role played by sediment bedding in causing permeability anisotropy, JPT (Feb. 1983), 330.
[39] Poston, S.W., Lubojacky, R.W. and Aruna, M.
Merren field- an engineering review, JPT(Nov. 1983),2105.
[40] Clutterbuck, P.R. and Dance, J.E.
The use of simulations in decision making for the Kuparuk River field development, JPT (Oct. 1983), 1893.
[41] Odeh, A.S.
Comparison of solutions to a three dimensional black oil reservoir simulation problem, SPEJ (Jan. 1981), 13.
[42] West, W.J., Garvin, W.W. and Sheldon, J.W.
Solution of the equations of unsteady state two phase flow in oil reservoirs, Trans. AIME 201 (1954), 217.
[43] Ertekin, T.
Principles of numerical simulation of oil reservoirs - an overview, In Heavy Crude Oil Recovery (ed. Okandan),
Nato ASI Series, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague (1984), 379.
[44] Aziz, K. and Settari, A.
Petroleum Reservoir Simulation, Applied Science Publishers, Barking (1979).
[45] Aziz, K.
Numerical methods for three dimensional reservoir models, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Jan., Feb. 1968),7.
[46] Peaceman, D.W.
Fundamentals of Numerical Reservoir Simulation, Elsevier (1977).
[47] Thomas, G.W.
Principles of hydrocarbon reservoir simulation, IHRDC (1982).
[48] Diehl, A.
The development of the Brent field - a complex of projects, EUR 108, Proc. Europ. Pet. Eng. Conf., London
(1978),397, Vol. II.
[49] Bath, P.G.
The Brent field: a reservoir engineering review, EUR 164, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1980),179, Vol. I.
[50] Nadir, F.T.
Thistle field development, EUR 165, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1980), 193, Vol. I.
[51] Bishlawi, M. and Moore, R.L.
Montrose field reservoir management, EUR 166, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1980), 205, Vol. I.
[52] van Rijswijk etal.
The Dunlin field, EUR 168, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1980),217, Vol. I.
254 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[53] Poggiagliomi, E.
Detailed reservoir delineation by interactive seismic stratigraphic extrapolation, EUR 198, Proc. Europ. Pet.
Conf., London (1980), 513, Vol. I.
[54] Johnson, R, Riches, H. and Ahmed, H.
Application of the vertical seismic profile to the Piper field, EUR 274, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1982),
39.
[55] Stiles, J.H. and Bobek, J.E.
Fulmar pre-development simulation study, EUR 282, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1982), 99.
[56] Smith, C.A.
Methods for modelling the performance of layered reservoir systems, EUR 284, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London
(1982), 123.
[57] Thambynayagam, RK.M.
Analytical solutions for PBU and Fa analysis of water injection tests of partially penetrating wells: non-unit
mobility, SPE 12965, Proc. Europ. Pet. Conf., London (1984), 83.
[58] Aron, D., Ashboume, T.J. and Oloketuyi, D.O.
The secondary recovery project, Ogharefe field, Nigeria, JPT (April 1984), 671.
[59] Gwinn, V.E.
Deduction of flow regime from bedding character in conglomerates and sandstones, J. Sed. Petrol. (1964),656.
[60] Hails, J.R. and Hoyt, J.H.
The significance and limitations of statistical parameters for distinguishing ancient and modem sedimentary
environments ofthe lower Georgia coastal plain, J. Sed. Petrol. (1969),559.
[61] Houser, J.F. and Neasham, J.W.
Bed continuity and permeability variations of recent deltaic sediments, Bull. AAPG (1976), 681.
[62] Steams, D. W. and Friedman, M.
Reservoirs in fractured rock, AAPGMemoir 16 (1972), 82.
[63] Harpole, K.J.
Improved reservoir characterisation - a key to future reservoir management, JPT (Nov. 1980),2009.
[64] Selley, RC.
Subsurface environmental analysis of N. Sea sediments, Bull. AAPG (1976), 184.
[65] Visher, G. e.
Use of vertical profile in environmental reconstruction, Bull. AAPG (1965), 41.
[66] Nagetegaal, P.J.
Relationship of facies and reservoir quality in Rotliegendes desert sandstones, SNS region, J. Pet. Geol. 2 (1979),
145.
[67] Weber, K.J.
Influence of common sedimentary structures on fluid flow in reservoir models, JPT (March 1982), 665.
[68] Weber, K.J. etal.
Simulation of water injection in a barrier-bar type, oil rim reservoir in Nigeria, JPT (Nov. 1978), 1555.
[69] Zeito, G.A.
Interbedding of shale breaks and reservoir heterogeneities, JPT (Oct. 1965),1223.
[70] Verrien, J.P., Courand, G. and Montadert, L.
Applications of production geology methods to reservoir characteristics analysis from outcrop observations, Proc.
7th World Pet. Cong., Mexico II (1967),425, Elsevier.
[71] Polasek, T.L. and Hutchinson, C.A.
Characterisation of non-uniformities within a sandstone reservoir from a fluid mechanics standpoint, Proc. 7th
World Pet. Cong., Mexcio II (1967), 397, Elsevier.
[72] Prats, M.
The influence of oriented arrays of thin impermeable shale lenses or of highly conductive natural fractures on
apparent permeability anisotropy, JPT (Oct. 1972), 1219.
[73] Richardson, J.e., Harris, D.G., Rossen, RH. and van Hee, Q.
The effect of small discontinuous shales on oil recovery, JPT (Nov. 1978), 1531.
[74] Huppler, J.D.
Numerical investigation of effects of core heterogeneity on waterflood relative permeability, SPEJ (Dec. 1970),
381.
[75] Chapman, RE.
Petroleum Geology - a Concise Study, Elsevier (1973).
[76] Sneider, RM., Tinker, e.N. and Meckel, L.D.
Deltaic environment reservoir types and their characteristics, JPT (Nov. 1978), 1538.
[77] Harris, D.G. and Hewitt, e.H.
Synergism in reservoir management - the geologic perspective, JPT (July 1977), 761.
 14 CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR MODELLING 255
[78J Pryor, W.A. and Fulton, K.
Geometry of reservoir type sand bodies and comparison with ancient reservoir analogs, SPE 7045, Proc. Symp. on
Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa (April 1978), 81.
[79J Ruzyla, K. and Friedman, G.M.
Geological heterogeneities important to future enhanced recovery in carbonate reservoirs, SPEIDOE 9802, Proc.
2ndJt. Symp. EaR, Tulsa (April 1981), 403.
[80J Fisher, W.L., Brown, L.P., Scott, A.J. and McGowen, J.H.
Delta systems in the exploration for oil and gas, Bur. Econ. Geol. (1969), Univ. Tex. Austin.
[81J Simons, D.B., Richardson, E.V. and Nordin, C.F.
Sedimentary structures generated by flow in alluvial channels, In Primary Sedimentary Structures and their
Hydrodynamic Interpretation (Middleton, G.V., ed.), Soc. Econ. Pet. Min. Spr. Pub. 12 (1965), 34.
[82J Allen, J.R.L.
Current Ripples, their Relations to Patterns of Water and Sediment Motion, North Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam
(1968).
[83J Reading, H.G. (ed.)
Sedimentary Environments and Facies, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford (1978).
[84J Reineck, H.E. and Singh, I.B.
Depositional Sedimentary Environment, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1973).
[85J Chauvin, A.L. et al.
Development planning for the Statfjord field using 3-D and areal reservoir simulation, SPE 8384, Proc. Ann. Fall
Mtg. (1979).
[86J Utseth, RH. and Macdonald, RC.
Numerical simulation of gas injection in oil reservoirs, SPE 10118, Proc. Ann. Fall Mtg. (1981).
[87J Addington, D.V.
An approach to gas coning correlations for a large grid cell reservoir simulation, JPT (Nov. 1981), 2267.
[88J Darlow, B.L., Ewing, R.E. and Wheeler, M.F.
Mixed finite element method for miscible displacement problems in porous media, SPEJ (Aug. 1984),391.
[89J Haldorsen, H.H. and Lake, L.W.
A new approach to shale management in field-scale models, SPEJ (Aug. 1984),447.
[9OJ Craig, F.F., Willcox, P.J., Ballard, J.R. and Nation, W.R.
Optimised recovery through continuing interdisciplinary cooperation, JPT (July 1977), 755.
[91 J Le Blanc, RJ.
Distribution and continuity of sandstone reservoirs, JPT (July 1977), Pt 1, 776, Pt 2, 793.
[92J Jardine, D., Andrews, D.P., Wishart, J.W. and Young, J.W.
Distribution and continuity of carbonate reservoirs, JPT (July 1977), 873.
[93J Harris, D.G.
The role of geology in reservoir simulation studies, JPT (May 1975), 625.
[94J Groult, J., Reiss, L.H. and Montadort, L.
Reservoir inhomogeneities deduced from outcrop observations and production logging, JPT (July 1966), 883.
[95J Campbell, C.V.
Reservoir geometry of a fluvial sheet sandstone, Bull. AAPG (1976),1009.
[96J Davies, D.K., Ethridge, F.G. and Berg, RR.
Recognition of barrier environments, Bull. AAPG (1971), 550.
[97J Barwis, J.H. and Makurath, J.H.
Recognition of ancient tidal inlet sequences, Sedimentology 25 (1978), 61.
[98J Budding, M.C. and Inglin, H.F.
A reservoir geological model of the Brent sands in Southern Cormorant, In Petroleum Geology of the Continental
Shelf N. W. Europe (eds Illing and Hobson), Inst. Pet. (1981),326.
[99J Craig, F.F.
Effect of reservoir description on performance predictions, JPT (Oct. 1970), 1239.
[l00J Yusun, J., Dingzeng, L. and Changyan, L.
Development of Daqing oil field by waterflooding, JPT (Feb. 1985),269.
[101J Simlote, V.N., Ebanks, W.J., Eslinger, E.V. and Harpole, K.J.
Synergistic evaluation of a complex conglomerate reservoir for EOR, Barrancas Formation, Argentina, JPT (Feb.
1985),269.
[102J Hutchinson, C.A., Dodge, C.F. and Polasek, T.L.
Identification, classification and prediction of reservoir inhomogeneities affecting production operations, JPT
(March 1961), 223.
[103J Treiber, L.E., Archer, D.L. and Owens, W.W.
Laboratory evaluation of the wettability of fifty oil producing reservoirs, SPEJ (Dec. 1972),531.
256 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

[104] Kumar, N. and Sanders, J.E.

Inlet sequence: a vertical succession of sedimentary structures and textures created by the lateral migration of tidal
inlets, Sedimentology 21 (1974), 491.
[105] Friend, P.F., Slater, M.J. and Williams, R.C.
Vertical and lateral building of river sandstone bodies, J. Geol. Soc. London 136 (1979), 39.
[106] Gilreath, J.A. and Stephens, R. W.
Interpretation of log response in deltaic sediments, Finding and Exploring Ancient Deltas in the Subsurface,
AAPG Pub:(1975).
[107] Delaney, R.P. and Tsang, P.B.
Computer reservoir continuity study at Judy Creek, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Jan.-Feb. 1982),38.
[108] Raymer, L.L. and Burgess, K.A.
The role of well logs in reservoir modelling, SPE 9342, Proc. 55th Ann. Fall Mtg. (1980).
[109] Gretener, P.E.
Geology, geophysics and engineering: a case for synergism, J. Can. Pet. Tech. (May-June 1984), 55.
[110] Richardson,J.G. andStone,H.L.
A quarter century of progress in the application of reservoir engineering, JPT (Dec. 1973), 1371.
[111] Denison, C. and Fowler, R.M.
Palynological identification of facies in a deltaic environment, Proc. Nor. Pet. Conf. on Sedim. of N. Sea Res.
Rocks, Geilo, Norway (May 1980).
[112] Bain, J.S., Nordberg, M.O. and Hamilton, T.M.
3D seismic applications in the interpretation of Dunlin field, UK N.Sea, SPE 9310, Proc. 55th Ann. Fall Mtg. SPE
(1980).
[113] Stewart, G., Wittmann, M.J. and Lefevre, D.
Well performance analysis: a synergetic approach to dynamic reservoir description, SPE 10209, Proc. 56th Ann.
Fall Mtg. SPE (1981).
[114] Hallett, D.
Refinement of the geological model of the Thistle field, In Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of N. W.
Europe (eds Illing and Hobson), Inst. Pet. London (1981), 315.
[115] Hancock, N.J.
Diagenetic modelling in the Middle Jurassic Brent sand of the N. North Sea, EUR 92, Proc. Europ. Pet. Con/.,
London (1978), 275, Vol. II.
[116] McMichael, C.L.
Use of reservoir simulation models in the development planning of the Statfjord field, EUR 89, Proc. Europ. Pet.
Con/., London (1978), 243, Vol. II.
[117] Hillier, G.R., Cobb, R.M. and Dimmock, P.A.
Reservoir development planning for the Forties field, EUR 98, Proc. Europ. Pet. Con/., London (1978), 325, Vol.
II.
[118] Dake, L.P.
Application of the RFT in vertical and horizontal pulse testing in the Middle Jurassic Brent sands, EUR 270, Proc.
Europ. Pet. Con/., London (1982), 9.
[119] Coats, K.H.
Simulation of gas condensate reservoir performance. JPT (Oct. (1985), 1870.
[120] Archer, J.S.
Some aspects of reservoir description for reservoir modelling, In North Sea Oil and Gas Reservoirs, Proc. IntI.
Seminar, Trondheim (December 1985), Eds. Butler, A.T. and Kleppe, J., Graham & Trotman, London 1986.
[121] Gray, I.
Viking gas field. In Petroleum and the Continental Shelf of N. W. Europe (Ed. Woodward), Elsevior Applied
Science, London (1975) 241.
[122] Carman, G.S. and Young, R.
Reservoir geology of the Forties oilfield, In Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of N. W. Europe. (Eds.
Illing and Hobson), Heyden, London (1981) 371.
 Appendix I
SPE Nomenclature and Units·

Standard letter symbols for reservoir engineering Gas volume

and electric logging have been defined by the AI ME cubic foot) measured at 1 atmosphere
(Society of Petroleum Engineers). Some non- cubic metre) and 60°F
standard terms, subscripts and nomenclature are still MCF = thousands of cubic feet
in use and may be encountered. MMCF = millions of cubic feet
No effective standardization or metrication of (The billion is the American billion = 109 ;
units has yet occurred, and the industry uses the trillion is the American trillion = 10 12 .)
American mixed units to a large extent, although
some metric units mixed with American still may be Pressure
encountered. An application of the SI metric system pounds force per square in (psi)
is found in the Journal of Petroleum Engineerinng atmosphere
(1985) in the issues for August (p.1415) and October bar
p.1801.
Temperature
degrees Fahrenheit OF
UNITS degrees Rankine OR = 460 + OF
degrees Kelvin K
Volume
acre-foot for large volumes Length
barrel pipelines - miles, feet, kilometres
cubic ft well depths - feet or metres
cubic metre Diameters
tubular diameters generally inches or centimetres
Liquid volume feet/metres
barrel = 5.615 cubic ft
cubic metre = (35.31) fe Viscosity
(Unless otherwise specified, an oil volume will be centipoise
tank oil measured at 1 atmosphere and 60°F.)
Density
lb mass per cubic foot
* Reprinted fromlournal of Petroleum Technology, 1984, kg mass per cubic metre
pp. 2278-2323 by permission. © SPE-AlME, 1984. g per cubic centimetre

257
258 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Specific gravity Oil densities

liquids relative to water (62.4lb/ft 3 ) API gravity
gases relative to air (0.0765Ib/ft 3 )
API scale for tank oil 0API = 141.5
--,----.,.-- - 131. 5
(SG)oil
Gas-oil ratio
standard cubic feet of gas per stock tank barrel of oil SG = specific gravity of water = 1.0
cubic metres of gas (s.c.) per cubic metre tank oil
Recommendation for metrication and appropriate
Flow rate conversion factors for units are given:
liquids - barrel per day (bid)
cubic metres per day (m 3/d)
gases - standard cubic ft per day SCF/d, MCF/d
and MSCFD/d, MMSCFD
cubic metres per day (m 3 /d) MSCFD/d

Recommended units: conversions

Quantity SI unit Industry SPE preferred Conversion
unit unit factor
(industry ~ preferred)
Length m mile km 1.609344
metre m 1.0
foot m 0.3048
inch mm 25.4
Area m2 sq. mile km 2 2.589988
acre km 2 4.046873 x 103
sq.ft m2 0.0920304
sq. inch mm2 6.4516 x 102
Volume m3 m3 m3 1.0
acre foot m3 1.233482 x 103
barrel m3 1.589873 x 10. 1
ft3 m3 2.831685 x 10.2
US gallon m3 3.785412 x 10.3
CapacityIlength m3/m barrels/ft m3/m 5.216119 x 10.1
ft3/ft m3/m 9.02903404 x 10.2
US gall.lft m3/m 1.241933 x 10.2
Mass kg Ibmass kg 4.535924 x 10.1
short ton Mg 0.9071847
Temperature gradient Kim °F/ft Kim 1.822689
Pressure Pa atmosphere kPa 1.013250x 102
bar kPa 1.0 x 102
kgf/sq. em kPa 9.806650 x 10 1
Ibf/sq. in. kPa 6.894757
dyne/sq. em Pa 1 x 10.1
Pressure gradient Palm Ibf/sq. in.lft kPaim 2.262059 x 10 1
Density kg/m 3 Ibmlft3 kg/m 3 1.601846 x 10-1
Ibm/USgal1. kg/m 3 1.198264 x 102
Volume rate m3/s bid m3/d 1.589873 x 10-1
US gall.!min m3/hr 0.2271247
Viscosity Pa.s cP Pa.s 1.0 x 10-3
Permeability m2 Darcy 11m2 9.869233 x 10- 1
miliiDarcy 11m2 9.869233 x 10-4
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 259

sPE SYMBOLS STANDARD original standards were published in 1956 following

five years of intensive development. Additions
Preface resulted from requests from members and from
Objectives editorial reviews of the numerous papers submitted
to SPE for publication.
The primary objectives of the 1984 Symbols Stan-
dards are to combine prior standards and supple- Principles of symbols selection
ments into one publication so as to provide (1)
consistency of usage and maximum ease of under- Once the original reservoir Symbols Standard was
standing of mathematical equations for the readers established in 1956, the principles employed in the
of technical papers, and (2) to codify symbols lists, selection of additional symbols have been as follows:
rules and guides for the writers of technical papers. A. (1) Use single letters only for the main letter
symbols. This is the universal practice of the
Structure of lists American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
The 1984 Symbol Standards are a consolidation of the International Organization for Standardiza-
the 1956 Standard and all later supplements. Some tion (ISO) and the International Union of Pure
of the cross-grouping and obsolete quantities have and Applied Physics (IUP AP) in more than 20
been eliminated. The complete symbols list is given formal Standards adopted by them for letter
in four different forms as follows: symbols employed in mathematical equations.
(2) Make available single and multiple sub-
A. Symbols alphabetized by physical quantity, scripts to the main letter symbols to the extent
B. Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity, necessary for clarity.
Multiple letters such as abbreviations are
C. Symbols alphabetized by symbols, prohibited for use as the main symbol (kernel)
D. Subscripts alphabetized by symbols. for a quantity. A few exceptions are some
traditional mathematical symbols such as log, In
The names or labels for the quantities are for and lim. Thus quantities that are sometimes
identification only and are not intended as defini- represented by abbreviations in textual mate-
tions. Defining equations are given in a few cases rial, tables or graphs are required in the SPE
where further identifications may be needed. For the Symbols Standards to have single-letter kernels.
present, the specification of units and conditions of Examples are: gas-oil ratio (GOR), bottom-
measurement is left to the user. hole pressure (BHP), spontaneous potential
For convenience in dimensional checking of equa- (SP), static SP (SSP), which, respectively, have
tions, a column has been included giving the the following SPE Standard symbols: R,pbh,
dimensions of each quantity in terms of mass, Esp, Essp. .
length, time, temperature and electrical charge (m, B. Adopt the letter symbols of original or prior
L, t, T, q). The term various also appears in this author usage, where not in conflict with princi-
column for several symbols. This terminology per- ples C and D below.
mits maximum flexibility for quantities that may C. Adopt letter symbols consistent or parallel with
require different dimensions in different problems. the existing SPE Standard, minimizing conflicts
Examples are symbols: (1) m for slope of a line (two with that Standard.
variables of any dimensions can be related); (2) C D. Where pertinent, adopt the symbols already
for concentration (dimensions might be m/L3 , standardized by such authorities as ANSI, ISO,
dimensionless or other); (3) F (factor) when it or IUPAP (see A); minimize conflicts with
represents ratio (dimensions might be L 3/m, m, these Standards.
dimensionless or other). This flexibility in dimen- E. Limit the list principally to basic quantities,
sions permits desirable shortening of the symbols avoiding symbols and subscripts for combina-
list. tions, reciprocals, special conditions, etc.
F. Use initial letters of materials, phase, processes,
Additional standard symbols
etc., for symbols and subscripts, as being
The extraordinary growth in all phases of petroleum suggestive and easily remembered.
and computer technology has necessitated the adop- G. Choose symbols that can be readily handwrit-
tion of additional standard symbols, since the ten, typed, and printed.
260 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Principles of letter symbol standardization nent part of a complex mathematical formula

A. Requirements for Published Quantity. - for example, as an exponent of a given
Each published letter symbol should be: base. Instead, one may introduce locally, a
1. Standard, where possible. In the use of single non-conflicting letter to stand for such
published symbols, authors of technical a complicated component. An explanatory
works (including textbooks) are urged to definition should then appear in the immedi-
adopt the symbols in this and other current ate context.
standard lists and to conform to the princi- B. Secondary symbols. Subscripts and superscripts
ples stated here. An author should give a are widely used and for a variety of convention-
table of the symbols used and their respec- al purposes. For example, a subscript may
tive interpretations, or else refer to a stan- indicate: (1) the place of a term in a sequence or
dard list as a source for symbols used but not matrix; (2) a designated state, point, part, or
explained. For work in a specialized or time, or system of units; (3) the constancy of
developing field, an author may need sym- one independent physical quantity among
bols in addition to those already contained in others on which a given quantity depends for its
standard lists. In such a case the author value; (4) a variable with respect to which the
should be careful to select simple suggestive given quantity is a derivative. Likewise, for
symbols that avoid conflict in the given field example, a superscript may indicate: (1) the
and in other closely related special fields. exponent for a power, (2) a distinguishing label,
Except in this situation, the author should (3) a unit, or (4) a tensor index. The intended
not introduce new symbols or depart from sense must be clear in each case. Several
currently accepted notation. subscripts or superscripts sometimes separated
2. Clear in reference. One should not assign to a by commas may be attached to a single letter. A
given symbol different meanings in such a symbol with a superscript such as prime (') or
manner as to make its interpretation in a second ("), or a tensor index, should be en-
given context ambiguous. Conflicts must be closed in parentheses, braces or brackets before
avoided. Often a listed alternative symbol or an exponent is attached. So far as logical clarity
a modifying subscript is available and should permits, one should avoid attaching subscripts
be adopted. Except in brief reports, any and superscripts to subscripts and superscripts.
symbol not familiar to the reading public Abbreviations, themselves standardized, may
should have its meaning defined in the text. appear among subscripts. A conventional sign,
The units should be indicated whenever or abbreviation, indicating the adopted unit
necessary. may be attached to a letter symbol, or corres-
3. Easily identified. Because of the many ponding numeral. Reference marks, such as
numerals, letters and signs that are similar in numbers in distinctive type, may be attached to
appearance, a writer should be careful in words and abbreviations, but not to letter
ca!ling for separate symbols that in published symbols.
form might be confused by the reader. For
C. Multiple subscript-position order. The wide
example, many letters in the Greek alphabet
variety and complexity of subject matter co-
(lower case and capital) are practically indis-
vered in the petroleum literature make it
tinguishable from English letters; the zero is
impossible to avoid use of multiple subscripts
easily mistaken for a capital O.
with many symbols. To make such usage less
4. Economical in publication. One should try to
confusing, the following guides were employed
keep at a minimum the cost of publishing
for the order of appearance of the individual
symbols. In particular: (1) Notations which
letters in multiple subscripts in the symbols list.
call for handsetting of movable type should
Use of the same rules is recommended when it
be rejected in favour of forms adapted to
becomes necessary to establish a multiple sub-
modern mechanical methods of composition.
script notation that has not been included in this
(2) No one work should use a great variety of
list.
types and special characters. (3) Handwrit-
ing of inserted symbols, in copy largely 1. When the subscript r for 'relative' is used, it
typewritten and to be reproduced in facsi- should appear first in subscript order. Ex-
mile, should not be excessive. (4) Often a amples: K r01· K rg .
complicated expression appears as a compo- 2. When the subscript i for 'injection' or
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 261

'injected' or 'irreducible' is used, it should few distinct letters used from other alphabets, if
appear first in subscript order (but after r for carefully made, should be self-explanatory. It is
'relative'). Examples: Big, formation important to select a type face that has italic
volume factor of injected gas; Cig, compress- forms, and clearly distinguished upper case,
ibility of injected gas. lower case and small capitals. Only type faces
3. Except for Cases 1 and 2 above (and with serifs are recommended.
symbols Kh and Lv), phase, composition and
E. Remarks. Quantity symbols may be used in
system subscripts should generally appear
first in subscript order. Examples: Bgi, mathematical expressions in any way consistent
initial or original gas formation volume with good mathematical usage. The product of
factor; B oi , initial or original oil formation two quantities is indicated by writing abo The
quotient may be indicated by writing
volume factor; CO,i' initial or original ox-
ygen concentration; B li , initial or original a
-,alb or ab- 1
total system formation volume factor; PsE, b
density of solid particles making up ex-
perimental pack; also FaH G Lp' G wgp , G Fi' If more than one solidus is used in any
4. Abbreviation subscripts (such as 'ext', 'lim', algebraic term, parentheses must be inserted to
'max', 'min'), when applied to a symbol remove any ambiguity. Thus, one may write
already subscripted, should appear last in (a/b)/c, or a/bc, but not alb/c.
subscript order and require that the basic
symbol and its initial subscript(s) be first F. Special notes. Observe the following:
enclosed in parentheses. Examples: (ia)max, 1. When the mobilities involved are on oppo-
(Shr)min' site sides of an interface, the mobility ratio
5. Except for Case 4 above, numerical sub- will be defined as the ratio of the displacing
scripts should appear last in subscript order. phase mobility to the displaced phase mobil-
Examples: qoD3, dimensionless oil produc- ity, or the ratio of the upstream mobility to
tion rate during time period 3; PR2, reservoir the downstream mobility.
pressure at time 2; (ial)max, maximum air 2. Abbreviated chemical formulas are used as
injection rate during time period 1. subscripts for paraffin hydrocarbons: C 1 for
6. Except for Cases 4 and 5 above, subscript D methane, C2 for ethane, C3 for propane ...
for 'dimensionless' should usually appear Cn for Cn H 2n + 2 •
last in subscript order. Examples: PID; qoD; 3. Complete chemical formulas are used as
(qoD3)max' subscripts for other materials: CO 2 for
7. Except for Cases 4, 5 and 6 above, the carbon dioxide, CO for carbon monoxide,
following subscripts should usually appear O 2 for oxygen, N2 for nitrogen, etc.
last in subscript order: regions such as bank, 4. The letter R is retained for electrical resistiv-
burned, depleted, front, swept, unburned ity in well logging usage. The symbol P is to
(b, b, d, f, s, u); separation, differential and be used in all other cases and is that
flash (d, f); individual component identifica- preferred by ASA.
tion (i orQI other). Examples: E Db ; Rsf, npJ- 5. The letter C is retained for conductivity in
D. Typography. Letter symbols for physical quan- well logging usage. The symbol (J is to be
tities, and other subscripts and superscripts, used in all other cases and is that preferred
whether upper case, lower case, or in small by ASA.
capitals, when appearing as light-face letters of 6. Dimensions: L = length, m = mass, q =
the English alphabet, are printed in italic electrical charge, t = time, and T = temper-
(sloping) type. Arabic numerals, and letters or ature.
other alphabets used in mathematical express- 7. Dimensionless numbers are criteria for
ions, are normally printed in vertical type. geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity
When a special alphabet is required, boldface between two systems. They are derived by
type is to be preferred to German, Gothic, or one of three procedures used in methods of
script type. In material to be reproduced in similarity: integral, differential, or dimen-
facsimile, from copy largely typewritten, letters sional. Examples of dimensionless numbers
that would be boldface in print may be indicated are Reynolds number (N Re ) and Prandtl
to be such by special underscoring, while the number (Npr ). For a discussion of methods
262 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

of similarity and dimensionless numbers, see abbreviation. All three character positions
"Methods of Similarity", by R.E. Schilson, must be employed.
J. Pet. Tech. (August, 1964) 877. Fixed characters are utilized in this part of
8. The quantity x can be modified to indicate the notation when heat quantities, indexes
an average or mean value by an overbar, X· and exponents are being assigned computer
symbols. When a heat quantity is denoted,
Principles of computer symbol H appears in the first character position, as
standardization exemplified by thermal conductivity HCN.
A. Symbol Structure. The computer symbols are Indexes such as resistivity index are denoted
structured from four possible parts representing by X in the third character position. Expo-
respectively arithmetic mode, mathematical nents are characterized by XP in the second
operators, basic quantities and subscripts, ex- and third positions, such as porosity expo-
clusive of time and space designations. Each of nentMXP.
these parts has a defined number of characters 4. The fourth part of the notation (subscript
and, when all are used in a single symbol, the field) is used to represent the subscripts of
total length may be ten characters. Example the mathematical letter symbol and normal-
ten-character notations are: ly consists of one of the three character
positions. Computer symbol subscripts are
XDELPRSTQQ,XDELCMPPRD normally designated by using the mathema-
When any of the four parts are not used, the tical letter subscripts of the SPE Symbols
remaining characters are to be right- or left- Standard.
justified to form a string of characters without Though usually not required, more char-
blank positions. acters may be used when necessary for
In practice, the combined notations will not designation of multiple mathematical letter
usually exceed six characters. In those cases subscripts. For example, dimensionless
where the complete computer symbol does average reservoir pressure would be de-
exceed six characters, and the computer lan- noted by PRSA VQ.
guage being used will not allow more than six, a The computer subscript designation is
shortened notation must be employed. The part placed immediately to the right of the
of the notation representing the basic mathema- quantity symbol field with no intervening
tical quantity (letter) symbol should be retained space.
and the other parts of the notation shortened. Dimensionless numbers are denoted by Q
Shortened symbols are no longer standard, and in the last required subscript position. A ver-
therefore must be defined in the text or appen- age, maximum, minimum, extrapolated or
dix as is appropriate. limiting values of a quantity are denoted
respectively by A V, MX, MN, XT, of LM in
1. The first part of the notation consists of one the first two subscript positions; additional
character position to define the arithmetic subscripting occurs immediately to the right
mode of the complete computer symbol. It of these defined notations. Other than in
is suggested that X be used for floating point these cases, the order of subscripting should
variables and I for integers. This notation follow the rules given in the 'Multiple
position should be used only if absolutely Subscripts - Position Order' .
necessary, the preferred approach being the 5. No binding rule is made for the notation of
use of a declaration within the program. space and time subscripts, since the method
2. The second part of the notation (operator of subscripting is often dictated by the
field) consists of three characters and is used characteristics of a particular computer.
for mathematical operators. The notation However, the vital importance of these
should suggest the operation. subscripts makes it necessary to establish a
3. The third part of the notation (quantity standard and require an author to define
symbol field) consisting of three characters, any deviations. The system outlined below
is used to represent the basic mathematical should be used when the subscripts are not
quantity (letter) symbol. The three letter implied by an array location or an index
notation mnemonically denotes the quantity specified by the program logic.
name as closely as possible. This part of the The following sketch indicates the coor-
computer notation is thus of the nature of an dinate system used to denote special posi-
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 263
tion in multi-dimensional arrays. measure. Authors are urged to familiarize them-
1(I = 1, 2, 3, ... ,NX) selves with the SI System of units and use them as
much as practical. The choice of units (Trans.
A/ME 263 (1977) 1685) and their designation is,
however, left to the author.
C. Restriction to computer programs. Use of the
computer symbols is restricted to the description
of programming for computers. As a consequ-
ence, the computer symbols must not be used in
works of portions of papers where programming
This convention was adopted so that the is not discussed or as abbreviations in text or
page position of printed output obtained in graphical material.
a normal I, J, K sequence would correspond D. Character set. The computer symbols must be
to position as viewed on maps as normally constructed from the 26 English letters and 10
used in petroleum engineering. Similarly, I, Arabic numerical characters. Each complete
K or J, K sequences would correspond to computer symbol must begin with a letter and
cross-sections as normally used. not a numeral.
The space and time subscripts are con- The computer symbols are always represented
structed by placing a letter code (I, J, K, T) by vertical type in printed text. English capital
before the following symbols: letters and Arabic numerals are used in hand or
typewritten material.
Machine E. Nonstandard symbols. The rules for establishing
Symbol Definition the computer symbols contained in this standard
P2 present location plus 2 are such that quantities not covered can, in most
P3H . present location plus 3/2 instances, be given a notation that is compatible
PI present location plus I with it. Such additional computer symbols are,
PIH present location plus 112 by definition, nonstandard.
MIH present location minus 112 Duplication of computer symbols for quanti-
MI present location minus I ties that can occur simultaneously in an equation
M3H present location minus 3/2
or computer program must be avoided. Elimina-
M2 present location minus 2
tion of a duplication may lead to a computer
symbol that is at variance with the standard; i.e.,
Hence, the subscript for the present time t
a notation that is nonstandard.
would be T, and that for subscript t-2 would be
When nonstandard computer symbols occur in
TM2.
a technical work, they should be clearly defined
If an array contains information correspond-
in the text or appendix, as is appropriate, and in
ing to points halfway between the normally
indexed points, then the convention is to shift the program.
F. Special notes. No computer symbols have been
the plus-direction elements to the node being
defined here for numerical quantities, functions,
indexed.
and arithmetic, relational, or logical operators.
In the following example, the permeability
When employed in programs, their usage should
at the i_lh point would be referenced as
be fully explained by comments in the program
PRMIPIH(I - 1), and that for the Hl/2 point
text. Some of these special cases are noted
would be referenced as PRMIPIH(I). See
sketch below. below:
1. No computer symbols to designate common
i-I Ph H liz or natural logarithms have been estab-
---(0 I 0 ---I--~ lished. Rather, these functions should be
1-1 PRMIPIH(I-l) I PRMIPIH(I) designated by the notations compatible with
the computer system being employed. The
B. Units. Each complete computer symbol repre-
notation used should be defined in the
sents a mathematical letter symbol and its associ-
paper.
ated subscripts. The mathematical letter symbol
2. The computer symbol for dimensionless
in turn designates a physical quantity. Neither
numbers in general (unnamed dimension-
the complete computer symbol nor the mathema-
less numbers) is NUMQ. Named dimen-
tical letter symbol implies any specific units of
264 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

sionless numbers have the mnemonic title designation in Computer Symbols Subscript
designation in the field representing the List. (Only changes in the basic subscripts
quantity and a Q in the last subscript are shown. Combination subscripts that
position employed. Thus, Reynolds number contain these items are also changed accor-
is designated as REYQ. Similarly, Prandtl dingly.)
number could be designated as PRDQ, 2. Quantities represented by single symbol in
Grashof number as GRSQ, Graetz number SPE Letter Symbols Standard but by
as GRTQ. Any dimensionless number not symbol-subscript combination in Computer
contained in this standard should be defined Symbols List.
in the paper.
3. No computer subscript notations corres-
ponding to these mathematical letter sub-
scripts are established. See section G. SPEletter Computer Quantity
4. No mathematical letter subscripts corres- symbol symbol title
pond to these computer subscripts. See G GASTI total inital gas in
section G. place in reservoir
L MOLL moles of liquid phase
G. Permissible format changes. In preparing the N NUMO dimensionless number
computer symbols it became necessary to modify in general
the format of certain of the basic letter symbols, N 01 LTI initial oil in place
subscripts or symbol-subscript combinations. in reservoir
These changes are in accord with the General u VELV volumetric velocity
Principles of Computer Symbol Standardization. (flow rate or flux,
per unit area)
They do not imply that changes in the form of the V M0 LV moles of vapour phase
economics, well logging and formation evalua- W WTRTI initial water in place
tion, reservoir engineering, or natural gas en- in reservoir
gineering letter symbols as contained elsewhere x MFRL mole fraction of
in this SPE Standard are authorized. Rather component in liquid
these changes are shown as a matter of record to phase
prevent confusion and to present examples of y MFRV mole fraction of
permissible format changes in the computer component in vapour
symbols that may be followed when it becomes phase
necessary to construct a computer notation not z MFRM mole fraction of
component in
included in the list. mixture
1. Basic symbolic subscripts of SPE Letter
Symbols Standard represented by different
3. Quantities represented by symbol-subscript
SPEletter Computer combination in SPE Letter Symbols Stan-
subscript symbol Subscript title dard but by a Computer Symbol Notation
c CP capillary only.
D 0 dimensionless quantity
Dm OM dimensionless quantity
at condition m
E EX experiment SPEletter
ext XT extrapolated symbol-
F FU fuel subscript Computer
lim LM limiting value combination symbol Quantity title
m FU fuel (mass of)
max MX maximum HC N thermal conductivity
min
-
MN minimum
p PAV mean or average
pressure 4. Symbol-subscript combinations of SPE Let-
pr PRO pseudo-reduced ter Symbols Standard represented by Com-
r RO reduced puter Symbol-Subscript Notation wherein
tD TQ dimensionless time
subscript notations are not the same.
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 265

SPEletter
place of the full name of a quantity, unit, or other
symbol- entity. Abbrevi{ltions are not acceptable in mathe-
subscript Computer Quantity matical equations. SPE provides a list of prefer-
combination symbol title red abbreviations in its 'Style Guide' for authors.
GL N GL TI initial condensate B. Computer Symbols - (for use in computer prog-
liquids in place rams) - a computer symbol is a letter or group of
in reservoir letters and numerals used to represent a specific
G Lp NGLP cumulative condensate physical or mathematical quantity in the writing
liquids produced and execution of computer programs. One com-
NRe REya Reynolds number puter symbol may be employed to represent a
(dimensionless
number) group of quantities, properly defined. Computer
Rsw GWRS gas solubility in water symbols are not acceptable as substitutes for letter
symbols in the required mathematical (equation-
al) developments leading up to computer prog-
5. Subscripts of SPE Letter Symbols Standard rams. At the present time, all SPE computer
not assigned Computer Subscript Notations symbols employ capital letters and numerals.
as a result of actions noted in 4. C. Dimensions - dimensions identify the physical
nature of or the general components making up a
specific physical quantity; SPE employs the five
SPEletter basic dimensions of mass, length, time, tempera-
subscript Subscript title ture, and electrical charge (m, L, t, T, q). *
liquid produced, cumulative D. Letter symbols - (for use in mathematical equa-
(usually with condensate, tions) - a letter symbol is a single letter, modified
G Lp ) when appropriate by one or more subscripts or
Re Reynolds (used with Reynolds superscripts, used to represent a specific physical
number only, N Re )
solution in water (usually with
or mathematical quantity in a mathematical
sw
gas solubility in water, Rsw) equation. A single letter may be employed to
represent a group of quantities, properly de-
fined. The same letter symbol should be used
6. Letter operator-symbol combination of consistently for the same generic quantity, or
SPE Letter Symbols Standard represented special values, being indicated by subscripts or
by Computer Symbol Notation only. superscripts.
E. Reserve symbols - a reserve symbol is a single
SPEletter Computer letter, modified when appropriate by one or
symbol symbol quantity Title more subscripts or superscripts, which can be
used as an alternate when two quantities (occur-
T AC interval transit time ring in some specialized works) have the same
standard letter symbol. These conflicts may
Distinctions between, and descriptions of, result from use of standard SPE symbols or
abbreviations, computer symbols, dimensions, subscript designations that are the same for two
letter symbols, reserve symbols,'unit different quantities, or use of SPE symbols that
abbreviations and units conflict with firmly established, commonly used
notations and signs from the fields of mathema-
Confusion often arises as to the proper distinctions
tics, physics, and chemistry.
between abbreviations, computer symbols, dimen-
To avoid conflicting designations in these
sions, letter symbols, reserve symbols, unit abbre-
cases, use of reserve symbols, reserve subscripts,
viations and units used in science and engineering.
The Society of Petroleum Engineers has adhered to and reserve symbol-reserve subscript combina-
the following descriptions: tions is permitted, but only in cases of symbols
conflict. Author preference for the reserve sym-
A. Abbreviations - (for use in textual matter, tables, bols and subscripts does not justify their use.
figures, and oral discussions) - an abbreviation is In making the choice as to which of two
a letter or group of letters that may be used in quantities should be given a reserve designation,
* Electrical charge is current times time, ISO uses: Mass (M), Length (L), Time (T), Temperature (8), Electric current (I), Amount of
substance (N) and Luminous intensity (J).
266 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

an attempt should be made to retain the standard (ISO) and many other national and international
SPE symbol for the quantity appearing more bodies concerned with standardization empha-
frequently in the paper; otherwise, the standard size the special character of these designations
SPE symbol should be retained for the more and rigidly prescribe the manner in which the
basic item (temperature, pressure, porosity, per- unit abbreviations shall be developed and
meability, etc.). treated.
Once a reserve designation for a quantity is G. Units - units express the system of measurement
employed, it must be used consistently through- used to quantify a specific physical quantity. In
out a paper. Use of an unsubscripted reserve SPE usage, units have 'abbreviations' but do not
symbol for a quantity requires use of the same have 'letter symbols'. Up to this time, SPE has
reserve symbol designation when subscripting is not standardized a general system of units, nor
required. Reversion to the standard SPE symbol units for individual quantities; it has signified
or subscript is not permitted within a paper. For willingness, however, to join in a future national
larger works, such as books, consistency within a effort to convert from the English to a metric
chapter or section must be maintained. system of units.
The symbol nomenclature, which is a required SPE's practices showing the above distinctions
part of each work, must contain each reserve are illustrated in the table of example quantities.
notation that is used together with its definition. Authors can materially aid themselves, editors,
F. Unit Abbreviations - a unit abbreviation is a and readers by keeping the distinctions in mind
letter or group of letters (for example, cm for when preparing papers for SPE review. Manu-
centimeter), or in a few cases a special sign, that scripts submitted to SPE are subject to review on
may be used in place of the name of a unit. The these aspects before being accepted for publica-
International Organization for Standardization tion.
Examples
Letter Reserve
Abbrev. symbol symbol
for text, for used only in Computer
tables, mathe- case of symbol Unit
figures, matical symbols for Dimen- abbrev.
Quantity oral use equations conflict programs sions and units'
gas-oil ratio, producing GaR R none GaR none cu ftlBBL
gas-oil ratiO, initial Rsi none GORSI none cu ftlBBL
solution, initial solution GaR
productivity index PI J j POX L4Vm bid/psi
productivity index, SPI Js js POXS L3 t1m b/d/psilft
specific
* Examples only; SPE has not standardized units.

Contrasting symbol usage

petroleum production. These ASA symbol stan-
SPE and certain American Standards Association, dards are published by the American Society of
American National Standards Institute and Interna- Mechanical Engineers, United Engineering Center,
tional Organization for Standardization symbols lists 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017.
do not use the same letter symbols to represent The Society Board of Directors has approved the
identical quantities. The variations in notations SPE 1984 Symbols Standards, and recommends
result from the application of the SPE guides in them to the membership and to the industry. All
choosing symbols as detailed herein, the lack of authors must include Nomenclatures in any manu-
agreement between various ASA standards, the script submitted to SPE for publication.
ASA's policy of allowing several symbols to repre-
sent the same quantity in any list and the large Acknowledgement
number of quantities assigned symbols by the SPE.
It is to be emphasized that the symbols contained in The work done in sorting and combining the various
the SPE list are standard for use in petroleum standard lists by Schlumberger Well Services
engineering, but the symbols of other disciplines as Engineering personnel in Houston, Texas and
sanctioned by the American Standards Association Schlumberger-Doll Research Center personnel in
should be used when working outside the area of Ridgefield, Connecticut is gratefully acknowledged.
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 267
A. Symbols alphabetized by physical quantity

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
w z ARR Arrhenius reaction rate velocity constant L 3/m
k K PRM absolute permeability (fluid flow) L2
g GRV acceleration of gravity Llt2
Za MPDA acoustic impedance m/L2t
v V,U VAC acoustic velocity Lit
a ACT activity
FaF FACAFU air/fuel ratio various
ia INJA air injection rate L3/t
a Fa AIR air requirement various
aE FaE AIREX air requirement, unit, in laboratory experimental L 3/m
run, volumes of air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR air requirement, unit, in reservoir, volumes of
air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
IJ-a 11a VISA air viscosity miLt
mk AMAK amortization (annual write-off of unamortized M
investment at end of year k)
A AMP amplitude various
Ac AMPC amplitude, compressional wave various
Ar AMPR amplitude, relative various
As AMPS amplitude, shear wave various
a [J,y ANG angle
e [J,y ANG angle
e ad ANGD angle of dip
ec roYc ANGC angle, contact
w angular frequency lit
Kam Mam COEANI anisotropy coefficient
IR INCK annual operating cash income, over year k M
Gan fGan GMFAN annulus geometrical factor
(muliplier or fraction)
tascript t at TACA apparent interval transit time tiL
Ca Oa ECNA apparent conductivity tq 2 /mL 3
Pa Da DENA apparent density m/L3
rwa Rwa RADWA apparent or effective wellbore radius (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
<Pa fmea PORA apparent porosity
Ra Pmra RESA apparent resistivity mL3tq2
Rz pz,rz RESZ apparent resistivity of the conductive fluids in mL3 tq 2
an invaded zone (due to fingering)
"'" APPR apbroximatel y e~ual to or is approximated
y (usually wit functions)
A S ARA area L2
EA 11A,eA EFFA areal efficiency (used in describing results of
model studies only); area swept in a model
divided by total model reservoir area
(see Ep)
268 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
ASYM asymptotically equal to
Pa Pa PRSA atmospheric pressure m/Lt2
Z ANM atomic number
A AWT atomic weight (atomic mass, relative) m
a Me< COEA attenuation coefficient IlL
q Q RTEAV average flow rate or production rate L3/t
AV average or mean (overbar)
- p PRSAV average pressure m/Lt2
P
PR
p PRSAVR average reservoir pressure m/Lt2
<I> f3d DAZ azimuth of dip
/.t M RAZ azimuth of reference on sonde
n NGW backpressure curve exponent, gas well
C CGW backpressure curve (gas well), coefficient of L3-2nt4n/m2n
n NGW backpressure curve (gas well), exponent of
loga base a, logarithm
f3 y BRGR bearing, relative
h d,e THK bed thickness, individual L
Pwj P wj PRSWF bottom hole flowing pressure m/Lt2
Pbh P BH PRSBH bottomhole pressure m/Lt2
Pwj P wj PRSWF bottom hole pressure flowing m/Lt2
Piwj P iwj PRSIWF bottomhole flowing pressure, injection well miLe
P iws P iws PRSIWS bottomhole static pressure, injection well m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS bottomhole pressure at any time after shut-in m/Lt2
Pw Pw PRSW bottomhole pressure, general m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS bottomhole pressure, static miLt 2
Pww P ww PRSWW bottomhole (well) pressure in water phase m/Lt2
Tbh 8 BH TEMBH bottomhole temperature T
b w WTH breadth, width, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
Pe Pe PRSE boundary pressure, external m/Lt2
Te Re RADE boundary radius, external L
Bgb Fgb FVFGB bubble-point formation volume factor, gas
Bob Fob FVFOB bubble-point formation volume factor, oil
Ph Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB bubble-point (saturation) pressure m/Lt2
bgb !gb,Fgb RVFGB bubble-point reciprocal gas formation volume
factor at bubble-point conditions
V bp Vbp VOLBP bubble-point pressure, volume at L3
Rsb Fgsb GORSB bubble-point solution gas-oil ratio
I::J.tws I::J.t ws DELTIMWS buildup time; shut-in time
(time after well is shut in)
(pressure buildup, shut-in time)
Pb Db DENB bulk density m/L3
K Kb BKM bulk modulus miLe
Vb Vb VOLB bulk volume L3
V bE Vbt VOLBEX bulk volume of pack burned in experimental L3
tube run
!v !Vb, V bt FRCVB bulk (total) volume, fraction of
V Rb VRb VOLRB burned reservoir rock, volume of L3
Vb Vb,Ub VELB burning-zone advance rate (velocity of) Lit
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 269

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol

C ECQ capacitance q2e/mL2

Qv Zv CEXV capacity, cation exchange, per unit pore volume
QVt ZVt CEXUT capacity, cation exchange,
per unit pore volume, total
Pe PoPe PRSCP capillary pressure miLe
Ci INVI capital investment, initial M
Ck INVK capital investment, subsequent, in year k M
C C INVT capital investments, summation of all M
Ppv CFLPV cash flow, discounted M
P CFL cash flow, un discounted M
h INCK cash income, annual operating, over year k M
I INC cash income, operating M
Ia INCA cash income, operating, after taxes M
h INCB cash income, operating, before taxes M
Pe! Pet PRSCF casing pressure, flowing m/Lt2
Pes Pes RSCS casing pressure, static m/Lt2
Qv Zv CEXV cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume
QVt ZVt CEXUT cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume,
total
m MXP cementation (porosity) exponent (in an empirical
relation between FRand <j»
Q q CHG charge (current times time) q
Kani Mani COEANI coefficient, anisotropy
ex M", COEA coefficient, attenuation IlL
h hh,hT HTCC coefficient, convective heat transfer m/eT
D /L,a DFN coefficient, diffusion L2/t
Ke MoKee COEC coefficient, electrochemical mL2/t2q
KR MRa,C COER coefficient, formation resistivity factor
(FR<j>m)
K KSP coefficient in the equation of the electro- me/t2 q
chemical component of the SP (spontaneous
electromotive force)
C CGW coefficient of gas-well backpressure curve L3-2nt4n/m2n
V V T, Ve HTCU coefficient heat transfer, over-all m/eT
I IT, Ie HTCI coefficient, heat transfer, radiation m/eT
J3 b HEC coefficient, thermal cubic expansion liT
K M COE coefficient or multiplier various
SL PVSL SATL combined total liquid saturation
log common logarithm, base 10
npj Npj MOLPJ component j, cumulative moles produced
nj Nj MOLl component j, moles of
x MFRL component, mole fraction of, in liquid phase
z MFRM component, mole fraction of, in mixture
y MFRV component, mole fraction of, in vapour phase
C ne NMBC components, number of
Ee <Pe EMFC component of the SP, electrochemical mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK component of the SP, electrokinetic mL2/eq
c k,K CMP compressibility Lt2/m
z Z ZED compressibility factor (gas deviation factor,
z=PVlnRD
270 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
zp Zp ZEDPAV compressibility factor or deviation factor
for gas, at mean pressure
cf kfi Kf CMPF compressibility, formation or rock Lt2/m
cg kg, Kg CMPG compressibility, gas Lt 2/m
Co ka> Ko CMPO compressibility, oil Lt2/m
Cpr kpT> Kpr CMPPRD compressibility, pseudo-reduced
Cw kw. Kw CMPW compressibility, water Lt 2/m
Ac AMPC compressional wave amplitude various
C c,n CNC concentration various
Cel CCl CNCCI concentration, methane (concentration of various
other paraffin hydrocarbons would be
indicated similarly, Cel> CC3, etc.)
C O2 CO 2 CNC02 concentration, oxygen (concentration various
of other elements or compounds would be
indicated similarly, Ceo2 , CN2 , etc.)
Cm Cm,n m CNCFU concentration, unit fuel various
(see symbol m)
GL gL NGLTI condensate liquids in place in reservoir, L3
initial
G Lp gLp NGLP condensate liquids produced, cumulative L3
CL CVnL CNTL condensate or natural gas liquids content various
0 Y SIG conductivity (other than logging) various
C 0 ECN conductivity (electrical logging) tq 2/mL 3
Ca Oa ECNA conductivity, apparent tq2/mL3
C fD CNDFQ conductivity, fracture, dimensionless
kh A HCN conductivity, thermal (always with additional mLieT
phase or system subscripts)
w z ARR constant, Arrhenius reaction L 3/m
rate velocity constant
A C LAM constant, decay (I/ed) lit
E DIC constant, dielectric q 2elmL3
Y constant, Euler's = 0.5772
Dc DSCC constant-income discount factor

r
h HPC constant, hyperbolic decline

q = qJ [ 1 + -j;
al

R RRR constant, universal gas (per mole) mL2/t 2T

C WDC constant, water-drive L 4 elm
CL WDCL constant, water-drive, linear aquifer L 4t 2/m
m FF FCM consumption, fuel various
mE FFE FCMEX consumption of fuel in experimental tube run mlL3
m tg FFEg FCMEXG consumption of fuel in experimental tube run m
(mass of fuel per mole of produced gas)
mR FFR FCMR consumption of fuel in reservoir m/L3
ec r,Yc ANGC contact angle
CL CL, nL CNTL content, condensate or natural gas liquids various
C wg cwg,nwg CNTWG content, wet-gas various
h hh,hT HTCC convective heat transfer coefficient m/eT
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 271

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
gc GRVC conversion factor in Newton's second law of
Motion
B C COR correction term or correction factor
(either additive or multiplicative)
N n,C NMB count rate (general) lit
NN NmC N NEUN count rate, neutron lit
NCR Ny,Cc NGR count rate, gamma ray lit
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC critical gas saturation
Pc Pc PRSC critical pressure m/Lt 2
Tc 8c TEMC critical temperature T
Swc Pwoswc SATWC critical water saturation
A S ARA Cross-section (area) L2
I S XSTMAC cross-section, macroscopic IlL
a XSTMIC cross-section, microscopic IlL
a S XNL cross-section of a nucleus, microscopic L2
j3 b HEC cubic expansion coefficient, thermal lIT
G Lp gLp NGLP cumulative condensate liquids produced C
G Fp gFp GASFP cumulative free gas produced L3
Ge ge GASE cumulative gas influx (encroachment) L3
Gi gi GASI cumulative gas injected C
Rp Fgp,Fgop GORP cumulative gas-oil ratio
Gp gp GASP cumulative gas produced L3
npj Npj MOLPJ cumulative moles of component j produced
Ne ne OILE cumulative oil influx (encroachment) L3
Np np OILP cumulative oil produced L3
Qp FLUP cumulative produced fluids (where Np
and Wp are not applicable)
We We WTRE cumulative water influx (encroachment) C
Wi Wi WTRI cumulative water injected L3
Fwop FACWOP cumulative water-oil ratio mLlt2
Wp wp WTRP cumulative water produced L3
G wgp gwgp GASWGP cumulative wet gas produced L3
'\Ix curl
I i script i,i CUR current, electric q/t
rs Rs RADS damage or stimulation radius of well (skin) L
Fs Fd DMRS damage ratio or condition ratio (conditions
relative to formation conditions unaffected
by well operations)
Z D,h ZEL datum, elevation referred to L
A C LAM decay constant (lhd) lit
'td td TIMD decay time (mean life) (111..) t

r
tdN TIMDN decay time, neutron (neutron mean life) t
h HPC decline constant, hyperbolic [from equation
[ + -j;
q = q;ll a·t

d DECE decline factor, effective

a DEC decline factor, nominal
8 DCR decrement various
F DGF degrees of freedom
272 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
\l DEL del (gradient operator)
td 'td TIMDY delay time t
D DLV deliverability (gas well) L3/t
P D DEN density mlL3
Pa Da DENA density, apparent m/L3
Pb Db DENB density, bulk mlL3
Pf Df DENF density, fluid m/L3
Pxo Dxo DENXO density, flushed zone mlL3
n N NMB density (indicating 'number per unit volume') lIL3
PF DF DENFU density, fuel mlL 3
Pg Dg DENG density, gas mlL 3
Pma Dma DENMA density, matrix (solids, grain) mlL 3
nN NMBN density (number) of neutrons I/L3
PL Ih DENAVL density of produced liquid, weight-weighted avg. m/L3
PsE DsE DENSEX density of solid particles making up m/L3
experimental pack
Po Do DENO density, oil m/L3
y s, Fs SPG density, relative (specific gravity)
Pt Dt DENT density, true m/L3
Pw Dw DENW density, water mlL 3
DE EDE depletion
NR NF FUDR deposition rate of fuel m/L3t
Dp EDP depreciation
D y,H DPH depth L
a rs SKD depth, skin (logging) L
Z Z ZED deviation factor (compressibility factor)
for gas (z = p VlnR1)
zp Zp ZEDPAV deviation factor (compressibility factor)
for gas, at mean pressure
a ANGH deviation, hole (drift angle)
Pd Pd PRSD dew-point pressure m/Lt 2
d D DIA diameter L
dh dH,Dh DIAH diameter, hole L
di dbDi DIAl diameter, invaded zone (electrically equivalent) L
ap Dp DIAAVP diameter, mean particle L
(0 DIC dielectric constant q 2t 2/mL3
A DEL difference or difference operator,
finite (ax = X2-XI or X-X2)
D /-L,a DFN diffusion coefficient L2/t
'YJ DFS diffusivity, hydraulic (klcpc/-L or A/cpc) L2/t
QLtD QLtD script I ENCLTQQ dimensionless fluid influx function, linear aquifer
QtD ENCTQQ dimensionless fluid influx function
at dimensionless time tD
CfD CNDFQ dimensionless fracture conductivity
qgD QgD RTEGQ dimensionless gas production rate
N NUMQ dimensionless number, in general
(always with identifying subscripts)
(Example: Reynolds number, N Re )
qoD QoD RTEOQ dimensionless oil production rate
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 273

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
VpD VpD VOLPQ dimensionless pore volume
PD PD PRSQ dimensionless pressure
PtD P tD PRSTQQ dimensionless pressure function
at dimensionless time tD
qD QD RTEQ dimensionless production rate
XD dimensionless quantity proportional to x
rD RD RADQ dimensionless radius
tD LD TIMQ dimensionless time
tDm tDm TIMMQ dimensionless time at condition m
qwD QwD RTEWQ dimensionless water production rate
e ad ANGD dip, angle of
ea ada ANGDA dip, apparent angle of
<I>a f3da DAZA dip, apparent azimuth of
<I> f3d DAZ dip, azimuth of
Dc DSCC discount factor, constant-income
D DSC discount factor, general
Dsp DSCSP discount factor, sin~le-payment
[1/(1 + i)k; or e-] ,j = In (1 + i)]
Dspc DSCSPC discount factor, single-payment
(constant annual rate)
[e-jk ( ei - 1)/j]
i RTED discount rate
Ppv CFLPV discounted cash flow
K d DSP dispersion coefficient L2/t
~ DSM dispersion modulus (dispersion factor)
s L DIS displacement L
E Db l'JDb,eDb EFFDB displacement efficiency from burned portion
of in situ combustion pattern
E Du l'JDweDu EFFDU displacement efficiency from unburned portion
of in situ combustion pattern
ED l'JD,eD EFFD displacement efficiency: volume of hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) displaced from individual pores or
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbons in the same pores just prior to
displacement
8 Fd DPR displacement ratio
80b Fdob DPROB displacement ratio, oil from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
80u Fdou DPROU displacement ratio, oil from unburned volume,
volume per unit volume of unburned reservoir
rock
8wb Fdwb DPRWB displacement ratio, water from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir
rock
d L d,L2 DUW distance between adjacent rows of injection and L
production wells
a LmLJ DLW distance between like wells (injection or L
production) in a row
L s,! script I LTH distance, length, or length of path L
!l.r !l.R DELRAD distance, radial (increment along radius) L
274 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V divergence
rd Rd RADD drainage radius L
atwl a'twl DELTIMWF drawdown time (time after well is opened to t
production) (pressure drawdown)
a ANGH drift angle, hole (deviation)
ir RORI earning power or rate of return (internal,
true, or discounted cash flow)
s S,O SKN effect, skin
d DECE effective decline factor
rwa Rwa RADWA effective or apparent well bore radius (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
kg Kg PRMG effective permeability to gas L2
ko Ko PRMO effective permeability to oil L2
kw Kw PRMW effective permeability to water L2
<Pe fe,E e PORE effective porosity
E 'Y),e EFF efficiency
EA 'Y)A,eA EFFA efficiency, areal (used in describing results of model
studies only): area swept in a model divided by
total model reservoir area (see Ep)
E Db 'Y)Db,eDb EFFDB efficiency, displacement, from burned portion of
in situ combustion pattern
E Du 'Y)DweDu EFFDU efficiency, displacement, from unburned portion of
in situ combustion pattern
ED 'Y)D,eD EFFD efficiency, displacement: volume of hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) displaced from individual pores or
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbon in the same pores just prior to
displacement
E[ 'Y)b e[ EFFI efficiency, invasion (vertical): hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the injection
fluid or heat front divided by the hydrocarbon pore
space enclosed in all layers behind the injected-
fluid or heat front
ER 'Y)R,eR EFFR efficiency, over-all reservoir recovery: volume of
hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume of
hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER = Ep E[ED = Ev ED)
Ep 'Y)p,ep EFFP efficiency, pattern sweep (developed from areal
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
net pay thickness, porosity and hydrocarbon
saturation): hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
behind the injected-fluid or heat front divided
by total hydrocarbon pore space of the reservoir
or project
EVb 'Y)Vb,eVb EFFVB efficiency, volumetric, for burned portion only,
in situ combustion pattern
Ev 'Y)v,ev EFFV efficiency, volumetric: product of pattern sweep
and invasion efficiencies
E y ELMY elasticity, modulus of (Young's modulus) m/Lt2
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 275

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
I i script i,i CUR electric current q/t
Ze ZE,'Y] MPDE electric impedance mL2/t~2
p R RHO electrical resistivity (other than logging) mL3tq
R p,r RES electrical resistivity (electrical logging) mL3 tq2
't e TORE electrical tortuosity
di dbDi DIAl electrically equivalent diameter of the invaded L
zone
Kc MoKec COEC electrochemical coefficient mL2/t2q
Ec <Pc EMFC electrochemical component of the SP mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK electrokinetic component of the SP me/t2q
E V EMF electromotive force mL2/t2q
Z D,h ZEL elevation referred to datum L
Ge ge GASE encroachment or influx, gas, cumulative L3
!::.G e !::.ge DELGASE encroachment or influx, gas during an interval L3
Ne ne OILE encroachment or influx, oil, cumulative L3
!::.Ne !::.ne DELOILE encroachment or influx, oil, during an interval L3
e ENC encroachment or influx rate L3/t
eg ig ENCG encroachment or influx rate, gas L3/t
eo io ENCO encroachment or influx rate, oil L3/t
ew iw ENCW encroachment or influx rate, water L3/t
We We WTRE encroachment or influx, water, cumulative C
!::.We !::.we DELWTRE encroachment or influx, water, during an interval L3
E U ENG energy mL2/t2
H I HEN enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) me/t2
Hs Is HENS enthalpy (net) of steam or enthalpy above mL2/t2
reservoir temperature
h HENS enthalpy, specific L2/t2
s a HERS· entropy, specific L2/t2T
S at HER entropy, total mL2/t2T
~ GE equal to or larger than
!:S LE equal to or smaller than
K k,Feq EQR equilibrium ratio (ylx)
di dbDi DIAl equivalent diameter (electrical) of the L
invaded zone
tp 'tp TIMP equivalent time well was on production prior t
to shut-in (pseudo-time)
Rwe RWE equivalent water resistivity mL3 tq 2
erf ERF error function
erfc ERFC error function, complementary
En Euler number
y Euler's constant = 0.5772
fJ b HEC expansion coefficient, thermal cubic IIT
CPE fE,tE POREX experimental pack porosity
n NGW exponent of back-pressure curve, gas well
m MXP exponent, porosity (cementation) (in an
empirical relation between FRand cP )
n SXP exponent, saturation
eZ expz EXP exponential function
276 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
-Ei (-x) exponential integral

I~
00

dt, x positive
x t
Ei (x) exponential integral, modified

E~
'"" 0 [r.!...-t dl + ~t dl Jx positive
_00 E

Pe Pe PRSE external boundary pressure mlLt2

'e Re RADE external boundary radius L
Pext Pext PRSXT extrapolated pressure miLe
z Z ZED factor, compressibility
(gas deviation factor z = PVlnRT)
D DSC factor, discount
d DECE factor, effective decline
a DEC factor, nominal decline
ge GRVC factor, conversion, in Newton's second law of
Motion
FR FACHR factor, formation resistivity, equals RolRw
(a numerical subscript to f indicates
the value of Rw)
f FACF factor, friction
G fa GMF factor, geometrical (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
Gan fGan GMFAN factor, geometrical (multiplier)
annulus (electrical logging)
Gi fGi GMFI factor, geometrical (multiplier)
invaded zone (electrical logging)
Gp fGp GMFP factor, geometrical (multiplier)
pseudo (electrical logging)
Gxo fGxo GMFXO factor, geometrical (multiplier)
flushed zone (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM factor, geometrical (multiplier)
mud (electrical logging)
Gt fat GMFT factor, geometrical (multiplier)
true (non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
F FAC factor in general, including ratios various
(always with identifying subscripts)
F8 FACB factor, turbulence
w m MRT flow rate, mass mit
Q q,fl> HRT flow rate, heat mL2/t3
u 'tp VELV flow rate or flux, per unit area Lit
(volumetric velocity)
q Q RTE flow rate or production rate L3/t
qp Q-
-p RTEPAV flow rate or production rate at mean pressure L3/t
q Q RTEAV flow rate or production rate, average L3/t
Piw! Piw! PRSIWF flowing bottom-hole pressure, injection well miLe
Pw! p w! PRSWF flowing pressure, bottom-hole m/Lt2
Pc! Pc! PRSCF flowing pressure, casing m/Lt2
Ptf p t! PRSTF flowing pressure, tubing miLe
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 277

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
ll.twf ll.'twf DELTIMWFflowing time after well is opened t
to production (pressure drawdown)
F f FLU fluid (generalized) various
vf Vf,uf VACF fluid interval velocity Lit
Z D,h ZEL fluid head or height or elevation referred L
to a datum
tfscript t ll.tf TACF fluid interval transit time tiL
Pf Df DENF fluid density m/L3
QtD ENCTQQ fluid influx function, dimensionless, at
dimensionless time tD
QLtD QltD script I ENCLTQQ fluid influx function, linear aquifer, dimensionless
Qp QltD script I FLUP fluids, cumulative produced (where Np and
Wp are not applicable)
Pxo Dxo DENXO flushed-zone density mlL3
Rxo Pxmrxo RESXO flushed-zone resistivity (that part of the mL3tq 2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the hole,
where flushing has been maximum)
Gw fGxo GMFXO flushed-zone geometrical factor
(fraction or multiplier)
u 'tV FLX flux various
u 'tV VELV flux or flow rate, per unit area Lit
(volumetric velocity)
F Q FCE force, mechanical mLlt2
E V EMF force, electromotive (voltage) mL2/t2q
CPR fER PORR formation or reservoir porosity
cf kf,Kf CMPF formation or rock compressibility Lt 2/m
FR FACHR formation resistivity factor - equals
RoIRw (a numerical
subscript to Findicates the value Rw)
KR MR,a,C COER formation resistivity factor coefficient
(FR<I>m)
Rt Pt,rt REST formation resistivity, true mL3 tq 2
Ro po,ro RESZR formation resistivity when 100% saturated mL3tq 2
with water of resistivity Rw
Tf 8f TEMF formation temperature T
Bgb Fgb FVFGB formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions, gas
Bob Fob FVFOB formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions, oil
Bg Fg FVFG formation volume factor, gas
Bo Fo FVFO formation volume factor, oil
Bt Ft FVFT formation volume factor, total (two-phase)
B F FVF formation volume factor
volume at reservoir conditions divided
by volume at standard conditions
Bw Fw FVFW formation volume factor, water
f F FRC fraction (such as the fraction of a flow stream
consisting of a particular phase)
fg Fg FRCG fraction gas
278 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
h FL,ft script I FRCL fraction liquid
Iv Ivb, Vbf FRCVB fraction of bulk (total) volume
Iq,sh <Pigfsh FIGSH fraction of intergranular space ('porosity')
occupied by all shales
Iq,w <Pigfw FIGW fraction of intergranular space ('porosity')
occupied by water
Iq,shd <Pimfshd FIMSHD fraction of intermatrix space ('porosity')
occupied by nonstructural dispersed shale
CfD CNDFQ fracture conductivity, dimensionless
Lf xf LTHFH fracture half-length (specify 'in the L
direction of' when using xf)
If if,/p,ip FRX fracture index
G F GFE free energy (Gibbs function) mL2/t 2
IFf iFf FFX free fluid index
RF Fgp,Fgop GORF free gas-oil ratio, producing (free-gas
volume/oil volume)
G pp gFp GASFP free gas produced, cumulative L3
G Fi gFi GASFI free-gas volume, initial reservoir (=mNBoi) L3
Rp Fgf,Fgop GORF free producing gas-oil ratio (free-gas volumel
oil volume)
I v FQN frequency lit
I FACF friction factor
Pf Pf PRSF front or interface pressure m/Lt2
Cm cm,n m CNCFU fuel concentration, unit (see symbol m) various
m Fp FCM fuel consumption various
mE FFE FCMEX fuel consumption in experimental tube run m/L3
mEg FFEg FCMEXG fuel consumption in experimental tube run (mass m
of fuel per mole of produced gas)
mR FpR FCMR fuel consumption in reservoir m/L3
Pp DF DENFU fuel density m/L3
NR Np FUDR fuel deposition rate m/L3t
I FUG fugacity miLe
NGR Ny,CG NGR gamma ray count rate lit
y GRY gamma ray [usually with identifying subscript( s)] various
G g GAS gas (any gas, including air) always with various
identifying subscripts
Sog Pog,Sog SATOG gas-cap interstitial-oil saturation
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG gas-cap interstitial-water saturation
cg kg, Kg CMPG gas compressibility Lt 2/m
z Z ZED gas compressibility factor
(deviation factor) (z = PVlnRT)

R RRR gas constant, universal (per mole) mL2/t 2T

pg Dg DENG gas density m/L3
zp Zp ZEDPAV gas deviation factor (compressibility factor)
at mean pressure
z Z ZED gas deviation factor (compressibility factor,
z = PVlnRT) (deviation factor)
kg Kg PRMG gas, effective permeability to L2
Bg Fg FVFG gas formation volume factor
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 279

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Bgb Fgb FVFGB gas formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions
fg Fg FRCG gas fraction
G g GASTI gas in place in reservoir, total initial L3
Ge ge GASE gas influx (encroachment), cumulative L3
flGe flge DELGASE gas influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
eg ig ENCG gas influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Gi gi GASI gas injected, cumulative L3
flG i flg; DELGASI gas injected during an interval L3
ig INJG gas injection rate L3/t
CL cL,nL CNTL gas liquids, natural, or condensate content various
Ag MOBG gas mobility Ct/m
fg Fg FRCG gas, fraction

fg Fg MFRTV V_]
gas mole fraction [__
L+V
kglko KglKo PRMGO gas-oil permeability ratio

Rp F gp, Fgop GORP gas-oil ratio, cumulative

RF FgFlFgoF GORF gas-oil ratio, free producing (free-gas volume/
oil volume)
R Fg,Fgo GOR gas-oil ratio, producing
Rsb Fgsb GORSB gas-oil ratio, solution at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS gas-oil ratio, solution (gas solubility in oil)
Rs; Fgsi GORSI gas-oil ratio, solution, initial
Gp gp GASP gas produced, cumulative L3
flG p flgp DELGASP gas produced during an interval L3
G pE gpE GASPEX gas produced from experimental tube run C
qg Qg RTEG gas production rate L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ gas production rate, dimensionless
bg fg,Fg RVFG gas reciprocal formation volume factor
bgb fgb,Fgb RVFGB gas reciprocal formation volume factor at
bubble-point conditions
G pa gpa GASPUL gas recovery, ultimate L3
krg Krg PRMRG gas, relative permeability to
Sg pg,Sg SATG gas saturation
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC gas saturation, critical
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR gas saturation, residual
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS gas solubility in oil (solution gas-oil ratio)
Rsw GWRS gas solubility in water
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG gas specific gravity
/-tg 'YJg VISG gas viscosity miLt
/-tga 'YJga VISGA gas viscosity at 1 atm miLt
C CGW gas-well back-pressure curve, coefficient of L3--2nt4n/m2n
n NGW gas-well back-pressure curve, exponent of
D DLV gas-well deliverability L3/t
G wgp gwgp GASWGP gas, wet, produced, cumulative L3
h d,e THK general and individual bed thickness L
N NUMQ general dimensionless number (always with
identifying subscripts)
280 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
G fa GMF geometrical factor (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
Gan fGan GMFAN geometrical factor (multiplier),
annulus (electrical logging)
Gxo fGxo GMFXO geometrical factor (multiplier),
flushed zone (electrical logging)
Gi fai GMFI geometrical factor (multiplier),
invaded zoned (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM geometrical factor (multiplier),
mud (electrical logging)
Gt fat GMFf geometrical factor, (multiplier), true
(non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
Gp fap GMFP geometrical factor (multiplier), pseudo
(electrical logging)
Gt fGt GMFf geometrical factor (multiplier), true
(electrical logging)
g Y GRD gradient various
gG gg GRDGT gradient, geothermal T
\1 gradient operator
gT gh GRDT gradient, temperature T
Pma Dma DENMA grain (matrix, solids) density m/L3
g GRV gravity, acceleration of Llt 2
Y s,Fs SPG gravity, specific, relative density
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG gravity, specific, gas
Yo smFos SPGO gravity, specific, oil
Yw sw,Fws SPGW gravity, specific, water
ht dt,e t THKT gross (total) pay thickness L
Vu Ru GRRU gross revenue ('value') per unit produced M/e
V R, Vt,R t GRRT gross revenue ('value'), total M
t1l2 TIMH half life t
Q q,cfJ HRT heat flow rate mL2/e
Lv Av HLTV heat of vaporization, latent L2/t2
a a, 'YJh HTD heat or thermal diffusivity L2/t
C c HSP heat, specific (always with phase or system L2/t2T
subscripts)
h hh,hT HTCC heat transfer coefficient, convective m/t3T
U UT,Ua HTCU heat transfer coefficient, over-all mleT
I In/a HTCI heat transfer coefficient, radiation mleT
Z D,h ZEL height, or fluid head or elevation L
referred to a datum
h d,e ZHT height (other than elevation) L
A SH HWF Helmholtz function (work function) mL2/t2
y f HOL hold-up (fraction of the pipe volume filled by
a given fluid: Yo is oil hold-up, Yw is water
hold-up ~of all hold-ups at a given level
is one)
8 ANGH hole deviation, drift angle
dh dH,D h DIAH hole diameter L
'YJ DFS hydraulic diffusivity (kl<j>c {t or A<j>C) L2/t
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 281

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
rH RH RADHL hydraulic radius L
TH TORHL hydraulic tortuosity
<Ph fh,Eh PORH hydrocarbon-filled porosity, fraction
or percent of rock bulk volume occupied by
hydrocarbons
IR iR RSXH hydrocarbon resistivity index R/Ro
Shr Ph"Shr SATHR hydrocarbon saturation, residual
HYX hydrogen index

r
IH iH
h HPC hyperbolic decline constant (from equation)

-j;
q = q) [1 + a·t
g (z) script I imaginary part of complex number z
Z MPD impedance various
Za MPDA impedance, acoustic m/L2t
Ze ZE,lj MPDE impedance, electric mL2/tq2
I I --X index (use subscripts as needed)
If if,/F,i F FRX index, fracture
IFf iFf FFX index, free fluid
IH iH HYX index, hydrogen
I IJX index, injectivity L4 t/m
n JL RFX index of refraction
Icp icp PRX index, porosity
ICPI iCPI PRXPR index, primary porosity
I j PDX index, productivity L 4 t/m
IR iR RXSH index, (hydrocarbon) resistivity
R/Ro
Icp2 iCP2 PRXSE index, secondary porosity
IshGR ishGR SHXGR index, shaliness gamma-ray
(Ylog - Yen)/(Ysh - Yen)
Is is IJXS index, specific injectivity Ct/m
Is js PDXS index, specific productivity L3t/m
h d,e THK individual bed thickness L
Ge ge GASE influx (encroachment), cumulative, gas L3
Ne ne OILE influx (encroachment), cumulative, oil L3
We We WTRE influx (encroachment), cumulative, water L3
AGe Age DELGASE influx (encroachment) during an interval, gas L3
ANe Ane DELOILE influx (encroachment) during an interval, oil L3
AWe AWe DELWTRE influx (encroachment) during an interval, water L3
QLtD Q'tD script I ENCLTQQ influx function, fluid, linear aquifer,
dimensionless
QtD Q'tD script I ENCTQQ influx function, fluid, dimensionless
(at dimensionless time t D)
e ENC influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
eg ig ENCG influx (encroachment) rate, gas L3/t
eo io ENCO influx (encroachment) rate, oil L3/t
ew iw ENCW influx (encroachment) rate, water L3/t
GL gL NGLTI initial condensate liquids in place in reservoir L3
Ci INVI initial capital investment M
282 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
N n OILTI initial oil in place in reservoir L3
Pi Pi PRSI initial pressure m/Lt2
GFi gFi GASFI initial reservoir free-gas volume L3
(=mNBoJ (=GBgJ
Rsi Fgsi GORSI initial solution gas-oil ratio Llt 2
W W WTRTI initial water in place in reservoir L3
Swi Pwi,swi SATWI initial water saturation
Gi gi GASI injected gas, cumulative L3
AGi Agi DELGASI injected gas during an interval L3
Wi Wi WTRI injected water, cumulative L3
AWi AWi DELWTRI injected water during an interval L3
INJ injection rate L3/t
ia INJA injection rate, air L3/t
ig INJG injection rate, gas L3/t
iw INJW injection rate, water L3/t
Piwj Piwj PRSIWF injection well bottom-hole pressure, flowing m/Lt2
Piws Piws PRSIWS injection well bottom-hole pressure, static m/Lt2
I i IJX injectivity index L 4 t/m
Is is IJXS injectivity index, specific L 3t/m
GL gL NGLTI in-place condensate liquids in reservoir, initial L3
G g GASTI in-place gas in reservoir, total initial L3
N n OILTI in-place oil in reservoir, initial L3
W W WTRTI in-place water in reservoir, initial L3
Fwo FACWO instantaneous producing water-oil ratio
b y ICP intercept various
IRCE interest rate, effective compound (usually annual)
iM IRPE interest rate, effective, per period
j r IRA interest rate, nominal annual
Pj Pj PRSF interface or front pressure M/Lt2
0 Y,Y SFT interfacial, surface tension m/t2
<Pig hg'Cig PORIG intergranular 'porosity' (space)
(Vb - Vgr)/V b
-Ei(-x) integral, exponential
00

J~t dt, x positive

x
Ei (x) integral, exponential, modified

c~ 0 [~J~
lim t
dt · t
1
+ ~ dt ,x positive
t
_00 E t
/q,sh <Pigfsh FIGSH intergranular space (porosity), fraction
occupied by all shales
/q,w <Pigfw FIGW intergranular space (porosity), fraction
occupied by water
/q,shd <Pimjshd FIMSHD intermatrix space (porosity), fraction
occupied by non-structural dispersed shale
<Pim !im,Eim PO RIM intermatrix 'porosity' (space)
(Vb - V ma)IVb
U Ei INE internal energy mele
Sog POWSog SATOG interstitial-oil saturation in gas cap
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 283

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG interstitial-water saturation in gas cap
Swo Swb SATWO interstitial-water saturation in oil band
tscript t at TAC interval transit time tIL
tascript t ata TACA interval transit time, apparent tIL
M maD SAD interval transit time-density slope (absolute tL2/m
value)
tfscript t atf TACF interval transit time, fluid tIL
tmascript t atma TACMA interval transit time, matrix tIL
tsh script t atsh TACSH interval transit time, shale tIL
di dbDi DIAl invaded zone diameter, electrically equivalent L
Gi lGi GMFI invaded zone geometrical factor (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
Ri Pbri RESI invaded zone resistivity mL3tq 2
E[ l'Jb e[ EFFI invasion (vertical) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers
behind the injected-fluid or heat front
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW irreducible water saturation
v N VSK kinematic viscosity L2/t
Ek ENGK kinetic energy mL2/t2
:z (y) script L Laplace transform of y

J
00

0
y (t) e-stdt

s Laplace transform variable

\l Laplacian operator
> GT larger than
Lv A.v HLTV latent heat of vaporization L2/t2
L s,fscript I LTH length, path length, or distance L
T t TIMAV lifetime, average (mean life) t
lim LM limit
CL WDCL linear aquifer water-drive constant L 4t 2/m
h h,f script I FRCL liquid fraction
h FLtf script I MFRTL liquid mole fraction L/(L + V)
x MFRL liquid phase, mole fraction of component in
L nL MOLL liquid phase, moles of
SL PL,SL SATL liquid saturation, combined total
GL gL NGLTI liquids, condensate, in place in reservoir, initial
GLp gLp NGLP liquids, condensate, produced cumulative L3
loga logarithm, base a
log logarithm, common, base to
Ln logarithm, natural, base e
I S XSTMAC macroscopic cross section tiL
a s XNL macroscopic cross section of a nucleus L2
JL m PRMM magnetic permeability mLlq2
k I( SUSM magnetic susceptibility mLlq2
M I MAG magnetization mlqt
Mf MAGF magnetization, fraction
284 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
m MAS mass m
w m MRT mass flow rate mit
tmascript !l.tma TACMA matrix interval transit time tiL
Pma Dma DENMA matrix (solids, grain) density rnIL3
V ma V ma VOLMA matrix (framework) volume (volume L3
of all formation solids except
dispersed clay or shale)
1:' t TIMAV mean life (average lifetime) t
1:'
-
t TIMD mean life (decay time) (Ill') t
p P PRSAV mean or average pressure rnILt2
AV mean or average (overbar)
IL MEN mean value of a random variable
-xa Dp DIAAVP mean particle diameter L
MENES mean value of a random variable, x, estimated
F Q FCE mechanical force mLlt 2
CCI ce j
CNCCI methane concentration (concentration of various
other paraffin hydrocarbons would be
indicated• similarly C• c2, Cc3 , etc.)
a XSTMIC
•
mIcroscoPIc cross sectIOn e
z MFRM mixture, mole fraction of component
A MOB mobility (kilL) L 3t/m
Ag MOBG mobility, gas L 3t/m
Ao MOBO mobility, oil L 3 t/m
M FA MBR mobility ratio, general (Adisplacin/AdisPlaced)
Ms MDd,Msu MBRSAV mobility ratio, diffuse-front approximation
[(AD + Ad)SWJ/(AdLnswept]; D signifies
displacing; signifies displaced; mobilities
are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
M FA MBR mobility ratio, sharp-front approximation
(AD/Ad)
Mt FAt MBRT mobility ratio, total, [(At)swep/(At)unswept];
'swept' and 'un swept' refer to invaded
and uninvaded regions behind and ahead
of leading edge of displacement front
At A MOBT mobility, total, of all fluids in a particular region L 3 t/m
of the reservoir, e.g., (Ao + Ag + Aw)
Aw MOBW mobility, water et/m
K Kb BKM modulus, bulk rnILt2
'IjJ DSM modulus, dispersion, (dispersion factor)
G Es ELMS modulus, shear m/Lt2
E y ELMY modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) m/Lt2
VM Vm VOLM molal volume (volume per mole) e
Fg MFRTV mole fraction gas V/(L + V)
~x FL,J; script I MFRTL
MFRL
mole fraction liquid LI(L + V)
mole fraction of a component in liquid phase
z MFRM mole fraction of a component in mixture
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 285

Letter feserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol 'PE letter
letter symbol
symbol
y MFRV mole fraction of a component in vapor phase
R N MRF molecular refraction L3
M MWT molecular weight (mass, relative) m
ML MWTAVL molecular weight of produced liquids, m
mole-weighted average
n N NMBM moles, number of
nj Nj MOLJ moles of component j
npj Npj MOLPJ moles of component j produced, cumulative
L nL MOLL moles of liquid phase
V nv MOLV moles of vapor phase
nt Nt NMBMT moles, number of, total
ML MWTAVL mole-weighted average molecular weight m
of produced liquids
Rmc Pmormc RESMC mud-cake resistivity mL3tq2
h mc dmoemc THKMC mud-cake thickness L
Rmf Pmf,rmf RESMF mud-filtrate resistivity mL 3tq 2
Gm fGm GMFM mud geometrical factor (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
Rm pm,rm RESM mud resistivity mL3tq 2
G fo GMF multiplier (factor), geometrical
(electrical logging)
Gan fGan GMFAN multiplier (factor), geometrical,
annulus (electrical logging)
Gxo fGxo GMFXO multiplier (factor), geometrical,
flushed zone (electrical logging)
Gi foi GMFI multiplier (factor), geometrical,
invaded zone (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM multiplier (factor), geometrical,
mud (electrical logging)
Gp fGp GMFP multiplier (factor), geometrical,
pseudo (electrical logging)
Gt fot GMFT multiplier (factor, geometrical,
true (electrical logging)
K M COE multiplier or coefficient various
CL cL,nL CNTL natural gas liquids or condensate content various
In natural logarithm, base e
hn dme n THKN net pay thickness L
NN NmC N NEUN neutron count rate lit
nN NMBN neutrons, density (number) of
tN tN,tn NFL neutron lifetime lit
N mcj>ND SND neutron porosity-density slope (absolute value) elm
N NEU neutron [usually with identifying subscript(s)] various
gc GRVC Newton's Second Law of Motion, conversion
factor in
a DEC nominal decline factor
(J s XNL nucleus cross section, microscopic L2
Z ANM number, atomic
N NUMQ number, dimensionless, in general (always
with identifying subscripts)
286 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
Letter symbol
symbol
n N NMB number (of variables, or components, or steps,
or increments, etc.)
n N NMB number (quantity)
M m NMBCP number of compounding periods (usually per year)
Cn C NMBC number of components
nt Nt NMBM number of moles, total
N Re REYQ number, Reynolds (dimensionless number)
N n OIL oil (always with identifying subscripts) various
Swo Swb SATWO oil band interstitial-water saturation
Co kmKO CMPO oil compressibility Lf/m
Po Do DENO oil density m/L3
80b Fdob DPROB oil displaced from burned volume, volume per
unit volume of burned reservoir rock
80u Fdou DPROU oil displaced from unburned volume, volume per
unit volume of unburned reservoir rock
ko Ko PRMO oil, effective permeability to L2
Bo Fa FVFO oil formation volume factor
Bob Fob FVFOB oil formation volume factor at bubble point
conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS oil, gas solubility in
(solution gas-oil ratio)
N n OILTI oil in place in reservoir, initial L3
Ne OILE oil influx (encroachment) cumulative L3
D.Ne D.ne DELOILE oil influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
eo io ENCO oil influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Ao MOBO oil mobility et/m
Np np OILP oil produced, cumulative L3
D.Np D.np DELOILP oil produced during an interval L3
qo Qo RTEO oil production rate L3/t
qoD QoD RTEOQ oil production rate, dimensionless
bo fmFo RVFO oil reciprocal formation volume factor
(shrinkage factor)
Npa npa OILPUL oil recovery, ultimate L3
kro K ro PRMRO oil, relative permeability to
So Pmso SATO oil saturation
Sag Pog,Sog SATOG oil saturation in gas cap, interstitial
Sor PonSor SATOR oil saturation, residual
Yo smFos SPGO oil specific gravity
iJ-o vA VISO oil viscosity miLt
f INC operating cash income M
fa INCA operating cash income, after taxes M
f INCB operating cash income, before taxes M
0 XPO operating expense various
Ou XPOU operating expense per unit produced MlL3
\1 2 operator, Laplacian
U UT,Ue HTCU over-all heat transfer coefficient mlt3T
ER lJR,eR EFFR over-all reservoir recovery efficiency: volume
of hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume
of hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER = EpEs Eo = Ev ED)
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 287

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
CO2 CO2 CNC02 oxygen concentration (concentration of other various
elements or compounds would be indicated as,
CC02,CN , etc.)
e02 Eo
_ 2 UTL02 oxygen utilization
dp Dp DIAAVP particle diameter, mean L
L s,fscript I LTH path length, length, or distance L
Ep 'Y/,ep EFFP pattern sweep efficiency (developed from areal
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
net pay thickness, porosity and hydrocarbon
saturation: hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
behind the injected-fluid or heat front
divided by total hydrocarbon pore space
of the reservoir or project
ht dt,e t THKT pay thickness, gross (total) L
hn dme n THKN pay thickness, net L
T e PER period t
k K PRM permeability, absolute (fluid flow) L2
kg Kg PRMG permeability, effective, to gas L2
ka Ka PRMO permeability, effective, to oil L2
kw Kw PRMW permeability, effective, to water L2
I-L m PRMM permeability, magnetic mLlq2
kika KiKa PRMGO permeability ratio, gas-oil
k.Jka KwlKa PRMWO permeability ratio, water-oil
krg Krg PRMRG permeability, relative, to gas
k ra K ra PRMRO permeability, relative, to oil
k rw K rw PRMRW permeability, relative, to water
P NMBP phases, number of
I-L v,a PSN Poisson's ratio
Vp vp VOLP pore volume Vb - Vs L3
VpD VpD VOLPQ pore volume, dimensionless
Qi qi FLUIQ pore volumes of injected fluid, cumulative,
dimensionless
<P f,E POR porosity (Vb - V s)lVb
<Pa fa,E a PORA porosity, apparent
<Pe fe,E e PORE porosity, effective (VpelVb)
m MXP porosity exponent (cementation)
(in an empirical relation between FRand <P)
<Ph fh,Eh PORH porosity, hydrocarbon-filled, fraction or percent
of rock bulk volume occupied by hydrocarbons
Icj> icj> PRX porosity index
Icj>l icj>l PRXPR porosity index, primary
Icj>2 icj>2 PRXSE porosity index, secondary
<Pne fne,cne PORNE porosity, non-effective (VpnelVb)
<Pig /;g, Eig PORIG 'porosity' (space), intergranular (Vb - V gr)lVb)
<Pim fim,Eim PORIM 'porosity' (space), intermatrix (Vb - V malVb)
<PE fE,EE POREX porosity of experimental pack
<PR frlER PORR porosity of reservoir or formation
<Pt /r,Et PORT porosity, total
288 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
<I> f POT potential or potential function various
V U VLT potential difference (electric) mL2/~Jt
Ep ENGP potential energy mL2/t
Pbh Pbh PRSBH pressure, bottomhole m/Lt2
P P PRS pressure mlLt2
pa Pa PRSA pressure, atmospheric m/Lt2
P P PRSAV pressure, average or mean m/Lt2
P Pd PRSAVR pressure, average, reservoir m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS pressure, bottomhole, at any time after shut-in m/Lt2
Pwt Pwt PRSWF pressure, bottom hole flowing m/Lt2
Piwt Piwt PRSIWF pressure, bottom hole flowing, injection well m/Lt2
Pw Pw PRSW pressure, bottom hole general m/Lt~
Pws Pws PRSWS pressure, bottomhole static miLt
Pww P ww PRSWW pressure, bottomhole (well), in water phase miLe
Piws Piws PRSIWS pressure, bottomhole static, injection well m/Lt2
Pb Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB pressure, bubble-point (saturation) m/Lt2
Pe PoPe PRSCP pressure, capillary m/Lt2
Pet Pet PRSCF pressure, casing flowing m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSCS pressure, casing static miLe
Pe Pe PRSC pressure, critical miLe
Pd Pd PRSD pressure, dew-point m/Lt2
PD PD PRSQ pressure, dimensionless
Pe Pe PRSE pressure, external boundary m/Lt2
Pexe Pext PRSXT pressure, extrapolated m/Lt2
Pwt P wt PRSWF pressure, flowing bottomhole mlLt 2
Pet Pet PRSCF pressure, flowing casing m/Lt2
Pet Ptt PRSTF pressure, flowing tubing m/Lt2
Pt Pt PRSF pressure, front or interface miLe
PeD PtD PRSTQQ pressure function, dimensionless, at
dimensionless time tD
Pi Pi PRSI pressure, initial m/Lt2
Ppe Ppe PRSPC pressure, pseudo-critical m/Lt2
Ppr Ppr PRSPRD pressure, pseudo-reduced miLe
f!..r Pr PRSRD pressure, reduced
PR P PRSAVR pressure, reservoir average m/Lt2
Psp Psp PRSSP pressure, separator m/Lt2
Pse Pse PRSSC pressure, standard conditions miLe
Pws Pws PRSWS pressure, static bottom-hole m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSCS pressure, static casing m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSTS pressure, static tubing miLe
Pt! Pet PRSTF pressure, tubing flowing m/Lt2
Pts Pes PRSTS pressure, tubing static m/Lt2
1<1>1 i<l>l PRXPR primary porosity index
G Lp gLp NGLP produced condensate liquids, cumulative L3
Qp FLUP produced fluids, cumulative (where Np L3
and Wp are not applicable)
G Fp gFp GASFP produced free gas, cumulative L3
Gp gp GASP produced gas, cumulative L3
AGp Agp DELGASP produced gas during an interval L3
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 289

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
GpE gpE GASPEX produced gas from experimental tube run L3
G wgp 8Jygp GASWGP produced gas, wet, cumulative e
'ih D DENAVL produced-liquid density, weight-weighted mlL3
average

npj Npj MOLPJ produced moles of component j, cumulative

Np np OILP produced oil, cumulative L3
D.Np tmp DELOILP produced oil during an interval eL3
Wp wp WTRP produced water, cumulative
Awp Awp DELWTRP produced water during an interval L3
G wgp gwgp GASWGP produced wet gas, cumulative L3
R Fg,Fgo GOR producing gas-oil ratio
RF FgHFgoF GORF producing gas-oil ratio, free
(free-gas volume/oil volume)
Fwo FACWO producing water-oil ratio, instantaneous
qi Qi RTEI production rate at beginning of period L3/t
qa Qa RTEA production rate at economic abandonment L3/t
qD QD RTEQ production rate, dimensionless
qg Qg RTEG production rate, gas L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ production rate, gas, dimensionless
qo Qo RTEO production rate, oil L3/t
qoD QoD RTEOQ production rate, oil, dimensionless
q Q RTE production rate or flow rate L3/t
qjJ Qp RTEPAV production rate or flow rate at mean pressure L3/t
q Q RTEAV production rate or flow rate, average L3/t
qw Qw RTEW production rate, water L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ production rate, water, dimensionless
AtwJ A. DELTIMWFproduction time after well is opened to
production (presure drawdown)
tp .p TIMP production time of well, equivalent, prior to
shut-in (pseudo-time)
J j PDX productivity index L4t/m
Pk PRAK profit, annual net, over year k M
fpk PRAPK profit, annual, over year k, fraction of
unamortized investment
P PI PRFT profit, total M
ex: proportional to
Js js PDXS productivity index, specific L3 t/m
Tpe 8pe TEMPC pseudo-critical temperature T
Ppe Ppe PRSPC pseudo-critical pressure m/U2
Gp fop GMFP pseudo-geometrical factor (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
cpr Kpr>Kpr CMPPRD pseudo-reduced compressibility
Ppr Ppr PRSPRD pseudo-reduced pressure
Epsp <l>sp EMFP pseudo-SP mL2/qt2
Tpr 8pr TEMPRD pseudo-reduced temperature T
tp .p TIMP pseudo-time (equivalent time well was on t
production prior to shut-in)
fs Q,x QLTS quality (usually of steam)
290 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
t:.r t:.R DELRAD radial distance (increment along radius) L
I ly,Ie HCTI radiation heat transfer coefficient mleT
r R RAD radius L
rwa Rwa RADWA radius, apparent or effective, of well bore L
(includes effects of well damage or stimulation)
rD RD RADQ radius, dimensionless
re Re RADE radius, external boundary L
rH RH RADHL radius, hydraulic L
rd Rd RADD radius of drainage L
rwa Rwa RADWA radius of wellbore, apparent or effective L
(includes effects of well damage or stimulation)
rs Rs RADS radius of well damage or stimulation (skin) L
rw Rw RADW radius, well L
ia INJA rate, air injection Cit
1 k; RTE rate: discount, effective profit, of return,
reinvestment, etc; use symbol i with
suitable subscripts
q Q RTE rate, flow or production L3/t
NGR Ny,CG NGR rate, gamma ray count lit
eg ig ENCG rate, gas influx (encroachment) L3/t
ig INJG rate, gas injection L3/t
qg Qg RTEG rate, gas production L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ rate, gas production, dimensionless
e i ENC rate, influx (encroachment) L3/t
x MENES random variable, mean value of x, estimated
INJ rate, injection L3/t
IRCE rate, interest, effective compound
(usually annual)
iM IRPE rate, interest, effective, per period
j r IRA rate, interest, nominal annual
w m MRT rate, mass flow mit
u 'lj! VELV rate of flow or flux, per unit area Lit
(volumetric velocity)
Q q,CI> HRT rate of heat flow mL2/t3
ir RORI rate of return (internal, true, or discounted
cash flow) or earning power
eo io ENCO rate, oil influx (encroachment) L3/t
qo Qo RTEO rate, oil production L3/t
u 'lj! VELV rate per unit area, flow (volumetric velocity) Lit
qoD QoD RTEOQ rate, oil production, dimensionless
q Q RTE rate, production or flow L3/t
qjJ Qp RTEPAV rate, production, at mean pressure L 3/t
q Q RTEAV rate, production, average Cit
qD QD RTEQ rate, production, dimensionless
qs Qs RTES rate, segregation (in gravity drainage) L3/t
y e SRT rate, shear lit
Vb Vb,Ub VELB rate (velocity) of burning-zone advance Lit
ew iw ENCW rate, water influx (encroachment) L3/t
iw INJW rate, water injection L3/t
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 291

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
qw Qw RTEW rate, water production L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ rate, water production, dimensionless
FaF FACAFU ratio, air-fuel various
Fs Fd DMRS ratio, damage ('skin' conditions relative to
formation conditions unaffected by well
operations)
S Fd DPR ratio, displacement
Sob Fdob DPROB ratio, displacement, oil from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir
rock
Sou Fdou DPROU ratio, displacement, oil from unburned volume,
volume per unit volume of unburned reservoir
rock
Swb Fdwb DPRWB ratio, displacement, water from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
K k,Feq EQR ratio, equilibrium (y/x)
RF FgHFgoF GORF ratio, free producing gas-oil (free-gas
volume/oil volume)
Rp Fgp, Fgop GORP ratio, gas-oil, cumulative
Rsi Fgsi GORSI ratio, gas-oil, initial solution
kglKo Kglko PRMGO ratio, gas-oil permeability
R FWFgo GOR ratio, gas-oil producing
Rsb Fgsb GORSB ratio, gas-oil, solution, at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs,Fos GORS ratio, gas-oil, solution (gas solubility in oil)
M FA MBR ratio, mobility, general
(AdisplacingfAdisplaced)
Ms MDd,Msu MBRSAV ratio, mobility, diffuse-front approximation
[(AD + Ad)swep/(Ad)unswept];
D signifies dIsplacing; d signifies displaced;
mobilities are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
M FA MBR ratio, mobility, sharp-front approximation
(AD/Ad)
Mt FAt MBRT ratio, mobility, total [(At)swep/(AtLnswept];
'swept' and 'unswept' refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
m Fpl,Fgo MGO ratio of initial reservoir free-gas volume
to initial reservoir oil volume
F FAC ratio or factor in general (always with identifying various
subscripts)
kglko KglKo PRMGO ratio, permeability, gas-oil
R Fg,Fgo GOR ratio, producing gas-oil
kw/ko Kw/Ko PRMWO ratio, permeability, water-oil
Rsb Fgsb GORSB ratio, solution gas-oil, at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS ratio, solution gas-oil (gas solubility in oil)
Rsi Fgsi GORSI ratio, solution gas-oil, initial
FwF FACWFU ratio, water-fuel
Fwop FACWOP ratio, water-oil, cumulative
292 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
kw/ko Kw/Ko PRMWO ratio, water-oil permeability
Fwo FACWO ratio, water-oil, producing, instantaneous
X XEL reactance ML2/tq2
k r,j RRC reaction rate constant LIt
!Yl (z) script R real part of complex number z
b f,F RVF reciprocal formation volume factor, volume at
standard conditions divided by volume at
reservoir conditions (shrinkage factor)
bg lFg RVFG reciprocal gas formation volume factor
bgb gb,Fgb RVFGB reciprocal gas formation volume factor at
bubble-point conditions
j w reciprocal permeability l/L2
bo fmFo RVFO reciprocal oil formation volume fator
(shrinkage factor)
ER 'l']R,eR EFFR recovery efficiency, reservoir over-all; volume of
hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume of
hydrocarbons in place at start of project.
(ER = EpE/ED = EvED)
Gpa gpa GASPUL recovery, ultimate gas
Pr Pr PRSRD reduced pressure
Tr ar TEMRD reduced temperature
a RED reduction ratio or reduction term
asp REDSP reduction, SP (general) due to shaliness
R N MRF refraction, molecular
n JL RFX refraction index
aSPsh REDSH reduction ratio, SP, due to shaliness
Ar AMPR relative amplitude
A AWT relative atomic mass (atomic weight)
M MWT relative molecular weight (molecular weight)
f3 y BRGR relative bearing
y s,Fs SPG relative density (specific gravity)
krg Krg PRMRG relative permeability to gas
k ro K ro PRMRO relative permeability to oil
krw Krw PRMRW relative permeability to water
t2 V2 TIMAV relaxation time, free-precession decay t
tt '1:t TIMRP relaxation time, proton thermal t
a Fa AIR requirement, air
aE FaE AI REX requirement, unit air, in laboratory experimental L3/m
run, volumes or air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR requirement, unit air, in reservoir, volumes
of air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
G Fi gFi GASFI reservoir initial free-gas volume (=mNBoi) L3
<PR fR,ER PORR reservoir or formation porosity
p PR PRSAVR reservoir pressure, average m1Lt2
ER 'l']R,eR EFFR reservoir recovery efficiency, over-all;
volume of hydrocarbons recovered divided
by volume of hydrocarbons in place at
start of project (ER = [sx] = Ev ED)
VRb VRb VOLRB reservoir rock burned, volume of L3
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 293

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V Ru VRu VOLRU reservoir rock unburned, volume of L3
TR 9R TEMR reservoir temperature T
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR residual gas saturation
Shr Phnshr SATHR residual hydrocarbon saturation
Sor PonSor SATOR residual oil saturation
Swr PwnSwr SATWR residual water saturation
r R RST resistance ML2/t~2
R p,r RES resistivity (electrical) mL3tq
Ran Pam ran RESAN resistivity, annulus mL3tq2
Ra Pmra RESA resistivity, apparent mL3 tq2
Rz pz,rz RESZ resistivity, apparent, of the conductive mL3 tq 2
fluids in an invaded zone
(due to fingering)
KR MR,a,C COER resistivity factor coefficient, formation mL3 tq2
(FRcj>m)
FR FACHR resistivity factor, formation, equals
RoIRw a numerical
subscript to F indicates the Rw
Rxo Pxmrxo RESXO resistivity flushed zone (that part of the mL3tq 2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the
borehole, where flushing has been the
maximum)
Ro po,ro RESZR resistivity, formation 100% saturated mL3 tq2
with water of resistivity Rw
Rt Pt,rt REST resistivity, formation, true mL3tq 2
IR iR RSXH resistivity index (hydrocarbon) equals R/Ro
Ri pi,ri RESI resistivity, invaded zone mL3tq2
Rm Pm,rm RESM resistivity, mud mL3 tq 2
Rmc Pmormc RESMC resistivity, mud-cake mL3 tq 2
Rmf Pmf,rmf RESMF resistivity, mud-filtrate mL3tq2
Rsh psh,rsh RESSH resistivity, shale mL3 tq2
Rs ps,rs RESS resistivity, surrounding formation mL3 tq 2
Rw pw,rw RESW resistivity, water mL3tq 2
Vu Ru GRRU revenue, gross ('value'), per unit produced MlL3
V R, V I1 R t GRRT revenue, gross ('value'), total M
NRe REYQ Reynolds number (dimensionless number)
cf kfiKf CMPF rock or formation compressibility Lt2/m
C c,n CNC salinity various
S p,s SAT saturation
n SXP saturation exponent
Sg Pg,Sg SATG saturation, gas
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC saturation, gas, critical
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR saturation, gas, residual
Sog PogtSog SATOG saturation, interstitial-oil, in gas cap
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG saturation, interstitial-water, in gas cap
Sh Ph,Sh SATH saturation, hydrocarbon
Shr Phnshr SATHR saturation, residual hydrocarbon
So PmSo SATO saturation, oil
Sor PonSor SATOR saturation, oil, residual
294 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Pb Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB saturation or bubble-point pressure mlLt2
SL PL,SL SATL saturation, total (combined) liquid
Sw pw>sw SATW saturation, water
Swc Pwoswc SATWC saturation, water, critical
Swi Pwbswi SATWI saturation, water, initial
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW saturation, water irreducible
Swr Pw"swr SATWR saturation, water, residual
I<j>2 i<j>2 PRXSE secondary porosity index
qs Qs RTES segregation rate (in gravity drainage) L3/t
Psp Psp PRSSP separator pressure mlLt 2
Ish script t Atsh TACSH shale interval transit time tiL
Rsh psh,rsh RESSH shale resistivity mL3 tq2
IShGR ishGR SHXGR shaliness gamma-ray index
(Ylog - Ycn)/(Ysh - Yen)
G Es ELMS shear modulus miLe
y e SRT shear rate lit
As AMPS shear wave amplitude various
bo fmFo RVFO shrinkage factor (reciprocal oil formation
volume factor)
Pws P ws PRSWS shut-in bottomhole pressure, at any time mlLt 2
Atws A'tws DELTIMWS shut-in time (time after well is shut in) t
(pressure buildup)
Dsp DSCSP single payment discount factor
Dspc DSCSPC single payment discount factor
(constant annual rate)
8 rs SKD skin depth (logging) L
S S,a SKN skin effect various
rs Rs RADS skin radius (radius of well damage or stimulation) L
m A SLP slope various
M meD SAD slope, interval transit time vs density (absolute tL2/m
value)
N meND SND slope, neutron porosity vs density (absolute L 3/m
value)
< LT smaller than
PsE DsE DENSEX solid particles density of experimental rock m/L3
Vs VS VOLS solid(s) volume (volume of all formation solids) L3
Pma Dma DENMA solids (matrix, grain) density m/L3
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS solubility, gas in oil (solution gas-oil ratio)
Rsw GWRS solubility, gas in water
Rsb Fgsb GORSB solution gas-oil ratio at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS solution gas-oil ratio (gas solubility in oil)
Rsi Fgsi GORSI solution gas-oil ratio, initial
Ec <Pc EMFC SP, electrochemical component of mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK SP, electrokinetic component of mL2/t2q
Esp <Psp EMFSP SP (measured SP) (Self Potential) mL2/t2q
Epsp <Ppsp EMFPSP SP, pseudo mL2/t2q
Essp <Pssp EMFSSP SP, static (SSP) mL2 /t 2 q
Ls ss,/s script I LENS spacing (electrical logging) L
S a HERS specific entropy L2/t 2T
Y s,Fs SPG specific gravity (relative density)
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG specific gravity, gas
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 295

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Yo sOJFos SPGO specific gravity, oil
Yw sw,Fws SPGW specific gravity, water
C c HSP specific heat capacity (always with phase or L 2/eT
system subscripts)
Y k HSPR specific heat capacity ratio
Is is IJXS specific injectivity index L 3t/m
Is js PDXS specific productivity index Ct/m
v VS SPY specific volume L 3/m
Fwv Y WGTS specific weight mL2/t2
Essp <Pssp EMFSSP SSP (static SP) mL2/eq
ts 1:s TIMS stabilization time of a well t
(J SDV standard deviation of a random variable
s SDVES standard deviation of a random variable, estimated
Piws Piws PRSIWS static bottom-hole pressure, injection well m/Lt2
Pws Pws PRSWS static pressure, bottom-hole, mlLt 2
at any time after shut-in
Pes Pes PRSCS static pressure, casing m/Lt2
Pts Pts PRSTS static pressure, tubing miLe
rs Rs RADS stimulation or damage radius of well (skin) L
£ e'£n STN strain, normal and general
Y lOs STNS strain, shear
8 8v STNV strain, volume
'P STR stream function various
(J s STS stress, normal and general m/Lt2
1: SS STSS stress, shear m/Lt2
k SUM summation (operator)
u 1jJ VELV superficial phase velocity (flux rate of a Lit
particular fluid phase flowing in pipe;
use appropriate phase subscripts)
qse qmQse RTESC surface production rate L3/t
(J Y,Y SFT surface tension, interfacial m/t2
Rs ps,rs RESS surrounding formation resistivity mL3t~2
k K SUSM susceptibility, magnetic mLlq
T 8 TEM temperature T
Tbh 8BH TEMBH temperature, bottomhole T
Te 8e TEMC temperature, critical T
Tf 8f TEMF temperature, formation T
gT gh GRDT temperature gradient TIL
Tpe 8pe TEMPC temperature, pseudo-critical T
Tpr 8pr TEMPRD temperature, pseudo-reduced T
Tr 8r TEMRD temperature, reduced T
TR 8R TEMR temperature, reservoir T
Tse 8se TEMSC temperature, standard conditions T
(J Y,Y SFT tension, surface (interfacial) m/e
X tensorofx
kh A HCN thermal conductivity (always with additional mLlt 3T
phase or system subscripts)
f3 b HEC thermal cubic expansion coefficient liT
a a,'Yjh HTD thermal or heat diffusivity L2/t
h d,e THK thickness (general and individual bed) L
ht doet THKT thickness, gross pay (total) L
296 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
hmc dmoemc THKMC thickness, mud-cake L
hI dt,e t THKT thickness, pay, gross (total) L
hn dme n THKN thickness, net pay L
t 't TIM time t
Atwf i>'twf DELTIMWFtime after well is opened to production t
(pressure drawdown)
Atws A'tws DELTIMWS time after well is shut in (pressure build-up) t
't 'tc TIMC time constant t
'td td TIMD time, decay (mean life) (111..) t
td 'td TIMD time, delay t
At A't DELTIM time difference t
(time period or interval, fixed length)
tD 'tD TIMQ time, dimensionless
tDm 'tDm TIMMQ time, dimensionless at condition m
ts 'ts TIMS time for stabilization of a well t
rscript t At TAC time, interval transit tiL
ta script t Ata TACA time, interval transit, apparent tiL
ryscript t Atf TACF time, interval transit, fluid tIL
tina script t Atma TACMA time, interval transit, matrix tIL
Tsh script t Atsh TACSH time, interval transit, shale tIL
tdN TIMDN time, neutron decay (neutron mean life) t
'tp,tpo TIMPO time, pay-out (pay-off, pay-back) t
!t A't DELTIM time period or interval, fixed length t
tp 'tp TIMP time well was on production prior to shut-in, t
equivalent (pseudo-time)
't TOR tortuosity
'te TORE tortuosity, electric
'tH TORHL tortuosity, hydraulic
SL PL,SL SATL total (combined) liquid saturation
S HER total entropy L2/t2T
At A MOBT total mobility of all fluids in a particular region L 3 t/m
ofthe reservoir, e.g., (1"0 + I..g + I.. w)
Mt Ft..t MBRT total mobility ratio [(I..t )swep/(I..t )unsweptl;
'swept' and 'unswept' refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
ht dt,e t THKT total (gross) pay thickness L
V R, Vt,R t GRRT total gross revenue ('value') M
G g GASTI total initial gas in place in reservoir L3
n nt, Nt NMBM total moles
CPt ft,Et PORT total porosity
Bt Ft FVFT total (two-phase) formation volume factor
h hh,hT HTCC transfer coefficient, convective heat rnIeT
U UT,Ue HTCU transfer coefficient, heat, over-all rnIt 3T
I Ir,ls HTCI transfer coefficient, heat, radiation rnIt 3T
tscript t At TAC transit time, interval tIL
ta script t Ata TACA transit time, apparent, interval tIL
ryscript t Atf TACF transit time, fluid interval tIL
tina script t Atma TACMA transit time, matrix interval tIL
Tsh script t Atsh TACSH transit time, shale interval tIL
::z (y) script L J00

transform, Laplace of y y (t)e-stdt

0
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 297

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
s transform, Laplace, variable
T T TRM transmissivity, transmissibility various
Pt Dt DENT true density mlL3
Rt Pt,rt REST true formation resistivity mL3 tq2
Gt fat GMFf true geometrical factor (multiplier)
(non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
Ptt Ptt PRSTF tubing pressure, flowing mlLt 2
Pts Pts PRSTS tubing pressure, static mlLt 2
FB FACB turbulence factor
Bt Ft FVFf two-phase or total formation volume factor
Gpa gpa GASPUL ultimate gas recovery L3
Cuk INVUK unamortized investment over year k
P un discounted cash flow M
V Ru VRu VOLRU unburned reservoir rock, volume of L3
aE FaE AIREX unit air requirement in laboratory experimental L 3/m
run, volumes of air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR unit air requirement in reservoir, volumes of air
per bulk volume of reservoir rock
Cm cm,n m CNCFU unit fuel concentration (see symbol m) various
R RRR universal gas constant (per mole) mL2/t2T
e02 E02 UTL02 utilization, oxygen
z VAL valence
y MFRV vapour phase, mole fraction of component
V MOLV vapour phase, moles of
L{ Av HLTV vaporization, latent heat of L2/t2
0 VAR variance of a random variable
S2 VARES variance of a random variable, estimated
x vectorofx
v V,u VEL velocity Lit
v V,u VAC velocity, acoustic Lit
Va VmU a VACA velocity, acoustic apparent (measured) Lit
Vt Vt,Ut VACF velocity, acoustic fluid Lit
Vma Vma,uma VACMA velocity, matrix acoustic Lit
Vsh Vsh,Ush VACSH velocity, shale acoustic Lit
Vb Vb,Ub VELB velocity (rate) of burning-zone advance Lit
El 'YJbel EFFI vertical (invasion) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers
behind the injected-fluid or heat front
/La 'YJa VISA viscosity, air miLt
/LjJ 'YJjJ VISPAV viscosity at mean pressure miLt
/L 'YJ VIS viscosity, dynamic miLt
/Lg 'YJ g VISG viscosity, gas miLt
/Lga 'YJga VISGA viscosity, gas, at 1 atm miLt
v N VSK viscosity, kinematic L2/t
/La 'YJa VISO viscosity, oil miLt
/Lw 'YJw VISW viscosity, water miLt
V v VOL volume L3
V bp Vbp VOLBP volume at bubble-point pressure L3
Vb Vb VOLB volume, bulk L3
298 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V bE VbE VOLBEX volume, bulk, of pack burned in L3
experimental run
Ve Vpe, Ve VOLG volume, effective pore L3
V iv,Fv VLF volume fraction or ratio (as needed, use same various
subscripted symbols as for 'volumes'; note
that bulk volume fraction is unity and pore
volume fractions are <1>])
G Fi gFi GASFI volume, free-gas, initial reservoir L3
(=mNho)
Vgr Vgr VOLGR volume, grain (volume of all formation solids L3
except shales)
V ig Vig VOLIG volume, intergranular (volume between grains; L3
consists of fluids and all shales)
(Vb - V gr )
Vim Vim VOLIM volume, intermatrix (consists of fluids and L3
dispersed shale) (Vb - V rna)
V ma Vma VOLMA volume, matrix (framework) (volume of all
formation solids except dispersed shale)
V ne Vpne' Vne VOLNE volume, noneffective pore (Vp - V e) L3
V Rb VOLRB volume of reservoir rock burned L3
V Ru VOLRU volume of reservoir rock unburned C
VM VOLM volume per mole (molal volume) L3
Vp vp VOLP volume, pore (Vb - V s) L3
VpD VpD VOLPQ volume, pore, dimensionless
V shd Vshd VOLSHD volume, shale, dispersed L3
Vshl'script I Vshi script I VSHLAM volume, shale, laminated L3
Vshs Vshs VOLSHS volume, shale, structural L3
Vsh Vsh VOLSH volume, shale(s) (volume of all shales: C
structural and dispersed)
Vs VS VOLS volume, solid(s) (volume of all formation L3
solids)
v VS SPY volume, specific Clm
EVb 'YJVb,eVb EFFVB volumetric efficiency for burned portion only,
in situ combustion pattern
Ev 'YJv,ev EFFV volumetric efficiency: product of pattern sweep
and invasion efficiencies
q Q RTE volumetric flow rate Cit
qdh qw/,qDH,Qdh RTEDH volumetric flow rate downhole L3/t
qsc qmQsc RTESC volumetric flow rate, surface conditions Cit
M HSPV volumetric heat capacity mlLeT
u 'P VELV volumetric velocity (flow rate or flux, Lit
per unit area)
W w WTR water (always with identifying subscripts) various
Cw kw,Kw CMPW water compressibility Lt 2/m
Pw Dw DENW water density mlL3
Owb FWb DPRWB water displaced from burned volume, volume
per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
C WDC water-drive constant L 4elm
CL WDCL water-drive constant, linear aquifer L 4elm
kw Kw PRMW water, effective permeability to L2
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 299

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Bw Fw FVFW water formation volume factor
FwF FACWFU water-fuel ratio various
Rsw GWRS water, gas solubility in
W W WTRTI water in place in reservoir, initial L3
We We WTRE water influx (encroachment), cumulative L3
J1We J1we DELWTRE water influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
ew iw ENCW water influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Wi Wi WTRI water injected, cumulative L3
J1Wi <1 Wi DELWTRI water injected during an interval L3
iw INJW water injection rate L3/t
Aw MOBW water mobility L 3t/m
kwlko KwlKo PRMWO water-oil permeability ratio
Fwop FACWOP water-oil ratio, cumulative
Fwo FACWO water-oil ratio, producing, instantaneous
Wp wp WTRP water produced, cumulative L3
J1Wp J1wp DELWTRP water produced during an interval L3
qw Qw RTEW water production rate L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ water production rate, dimensionless
k rw K rw PRMRW water, relative permeability to
Rw pw,rw RESW water resistivity mL3tq 2
Sw Pw,sw SATW water saturation
Swc Pwoswc SATWC water saturation, critical
Swi Pwi,Swi SATWI water saturation, initial
Swo Swb SATWO water saturation (interstitial) in oil band
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG water saturation in gas cap, interstitial
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW water saturation, irreducible
Swr PwnSwr SATWR water saturation, residual
Yw Sw.Fws SPGW water specific gravity
ILw 1']w VISW water viscosity mILt
A WVL wave length (I/o) L
0 v WVN wave number (III...) I/L
W w,G WGT weight (gravitational) m/Lt2
fh 15 L DENAVL weight-weighted average density mlL3
of produced liquid
A AWT weight, atomic m
M MWT weight, molecular m
rw Rw RADW well radius L
rs Rs RADS well radius of damage or stimulation (skin) L
Is 1: TIMS well stabilization time t
rwa Rwa RADWA wellbore radius, effective or apparent (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation
Cwg cwg,nwg CNTWG wet-gas content various
G wgp gwgp GASWGP wet gas produced, cumulative L3
b W WTH width, breadth, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
W W WRK work mL2/t2
E y ELMY Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) mlLt2
di dbDi DIAl zone diameter, invaded, electrically equivalent L
Ri Pbri RESI zone resistivity, invaded mL3tq 2
300 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

B. Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity

Subscript de£mition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript

abandonment a A A
acoustic a A, «alpha A
activation log, neutron NA na NA
active, activity, or acting a A
after taxes a A
air a A A
air-fuel aF AFU
altered a A
amplitude log A a A
angle, angular, or angular coordinate () theta THE
anhydrite anh AH
anisotropic ani ANI
annulus apparent (from log readings; an AN AN
use tool description subscripts)
apparent (general) a ap A
apparent wellbore (usually with wellbore radius) wa WA
areal A A
atmosphere, atmospheric a A A
average or mean pressure 2- PAY
average or mean saturation S s,p rho SAY
band or oil band b B B
bank or bank region b B
base b r, f3 beta B
before taxes b B B
bond log, cement CB cb CB
borehole televiewer log TV tv TV
bottom hole bh w,BH BH
bottom-hole, flowing (usually with pressure or time) wi WF
bottom-hole, static (usually with pressure or time) ws WS
boundary conditions, external e 0 E
breakthrough BT bt BT
bubble b B
bubble-point conditions, oil at (usually with ob OB
formation volume factor, Bob)
bubble-point conditions, solution at (usually sb SB
with gas-oil ratio, R sb )
bubble point (saturation) b s,bp B
bubble-point or saturation (usually with bp B
volume, V bp )
bulk (usually with volume Vb) b B,t B
burned in experimental tube run (usually bE BEX
with volume, V bE )
burned or burning b B B
burned portion of in situ combustion pattern, displacement Db DB
from (usually with efficiency, E Db)
burned portion of in situ combustion pattern, volumetric Vb VB
of (usually with efficiency, E vb )
burned reservoir rock Rb RB
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 301

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
burned volume, oil from (usually ob OB
with displacement ratio, Oob)
burned volume water from (usually wb WB
with displacement ratio, Owb)
calculated C calc CA
caliper log C c C
capillary (usually with capillary pressure, Pc) c C CP
capture cap C
carbon dioxide CO 2 CO2
carbon monoxide CO CO
casing or casinghead c cg CS
casing, tlowing (usually with pressure) cf CF
casing, static (usually with pressure) cs CS
cement bond log CB cb CB
chemical c C
chlorine log CL cl CL
clay cl cla CL
clean en cln CN
coil C c C
compaction cp CP
compensated density log CD cd CD
compensated neutron log CN en CN
component(s) C C
componentj j J
component j produced pj PJ
(usually with moles, npj)
compressional wave c C C
conditions for infinite dimensions 00 INF INF
conductive liquids in invaded zone z Z
constant c C C
contact c C C
(usually with contact angle, 8c)
contact log, microlog, minilog ML mlscript I ML
convective C
conversion (usually with conversion factor in c C
Newton's law of motion, gc)
core c C C
corrected cor COR
critical c cr CR
cumulative intlux (encroachment) e i E
cumulative injected i I
cumulative produced p P
cumulative produced free value Fp FP
(usually with gas, GFp )
cumulative produced liquid Lp
(usually with condensate, GLp )
damage or damaged (includes 'skin' conditions) s d S
decay d D
deep induction log ID id ID
deep laterolog LLD Il'd script II LLD
delay d odelta D
302 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript . subscript letter
subscript
density prho RHO
density log, compensated CD cd CD
density log D d D
depleted region, depletion d 6 delta D
dew-point d D
differential separation d D
differential temperature log DT dt DT
diffusivity 'YJ eta ETA
dimensionless pore value pD PQ
(usually with volume VpD )
dimensionless quantity D Q
dimensionless quantity at condition m Dm QM
dimensionless time tD TQ
dimensionless water wD WQ
dip (usually with angle, ad) d D
diplog, dipmeter DM dm DM
directional survey DR dr DR
dirty (clayey, shaly) dy dty DY
discounted value, present worth, or present value PV pv PV
dispersed d D D
dispersion K d K
displaced d s,D DD
displacement from burned portion of in situ Db DB
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
EDb )
displacement from unburned portion of in situ Du DU
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
EDu )
displacing or displacement (efficiency) D s, (J sigma DN
dolomite dol DL
down-hole dh DH DH
drainage (usually with drainage radius, rd) d D
dual induction log DI di DI
duallaterolog DLL dll'script II DLL
earth e E E
effective (or equivalent) e E
electric, electrical e E E
electrochemical c ec C
electrode E e E
electrokinetic k ek K
electrolog, electrical log, electrical EL el, ES EL
survey
electromagnetic pipe inspection log EP ep EP
electron el e/script el E
empirical E EM EM
encroachment (influx), cumulative e i E
entry e E E
epithermal neutron log NE ne NE
eqivalent eq BV EV
estimated E est ES
ethane C2 C2
experimental E EX EX
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 303

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
experimental value per mole of produced gas Eg EXG
(usually with fuel consumption, mEg)
external, outer boundary conditions e 0 E
extrapolated ext XT
fast neutron log NF nf NF
fill-up F f F
finger or fingering f F F
flash separation f F F
flowing bottom-hole (usually with pressure or time) wf WF
flowing casing (usually with pressure) cf CF
flowing conditions, injection well (usually with iwf IWF
pressure, Piwf)
flowing conditions, well (usually with time) wf f WF
flowing tubing (usually with pressure) if TF
fluid f fl F
fluids in an invaded zone, conductive z Z
flushed zone xo XO
formation 100% saturated with ozero 7ZR
water (used in Ro only)
formation (rock) f fm F
formation, surrounding s S
fraction or fractional f r F
fracture, fractured or fracturing f F FR
free (usually with gas or gas-oil ratio quantities) F f F
free fluid Ff f FF
free value, cumulative produced, Fp FP
(usually with gas, G Fp )
free value, initial (usually with gas, G n) Fi FI
front, front region, or interface f F F
fuel, mass of (usually with fuel concentration, em) m FU
fuel (usually with fuel properties, such as PF) F FU
gamma-gamma ray log GG gg GG
gamma ray log GR gr GR
gas g G G
gas at atmospheric conditions ga GA
gas at bubble-point conditions gb GB
gas cap, oil in (usually with saturation, Sag) og OG
gas cap, water in (usually with saturation, Swg) wg WG
gas, dimensionless gD GQ
gas-oil, solution (usually with gas-oil ratios) s S
gas-water, solution sw
(usually with gas solubility in water, Rsw)
geometrical G G
geothermal G T GT
grain gr GR
grain (matrix, solids) ma MA
gravity meter log GM gm GM
gross (total) t T T
guard log G g G
gypsum gyp GY
half 112 H
304 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
heat or thermal h T, e theta HT
heavy phase HP hp HP
hole h H H
horizontal H h H
hydraulic H HL
hydrocarbon h H H
hydrogen nuclei or atoms H HY
hydrocarbon, residual hr HR
hydrogen sulphide H2S H2S
imbibition I i script i I
induction log, deep investigation 1D id ID
induction log I i I
induction log, dual D1 di DI
induction log, medium investigation 1M im 1M
infinite dimensions, conditions for 00 INF
influx (encroachment), cumulative e E
initial conditions or value i I
initial free value (usually with gas, G Fi ) Fi PI
initial solution (usually with gas-oil ratio, R si ) si SI
initial value or conditions I
injected, cumulative I I
injection, injected or injecting i inj I
injection well, flowing conditions (usually with pressure, iwf IWF
Piw/)
injection well, static conditions (usually with pressure, iws IWS
Piws)
inner or interior i l iota, t script i I
interface, front region, or front f F F
interference I i, t script i I
intergranular ig IG
intermatrix 1m 1M
internal i l iota, { script i I
intrinsic int I
invaded I I
invaded zone i I I
invaded zone, conductive liquids in an z Z
invasion (usually with invasion efficiency, E /) I I
irreducible ir, l iota, t script i IR
jth component j J
jth component, produced pj PJ
junction j J
laminar ('script 1 L LAM
laminated, lamination ('script L L LAM
lateral (resistivity) log L ('script 1 L
laterolog (add further tool configuration LL If script II LL
subscripts as needed)
laterolog, dual DLL d Il"script II DLL
lifetime log, neutron, TDT PNL n i'script 1 PNL
light phase LP i'p script 1 LP
limestone Is 1st LS
limiting value lim LM
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 305

SubscriptderlOition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript su!'script Htter
subscript
linear, lineal L tscript I L
liquid or liquid phase L tscript I L
liquids, conductive, invaded zone Z Z
liquid produced, cumulative (usually with Lp
condensate G Lp)
location subscripts, usage is secondary to that for 1,2,3, etc.
representing times or time periods
log LOG log L
lower tscript I L L
magnetism log, nuclear NM nm NM
mass of fuel (usually with fuel concentration, m FU
Cm)
matrix (solids, grain) ma MA
matrix [solids, except (nonstructural) ma MA
clay or shale]
maximum max MX
mean or average pressure PAY
mean or average saturation ~ S, prho SAY
medium investigation induction log 1M im 1M
methane C1 Cl
microlaterolog MLL md'script II MLL
microlog, minilog, contact log ML mtscriptl ML
micro-seismogram log, signature log, variable VD vd VD
density log
minimum min MN
mixture M z,m M
mobility Alambda M LAM
molal (usually with volume, V M) M M
Mth period or interval M m M
mud m M
mud cake me MC
mud filtrate mf MF
net n N
neutron N n N
neutron activation log NA na NA
neutron lifetime log, TDT PNL ntscript I PNL
neutron log, compensated CN en CN
neutron log N n N
neutron log, epithermal NE ne NE
neutron log, fast NF nf NF
neutron log, sidewall SN sn SN
neutron log, thermal NT nt NT
nitrogen N2 N2
noneffective ne NE
nonwetting nw NW NW
normal n N
normal (resistivity) log N n N
(add numerical spacing to subscript to N; e.g., N16)
normalized (fractional or relative) n r,R N
nth year, period, income, payment, or unit n N N
nuclear magnetism log NM nm NM
306 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
numerical subscripts (intended primarily 1,2,3, etc.
to represent times or time periods;
available secondarily as location
subscripts or for other purposes)
observed DB OB
oil at bubble-point conditions (usually with formation ob OB
volume factor, Bob)
oil, dimensionless oD 00
oil 0 N,n 0
oil from burned volume (usually with displacement ob OB
ratio, Sob)
oil from unburned volume (usually with displacement ou OU
ratio, Sou)
oil in gas cap (usually with saturation, Sog) og OG
outer (external) e 0 E
oxygen O2 02
particle (usually with diameter, dp) p P
particular period, element, or interval k K K
pattern (usually with pattern efficiency, Ep) P P
pay-out, pay-off, or pay-back p po PO
permeability k K K
phase or phases P P
pipe inspection log, electromagnetic EP ep EP
pore (usually with volume, Vp) p P P
pore value, dimensionless (usually with volume, pD PO
VpD )
porosity <I> phi f, E epsilon PHI
porosity data <I> phi j, E epsilon P
pressure, mean or average p PAY
primary 10ne p,pri PR
produced p P P
produced component j (usually with moles, npj) pj Pl
produced, cumulative p P
produced free value, cumulative Fp FP
(usually with gas, G Fp )
produced in experiment pE PEX
produced liquid, cumulative Lp
(usually with condensate, G Lp)
produced water-oil (cumulative) wop WOP
(usually with cumulative water-oil ratio, Fwop)
production period (usually with time, tp) p P P
profit - unamortized investment Pk PK
proximity log P p P
pseudo p P
pseudo-critical pc PC
pseudo-dimensionless pD PO
pseudo-reduced pr PRD
pseudo-SP pSP PSP
radial r R R
radius, radial, or radial distance r R R
rate of return r R R
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 307

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
recovery (usually with recovery efficiency, R R
ER )
reduced r RD
reference r b, prho R
relative r R R
reservoir R r R
reservoir rock, burned Rb RB
reservoir rock, unburned Ru RU
residual r R R
residual hydrocarbon hr HR
resistivity R R
resistivity log R r, p rho R
Reynolds (used with Reynolds number Re
only, N Re )
rock (formation) f fm F
sand sd sa SD
sandstone ss sst SS
saturation, mean or average S 5, prho SAY
saturation or bubble point b s B
saturation or bubble point (usually with bp BP
volume, Vbp )
scattered, scattering sc SC
secondary 2 two s,sec SE
segregation (usually with segregation s S, a sigma S
rate, qs)
separator conditions sp SP
shale sh sha SH
shallow laterolog LLS It s script II LLS
shear s 1: tau
shear wave s 1: tau S
sidewall S SW SW
sidewall neutron log SN sn SN
signature log, micro-seismogram log, VD vd VD
variable density log
silt sl sit SL
single payment sp SP
skin (stimulation or damage) s S S
slip or slippage s a sigma S
slurry (,mixture') M z,m M
solid( s) (all formation solids) s a sigma S
solids in experiment sE SEX
solids (matrix, grain) ma MA
solution at bubble-point conditions (usually with sb SB
gas-oil ratio, Rsb )
solution in water (usually with gas solubility sw
in water, Rsw)
solution, initial (usually with gas-oil si SI
ratio, Rsi )
solution (usually with gas-oil ratios) s S
sonde, tool T t T
sonic velocity log SV sv SV
308 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
SP SP sp SP
spacing s L
specific (usually with J and l) s S
SSP SSP SSP
stabilization (usually with time) s S S
standard conditions sc (J sigma SC
static bottom-hole (usually with pressure or time) ws WS
static casing (usually with pressure) cs CS
static conditions, injection well (usually with pressure) iws IWS
static or shut-in conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
static tubing (usually with pressure) ts TS
static well conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
steam or steam zone s S S
stimulation (includes 'skin' conditions) s S S
stock-tank conditions st ST
storage or storage capacity S s, (J sigma S
strain £ epsilon e EPS
structural st s ST
surface s (J sigma S
surrounding formation s S
swept or swept region s S, (J sigma S
system s (J sigma S
TDT log, neutron lifetime log PNL pnfscript I PNL
televiewer log, borehole TV tv TV
temperature T h, 8 theta T
temperature log T t,h T
temperature log, differential DT dt DT
thermal (heat) h T, 8 theta HT
thermal decay time (TDT) log PNL pnfscript I PNL
thermal neutron log NT nt NT
time, dimensionless tD TQ
times or time periods 1,2,3, etc.
tool-description subscripts: see individual entries
such as 'amplitude log', 'neutron log,' , etc.
tool, sonde T t T
total initial in place in reservoir ti TI
total (gross) t T T
total, total system t T T
transmissibility T t T
treatment or treating 1: tau T
true (opposed to apparent) t tr T
tubing flowing (usually with pressure) if TF
tubing or tubinghead t tg T
tubing, static (usually with pressure) ts TS
turbulence (used with Fonly, FB ) B B
ultimate a ul UL
unamortized u U U
unburned u U
unburned portion of in situ combustion pattern Du DU
displacement from (usually with efficiency, E Du)
unburned reservoir rock Ru RU
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 309

Subscript deDnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript sub~cript letter
subscript
unburned volume, oil from (usually with ou OU
displacement ratio, 60u )
unit u U U
unswept or unswept region u U U
upper u U U
vaporization, vapour, or vapour phase v V V
variable density log, micro-seismogram log, VD vd VD
signature log
velocity v V V
velocity, sonic or acoustic log SV sv SV
vertical V v V
volumetric of burned portion of in situ combustion Vb VB
pattern (usually with efficiency, E vb )
volume or volumetric V v V
water w W W
water, dimensionless wD WQ
water from burned volume (usually with displacement wb WB
ratio,6 wb)
water-fuel wF WFU
water in gas cap (usually with saturation, Swg) wg WG
water-oil (usually with instantaneous producing wo WO
water-oil ratio, Fwo)
water-oil produced (cumulative) wop WOP
(usually with cumulative water-oil ratio, Fwop)
water, solution in (usually with gas solubility sw SW
in water, Rsw)
water-saturated formation, 100% ozero zr ZR
weight W w W
well conditions w W
well, flowing conditions (usually with time) wI I WF
well, static conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
well, injection, flowing conditions iwl IWF
(usually with pressure Piw/)
well, injection, static conditions iws IWS
(usually with pressure Piws)
well, static conditions (usually with time) ws WS
wellbore, apparent (usually with wellbore wa WA
radius, rwa)
wellhead wh th WH
wet gas (usually with composition or content, wg WG
Cwg )
wet gas produced wgp WGP
wetting w W W
Young's modulus, refers to Y Y
zero hydrocarbon saturation ozero zr ZR
zone, conductive fluids in an invaded z Z
zone, flushed xo XO
zone, invaded I I
 Appendix 2
Solutions to Examples

Chapter 2
Solution 2.1
Although this problem should place probabilistic ranges on the given data and assumptions, it will be calculated
deterministically.
We will assume that the combination of oil expelled from source rocks and trapped in potential structures represents
some 8% of the converted source rocks, i.e.:
Oil converted for source rock = 5 x 4500 x 12 x 106 m 3
Trapped oil ( = OIP) = 0.085 x 4500 x 12 x 106 m 3
= 2.16 x 1010 m3
Assuming an average formation volume factor of 1.4 rm 3/sm 3 this yields a stock tank oil in place of 1.54 x 1010 sm3 .
For an assumed overall technical recovery factor of 0.35 this yields a recoverable reserve of
1.54 x 1010 x 0.35 = 5.4 x 109 sm 3
(This is equivalent to 34 x 109 STB.)
(N.B. The UK Government's 1983 'Brown Book' indicates a probable range of technically recoverable reserves between
11 and 23 x 109 STB, assuming an oil formation volume factor of 1.4 rm 3 /sm 3 .)

Chapter 3
Solution 3.1
Casing Design Example
(a) The buoyancy factor (BF) is given by
SGsteel- SGfluid
BF=-----
SGsteel
For the external system:
7.84 - 1.92
BF = = 0.755
7.84
and for the internal fluid system:
7.84 - 1.15
BF = 7.84 = 0.853
 SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 311

The neutral point (NP) is thus the depth at which the string above is in tension and below in compression.
NP = 13000 x BF
= 13000 x 0.755
= 9820 ft
This is rounded off to 9800 ft.

(b) For the design weight of casing (CWT) we have

CWT = weight in air x BR
where the buoyancy ratio BR is given by
BF for outside mud system 0.755
BR = = - - = 0 885
BF for internal fluid system 0.853 .

(c) In the lower section we can check criteria:

(i) Collapse
The external mud gradient is SG x 0.433 psi/ft
= 1.92 x 0.433
= 0.831 psi/ft
The collapse limit of the P-110 casing of the various weights is given from Table A3.1 as
9570
0.831 = 11520 ft for 20 ppf casing, and
11630
0.831 = 14000 ft for 23 ppf casing

:. Use 23 ppf casing from bottom to 11520 ft, that is (13000 - 11520) = 1480 ft
(NB no tension problem since neutral point is at 9800 ft.)
(ii) Burst check
Since a more dense mud is used outside the casing then the greatest internal:external pressure difference is at the top of
each section.
At 11 520 ft, internal differential is:
(max surface pressure) + (internal fluid head) - (external fluid head)
Internal pressure gradient = (SG x 0.433) = 1.15 x 0.433 = 0.498 psi/ft
:.8000 + 11520 [0.498 - 0.831] = 4164 psi
As burst pressure of 23 ppf casing is given as 11780 psi no problem arises.
(iii) Joint strength calculation check
Since the entire section is below the neutral point, tension is not a problem so an API joint with long threads is sufficient.
(iv) Design weight for the section (CWT)
CWT = Design length x wt per foot x BR
= 1480 x 23 x 0.885
= 301251bs.
(d) For the next section N-80, 23 ppf has the next highest collapse pressure to P-110, 20 ppf and can be set below the
neutral point (see Table A3.1).
8370
(i) Collapse limit = 0.831 = 10072 ft

Rounding off, we can propose a section length of

11 520 - 10 070 = 1450 ft
(ii) Burst check
8000 + 10 070 [0.498 - 0.831] = 4647 psi
no problem arises.
 312 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(iii) As we are below the neutral point no joint strength problem.

(iv) Design weight for this section
1450 x 20 x 0.855 =24 795lb
Total weight calculated so far = (30 125 + 24 795) = 54 920 lb.
(e) In the next section we might consider the use of P-ll 017 ppf but only a relatively short section could be used. It is
considered more economical to design for N-80, 20 ppf.
6930
(i) Collapse limit = 0.831 = 8339 ft, round to 8340 ft

This is above the neutral point and therefore subject to the weight of casing above.
We calculate the ratio (R) for unit tensile stress to minimum yield strength using the ellipse of biaxial yield stress curve
(Fig. A3.1) to obtain the percent offull collapse pressure that is appropriate. From Table A3.1 the plain end area (A) of
20 ppfN-80 is 5.828 in2 • For the minimum yield strength (Ym ) of 80000 psi we have:
weight in air of casing above neutral point
R= Y m .A
Assume casing above neutral point is 20 ppf
20 (9800 - D)
R = 80000 (5.828)
We have to choose D such that the reduction factor (FR ) correlated with R to obtain the effective collapse depth is
consistent:
. 6930 J 20 (9800 - D)}
I.e. 0.831 X FR = f(R) = f \80000 (5.828)
This is solved by trial and we might choose D to be 7900 ft
20 (9800 - 7900)
R = 80 000 (5.828) = 0.0815
From Fig. A3.1 the value of FR corresponding to 0.0815 is 0.956%
6930
Collapse limit is 0.956 x 0.831 = 7972 ft

We could converge a little better but might accept 7900 ft as a suitable depth, giving 2170 feet of casing required between
7900 and 10 070 ft.
(ii) Burst check for internal differential at 7900 ft
= 8000 + 7900 [0.498 - 0.831]
= 5369 psi
This is within the tolerance of both 20 and 23 ppf N-80
(iii) Joint strength check
Section design weight = (2170 x 20 x 885) = 38 409lb
Total design weight = 38 409 + 54 920
= 93 329lb
We can see that the joint strengths of 20 and 23 ppfN-80 casing are both greater than the design weights (Table A3.1):
23 ppf : 251 000 lb
20 ppf: 214000 lb
(f) In abnormal pressure wells, a depth can be reached where either collapse or burst may control. A design trial for the
next section is made using 17 ppf N -80.
5240
(i) Collapse check 0.831 = 6305 ft
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 313
05

g
go
~

~
-0
0;
.;;' 0.1
E
~
·c
·E
~ 0.05
o
o
~
;;
·w'"
i
.'§ 0,02
'l;
o
c
a:

0.85 0.90 1.00

Of full collapse pressure

We can converge on a reduced setting depth of 5430 feet.

20(9800 - 7900) + 17(7900 - 5430) ..
R= 4.962 (80 000) = 0.202, gIvmg FR = 0.884
and a collapse limit of 5573 ft which is in tolerance.
The possible length of this section is thus (7900 - 5430) = 2470 ft
(ii) Burst check
Internal differential at 5430 ft
= 8000 + (5430 [0.498 - 0.831])
= 6192 psi
The burst strength of 17 ppf N-80 is quoted in Table A3.1 as 6180 psi.
We must check the depth at which burst governs, i.e. the depth equivalent to a burst strength of 6180 psi.
8000 - 6180
Depth = 0.831 _ 0.498 = 5466 ft

The depth that 17 ppf N-80 will withstand the internal pressure differential is below its allowable collapse depth and this
grade cannot be used in this part of the design. We must therefore consider using 20 ppf N-80 as we know that this is
collapse designed down to 7900 ft. The burst strength for this is 7400 psi.
8000 -7400
Depth = 0.831 _ 0.498 = 1802 ft, round up to 1820 ft

This means that we could design a section of length (7900 - 1800) = 6080 ft
(iii) Joint strength check
Design weight for section is (6080 x 20 x 0.885) = 107 616lb
Total weight is 107 616 + 93329
= 200 945lb
The joint strength for 20 ppf N-80 is given in Table A3.1 as 214000 lb. We have so far designed 11180 ft of the total well
depth of 13000 ft. The remaining 1820 ft are considered using P-110, 17 ppf grade casing.
 314 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(g) (i) Collapse check

20(9800 - 1820) + 17(1820)
R= 11 000 (4.962) = 0.35
FR = 0.78
7000 (0.78)
Setting depth = 0.831 = 6570 ft
a proposed setting at 1820 ft is acceptable.

(ii) Burst check

Internal difference at top of string is 8000 psi (max) and Table A3.1 gives burst rating as 8500 psi, therefore design is
acceptable.
(iii) Joint strength check
Design weight of section added = 1820 x 17 x 0.885 = 27382lb
Total string weight = 27 382 + 200 945 ----------------------------------------
Section Length (ft) Casing Grade
Joint strength of P-ll0 L = 247 OOOlb design is acceptable.
(h) We can summarize the design as follows: Surface -1820 1820 17 ppfP-ll0L
1820-10 070 8250 20 ppfN-80L
10 070 - 11 520 1450 23 ppfN-80L
11 520 - 13 000 1480 23 ppf P-11O L

It should be emphasized that this design is one of many combinations which may be acceptable and optimization in terms
of economics is possible.

Solution 3.2
The average gradients give a pore pressure at 13 000 ft of
13 000 x 0.455 = 5915 psi
and a fracture pressure at 13 000 ft of
13 000 x 0.80 = 10 400 psi
The minimum setting depth is given by equating, above 13 000 feet, the gas and fracture gradients to a common
pressure. If the distance above 13 000 ft is D' then
Pg = 5915 - (0.1 x D')
Plr = 10 400 - (0.8 X D')
Setting Pg = Plr we have
10400 - 5915
D' = = 6407ft
0.8 - 0.1
Minimum setting depth is 13 000 - 6407 = 6593 ft.

TABLE A3.1 Casing data for example (Grade NSO-L/PllO-L 5.5 in. OD.)
Weight Wall thickness Collapse incl. Burst strength Joint strength Section
(lblft) (in) safety factor into wk. press (incl. S.F.) lOOOlb area
(psi) (incl. S.F.) psi (in 2)
17.0 PlIO 0.304 7000 8500 247 4.962
17.0 N80 0.304 5240 6180 174 4.962
20.0 PlIO 0.361 9570 10 180 274 5.828
20.0N80 0.361 6930 7400 214 5.828
23.0 PlIO 0.415 11 630 11 780 322 6.630
23.0N80 0.415 8370 8570 251 6.630

Minimum yield strength (Ym) = 80 000 psi for N-80

= 110 000 psifor P-ll0
 SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 315
Chapter 4
Solution 4.1

141.5
API = SG - 131.5

SG API SG API
0.70 70.6 0.80 45.4
0.72 65.0 0.82 41.0
0.74 59.7 0.84 36.9
0.76 54.7 0.86 33.0
0.78 49.9 0.88 29.2
0.90 25.72

NB API gravity is non-linear, inverse scale.

Water SG = 1.0; API = 10.
Solution 4.2
Yj MW YjMW Pc YjPci Tc YjTcj
C1 0.90 16 14.4 673 605.7 343 308.7
~ 0.05 30 1.5 708 35.4 550 27.5
C3 0.03 44 1.32 617 18.5 666 19.9
C4 0.02 58 1.16 551 11.0 765 15.3
(a) L = 18.38 (c) L = 670.6 (c) L = 371.5
MW 18.38
(b) Specific gravity = 28.97 =28.97 =0.634

. _ m _ MP _ 18.38 x 14.7 _ -2 3
Gas denSIty - V - RT - 10.732 x 520 - 4.8 x 10 Ibft
(d) At 2000 psia and 595°R
595
Tpr = 371.5 = 1.60

2000
P pr = 670.6 = 2.98

(e)Fromgraphsz=0.825 (fig 4.7)

. _ MP _ 18.38 x 2000 _ 3
(t) DenSIty - zRT - 0.825 x 10.732 x 595 - 6.9771bft

(~sBg~a(;,r(~r~ ~ro~::~;'5~:it®6 ~ 6.9 xI~' vowvoL

6.977

= 6.9 x 10-3 5.615 = 1.235 BBLIMSCF

(h) From graphs, Itl = 0.0116 (Fig. 4.8) and

Ratio ~ = 1.3 (Fig. 4.9)

1-11

Therefore 1-1 = 0.015 cp

 316 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

1 1 dz
(i) Compressibility cg = PI - (~ ~P 1 dz )

= Ppc Ppr - -; dPpr

1
= Ppc
(Pp--;1 dP
pc dz )
pr

from graph (Fig. 4.7) of z vs. reduced pro1erties, by graphical differentiation

1 (670.6 1
cg = 670.6 2000 - 0.825 X ( - 0.01)

= 5.2 X 10-4 psi-!

0) At 4100 ft SS aquifer pressure would be 0.44 x 4100 = 1804 psi
Since gas has a smaller density than water, it will lie above water. At gas-water contact, pressures are equal. From the
given data clearly this gas-water contact will be below 4100 ft. Let this extra distance be x ft. Assume too that density of
gas is a constant over the distances concerned, and that the reservoir temperature is 135°F, thus the density takes the
value calculated in (f), 6.9771b ft3 (or gradient 0.0485 psi ft-!).

Pressure balance at gas-water contact:

(4100 + x) 0.44 = 2000 + 0.0485 x

:. x = 196/0.3915 = 500 ft

Therefore gas-water contact depth = 4600 ft SS

(k) From 0), gas-water contact is at 4600 ft SS, and pressure is 4600 x 0.44 = 2024 psi
Assuming the gas density remains constant for 1000 ft, pressure due to gas = 0.0485 x 1000 = 48.5 psi
Therefore pressure at crest of structure = 2024 - 48.5 = 1975.5 psi

Therefore pressure of mud at this point will be = 1975.5 + 500 = 2475.5 psi

Assuming the mud to be incompressible, let density of mud = p Ibslcu ft

Pressure exerted by mud at 3600 ft = 1~ x 3600 = 2475.5 psi

Therefore p = 99.0 Ibslcu ft

i.e. specific gravity of mud = 1.58

Solution 4.3

Cg = IIp = 1/1923 = 520 x 10-6 psi-!

(a) Total compressibility (b) Effective hydrocarbon compressibility
CT 171.5 x 10-6
Coe = = 225 X 10-6 psi-!
1 - Swi 0.76

= 10-6 [5 + 0.45(10) + 0.24(3) + 0.31(520)]

= 171.5 X 10-6 pS(1
 SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 317

Solution 4.4
"'"
13"'+,'-+_f--+7--f:";C",~--t==j

'''+--+-~''=f-=-b-!''''f'''=+--l
" .
(a) From graphs (Fig. 4.21, 4.22) or correlation equations for
API = 38°; GOR = 750; T = 175°F; and Yg = 0.7: ""'¥7""b-=t---t-I---1--t--l
,OOO"----'-----'----'-_L-.-'-----'----'

= 2800 psia
Pp,:{ps;.) &00
bubble point pressure
I~
formation volume factor = 1.4 RB/STB 1-"':::: ~ ~ ..."

141.5 "-
~ '" ::::::--
12 -.::::: ::-::::
specific gravity oftank oil = 131.5 + 38 = 0.834 300

f:::
weight of oil and gas in SOlution} 100 120 140 1SO t80 200 220 240

(b) Density of reservoir oil =( . MOlECULAA WEIGHT

volume of oIl reservoir conditions Fig. A4.1 Pseudo critical properties

of hydrocarbon liquids
Weight of one barrel of water = 5.615 x 62.4 = 350.4 pounds (density of fresh water is 62.4lb/fe and 5.615 cu ft =1
barrel).

From specific gravity of tank oil, weight of one barrel of oil is 350.4 x 0.834 = 292.2 lb.

Avogadro's law states that lIb-mole of any ideal gas occupies 379.4 cu ft at 60°F and 14.7 psia.

:. weight of gas which will dissolve in 1 STB of tank oil is given by the number of moles of gas times its molecular weight.
The molecular weight of gas is the gas gravity x molecular weight of air
:. weight of gas/STB = (R,I379.4) x 0.7 x 28.971bs = 0.05345 Rslbs.

Volume of 1 STB oil at reservoir conditions = Bo BBL

[292.2] + [750 x 0.053445]
:. Density of reservoir condition oil = 1.400 lbs/BBL
density at reservoir conditions
:. SG = 350.4 = 0.677

The reservoir oil gradient is therefore 0.677 x 0.433 psi/ft where 0.433 is the fresh water gradient
:. oil gradient = 0.293 psi/ft.

For an oil-water contact of 7000 ft SS the hydrostatic pressure is 7000 x 0.465 = 3255 psi.
The bubble point pressure is the pressure of oil saturated with gas in equilibrium at the gas-oil contact :. pressure at top
of oil column = 2800 psi.
8255 - 2800
For constant oil gradient, height of oil zone = 0.293 = 1550 ft

:. GOe = 7000 - 1550 = 5450 ft SS

For a molecular weight of 180 and 38° API oil the liquid critical temperature is 12200R and the liquid critical pressure is
310 psia
(460 + 175) 4000
Tpr = 1220 = 0.52 and P pr = 310 = 12.9
The reduced compressibility from charts (Fig. A4.1) is given at this Tpn P pr condition as CR = 0.002.
0.002
Since CR = Co· Pc then Co = 310 = 6 x 10-6 psia- I

From a constant oil compressibility between 2800 and 4000 psia

318 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Bo = Bob (1 - Co!).P)

= 1.40 ( 1.0 - 6 X 10-6 (4000 - 2800))

= 1.389 RB/STB
From graphs, viscosity of dead oil at reservoir conditions = 1.4 cP

:. viscosity ofreservoir crude = 0.6 cPo

Solution 4.5

From graph of system pressure vs. system volume the bubble point is estimated by inflexion at 2500 psi.

Liquid volume at standard conditions = 29l;~)

At 3000 psi a liquid compressibility Co = - V \dP T 4000

3500
(404-410) _1_ -6 '-1 ~
= (4000 _ 2500) . 408 = 9.8
::l
Co X 10 pSI til 3000
~
0.
408 ~ 2500
B03000 psi a = 295 = 1.383 RB/STB If)

'"'
(f)

2000
410
Bo2500 psia = 295 = 1.390 RB/STB 1500!-:::-;;---'------::*o::-------'-~---""
400
26.275 System volume
Rs = 295 (10-3) = 89.06 v/v = 89.06 (5.615) = 500 SCF/STB

At 2000 psia
388 430
Bo = 295 = 1.315 RB/STB ; B t = 295 = 1.457 RB/STB
21
Rs = 295 X 10-3 X 5.615 = 400 SCF/STB

:. B t = Bo + (Rsi - Rs) Bg
. B t - Bo (1.457 - 1.315)(295) -3
.. Bg = (Rsi _ Rs) = (26.275 _ 21.0)103 = 7.94 x 10 v/v

Z (Pl) (T2) (Vl) _(2000)

= Tl . P2 . V2 . - 660 . (520)
14.7 ·7.94 x 10-3_
- 0.85

ChapterS
Solution 5.1

F: 30 19.3 12.5 8.4 6.0

<p: 0.092 0.120 0.165 0.205 0.268

Plot either on log: log scales, or log F: log <p on coordinate scales.
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 319

100 \
80
\,\
60 ,, Slope'
length Faxis -17.95
m = length </> axis = ~
40 \\ = -1.53
30 o
._,, , Intercept at '" =1
,0. a = 0.774
20 ,,
,
'0\
10 ,,
t
LL
8
6
0,\
'0
'\,
,,
4
,
3 \,
,,
,,
2
, \
\
\,
1 ,,
0.8 --a
0.6
0.5 '-------'--'---'--L.L--'-l0=-'.OO:-:1-----'----'---'---'----'---L--L..11,J.0

Fig.A5.1 Fvs. </>

From plot m = - 1.53

a = 0.774
Substitute back into laboratory data to calculate check values of F.

Check </> 0.092 0.120 0.165 0.205 0.268

Calculate F 29.8 19.8 12.2 8.7 5.80

If the true resistivity is 1.29 Qm and water resistivity is 0.056 Qm then

Ro 1.29
F = Rw = 0.056 = 23.04
</>= 0.109
1
If I = ~ where exp n = 2
w

R/ = 11.84 Qm Ro = 1.29 Qm
11.84
then I = 1.29 = 9.18

Sw = [I1]0.5 = 0.330
If exp = 1.8 Sw = 0.292
Ifexp = 2.2 Sw = 0.365
320 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Solution 5.2
(a)

Data values Calculated values

Log values GR FDC SNP C1LD R 1Ld V SHGB VSHDas: CPDIN

Shale 102 2.52 29.0 1100 0.91 1.00 1.00
Zone A 52 2.22 22.5 150 6.67 0.39 0.00 0.26
B 72 2.37 20.5 350 2.86 0.63 0.31 0.14
C 20 2.20 21.0 4650 0.215 0.00 0.00 0.25

Bul k density
grams/cc Porosity %

Correction
r-------T------
-0.5 0 +0.5

2.0 2.5 3.0 Sidewall

Fig.A5.2.1
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 321
Gamma ray Resistivity Conductivity
20 API units 120 Depth Ohms mlm Millimhos 1m
10 divisions lS"normol Induction conductivity
o 40" spacing
Radiation intensity
increases ~
o 4000 o
o 4000
Oil bose mud Induction resistivity 8000
Temp =226 0____1C;i:.s.E!!.~'!L __19
0_____________ 1<2.0

I
I
I

,
I
I
I
I

:
I

I
I
I
I
I
,
I

\
" ... _--- .....
A :--.,,,,--~
B ,,/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

"
C

Fig. AS.2.2 '--_ _---"'"--'

,,
, .. I

2.0
Pr=1.0g/cc

2.2

Shale

Matrix
point

2.8

~~"i
.,.~.,
~~

Fig. AS.2.3 '"

3q';;10=---L--;0~~L-~:;----L----;:!;=----1.-~:-----'--~_...J
()

Density/SNP crossplot. Sidewall neutron apparent limestone porosity (%)

322 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

(b) For zone C, point plots close to clean sandstone line with cJ> = 0.25. Assuming C to be water bearing
Ro = FRw = 1/cJ>2 . {Rw}
Rw = cJ>2Ro = 0.262 X 0.215 = 0.0145 (taking R 1Ld as Ro)

(c) Shale values are listed above.

(d) GRclean = 20, GRshale = 102

GR - GRclean GR-20
VshGR = - - - - - - - -
GRshale - GRclean 82
VshGR values calculated are tabulated above.

(e) See Fig. A5.2.3 for shale point. Only level B shows a significant displacement from clean line. Graphically Vsh for
zone B = XB/XS = 1.25/4 = 0.31.

(f) Taking the minimum shale indication (from DIN) gives only B as shaly. Presumably there are radioactive minerals in
the sands (such as feldspar) so the GR overestimates shale content.
As above graphically for level B, Vsh = 0.31. The porosity is given by point Yon the clean sandstone line where BY
is parallel to the matrix shale line, i.e. cJ> = 0.14. The graphical construction is complicated by the curve on the
sandstone line. More rigorously convert density and neutron values to sandstone matrix cJ>D = 16.5, cJ>N = 24.2. cJ>NSH
= 32, cJ>DSH = 7.5, cJ> = cJ>N - V SH cJ>NSH, cJ> = cJ>D - VSH cJ>DSH
Solving the equations for unknown VSH
cJ>N - cJ>D 24.2 - 16.5
V SH = = = 0.31
cJ>NSH - cJ>DSH 32 - 7.5

cJ> = cJ>N - VSHcJ>NSH = 24.2 - 0.31 x 7.5 = 0.14

(g) Saturation calculations

LevIe! Ala~ eq)uatiO:S reduce t~ I(r~~: ()VSH ~ ~) / Rw 1 '\ /0.0145

:·Rr = FRw ·Sw :.Sw= VR; V6.67 =0.18
=~VR;= 0.26
Level B with n =2, Rw =0.0145, R =2.86, RSH =0.91, V SH =0.31, =0.14.
t </>

Archie

~, ~ (F~w) .Sw' :. 0.35 ~ 1.352 S.'

:. Sw = 0.51

r~"O:~)· S.' + (~::) :. 035 ~ I.352S.' + 0341

:. Sw = 0.082

~o~ifi(e~ Si)mandzoux(VSH ) . _ z
R - FR . Sw + R . Sw .. 0.35 - 1.352 Sw + 0. 341Sw
t w SH . .
Solvmg quadratIc + ve root only
:. Sw = 0.376
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 323

Poupon and Leveaux (Indonesia)

1 1 V SH (1-VsH/2)
'I!Rr = YFRw Sw + VRsH . Sw
:. 0.592 = 1.163 Sw + 390 Sw
:. Sw =0.38

where
1 1 1
- = - =0.350;~=0.592
Rt 2.86 VRt V (1-VsHI2)
V SH = 0.341 ; VSH(l - VSH/2) = 0.372; s~ = 0.390
RSH SH
1 ~2 1
FRw = Rw = 1.352 ; YFRw= 1.163
Thus the modified Simandoux and Indonesia equations give similar Sw's which are less than the Archie Sw. The shale
conductance in the basic Simandoux is already near to the measured conductance so the solution gives an unlikely
optimistic value for a shaly sand.

Solution 5.3

Waxman and Thomas equation with a = 1, m = 2, n = 2

~ =~ 2+BQv Sw
Rt FR w Sw F

= -1 { -1 Sw 2 + BQvSw )
F Rw

BQv = 0.046 x 0.3 mho.cm2 .meq-!.meq/cc

= 0.0138 mho cm-! or ohm-! cm-!
= 100 x 0.0138 = 1.38 ohm-) m- l
1 1
:. Rt = F (10 Sw 2 + 1.38 Sw)
F = 1I~2 = 1/0.262 = 14.79 R t = 5
:. 0.2 = 0.0676 (10 S} + 1.38 Sw)
= 0.676 S} + 0.0933 Sw
:.0.676 Sw 2 + 0.0933 Sw - 0.2 = 0
Solving the quadratic
_ (-0.0933 ± \1[0.0933 2 - 4.676 . ( -0.2) 1) = 0.4
Sw - 2(0.676)

'\ 1FRw
(see Archie solution, Sw = VIi; = 0.544)
Modified Simandoux model

~_~ 2 VSH
R t FRw Sw + RSH . Sw
Comparing with the Waxman Thomas equation
324 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

BQv VSH BQv

p= RSH :. VSH=RsHp

1.5 X 1.38
VSH = 14.79 = 0.140

i.e. it would take 14% shale with resistivity 1.5 ohm-m to get the same result as the Waxman Thomas equation
.. ! _~ 2 VSH.. _ 0.0676 2 0.14
BaslcSlmandoux R t - FRw Sw + RSH , .. 0.2 - 0.1 Sw + 1.5

0.2 = 0.676 Sw2 + 0.0933

1 1[0.2 - 0.0933]
Sw = V 0.676 = 0.397

Solution 5.4
(a) Prove
From Darcy's law:
-kA JP
q=---
!.t Jx
Assuming Boyle's law:
3000ff
QscPo = qP and Po = 1 atm.
Hence:
-kA JP 1000 ft:-I______----'
Qsc = -
!.t
P-
Jx
1501~
kA p/- P12
orQsc =-; 2L ~-5750
Qsc!.t2 L
(b) k = A(P12 - p/)
6.2 x 2 x 0.018 x 2.54

XX

=0.2D
127' «(~:r - 1)

Solution 5.5
The problem requires correction of pressure so that the linear Darcy law can be used. In field units:
kAAP
q = 1.127 X lO-3 - ; BBLIdL
Assuming average water gradient of 0.45 psi/ft (0.433 x 1.038) and referring to a HWC datum of 5250 ft SS, static
pressure at the outcrop is:
PS2so = 0.45 x 5250 = 2362.5 psi
But pressure = 1450 psi at 5250
3 750 x 3000 x 65 (2362.5 - 1450)
Hence, q = 1.127 x lO- x 1 x 52 800 --\
_------- j Poutcrop
q = 2848.5 BBLId
---------- ----------
P HWC . : : : : / / / - / f Poutcrop at HWC datum
....."";------10 miles - - - - "
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 325
Solution 5.6
Using the equation:
Qsc 2 ilL (6.4/60) x 2 x 0.018 x 2.54
k = A(P I2 - pl)
3t 1.272 (760
(861)2 - 12)

Sc for rate 1 = 0.0068 D = 6.8 mD

Scfor rate 2 = 6.02mD
Scforrate 3 =5.0mD
This is because of the Klinkenberg effect.

Plotting k against 11Pmean gives k L as 11Pmean ~ 0 as 3 mD.

Solution 5.7
Assume cross-sectional area A.
dh
q = -A dt where q is flow rate and h is current height measured from bottom of core plug.
Flow across core is:
-kA I1P
q=--
Il L
But I1P = datum correction pressure difference, so:
-kA pgh dh
q=--=-A-
Il L dt

so- J
L dh kPg'Jt
- = - dt
h
ho
ilL
0

-J
ho kpg'
or log., It = L t ho ho
Il
so k = IlL ~[log (holh)] = ilL
(lOge -h2 - loge hI
pg' ~t pg' I1 t
Note: pg' has to be in units such that pg' h = atm.
1 x 2 X 106 loge84 -loge 15.5
Hence k = 1.02 x 981 x 4500
=0.8D
Note: a plot of log.,h against t would be best.

Solution 5.8
50
Poil = 50 lb/fe = .144 psi/ft = 0.3472 psi/ft

(a) Correct well pressures to 5750 ft = 1750 + 0.3472 x 750

= 2010.4 psi
(b) Flowing gradient
kA I1P
q = -;- L 1.127 X 10-3

I1P = qllL 1000 x 1.135 x 7 x 3000

1.127 X 10-3 x k x A = 1.127 X 10-3 x 150 x 150 x 1000

= 94 psi
326 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

So, Powc = 2010.4 + 94 = 2104.4 psi

PV res = 3000 X 1000 X 150 X cp
Equating production Vp = VTc· llP, then
3000 X 1000 X 150 x <I>
PVaquifer = (2104.4 _ 500) 3 X 10-6 = 93.5 X 109 x <I> ft3

Solution 5.9
Q k dP
Darcy's equation A = - -; dx for non-compressible flow

(a) Linear beds - parallel flow P,

Q = qi + q2 + q3
Assume infinitely thin barriers between layers q, ---fIto-\
Q
llP llP q2--~-\ r------~------~ - -... Q
Q=qI+q2+" .=kIAIf..tL +k2A 2 f..tL + ... k,

llP
=k'A-
f..tL
where k' is the apparent permeability and A the total area.
Hencek'A = kiAI + k2A2 + ...
n
Lk;A;
Therefore k' = ~
LA;
I

or if beds all same width = fLkh·

(b) Series flow

Assume equal areas P, P2 P2 P3 P3 p.

Al =A2

q, = qi
=. - .
= q2 = q3 - ..
oD B B
-\LJ~U-U
Now PI - P4 = (PI - P2 ) + (P2 - P3 ) + (P3 - P4 ) ..•
L, L2
Using Darcy's law
L f..t LI f..t L2 f..t
qtAk' = qi Aki + q2 A ki + ...
Since flow rates, cross-sections and viscosities are equal in all beds

(c) Radial flow parallel

From the figure, it is noted that the same terms appear in the radial flow network as in the linear system.
2Jtkh (Pe - Pw)
Q= f..tln(re/rwJ
e - external boundary
w - internal boundary
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 327

-
-
hi qi k,

1
ht

-
h2 q2 k2

h3 q3 k3 j
The only difference in the two systems is the manner of expressing the length over which the pressure drop occurs. All
these terms are the same in each case.
"[k·h·
Therefore k' = - - '-'
hI

(d) Radial flow series

By same reasoning as in the linear case
k' = _In_(.o...r::....,/r...::w~)-
't In (r/rj_l)
j=1 kj

Bed Depth/ Horizontal permeability; mD

Length of bed
1 250 25
2 250 50
3 500 100
4 1000 200

For radial systems, wellbore = 6", and radius of effective drainage 2000' and bed 1 is adjacent to wellbore.
Linear flow - parallel, and radial flow - parallel, take data lengths as bed depths and bed lengths and radii to be equal.

Linear flow in parallel

k' = 250 x 25 + 250 x 50 + 500 x 100 + 1000 x 200 = 134.4 mD
2000
Radial flow in parallel
"[kh
k'=T
250 x 25 + 250 x 50 + 500 x 100 + 1000 x 200
k' = 2000
268750
k' = 2000 = 134.4 mD
328 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Linear flow in series

2000 2000
-=80mD
k' = 250 250 500 1000 25
2s +50 +100+ 200
Radial flow in series
In (200010.5)
k'=--------------~----~-------------
In 25010.5 + In 500/250 + In 10001500 + In 200011000
25 50 100 200
= 30.4mD
i.e. permeability near wellbore most important.

Chapter 6
Solution 6.1

Pc 0 4.4 5.3 5.6 7.6 10.5 15.7 35.0

Sw 100 100 90.1 82.4 60.0 43.7 32.2 29.8
h 0 33.3 40.2 42.4 57.5 79.6 119.0 265.3

Pc
(h = )
(Pw - Po)/144

- Crest
200 -
-
-
-
-

-
.e
150 r-
l-
\\-+-\-----samPle location Sw =0.31
I-
a;

\0~o
> I- o
~
... I-
~
c
~ 100 I-
-
CI)

~
CI)
>
0
-
.Q
c -

"-----0-0
1:
c> -
'CD
:I: 50-
~

~o
OWC at 33 ft relative

I J I I I I I I J
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sw (fraction)---

Fig. A6.1 Saturation distribution.

SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 329

Note that the oil-water contact is at Sw = 1.0, not at Pc =0.

At 100 ft above owe, Sw = 0.31 (135 ft relative)
- ISw dh
S =--
w h
From area under Sw against h curve:
Sw = 0.37
Solution 6.2
Sw 100 100 90.1 82.4 60.0 43.7 32.2 29.8
(Pc)O-w 0 4.4 5.3 5.6 7.6 10.5 15.7 35.0
(PdHg 0 65.1 78.4 82.9 112.5 155.4 232.4 518.0
f(J)=PcYf 0 1534.4 1847.9 1954.0 2651.7 3662.8 5477.7 12209.0
(PC)Hg 0 110.7 133.3 140.9 191.2 264.1 395.0 880.4

for25mD
and 0 = 0.13

Solution 6.3
For the laboratory data YkTcj>c = (150/0.22) 0.5
](sw)vs Sw relationship is calculated.
= 26.11 and using ](Sw) = PC(Sw~
CJ cos
Vi
cj>
with CJ cos e = 72 dyne/cm the

] (Sw) = 0.363 Pc (Sw)Jab

1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
o 0.363 1.451 2.176 2.901 3.445 4.862 4.968 5.984 8.341 36.27

](sw> CJcos e
At reservoir conditions PC(Sw)", =
v'kicj>
for CJ cos e = 26 and v'kTcj> = 44.72
Pc (Sw)", = 0.581] (Sw) and the reservoir condition Pc curve is therefore calculated as

1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
o 0.211 0.843 1.264 1.685 2.00 2.823 2.886 3.451 4.846 21.07

For the reservoir specific gravity of oil and water given

Ap = (1.026-0.785)
= 0.241
The relationship between capillary pressure and height H above FWL is, in the units required, pc(sw) = 0.433 HAp
:. H= Pc(sw)
0.104
Using the threshold value of pc(sw) (= Pct) as the observed oil water contact, then

0.211
Howe = - - = 2 ft above the FWL
0.104
4.85
H TIZ = 0-- = 46.5 ft above the FWL
.104
330 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Chapter 7
Solution 7.1
From Darcy's law modified for effective permeability in horizontal linear flow
qo!-loL qw!-lw L
Ko (s) = A I1P and Kw (s) = A I1P
o w

Assuming zero capillary pressure (Pc = 0 = Po - Pw) so I1Po = I1P w = I1P, and using Darcy units of eels for rate and
atmospheres for I1P, then:
q!-l [(4) (9) (1000)]
Ke (md) = I1P n: (3.2)2 3600

For oil Ko = ~P (9.14)

qw
For water Kw = I1P (5.0)
Ko Kw
For Kro= ~and Krw = ~
O(cw) o (cw)
90
Ko(cw) = 49.25 (9.14) = 16.7 md

15.0 1.0 o
19.8 0.452 0.017
25.1 0.30 0.025
32.1 0.20 0.049
41.0 0.12 0.075
54.9 0.05 0.156
68.1 o 0.249

These data are plotted in Fig. A 7.1

1.0 0

0.9
0.8

0.7

t 0.6

~cpl.x:g 0.5

~
II
OA
0.3
0
0.2

0.1

:::::---'--=,-:--'--::,-~'o I I
0.8 10
sw-

Fig. A7.1 Steady-state relative permeability.

SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 331

Solution 7.2
For pressure maintenance, the oil rate in RB/D is
10 000 x 1.2765 = 12765 RB/D
The end points of the relative permeability curve are
K ro ' = 0.9 at Swi = 0.28
Krw ' = 0.7 at Sor = 0.35
The ratio Ilw is then calculated from the given end point mobility ratio of 2.778.
flo k rw ' flo flw krw' 0.7
Since M' = flw • k ro ' , then flo = M' k ro ' = 2.778 (0.9) = 0.28

The fractional flow curve can now be calculated for the horizontal reservoir:
1
fw = fk::
k }
1 + 0.28
l
0.28 0.30 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.60 0.65
o 0.082 0.295 0.708 0.931 0.984 1.00
A line tangential to the fractional flow curve from Sw = 0.28 gives the tangent at Swf = 0.4 (fw = 0.535) and the intercept
withfw = 1 at Sw = 0.505. The gradient of this tangent[dfwfdSwlswis 4.44.

From Buckley-Leverett theory the constant rate frontal advance of the 40% saturation front is:
q(t) (5.615) [df ]
Xflday = (A)(<I» dS w swf

(12765) (5.615) (4.44)

Xflday = (5280) (50) (0.25) = 4.82 ftlday
For a system le~gth of 5280 ft, breakthrough therefore occurs in 1095 days (= 3 years)
At year 4 the pore volume injected is
_ _4-,-(3_65...:.)-,-(1_2_7_65.:....)..:.-(5_.6_15..;...)_
=0.3PV
(5280) (50) (5280) (0.25)

and dflds] Swe = _1_ = 3.33

0.3

The tangent of gradient 3.33 to the fractional flow curve at saturations greater than frontal occurs at Swe = 0.45
dfw
(from a plot of dS vs Sw)·
w

At this saturation (Swe),fwe = 0.71, the reservoir condition water cut.

The average saturation remaining in the reservoir is given by the Welge equation as:
- foe
Sw = Swe + [dfwfdSwls we

_ (1-0.71)_
Sw = 0.45 + 3.33 :. Sw = 0.537
The reco~ry factor is thus:
S -S .
RF = W WI = 0.36
1- Swi
332 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Solution 7.3
The critical injection rate for gas is given in field units of SCF/D as:
4.9 x 10-4 k k r / A (Yg - Yo) sin a:
q SCFID = Ilg Bg (M - 1)
where Bg is in units of RBISCF and a: is negative for updip injection.

The density difference in terms of specific gravity is:

17 -48
Ay = 62A = -0.4968
0.5 (1.8)
M' = 0.028 (0.9) = 35.71
sin (-10°) = -0.1736
4.9 x 10-4 (800) (0.5) (8000) (100) (-0.4968) (-0.1736)
:. qcrit = (0.028) (35.71 - 1) (7.5 x 10-4)
= 18.589 MMSCF/D
The rate of injection proposed (15 MMSCFID) is less than the critical rate and might almost lead to a stable
displacement.

The oil rate expected prior to breakthrough is therefore:

15 x 106 x 7.5 X 10-4
Qo = 1.125 = 10 MSTB/D

Solution 7.4
1.0

O8 \
I Distribution after 0.5 yrs

t .
. :--1:."
0.6 \
~ I
i ./ Calculated frontal
iY position
i
0.4 i
i

0.2
i
j
---.l....-_!.-
I Initio I
distribution

Fig. A7.2 Saturation distributions

From the given data the saturation is plotted as shown in Fig. A 7.2
ql = 9434 rbld Dip = 6° 110 = 1.51 cp
h = 100' k = 276 mD Ilw = 0.83 cp
w = 8000' <I> = 0.215
Ay = 0.04 A= 800 000 ft2

The fractional ~ow curv(e is calculated as fO~I~:~ [ ]1

fw = Ilw kro
1 + 1.127 X 10-3 qt 110 - 0.4335 Ay sina:
1+-·-
k rw 110
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 333

The results are shown in Fig. A 7.3

1.0
/ .....

I
0.9

0.8
0.7
•
t
/
0.6

-
0.5
~

0.4
•

/
0.3
0.2

0.1 /.
• ...,.. I I I I I
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw

Therefore:
Fig. A7.3 Fractional flow curve.

Sw 0.16 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.79

fw 0 0.036 0.127 0.344 0.64 0.88 0.98 1.0

Since there is no uniform saturation distribution initially a material balance solution is used:

(LlX)s"'j = 5.615 Aq, At [Afw

LlS
1 = 0.308 At [Llfw
LlS 1 for At in days
<P w S"'j w S"'j

2.5

2.0 t
1.5 ;-',~
-(/)
1.0 -0 ~

0.5

1.0
Sw
Fig. A7.4 Slopes of fractional flow curve.

The slope of the fractional flow curve as a function of saturation is plotted in Fig. A 7.4. Selecting saturations

ForSw = 0.79 ForSw = 0.75 ForS w = 0.7

t(yrs) X t (yrs) X t(yrs) X
o 10ft o 12 ft o 15 ft
0.5 10 + 23.5 = 33.5 0.5 12 + 36.5 = 48.5 0.5 15 + 56.2 = 71.2
1.0 10 + 47 = 57 1.0 12 + 73.0 = 85 1.0 15 + 112.4 = 127.4
2.0 10 + 94 = 104 2.0 12 + 146 = 158 2.0 15 + 225 = 240
334 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

At 0.5 years the saturation distribution is shown on Fig. A7.2 and is represented in 10' increments.
5.615 qt Llt )
( Note: <j>A = 56.22

Llx LLlx Swi Sw (0.5 yr) Llx (Sw - SWi) LLlX (Sw - SWi)
10 10 0.79 0.79 0 0
10 20 0.70 0.79 0.9 0.9
10 30 0.56 0.79 2.3 3.2
10 40 0.45 0.78 3.3 6.5
10 50 0.375 0.755 3.8 10.3
10 60 0.33 0.730 4.0 14.3
10 70 0.30 0.710 4.10 18.4
10 80 0.278 0.690 4.12 22.52
10 90 0.254 0.675 4.21 26.72
10 100 0.24 0.650 4.10 30.83
10 110 0.23 0.640 4.10 34.93
10 120 0.215 0.630 4.15 39.08
10 130 0.205 0.620 4.15 43.23
10 140 0.20 0.613 4.13 47.36
10 150 0.195 0.605 4.10 51.46
10 160 0.190 0.600 4.10 55.56
10 170 0.183 0.595 4.12 59.68

{ 56.22 - 55.56)
Interpolation :. X f = 160 + 10 59.68 _ 55.56 = 161.6 ft from owe
From Fig. A 7.2, at X f = 161.6 ft, Swf = 0.60
Solution 7.5
For the particular example the problem reduces to the following tabulation, numbering layers n, from n = 0 to n = N =
5, bottom to top. n 5

- _ 0.7n + 0.15 (5 - n) . -
Swn - 5
_ 0.5 k f. j . - _ 'hf'j
,Krwn - _ _ _ , K ron - 0.9_
5 5
~ kj ~ kj
5
where: L kj = 50 + 500 + 1500 + 2000 + 500 = 4550 mD.
1

n
f. k j
N
Lk·
n+l 1
5 5
n N
n L kj Lk·1 L kj Lkj krwn kron SWn
n+l 1 1
1

0 0 4550 0 1.000 0 0.900 0.15

1 50 4550 0.0110 0.989 0.0055 0.8901 0.26
2 550 4000 0.1209 0.879 0.0605 0.7911 0.37
3 2050 2500 0.4505 0.5494 0.2253 0.4940 0.48
4 4050 500 0.8901 0.1099 0.4451 0.0989 0.59
5 4550 0 1.00 0 0.50 0 0.70

The resultant pseudo-relative permeability is plotted as Sw n vs j(rwn and j(ron

SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 335
ChapterS

Solution 8.1
Using the relationship h + 139 = 164/sinh x the saturation vs height relation is calculated as follows:

X (frac) 0.33 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0

sinh x 0.3360 0.4108 0.5211 0.6367 0.7586 0.8881 1.0265 1.1752
h (ft) 349 260.2 175 118 77 45 20.8 0.55

Fig. A 8.1 shows the plot of water saturation and porosity as a function of depth. Fig. A. 8.2 shows the plot of isopach
value vs area contained within the contour. In the absence of a phinimeter to measure area use metric graph paper in a
simplified approach. Take 50 ft intervals from base to crest. Count squares to determine volume for each interval. Assign
appropriate value of <p and Sw for each interval (lcm square = 2500 acreft).

Porosity (cp) ~
0.20

320

280

-.-t...
240

-...
ti 200
c
c:
0
u

-Q)
160
c
~
Q)
> 120

-
0
.J:l
C
.s::
CI 80
·CP
::I:

40

0
Water saturation (Sw) ~

Fig. AS.1 Sw and <I> vs. depth.

336 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Area within contour (acres)

Interval No. ofsquares Gross rock volume Saturation Porosity Hydrocarbon

(lffacreft) (Sw) (~) (volume x UP
HHLs)
0- 50 46 115.00 0.875 0.160 16.73
50-100 35 87.50 0.70 0.178 36.25
100-150 26.7 66.75 0.57 0.197 43.87
150-200 21.5 53.75 0.49 0.215 45.72
200-250 17.0 42.50 0.43 0.234 43.98
250-300 11.3 28.25 0.39 0.252 33.69
300-350 3.0 7.50 0.36 0.271 10.09
L =401.250 L =230.326
Hydrocarbon in place = 230326250 BBLs reservoir oil
= 170 x 106 BBLs stock tank/oil
Solution 8.2
The oil in place at stock tank conditions is evaluated using the relationship
7758A h cjl So
N=--~--=-
Hoi
where N is in STB
A is in acres
h is in feet
cjlSo is a fraction
Hoi is in RBISTB
The recoverable reserve is N.(RF) where RFis the recovery factor (fraction). Deterministically, the minimum, 'most
likely', and maximum values are calculated as:
minimum 43 x 106 STB
'most likely' 116 x 106 STB
maximum 274 x 106 STB
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 337

The distribution functions of the reservoir parameters are shown in Fig. A 8.3. These data are interrogated randomly
using a Monte Carlo approach in the recoverable reserve calculation. The resulting cumulative frequency greater than a
given value plot is shown in Fig. A 8.4. The values associated with the 90%, 50% and 10% levels are as follows:
at 90% the recoverable reserve is at least 72 x 106 STB
at 50% the recoverable reserve is at least 120 x 106 STB
at 10% the recoverable reserve is at least 185 x 106 STB

100
.-i hne!
100
, Area

t
o~
~
~
a. •

~.,
I-'l

•
0

0\
100 100
\

\ 0\
• cf>So RF

t t
~ ~
•
~
a. 50 0: 50
I-'l

~o
I-'l

•\
0

100 100
cf>

~
~
t ~BO ~
\0
\
a. 50 50

o~~
I-'l

• •
0 0

Fig. A8.3 Distribution functions.

338 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

100
-0
.l!!
c
0 90
'ii
.E
c:
c 80
~
.,.....
C
~ 70
c>
.!!!
., 60
=>
~
C 50
~

E:
£i
c
..c 40

.,a.
0

c>
c 30
C.,
.,ea. 20
.,
.~
C 10
:;
E
=>
u

20 260
10 6 STS----
Fig. A8.4 Recoverable reserves distribution.

Chapter 9

Kt Solution 9.1
to = <PJUr
with (a) to = 1481
(b) to = 14815
(c) to = 7.4 X 10-3

Solution 9.2

p;-p= 4:~h [-+ ~:':) 1

<PJUr
For (a) x = 4Kt = 4.2 x 10-3

as x is small
- E;(-x) = - 0.5772 -Jogex
= 4.895
Hence AP = 22.72 atmospheres
For (b) x = 0.4375 From graph - E; (-x) = 0.62

Hence AP = 2.875 atmospheres

For (c) x = 0.49 From graph - E; (-x) = 0.55

Hence AP = 64 atmospheres
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 339

Solution 9.3
From the plot shown in Fig. A 9.1, of P wi vs 10glOt
m = 18 psi/cycle
162.6 (500) (0.5) (1.7535)
ThenKh = 18

= 3960 mD ft
3960
KO=60=66mD

4940

m = 18 psi /cycle
4930
•
t
~
4920
.".~
•

Fig. A9.1 PwtVS 1091Ot.

Solution 9.4
f HAt) with the points in the table calculated, the slope is determined as
From a graph of P vs llog ---;;;:r
21. 7 psi/cycle ( = m).
For a reservoir rate q of 500 (1.454) rb/d (= 727 rb/d)
162.6q(..t
Then, kh = = 3800 mD.ft
m

For h = 120 ft then Ko = 32 mD.

The value of P{h' corresponding to a Homer time function of 3.16 is 4981 psi
4981 - 4728 32 )
S = 1.151 21. 7 10glO (0.135)(0.7)(17 X 10-6)(0.5)2 + 3.23
= +7
340 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

!!.Ps = 0.87 m S = 132 psi

4981 - 4728 - 132
Efficiency = 4981 - 4728 = 0.5 (approx.) t+!!.t [t+!!.t]
Data points for Horner plot on semi-log paper, P vs At or a plot of p vs log At on linear scales are as follows:

t = 60 x 24 = 1440 hours

Time (h) t+!!.t logJO P (psi)

!!.t {(t+ !!.t)/!!.t}
0.25 5761 3.76 4967
0.5 2881 3.46 4974
1.0 1441 3.16 4981
1.5 961 2.98 4984
2.0 721 2.88 4987
3.0 481 2.68 4991
6.0 241 2.38 4998
9.0 161 2.21 5002
18.0 81 1.91 5008
36.0 41 1.61 5014
48.0 31 1.49 5017

Solution 9.5
Examination of the data shows that: !!.P/day = 3 psi
Assuming 1 - Sw =0.7
We have NBoi = NpBo/(co).!!.P
and (co)e = 15 x 10-6/0.7 = 21.4 x 10-6
and Np = 500 bId. For Bo = Boi then
500 6
N = 21.4 X 10-6 x 3 = 7.8 x 10 BBL
Solution 9.6
Slope = 7 psi/cycle from Homer plot
Rate Q (MSCFID) (!!.p2) total 162.6 (q Bg) IA.
1 7290 42181 HenceKh = m
2 16737 126120
3 25724 237 162 0.00504zT
4 35522 391616 Bg = P BBLlscf = 0.00103·

Kh = 14 500 K= 72mD
Assume tflow prior to build up is 4.5 hours:
2 2_14241A.zTQ { )
NowPe -Pw - Kh InO.606re/rw +Sl

Time since P = 0.855 Q {8.93 + Sl}

shut in
Pe2 - Pw2
1 0.7404 2509.7 Or Sl = 0.855 Q - 8.93
1.5 0.6201 2510.7
2 0.5119 2511.3
2.5 0.4472 2511.7 Rate Q
3 0.3979 2512.1 1 -2.16 7290
4 0.3274 2512.5 2 -0.12
5 0.2788 2513.0 3 +1.85
6 0.2430 2513.2 4 +3.96 35522
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 341

D = AS/AQ = 2.16 x 10.4

S = -3.7
f3 = DhWw = 2.865 x 109
2.22510 15 KYg
48211
f3theoretical = <1>5.5 v'K = 1.80 X 109

This is order of magnitude agreement.

The inertial pressure term Ap2inertial is calculated from B as follows:

3.16 x1O-1ZygTzf3
B= 2
h rw

= 0.000185

Hence (Ap2)inertial is as follows:

Rate Q(MSCFID)
1 7290 9851 42181
2 16737 51928 126120
3 25724 122665 237162
4 35522 233906 391616

Comparison between the numbers shows that at high rates the inertial drop is over half the total drop, and that in this
case only the inertial drop is close to the total drop of the previous rate.
The AOF plot is shown in Fig. A 9.2 and when Ap2 is equal to Pe 2 (6.32X106psi2) then QAOF = 220 X 106 SCFld

AOF=
220mm SCF/D C B
-----------------e--------------------------------------------.
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
o'" I
I

n =0.65 [= distance AB] !

distance Be I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

tA
I

107~--~L--L~~~~~~---L--~-L-L~~~----~~--L-~~LU
~ 1~ ~ ~

Fig. A9.2 AOF determination.

342 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Chapter 10
Solution 10.1

Volume ofreservoir = V = 100 x (5280? x 500 cu.ft

Volume ofreservoir available for fluid = (1 - Sw) cj>V = Vr
= 0.65 x 0.12 x V

_ 2000 l520 _ 12
Vsc - 14.7 0.825595 - 15.6 x 10 SCF
(1) Assume no water influx,

Initial moles in place ni = Pi.RT

Vr = (PVi)
RT
Z, r SId

Vi - gas in place measured at standard conditions.

Abandonment moles left in place na =--n=

Pa Vr
Za r
(PVa)
RT
SId

Gas recovered !1n - - -Pj = -Ps

= -Vr (Pi !1 V
RTr Zi Za RTs
Recoverable gas measured at stan dar conditions

=Vr
-Ts
- (Pi
- - Pa)
-
TrPs Zi Za
500
At 500 psi, reduced pressure Ppr = 67 6 1. = 0.75 Z = 0.94
Vr TsPi Z, Pa)
Therefore recoverable gas =- T 1 - - -P
P
r s Zl Za I

_ X 12( 0.825 500)

- 15.6 10 1 - 0.94 ·2000

= 15.6 X 10 12 (1 - 0.219)

= 12.2 X 1012 SCF

12.2
Recovery factor = 15.6 = 78%

Solution 10.2
2nkoh 2nk h !1Pg
Radial flow of oil q0 = --B- Radial flow of gas qg = =..:::£.::B -~'--
flo 0 flg g re
log -
e rw

and if the capillary pressure gradient is negligible, and the pressure drop over the same radii are considered,

~ _ kgfloBo
qo - ko flgBg
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 343
To this must be added the gas evolved from solution in the oil.
The total measured gas-oil ratio will then be:
kg flo Bo
+ Rs
ko flg Bg
For the figures given:
(96)(0.8)(1.363)
(1000)(0.018)(0.001162) + 500
= 5005 + 500
= 5505 SCF/STB

Solution 10.3

We = Np B, + Bg(Rp - R si ) - N(B, - Bo;)

(i) At cumulative 1.715 x 106 BBL (P = 1600)
Wei = (1.715 X 106) [1.437 + 0.0015(878 - 690)] - 14.5 X 106[1.437 - l.363]
= 1.875 X 106

(ii) At cumulative 3.43 X 106 BBL (P = 1300)

We2 = (3.43 X 106) [1.594 + 0.0019(996 -690)] - 14.5 [1.594 - l.363]
= 4.112 x 106
At P = 1000 estimated water influx = 6.375 x 106 (from trend)
N(B, - B oi ) + We
Np=
B, + Bg(Rp - R si )
14.5(1. 748 - l.363) x 106 + 6 375 000
1.748 + 0.0025(1100- 690)
= 4.312 X 106 BBL
Solution 10.4
Total hydrocarbon in place = i:n: ,-2h<j> (1 - Sw)
9 750 x 0.17 x 0.76
3
= :n: (528W 5.615 = 4.54 x 109 BBL

Since bubble-point is 1850 psi, this must be pressure at any gas-oil contact.
Elevation of gas-oil contact above oil-water contact is:

(1919 - 1850) 144

43.4 = 229 ft

This is less than hydrocarbon column so gas-oil contact exists at 4031 ft SS

Height of gas zone = 750 - 229 = 521 ft
2
= r~h:
2 3
h
Ratio gas/total = hh~ = (520)3
750 = 0.34

0.66 x 4.54 x 109

Therefore, oil in place = 1.363 = 2.198 x 109 STB
344 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

m = 0.5 (= 113 +- 2/3)

Material balance
Np[B/ + BiRp - Rs;)] - We + Wp Bw
N=
mBoi
(B/ - Bo;) + B. (Bg - Bgi)
gl

At 1600 psi:
B/ + BiRp - Rs;) = 1.437 + 0.00150(1100 - 690)
= 2.0520
m Boi 0.5 (1.363)
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bg;) = 1.437 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.0015 - 0.00124)

= 0.0740 + 0.1429
= 0.2169
We = (2.052 X 3.1 X 108 + 31 X 106) - 2.198 X 109 X 0.2169
= 1.904 X 108 BBL
At 1300 psi:
B/ + Bg(Rp - R si) = 1.594 + 0.0019(1350 - 690)
= 2.8480
m Boi 0.5 (1.363)
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bgi) = 1.594 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.0019 - 0.00124)

= 0.5937

We = 5.5 X 108 X 2.8480 + 55 X 106 - 2.198 X 109 X 0.5937

= 3.164 X 109
This is not simply linear with pressure but extrapolation is reasonably straightforward and water influx at 1000 psi is
estimated at 3.75 X 109 BBL
B/ + BiRp - Rs;) = 1.748 + 0.0025(1800 - 690)
= 4.523
m Boi (0.5)1.363
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bgi) = 1.748 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.00250 - 0.00124)

= 1.0775 (denominator term)

N X + We - Wp Bw
denom.)
N=------'-----'--
P B/ + Bg (Rp - R si )
2.198 X 109 X 1.0775 + 3.75 X 108 - 63 X 106
4.5230
= 5.926 X 108
= 590 X 106 STB
Solution 10.5
. . . _ GBgi _ 120.7 X 109 X 6.486 X 10-4 _
Gas cap. OIl zone ratio m - NBoi - 300 X 106 X 1.3050 - 0.2

From PVT data the values of B o, Rs and Bg at 4300 psi can be estimated by linear interpolation as:
Bo = 1.228 RBISTB; Rs = 338 SCF/STB; Bg = 7.545 X 10-4 RB/SCF
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 345

From production data the value of Rp is calculated as GpfNp to give the following table.

Time pepsi) RpCSCFISTB) R.(SCFISTB)

1.1.80 5000 o o o 500
1.1.81 4300 o 21.9 550 338
1.1.82 4250 25.55 43.8 600 325

Using the relationship F = N(E T ) + We + WinjBwinj the following is calculated where:

E T = mEg + Eo + Efw

Units 1.1.B1 1.1.B2

(a) F = Np Bo + (Rp - Rs)Bg 106 RB 30.28 62.41

(b) Eo = (Bo - B oi ) + (Rsi - Rs) Bg RB/STB 0.0420 0.0435

E,~ Bo; [~-ll

RB/STB 0.2131 0.2302
(c)

(d) [c.$W + cf1 RB/STB 0.0061 0.0065

Efw = (1 + m) Boi t!..P 1 - Sw

(e) ET = mEg + Eo + Efw RB/STB 0.0887 0.0960

(f) We = F - N (E T ) - Winj Bwinj 106 BBL 3.67 8.06

Solution 10.6
The dimensionless radius ratio is:
r aquifer 81000
re = =--=9
D r oil zone 9000
The dimensionless time tD is related to real time by:
2.309 k t (years) 2.309 (707t)
tD = <l>ql, ~ = (0.18)(7x 10-6) (0.4) (900W = 40t
The instantaneous pressure drops which at the start of each year are equivalent to the continuous pressure declines are:
Pi - PI 5870 - 5020 .
t!..Po = - - 2 - = 2 = 425 pSI
Pi - P2 5870 - 4310
t!..P I = - - - = = 780 psi
2 2
PI - P3 5020 - 3850
t!..Pz = --2-= 2 585 psi

The aquifer constant is:

U= 1.119 f<l>h c rb
U = 1.119 x 1 x 0.18 x 200 x (7 x 10-6) x (900W
U = 22841 BBLIpsi

From tables or charts for dimensionless influx at reo = 9 we have:

40 21
80 29
120 34
346 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
j=n-I
From We = U L APWD (TD - (Dj)
j=O

Wei = 22841 [425 (21)] = 203.9 X 106 BBL

We2 = 22841 [425 (29) + 780 (21)] = 655.7 X 106 BBL
We3 = 22841 [425 (34) + 780 (29) + 585 (21)] = 1127.3 X 106 BBL

Chapter 11
Solution 11.1

1 [0.00708 k kro h
PI=- 1
",,"0 In -re - 0.75 + S
rw

For re = 1500 ft
rw=0.5ft
S= +4
K ro = 0.6
h = 100ft
k= 1325mD
50
PI=-
!.to

0.5 5 50 500 5000

.. ------------------------------------------------
PI 100 10 1 0.1 0.01

Solution 11.2
The injectivity index is given in field units by:
0.00708 k k rw h
II=----~[~----~-----
!'w In ~ - 0.75+ s]
Assuming all other factors equal then

Solution 11.3

Use is made of the plot in Fig. 11.4 which correlates areal sweep efficiency E A as a function of end point mobility ration
(M') for different fractional injection volumes, VD.
Kw' !.to 0.4 3.4
M'=-·- =--·-=4
!.tw Ko' 0.4 0.85
The volume of injected fluid, in reservoir barrels, after 10 years is:
10 X 365.25 X 53 000 x 1.005
= 1.945 x 108 RB
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 347

The displaceable pore volume (= PV (I-SoT - Swi» is given in reservoir barrels as follows:

(4 x 5280) (1 x 5280) (98) (0.25)

5.615 [1 - 0.3 - 0.3]

= 1.946 x lOS RB
1.945 X 108
V D = 1.946 X 108 - 1
From Fig. 11.4 the value of EA corresponding to M' = 4 and VD = 1 is 0.7

Solution 11.4
For stable cone formation
~<I>' = g' X (Pw - Po)
For ~<I>' (in psi), and cone height X (in feet) and density difference as specific gravities then
62.4
~<I>' = 144 (1.01 - 0.81) 50

= 4.33 psi

Chapter 12
Solution 12.1
(a) In field units
1.25 (4000)
U= 70(1500)
0.0476 BID - ft3

The viscous-gravity force ratio is calculated from

2050 UItaL
R v_g = (
Po
_
Ps
) kh
2050 (0.0476) (0.5) (1500)
= (0.8 - 0.4) (130) (70) = 20

(a) (b)
Solvent

Oil
Oil

Regions I and n Region m

Region I : Single gravity override tongue
(c)
Region n : Single tongue but sweepout
independent of RV- G for given M
Solvent
Regionill: Transition region with secondary
fingers below main tongue
RegionN: Multiple fingers with sweepout
independent of RV- Gfor given M
Region N
Fig. A12.1 Displacement regimes.
348 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

For a mobility ratio, M represented by !1ot'1ls (= 25), Figure A 12.2 shows a breakthrough sweep efficiency of about 15%
and a flow dominated by gravity tonguing. (Fig A 12.1)

(b) In field units

1.25 (1000) 2
u = 30 (2000) = 0.0208 BID - ft

The viscous gravity force ratio requires an approximation of permeability as:

k=VKv·Kh
:. k = «1) (3»°·5 = 1. 73md
Then
2050 (0.0208) (0.36) (2000)
R v_g = (0.75 - 0.64) (1.73) (30)
= 5378
For a mobility ratio of M (IlJIls = 0.36/0.055 = 6.55), Figures A 12.1 and A 12.2 show a breakthrough sweepout
efficiency of around 50% and a flow dominated by viscous fingering.

100
~
~
>-
u
c:
Q)
·u
:::
-; 60
Q)

t-Regionill-i------Region N
0
0-
Q)
Q)
~
til M=6.5
.£:
CI>
:::J
e
.£:
~
0
M =27 Region N
E I-----Regionll---·I....• -----Region ill----------<-t-''-i
co
10 100 1000 10000
. . . .. 2050UJ-L L (B/O-FT 2 )(CP)(FT)
Viscous-gravity force ratiO (R V- G)' field units, _ 0 , '----,3:;--'-'----'--'----'
At kh (G/cm )(md) (FT)

Fig. A12.2 Breakthrough sweep efficiency.

Solution 12.2
The tie lines for the system join the equilibrium compositions of systems A and B in the two phase region. The
compositions are plotted in Figure A12.3
(a) The critical point (CP) is estimated where the limiting tie line becomes tangential to the phase envelope and has the
composition, wt%, 21 % surfactant, 67% oil; 12% brine.
(b) The point with the composition 4% surfactant and 77% oil is given on Figure A12.3 as point A. From the slope of tie
lines in this region the equilibrium phase compositions are AI and A2 with weight percents estimated as:
AI 10% oil; 10% surfactant; 80% brine
A2 97% oil; 2% surfactant; 1% brine
For an original 200 g mixture containing
8g surfactant, 154 g oil, 38 g brine
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 349

100% Surfactant

Wt%
\ Wt%
Brine Surfactant

100% 100t -~~~::;Z::::::::::::TW~O=p:~:se:,~eg~io:n:~~~~~~~~~~ 100%

Brine 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 Oil
Wt% Oil~

Fig. A12.3 Ternary diagram.

The tie line ratios give:

wt of AI phase 3/13 x 200 = 46 g
wt of A2 phase 10/13 x 200 = 154 g
:. Composition of AI = 4.6 g oil
4.6 g surfactant
36.8 g brine
:. Composition of A2 = 149.5 g oil
3.0 g surfactant
1.5 g brine

(c) On Figure A 12.3 the composition 20% oil and 80% brine is shown at location B. A line from B to the 100%
surfactant point leaves the two phase region at location B', having a composition oil 16.5%, surfactant 17.5%, brine
66%. The oil + brine weight is 100 g and would constitute 82.5% of the mixture, so surfactant needed is 0.175
(100/0.825) = 21.2 g.

(d) On Figure A 12.3, location 1 is 10% oil, 40% surfactant and location 2 is 50% oil, 40% surfactant. They are in a
single phase region and the resulting mixture contains 30% oil, 40% surfactant and 30% brine, as denoted by
position 3.

(e) On Figure A 12.3, location 4 is 12% surfactant, 5% oil and location 5 is 20% surfactant, 77% oil.
The mixture weight is 200 g and contains 41 % oil, 16% surfactant, and 43% brine. It is shown as location 6. The
mixture is in the two phase region and equilibriates to compositions C and D on the equilibrium tie line through
location 6. The compositions are:
C: 58% brine; 21.5% oil, 20.5% surfactant (146 g total)
D: 94% oil; 5% surfactant; 1% brine (54 g total)
350 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Solution 12.3
For conventional production

208.71AO. S
tJ.o In I - 0.964

700 (0.003541 (1000)(60»

= 161 rbld For 9 acre spacing and a 200 psi differential.
150 ... H2O':': (3») - 0964]
For thermal stimulation and steam injection a 5 fold improvement in flow resistance between producers and injectors
would lead to rates around 800 bid. To determine the steady state production/injection time at which such rates will lead
to 50% of the pattern volume being occupied by steam we can conduct the following analysis:
The cumulative heat injected into the reservoir, Q;, can be calculated from heat injection rate, using the mass rate of
injection Wi

tQi = Wi [ Cw ~T+ fsdhLYdh ]

= qinj (5.615) (62.4) [C w (380 - 100) + 0.75 (845)]
The average specific heat, C w , over the temperature range 380 - 100°F is given by:
Cw = hw(Ts) - hw(Tres) 355 - 69
Ts - T res 1.02 Btullb m - degF
380 - 100
:. Qi = t· qinj . 322118 Btu

The ratio of latent heat to total energy injected, fhv is calculated from:
_ { Cw ~T )"1 _{ (1.02 (380 - 100) )"1
fhv - 1 + fsdb LVdb - 1+ 0.75 (845)
= 0.689
Figure A 12.4 can now be used to estimate the thermal efficiency of the steam zone, Ehs , at different values of
dimenSionle[:sti]~e;sto. The values of to are given from:

to = 4t MR h2

45]2 [0.75]
= 4t [ 35 (60?
= 0.00138t days or 0.504 t years
The following table may now be constructed usingfhv = 0.689 on Fig A 12.4.

t (yr) t(days) to
1.0 365.25 0.5 0.64 233.8
1.5 547.9 0.75 0.59 323.3
2.0 730.5 1.0 0.56 409.1
2.5 913.1 1.25 0.52 474.8

The volume of a steam zone, V., is in general given by:

QiEhs
Vs = 43560MR AT
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 351

1.0

W
.
.c:.

oJ
c::
0
N

E
c
2If)
0.6 fhv (ratio latent heat to

A
15 total energy injected) =
>-
()
c:: 1.O

-
Q)
.<3 0.50
;;:: 0.4 0.33
Q) 0.23
c 0.167
0.091
E
Q)
.c:: 0.2
I-

0
0.01 0.1 100
Dimensionless time, tD

Fig. A12.4 Thermal efficiency

For the case of 50% steam volume in the pattern of area A acres then
_
Qi - 0.5Ah
(43560 MR
E
AT)
hs

Equating values of Qi we obtain the relationship

0.5 (9) (60) (43560) (35) (280)
322118 qinj . t = E
hs

where t is in days
357817.5
That is

The injection rates needed to provide 50% pattern volume of steam at the following times are therefore as shown in the
following table.

t (yr) qinj(rblD)
1.0 1531
1.5 1107
2.0 875
2.5 753

These data may be further evaluated in terms of steam injection equipment capacity and project economics.

Solution 12.4
The wet condensate gas volume is obtained from the volumetric calculation:
Ah n </> (,5)
V = g
sc B .
g.

In terms of standard cubic feet this is:

Vsc =
1
s.
[It(3 x 5280? 300 (0.18) (0.75)]
gl
352 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

3.1937 X 1010
Vsc = B
g;
SCF

In order to find Bg; we need the super compressibility factor z which can be obtained from Fig 4.7 using the reservoir
condition molecular weight or gas gravity.

The oil molecular weight is given by

44.3 PL
Mo = (1.03 - PL)
141.5
NOWPL= API + 131.5 0 .75
:.Mo = 119

The weight associated with a stock tank barrel of liquid is given by:
W = (5.615 x 62.4 = 0.75) 5000 (0.58) (28.97)
+ 379.4
= 262.78 + 221.44
= 484.22
The number of moles associated with this weight is
5000 (62.4) (0.75) (5.615)
n = 379.4 + 119
n = 13.18 + 2.21
n = 15.39
W 484.22
:. MW(res) = -;;= 15.39 = 31.46
MW(res) 31.46
and Yg(res) = 28.97 = 28.97 = 1.086
i.e. Yg(res) = 1.09
From Fig 4.7, P pc = 620 and Tpc = 465
From reservoir datum conditions
4500 670
P pr = 620 = 726 and Tpr = 465 = 1.44
The dry gas volume
So, from Fig 4.7 z = 0.925
G -- [ 8.197 x 10 12] [5000/379.4]
15.39
Then:
(0.02829) (0.925) (670) G = (8.197 x J(p) (0.8563)
B g;= 4500 G = 7.019 X 10 12 SCF
= 3.8962 x
10-3 RCF/SCF
Similarly the oil volume
3.1937 x 1010
Vsc 8.197 x 10 12
Vsc = 3.8962 X 10-3
NX R = 5000
= 8.197 X 1012 SCF
N = 1.639 X 109 STB
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 353

Chapter 13
Solution 13.1

Using the relationship that the depth equivalent of the total head is equal to the sum of the depth equivalents of the well
head pressure and the well depth, then:
DT = D whp + Dwell
(a) From Fig. A 13.1 at a well head pressure of 400 psi then DwhQ = 3700 ft. Since Dwell = 6000ft then DT = 9700 ft. At
the GOR of 200 scf/stb the pressure at a depth equivalent of Y700 ft is read as 2400 psi.
(b) From Fig. A 13.2 at the bottom hole pressure of 1200 psi and GOR of 500 scflstb the depth equivalent Dr. is read as
8900 ft. Since Dwell is 5000 ft then Dwhp is 3900 ft. The well head pressure is read from the graph at 3900 ft as 360 psi.

Vertical flawing_pressure gradients (all oil)

Vertical flowing_pressure gradients (all oill
Tubing Size 4 in.I.D.
Producing Rate 2000 Bbls/day Tubing Size 4 in.I.D.
Oil API Gravity 35° API Producing Rate 3000 Bbls/day
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65 Oil API Gravity 35° API
Average Flowing Temp. 140° F Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
3 3 Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
Q;
Q;
~
4 ~ 4
0
0 0
0
$2 $2
.!: 5 5
.!:
.c .c
C.
c: C.
Q) 6 c:
..J
Q)
..J
6

7
7

8
8

9
9
10
10

Fig. A13.1 Fig.A13.2

Solution 13.2
The maximum production rate qrnax can be evaluated using the Vogel relationship, withp, the static pressure, i.e.

q/qm~~ H.2 [~]- 08 [~]'

~ 1 - 0.2 [~: ] - 08 [=
= 0.619
r
3315
therefore, qrnax = 0.619 = 5355 bid
354 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Pressure in 100 PSIG

Verlical flowing_p.ressure gradienls (all oil)

Verlical flowing_pressure gradienls (all oil)
Tubing Size 4 in.I.O.
Tubing Size 4in.1.0.
Producing Rale 4000 8bls/day
Producing Rale 1000 8bls/day
Oil API Gravily 35° API
Oil API Gravily 35° API
Gas Specific Gravily 0.65
Gas Specific Gravily 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3 Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3
Q;
~
0
4 Q;
0 4
~
$2 0
.S; 5 0
.t:: $2 5
"6>
c .S;
Q)
...J 6 .t::
"6>
c 6
Q)
...J
7
7
8
8
9
9
10

10

Fig. A13.3

Fig. A13.4

Verlical flowing_pressure gradienls (all oil)

Tubi~g Size 4 in. 1.0.
Producing Rale 5000 8bls/day
Oil API Gravily 35° API
Gas Specific Gravily 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3
Q;
~ 4
0
0
$2
.S; 5
.t::
"6>
c
Q) 6
...J

10

Fig.A13.5
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 355

From Fig. A 13.1 to A 13.5 the different vertical flowing pressure gradient curves at different rates are found for 4 in.
tubing and a GOR of 200 SCF/STB. The total head depth is obtained as the sum of the well depth and the depth
equivalent to a tubing head pressure of 400 psig. The flowing bottom hole pressure equivalent to the total head depth is
recorded as a function of flow rate. It can be seen that the bottom hole pressure is essentially independent of rate at this
condition and is 2200 PSi[. (2200 ) (2200 )2]
Hence q = qmax 1 - 0.2 2600 - 0.8 2600

= 1400 bid
Solution 13.3
For a residence time of 3 min. the volume of oil in the separator will be:
(1000) (3) 3
Vo = (24) (60) = 2.083 m
At 40°C and 20 bar the volumetric rate of associated gas will be
V (1000) (95) (313.15) (1) 3
--II. = (24) (60) (60) (273.15) (20) = 0.06303 m Is

At separator conditions the gas density Pg is given by

(273.15)
Pg = 1.272 (0.75) (20) (313.15)
= 16.682 kg/m3
The maximum velocity equation is then used:
796 - 16.682]0.5
Umax = 0.125 [ 16.682 mls
= 0.8544m/s
Since cross-sectional area = volume ratelvelocity then for an interface half way up the separator we have:
n D2 0.06303
(2) (4) 0.8544
:.D = 0.4334 m
Total volume of the separator is thus twice the oil volume for an interface half way up the separator :.
Vsep = 2Vo
= 4.166 m3
Design length for LID = 3 gives
(4.166) (4)
3D = L = nD2
. 3_(4.166)(4)
.. D - 3n

:. D = 1.209m
and L = 3.627 m
Design length for LID = 4 gives
D3 = (4.166)(4)
4n
:. D = 1.099
and L = 4.396 m
In practice the separator design would be based on a standard size selected to be nearest the size calculated.
 Index

Abandonment pressure 159 Capillary number 191,193

absolute permeability 102 capillary pressure 93
AFE (authorisation for expenditure) document 23, 24-S and residual fluids 111-12
Amerada gauge 147, 148 defined 92
API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity and oil density 14 capillary pressure data (given rock type, correlation 99
aquifer characteristics capillary pressure hysteresis 97-8
correlation with model 167 capillary suction pressure see imbibition wetting phase threshold
determination of 165-6 pressure
aquifers and pressure change 165 carbon dioxide in miscible displacement 195, 196
areal sweep efficiency 176, 182-3 casing a well, reasons for 2S
casing eccentricity 35-6
Back pressure equation 143-4, 221 casing selection 27
barrel 14 main design criteria 28
bedforms, grain size and stream power 242 casings 23, 25, 26, 28
biocides and injection water 229 caustic solutions 196
biopolymers 197 cementation problems 35-6
black oil reservoir modelling, uncertainties in 24&-7 chemical flood processes 196-200
black oil systems 42 choke assembly 146
blow-out 35 Christmas tree 36
blow-out preventers 34-5 coalescer 227
blowdown 210 Coates and Dumanoir equation 86
Boltzmann transformation 134 combination drive material balance equation 166
bond number 191 compaction drive 161
BOPs see blow-out preventers complete voidage replacement 173
bottlenecks 219 completion 28,29
bottom-hole sampling 52 completion for production (permanent, normal) 36
Boyle's law method and grain volume 73 composite cores 111
Brent Sand reservoirs 10, 11 compressibility 42-3,55
brine disposal 186 Compton scattering 76
bubble-point 41, 51, 53, 54, 55,159,220,221 conceptual models 233,245
bubble-point pressure 52, 54-5, 56-7,160,163,221 condensate analysis 208
in volatile oil reservoirs 211 condensate reservoirs and liquid drop-out 208
Buckley-Leverett theory 105 condensate systems 42
Buckley-LeverettlWelge technique 107, 109 condensing gas drive 194-5
cone height, critical 182
coning 181-2
core analysis
and permeability distribution 83-4
Footnote: Numbers in italic indicate figures; Numbers in bold routine 69-71, 81
indicate tables presentation of results 70,71

357
358 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

core data and palaeogeographical reconstruction 237-8 displacement principles 173-5

and recognition of sand body type 238 drawdown testing 138
core-derived data 68 drill bits 22, 32-3
core floods and surfactant testing 200 drill collars 23
core for special core analysis 67, 68 drill stem testing 145
core length and imbibition processes 110-11 testing tools and assemblies 145-7
core log 64,68 drilling, turbine versus rotary 33
core plug experiments, concern over drilling costs 23, 24, 25
laboratory-derived data 113-14 drilling fluid see drilling mud
core plugs 68 drilling logs 30
analysis on 65 drilling mud pressure, excessive 29
and effective permeability 109 drilling muds 22-3
and fluid saturation 93-4 control of 28-9
and oil saturation 193 main constituents 67
and permeability 81 drilling muds and cements, rheology of 29-30
and porosity 72 drilling optimization 32-3
and residual saturation 174 drilling, special problems in cementation problems 35--{i
core porosity, compaction corrected 131 pressure control and well kicks 34-5
core preservation 67-8 stuck pipe and fishing 33-4
core recovery, fluids for 31 drillstring 23
Core gamma surface logger 68 drive mechanisms 159
cores 62 dry gas reservoirs 41-2
composite 111 dual porosity systems 71,73
correlation with wireline logs 63,65,75 and gravity drainage 164-5
data obtainable from 63
diversity of information available 64 Early (transient) time solution 138
and geological studies 68-9 economic factors and oil production rates 180
and heavy oil reservoirs 202 effective permeability 102
residual fluid saturation and wettability 108
determination 69 enhanced oii recovery schemes and uncertainty 247
coring equity, distribution of, petroleum reservoirs 130-1
the case for 65 exploration well drilling 7, 8
conventional and oriented 66
of development wells 65--{i Faults, identification of 238
of exploration wells 65 faults (in-reservoir), effect on injection/production well locations
coring decisions 64--{i 180
coring mud systems 66-7 field processing 224
corresponding states, law of 44-5,47 filtration, injection water treatment 229
Cricondenbar 41 , 42 flash liberation at reservoir temperature 52-3
Cricondentherm 41 flash separation tests 53-4
critical displacement rate 177 flooding efficiency ratio 110
critical displacement ratio 112 flow equations, linear and radial 80-1
critical gas (equilibrium) saturation 159 flow string 145
critical production rate (coning) 182 fluid contacts 12-13
crude oil multiple 12
flow of in wellbore 221, 223 fluid flow in porous media 78-9
metering of 229 fluid pairs 93
processing 226-8 fluid pressure and overburden load 11-12
cushion 147 fluid pressures, hydrocarbon zone 12-13
cuttings logs 31 fluid saturation, laboratory measurements and relationship with
cyclic steam stimulation 205 reservoir systems 93--{i
fluids, recovery of by depletion 211
Darcy (def. )79 Forcheimer equation 143
Darcy's equation 79 formation breakdown pressure 30
data acquisition during drilling 30-1 formation density logs and interpretation of porosity 202-3
datum correction 79-80 formation density tool response 75--{i
deltaic environments, division of 238,240, 241,242 formation factor see formation resistivity factor
deltaic models, use of 238-43 formation interval tester (FIT) 148
deltaic system model 242, 244 formation resistivity factor 74
demulsifiers and heavy oil processing 228 formation tester (FT) 148
depositional processes and reservoir rocks 7 formation volume factor 14, 55
dew-point 41 two-phase 55--{i
dew-point locus 42 formation volume factors B 49-51
diamond coring 33 formation waters 14
differential liberation at reservoir temperature 53 fractional flow 104--{i
displacement calculations, validation of relative permeability data analysis methods 105--{i
for 113-14 effect of dip angle and wettability 175, 177
free water level (FWL) 12,95
INDEX 359
Gas cap expansion drive 163-4 hydrocarbon volume in place calculations 127-8
gas compressibilities 48-9 hydrocarbons, migration of (modelled) 93-4
gas condensate, critical properties of 210 hydrocarbons (commercial reservoirs),
gas condensate and volatile oil reservoirs, geological characteristics 62
uncertainties in 247 hydrostatic gradient, regional 10-11
gas condensate reservoirs 207-11
production methods for 209-11 Ideal gas law (and modification) 43
gas deviation factor Z 46, 47 imbibition processes
gas expansion during production 157 and core length 110-11
gas flow and gradient 159 liquid 104
gas flow and permeability 81 imbibition wetting phase threshold pressure 97
gas flow rate, measurement of 150, 229 in-place volume 122
gas formation volume factor 157 inflow performance relationship, 220
gas formation volume factor Bg 49-50 dimensionless, for oil wells 220-1
gas properties 45 for gas wells 221
gas recycling, gas condensate reservoirs 210 injection fluids, compatibility with reservoir fluids 183-4
gas reinjection 186 injection fluids, quality of 183-6
gas reservoirs, recovery from 157-9 injection water, viscosity of 184
gas viscosities 47-8 injection water treatment 229
gas-kicks 12 injectivity index 174,
gas-oil ratio 14,51-2,54,159 insert bits 33
gas-oil systems and relative permeability 103-4 isobaric thermal expansion coefficient 43
gas well testing 143-5 isocapacity maps 126
gases, behaviour of 43-4 isochores 124
gases, flow of in wellbore 221 isochronal testing 144
geological model, development of 237-8 isoliths 124
geothermal gradient and hydrocarbon generation 7, 9 isopachs 124
geothermal gradient and reservoir temperature 13 isoporosity maps 125
GOR see gas-oil ratio isosaturation lines 99
grain density 71 isosaturation maps 126
grain volume and Boyle's law method 73 isothermal compressibility 43
gravity drainage and dual porosity systems 164-5 isothermal retrograde condensation 42
gravity segregation and recovery efficiencies 164-5
gravity stabilization and reservoir dip 175
Kay's rule 45
Head loss in wellbores 221 kelly 23
heavy crude oil kick 34-5
characteristics of UKCS heavy crude oils 201 Kimmeridge Clay 7, 9
general classification 200 Klinkenberg correction 81, 82
Yen classification 200, 201 Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test 84
heavy oil processing 228
heavy oil recovery 200-2 Lasater correlation (bubble-point pressure) 55
heavy oil reservoirs leak off tests 30
examples of 201 Leverett J-function correlation 99
permeability increase and production improvement 204 light oil processing 226
production characteristics of 203-4 foaming problems 227-8
properties of 202-3 separator design considerations 227
and thermal energy 204-7 wax problems 228
and uncertainty 247 line source solution (fluid flowing in a porous medium) 134-5
heavy oil systems and thermal energy addition 204 development of 135-6
HKW (highest known water) 12,13 liquid drop out 208
homogeneous reservoirs and coning 181-2 liquids systems, generalized correlations 54-8
Horner analysis 13 lithofacies representation 125
hydrates 224 LKO (lowest known oil) 12,13
hydrocarbon accumulation and sedimentary basins 7 low interfacial tension (Iff) systems 193
hydrocarbon accumulations and formation waters 14
hydrocarbon exploitation, types of interactions 16 Material balance, reservoirs with water encroachment or water
hydrocarbon field 7 injection 165-8
hydrocarbon generation and geothermal gradient 7, 9 material balance calculations
hydrocarbon pore thickness (HPT) 126--7 generation of data 52
hydrocarbon pore volume maps 126--7 sources of error 168-9
hydrocarbon properties 47 material balance equation 158
hydrocarbon recovery, improved 191-211 combination drive 166
hydrocarbon reservoir fluids 15 gas cap expansion drive 163-4
hydrocarbon systems solution gas drive 161-3
volumetric and phase behaviour 40-1 material balance residual oil saturation 174
applications to field systems 41-2 mathematical models 233-4
360 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

mercury injection and porosimetry 73,96,97 oil saturation, local, influences on 191
meters 229 oil viscosity 56
microemulsion 198 oil-water contact (OWC) 96, 98-9
middle (late transient) time solution 139 oil-water systems and relative permeability 102-3
miscible displacement mechanisms 194-5 open-hole tests 145
miscible displacement processes 193 optimal salinity 198
miscible floods 194 orifice meters 229
applications 195-6 overpressure 11, 12
examples 196
miscible fluids, properties of 195 Packer 146
mobility ratio 104-5, 107, 175,176 Peng and Robinson equation 44
and polymers 197 permeabilities, averaging of 83
modelling of reservoirs 130-1 permeability 7, 78-86
models 233--4 and critical displacement ratio 112
mole (def.) 44 anistropy 82-3
Monte Carlo distributions 83--4
approach, probabilistic estimation 127 improvement 193--4
technique and recoverable reserves estimate 130 laboratory determination of 81-2
movable hydrocarbon formula (MHV) 130 ratios 104-5
mud cake 36 variation, effects of 106-8
mud circulation system 22, 23 permeameter 81
mud composition, general limitations on 67 petroleum
mud logging 30-1 migration of 9-10
mud systems, bland (unreactive) and core recovery 31-2,67 origin and formation of 7
multicomponent systems, phase behaviour 41 recovery 5
multimodal porosity 78 petroleum engineering
multirate data, analysis of 144-5 function of 1
multiphase flow, equations of 234-5 problem solving in 3
phase (def.) 14
Natural gas phase inversion temperature (PIT) 198
calorific value 226 physical models 233
dehydration 224-5 piston displacement, stratified reservoirs 107-8
onshore processing 225-6 planimeter 124, 127
sales specification 224 polyacrylamides 197
sweetening 225 polymer fluids 193
natural gas processing 224-6 polymer systems and adsorption 197
nitrogen in miscible displacement 195, 196 pool see reservoir
non-wetting phase fluid 94 pore fluid pressures 11
non-wetting phase saturation 102 pore pressure, significance in drilling and well completion 26, 28
North Sea, heavy oil reservoirs 202 pore size distribution 96-7
North Sea, hydrocarbon fields pore space characteristics and equilibrium saturation distribution
Beryl field 196 92-3
Brent field 196 pore volume compressibility 160
Buchan field 37 of reservoir rocks 203
Dunlin field 131,178 poro-perm data, validity of 242
Forties field 249 porosity 7, 71-8
Fulmar field 249-51 and permeability, relationship between 84-6
Magnus field 184 cut-off 124
Maureen field 187 distributions 77-8
Montrose reservoir (RFf data) 151 logs 75-7
Murchison field 125 main logging tools for 75
Rough gas field 123, 124, 126, 127 measurement of 72-3
Statfjord field 196, 245, 246 potential gradient 174
Thistle oil reservoir 122, 123, 125 pressure (abnormal) and d-exponent 25-6
North Sea, oil correlations, recent 56-8 pressure build-up analysis 139-40
North Sea, reservoirs, fluid choice for miscible displacement pressure build-up (testing) 149
196 pressure control and well kicks 34-5
North Sea, reservoirs and surfactants 198, 199 pressure decline, rates of 137
pressure depletion 210
ODT (oil down to) 13 pressure drawdown and reservoir limit testing 142-3
offshore production/injection system, pressure equilibrium, static system 12
principle components of 184,185,186 pressure gauges 137, 147
offshore system 21 (downhole), characteristics of 136
oil bank formation 195 pressure gradients and heterogeneity of reservoir pore space 129
oil density 14 pressure maintenance 173
oil flow rate, measurement of 150 pressure regimes, abnormal 11-12
oil formation factor Bn 51 primary recovery, oil reservoirs 159-64
INDEX 361
probabilistic estimation 127-8, 129, 130 reservoir rocks, characteristics of 62-86
produced fluids and offshore processing 184-{5 pore volume compressibility 203
produced water treatment 228 reservoir simulation modelling 233-7
producing rates (well inflow equations/pressure loss calculations) reservoir simulation and vertical communication 243, 245
174-5 reservoir temperatures 13
production costs, significance of 1, 3 reservoirs 7-18
production engineering, and well performance 220-1 areal extent of 122-4
production engineering described 218 residual oil 53, 191
production operations, influencing factors 218-29 influence of recovery mechanism 191, 193
production rate effects 180-2 residual oil saturation 192
production rates, technical and economic factors 219 average 174
production system 218-19 and material balance 174
production testing 150-1 measurement of 191, 192
productivity index (PI) 245 residual saturations 111-112
and inflow performance 220 resistivity factor see formation resistivity factor
pseudo-critical temperatures and pressures 45-7 resistivity index 74
pseudo-relative permeability in dynamic systems 115 retrograde condensation 208
pseudo-relative permeability functions 177,178, 243,245 reverse circulating sub 146
static 115-16 rotary table 23
pseudo-relative permeability
relationships and thicker sands 107
PVT analysis 52-4 Safety joints and jars 147
PVTrelationships, single and multicomponent systems 40-1 salinity and water viscosity 56
samplers 147
Radial equations in practical units 136 sand body continuity 180
radial flow in a simple system 134-5, 137 importance of 238,239-40
recombination sampling 52 sand body type
recovery efficiency, water reservoirs 168 effect on injected water and oil displacement 178-80
recovery factors and reserves 128-30 recognition of 238
recovery string 34 saturation distributions in reservoir intervals 98-9
recovery targets 191 saturation gradients 164
Redlich-Kwong equation 44 saturation pressure see bubble-point pressure
relative permeability 102-4,106-7 scribe shoe 66
effect of temperature 204 sea water as injection water 184
relative permeability seawater floods (continuous) and low surfactant concentration
data, laboratory determination of 109-11 199-200
from correlations 112-13 secondary recovery and pressure maintenance 173-86
improvement, heavy oil reservoirs 204 secondary recovery techniques 173
relative spreading concept 93 sedimentary basins
repeat formation tester (RFf) 148-50 and hydrocarbon accumulation 7
reservoir behaviour in production engineering 220-1 origin of7
reservoir condition worldwide 2
material balance techniques 160 segregated displacement 177
volumetric balance techniques 160-1 sensitivity studies 246-7
reservoir data, sources 14-15, 17 shaliness, effect of 13
reservoir (def.) 7 Shinoda diagrams 198
reservoir description in modelling 237-45 simulators
uncertainty in 245-7 applications 235
reservoir development, costs of3, 4 classification of 235,236
reservoir dip angle 175,177 single component systems, phase behaviour 40-1
reservoir flow rate, effect of 181 skin effect 140-2
reservoir fluid properties, negative factors 142
measurement and prediction of 43-9 skin zone 194
reservoir fluids slabbing 68
and compressibility 42-3 solution gas drive, analysis by material balance 159-63
nature of 14 solution gas-oil ratio 53, 54, 55
properties of 40-58 Standing-Katz correlations 46, 47
reservoir geometry and continuity 180, 238-45 Standing'S data (bubble-point correlation) 55
reservoir heterogeneity 177-80 STB (stock tank barrel) 14
reservoir mapping and cross-section interpretation 245-6, 247 steady state permeability tests 110
reservoir modelling steam flooding 205
analysis and data requirements 237 steam properties 206, 207
application in field development 248-51 steamdrive analysis, example data requirements 207
concepts in 233-48 Stiles technique 107-8
reservoir performance analysis 157-68 stock tank oil 54
reservoir pore volume and change in fluid pressure 42-3 and retrograde condensation 208
reservoir pressures 10-12 stock tank oil in place and equity
362 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

determination 130 Walther's law offacies 238

stock tank units 14 water drive and gas condensate reservoirs 209,210
stock tank volume 53 water drive reservoirs 167
Stratapax bits 33 recovery efficiency of 168
stratified reservoir analysis 106 water formation factor Bw 50-1
stripping 191 water influx 165, 166
structure contour maps 122 water influx, gas reservoir 158-9
stuck pipe and fishing 33-4 water injection 166, 178
summation of fluids and porosity 72-3, 74 water saturation distribution, homogeneous reservoir 96
superposition technique 140 water viscosity 56
surfactant concentration (low) and waterflooding 178, 179,180
continuous seawater floods 199-200 Welge analysis 106
surfactant flooding 198-200 Welge's equations 174
surfactant phase systems 197-8 well arrangements, dipping reservoirs 181
surfactant processes 197-200 well classification 20
surfactants 193 well description log 31, 32
synthetic 199 well drilling operations 20-3
sweetening, natural gas 225 well locations and patterns 182-3
well performance, radial flow analysis of 134-51
Tester valve 146 well productivity improvement 193-4
thermal energy 204-7 well test methods, applications of analytical solutions 136-9
thermal injection processes 204-6 well test procedures 145-50
thickness maps 124 data analysis 147-8
threshold capillary pressure (reservoir rocks) 95 well testing and pressure analysis 150-1
threshold pressure 94 well/reservoir responses, different reservoir systems 139
traps (structural and stratigraphic) 10 wellbore, altered zone 141
tricone bits 32, 33 wellbore flow 221-3
trip gas 34 wellbore inflow equations 174
turbine meters 229 wellsite controls and core recovery 68
wettability 175
Ultimate recovery formula see movable hydrocarbon formula change in 67, 196
uncertainty in reservoir model description 245-8 degree of 93
unitization 130-1 wettability control, in situ 112
universal gas constant, values of 43 wettabilityeffects 108
unsteady state relative permeability tests 109-10 wettability preference 93
USA, heavy oil resource distribution 202 wetting phase fluid 93
wetting phase saturation 94
Van der Laan method (volume in place) 128 wetting preference 175
vaporizing gas drive 194, 195 wireline logs, correlation with cores 63, 65, 75
vapour phase 42 wireline testing 148-50
vertical bed resolution 76 WUT (water up to) 13
vertical permeability variation and fractional flow curve 177
vertical pressure logging 148-50 Xanthan gums 197
Viking Graben area (N North Sea) 10
Vogel dimensionless IPR 220-1 Zonation 99, 131,242,243,245
volatile oil reservoirs 211 Forties reservoir 249
volatile oil systems 42 and geological core study 68-9
volumetric balance techniques 160 and histogram analysis 84
vugular carbonates and whole core analysis 69 and permeability distributions 84