Unit – 1 D. C.

Circuit

Disclaimer: Following notes are intended

only as guidelines and derived from various
references including internet. Learners are
suggested to refer to text books and reference
books mentioned in course structure for
preparation of exams.
• Syllabus

1.1 Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources
1.2 Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws
1.3 Superposition theorem
1.4 Thevenin’s theorem
1.5 Norton’s Theorem
1.6 Time-domain analysis of first-order RC series circuits.

• Course Outcome corresponding Unit I:

After completing this unit learners will be able to
• Understand concepts and apply theorems to analyze dc circuits.

• Overview of Unit I- DC Circuits

 Target skills: Comprehension, application and analysis

 Minimum requirement- To solve and determine unknown current/ voltage / power in any
branch of a simple DC circuit with independent sources using Kirchhoff’s laws,
Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem

1
1.1 Introduction
The interconnection of various electric elements in a prescribed manner comprises as an
electric circuit in order to perform a desired function. The electric elements include controlled
and uncontrolled source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Analysis of electric
circuits refers to computations required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage,
current and power associated with one or more elements in the circuit. To contribute to the
solution of engineering problems one must acquire the basic knowledge of electric circuit
analysis and laws. Many other systems, like mechanical, hydraulic, thermal, magnetic and power
system are easy to analyze and model by a circuit. To learn how to analyze the models of these
systems, first one needs to learn the techniques of circuit analysis. We shall discuss briefly some
of the basics of circuit, the laws and theorems that will help us to analyze dc circuits.

1.2 Basic terminology in DC Circuits

1. Circuit: A closed path through which an electrical current flow
2. Electric network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner.
3. Parameters: Various elements of an electric circuit like capacitances, resistances and
inductances
4. Node: A point in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together
5. Branch: A part of a network which lies between two nodes
6. Loop: A simple closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more
than once
7. Mesh: A loop that contains no other loop within it
8. Open circuit: Two points are said to be open circuited when there is no direct connection
between them. Resistance of open circuit is infinity; no current will flow between two open
points.
9. Short circuit: When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire,
they are said to be short circuited. Short circuit has zero resistance, no voltage can exist
across it and current through it is very large.

1.3 Basic Properties of Electric Circuits

1. A circuit is always a closed path.

2
2. A circuit always contains an energy source which acts as a source of electrons.
3. Direction of flow of conventional current is from positive to negative terminal.
4. Flow of current leads to potential drop across the various elements.
5. In an electric circuit flow of electrons takes place from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal.
1.4 Classification of Electrical Networks
1. on basis of presence of energy source:

i. Active network: It is a network that contains one or more than one source of energy along
with passive elements.

ii. Passive network: It is a network that does not contain any source of emf in it. It consists of
passive elements like R, L, and C.

2. on basis of direction of current

i. Bilateral Network: A network, whose characteristics or properties are same irrespective of the
direction of current through various elements of it, is called bilateral network. A network
consisting only resistances is a good example of bilateral network.

ii. Unilateral Network: A network whose characteristics or properties changes with change in
direction of the current is called unilateral network. Circuit consisting diodes, which allows the
flow of current only in one direction is a good example of unilateral circuit.

3. on basis of linearity
i. Linear Network: A network whose parameters are always constant irrespective of the change
in voltage, current or time is known as linear network. The Ohm’s law, superposition theorem is
applicable to such networks.
ii. Nonlinear network: A circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current is known as a
non-linear network. The Ohm’s law is not applied to such network. Such network does not
follow the law of superposition. The best example is a circuit consisting of a diode where the
diode current does not vary linearly with the voltage applied to it.
4. on basis of separability
i. Distributed network: If the network elements such as resistances, capacitances, inductances
are not physically separable, then it is called as distributed network. E.g., transmission line.

3
ii. Lumped network: If the network elements can be separated physically from each other, then
they are called as lumped network.

1.5 Ohm's Law

The ratio of potential difference, V, between any two points on a conductor to the current I
flowing between them is constant provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.

Mathematically,

V/I = constant or V/I = R

Where, R is constant of proportionality. Here, we measure current in Ampere (or amps), voltage
in unit of volt. The constant of proportionality R is the property of the conductor; we know it as
resistance and measure it in ohm (Ω).

Or in other words current is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of
conductor provided R is kept constant.

1.6 Series DC Circuit

When all the resistive components of a DC circuit are connected end to end to form a single path
for flowing current, then the circuit is referred as series DC circuit. The manner of connecting
components end to end is known as series connection. Suppose we have n number
of resistors R1, R2, R3............ Rn and they are connected in end to end manner, means they are
series connected. If this series combination is connected across a voltage source, the current
starts flowing through that single path. As the resistors are connected in end-to-end manner, the
current first enters in to R1, then this same current comes in R2, then R3 and at last it reaches
Rn from which the current enters into the negative terminals of the voltage source. In this way,
the same current circulates through every resistor connected in series. Hence, it can be concluded
that in a series DC circuit, the same current flows through all parts of the electrical circuit.

Again according to Ohm’s law, the voltage drop across a resistor is the product of its electrical
resistance and the current flow through it. Here, current through every resistor is the same; hence
the voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its electrical resistance value. If the
resistances of the resistors are not equal then the voltage drop across them would also not be
equal. Thus, every resistor has its individual voltage drop in a series DC circuit.
4
1.6.1 Electrical DC Series Circuit with Three Resistors

Fig. 1

Effective resistance of the series DC circuit shown in Fig. 1 is

From the above expression it can be concluded, that when a number of resistors are connected in
series, the equivalent resistance of the series combination is the arithmetic sum of their
individual resistances.
Following points are important about series circuits:
1. When a number of electrical components are connected in series, the same current flows
through all the components of the circuit.
2. The applied voltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum of voltage drops across each
component.
3. The voltage drop across individual components is directly proportional to its resistance value.

1.6.2 Voltage Division Rule

Fig. 2

5
 R1
The voltage across R1 can be found using the equation: VR1 = V
R1 + R2

R2
The voltage across R2 can be found using the equation: VR2 = V
R1 + R2

1.7 Parallel DC Circuit

When two or more electrical components are connected in a way that one end of each component
is connected to a common point and the other end is connected to another common point, then
the electrical components are said to be connected in parallel, and such an electrical DC circuit is
referred as a parallel DC circuit. In this circuit every component will have the same voltage drop
across them, and it will be exactly equal to the voltage which occurs between the two common
points where the components are connected. Also in a parallel DC circuit, the current has several
parallel paths through these parallel connected components, so the circuit current will be divided
into as many paths as the number of components.
Here, in this electrical circuit, the voltage drop across each component is equal. Again, as per
Ohm’s law, voltage drop across any resistive component is equal to the product of its electrical
resistance and current through it. As the voltage drop across every component connected in
parallel is the same, the current through them is inversely proportional to its resistance value.

6
1.7.1 Electrical DC Parallel Circuit with Three Resistors

Fig. 3

In Fig. 3 three resistances are connected in parallel. Effective resistance of the series DC circuit
is calculated using formula:

1/ Req = 1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3

Following points are important about series circuits:

1. Voltage drops are the same across all the components connected in parallel.
2. Current through individual components connected in parallel, is inversely proportional to
their resistances.
3. Total circuit current is the arithmetic sum of the currents passing through individual
components connected in parallel.
1.7.2 Current Division Rule
The current flow at a junction will divide into two parts, the current through the respective
branch can be worked out as shown below:

Fig. 4

7
 R2
The current through R1 can be found using the equation: I1 = IT
R1 + R2

R1
The current through R2 can be found using the equation: I2 = IT
R1 + R2

1.8 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

It states as follows: In any electrical network, algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point or
junction is zero.

I(leaving) + I(entering) = 0

Or it simply means that total current leaving a junction is equal to total current entering that
junction.

Sign convention: If currents moving toward node are considered positive then current leaving
node are considered as negative. Or vice a versa also we can assume.

Fig. 5

In Fig. 5 three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Applying KCL at node,

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0

1.9 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

8
It states as follows: The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the
conductors in any closed path in a network plus the algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.

∑IR + ∑e.m.f. = 0

Sign convention: The emf of a cell is positive when one moves in the direction of increasing
potential (i.e., negative pole to positive pole) through the cell and is negative when one moves
from positive to negative.

Fig. 6

The product of resistance and current, i.e., the IR term, in any arm of the circuit is taken negative
if one moves in a closed path, in the same direction of the assumed current; and positive if in the
opposite direction.

9
 Fig. 7

Consider a closed circuit is shown in Fig. 8 which contains two batteries E1 and E2, four
resistances. Current direction is shown in circuit.

Fig. 8

Applying KVL to circuit shown in Fig. 8:

1.9.1 Application of Kirchhoff's Laws to Circuits

The current distribution in various branches of a circuit can easily be found out by
applying Kirchhoff Current law at different nodes in the circuit. After that Kirchhoff Voltage
law is applied, each possible loop in the circuit generates algebraic equation for every loop. By
solving all these equations, one can easily find out different unknown currents, voltages
and resistances in the circuits.
1.9.2 Sample Solved Example

10
For given network in Fig. 9 find current flowing through all resistors.

Fig. 9

Solution:
Assume currents to flow in directions indicated by arrows.

Now, Apply KVL to closed loop A-B-C-A, we get

20 - 10i1 - 4i2 = 0
10i1 + 4i2 = 20 ……………. (1)

Apply KVL to closed loop A-C-D-A, we get

12 - 8(i1–i2) + 4i2 = 0

8(i1–i2) – 4i2= 12

8i1 – 8i2 – 4i2= 12

8i1 – 12i2 = 12 ……………. (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by 3;

30i1 + 12i2 = 60
Solving for i1

30i1 + 12i2 = 60
8i1 – 12i2 = 12

______________
38i1 = 72

11
The above equation can be also simplified by Elimination or Cramer’s Rule.

i1 = 72/38 = 1.895 Amperes = Current in 10 Ohms resistor

Substituting this value in (1), we get:
10(1.895) + 4i2 = 20
4i2 = 20 – 18.95
i2 = 0.263 Amperes = Current in 4 Ohms Resistors.
Now,
i1 – i2 = 1.895 – 0.263 = 1.632 Amperes

1.10 Superposition Theorem

It states that in a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or
source of emf), the current which flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would
flow at that point if each generator where considered separately and all the other generators
replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

We replace current sources as open circuit and voltage sources as short circuit.

1.10.1 Steps in applying the Superposition Theorem

1. Consider single source at a time and make rest sources inoperative. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to the active source.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total output by adding algebraically all of the results found in steps 1 & 2 above.

1.10.2 Sample Solved Example

12
Using superposition theorem, find the current i1 (through the 2 ohm resistance) in the circuit
shown in fig. 10 below.

Fig. 10

Considering only one source of 500mA and making two voltage sources shorted circuit will be
as shown in Fig. 11:

Fig. 11

We can reduce the circuit in Fig.11 using parallel and series combinations, starting from the
right. First, the 5 and 6 ohm are in parallel (both ends are connected together by wire, so they
share the same voltage). The equivalent resistance is 5*6/(5+6) = 2.73 ohms. The resultant
circuit will be as shown in Fig. 12.

13
 Fig. 12

Now add the 4 and 2.73 ohms resistors in series. (They are in series because they are connected
at just one end by wire so that current going through one must also go through the other.) The
resultant circuit will be as shown in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13

Although the 6.73 and 2 ohm are in parallel, we will not combine them because this would hide
the current i1 (which goes through the 2 ohm). So at this point we will use a current division rule
to determine how much of the 500mA goes through the 2 ohm.

i1 = 6.73/(2+6.73)*500mA = 0.39A

Now considering only one source of 3 V and making one current source open and one voltage
source short circuit will be as shown in Fig. 14.

14
 Fig. 14

The 1 ohm resistance can be eliminated since no current can flow through it. Also, the 5 and 6
ohm are in parallel. The resultant circuit will be as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15

In Fig. 15, 3V is across the three resistances in series. Now we can find i1 by Ohm's law:

i1 = 3V/(2+4+2.73) = 0.34A

Now considering only one source of 7 V and making one current source open and one voltage
source short circuit will be as shown in Fig.16.

15
 Fig. 16

Again, we can drop the 1 ohm since no current can flow through it. The resultant circuit will be
as shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17

In Fig. 17, 2 and 4 ohm on the left are in series. We can combine these and we will still have i1
visible in the circuit. The resultant circuit will be as shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18

Now we will combine the 5 and the 6 ohm on the left, even though this will temporarily hide i1.
They are in parallel, so the equivalent resistance is 5*6/(5+6)=2.73 ohms. The resultant circuit
will be as shown in Fig. 19.

16
 Fig. 19

The voltage over the 2.73 ohm resistor can be found by a voltage divider: 2.73/(2.73+6)*7 =
2.19V. This voltage is also over the parallel combination of 5 and 6 in the previous circuit. Thus
we can find i1, the current in the 6 ohm branch in the earlier circuit, by Ohm's law,

i1=2.19V/6 ohms = 0.36A

Final Solution:

Total i1 when all sources connected in circuit,

i1 = 0.39 + 0.34 + 0.36 = 1.09A

1.11 Thevenin’s Theorem:

The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two terminals A and B of
a linear, active bilateral network is given by Vth/(Rth + RL) where Vth is open circuit voltage (i.e.
voltage across the two terminals when RL is removed) and Ri is internal resistance of the network
as viewed back into the open circuited network from terminals A and B with all voltage sources
replaced by their internal resistance(if any) and current sources by infinite resistance.

17
 i a

Linear
Circuit RL

Rin
Circuit Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Fig. 20

In Thevenin’s equivalent circuit,

Vth = Thevenin voltage = open-circuit voltage = Voc
Rth = Thevenin resistance = the input resistance with all independent sources turned off (voltage
sources replaced by short circuits and current sources replaced by open circuits). This is the
resistance seen at the terminals ‘ab’ when all independent sources are turned off.
1.11.1 Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s Theorem

1. In given electrical circuit open the load resistance.

2. Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (Vth).
3. In given electrical circuit open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (Rth).
5. Now, Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (Vth) in Step (2) as voltage
Source and measured open circuit resistance (Rth) in step (4) as a series resistance and
connect the load resistance which we had removed in Step (1). This is the Thevenin
Equivalent Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to be
simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem.
6. Now find the total current flowing through load resistance by using the Ohm’s Law

I = Vth/ (Rth + RL).

1.11.2 Sample Solved Example

Find Vth, Rth and the load current flowing through and load voltage across the load resistance in
Fig.21 by using Thevenin’s Theorem.

18
 Fig. 21

Solution:-
Step 1.
Open the 5kΩ load resistance, circuit will be as shown in Fig.24.

Fig. 22

Step 2. Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (Vth).

Fig. 23

Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistances as this is a series circuit because
current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistance as it is open.
So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistance. We also know that current is not
flowing through the 8kΩ resistance as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistance is in parallel with

19
4k resistance. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistance as 4kΩ
resistance. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So,
Vth = 12V
Step 3.
Open current sources and short voltage sources, circuit will be as shown in Fig.24:

Fig. 24

Step 4.
Calculate /measure the open circuit resistance in Fig.27. This is the Thevenin Resistance (Rth)
We can see that 8 kΩ resistance is in series with a parallel connection of 4 kΩ resistance and 12
kΩ resistance. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

Rth = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]

Rth = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
Rth = 11 kΩ

Fig. 25

Step 5.
Connect Rth in series with Voltage Source Vth and re-connect the load resistance. This is shown
in Fig. 26 i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistance. This is the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

20
 Fig. 26

Step 6.

Now apply the last step i.e Ohm’s law . Calculate the total load current & load voltage as shown
in Fig 28.

IL = Vth / (Rth + RL)

= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → = 12/16kΩ

IL= 0.75mA

And

VL = ILx RL

VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ

VL= 3.75V

1.12 Norton’s Theorem:

This is another useful theorem to analyze electric circuits like Thevenin’s Theorem, which
reduces linear, active circuits and complex networks into a simple equivalent circuit. The main
difference between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem is that, Thevenin’s theorem
provides an equivalent voltage source and an equivalent series resistance, while Norton’s
theorem provides an equivalent Current source and an equivalent parallel resistance.

Norton’s Theorem may be stated under:

Any Linear Electric Network or complex circuit with Current and Voltage sources can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing of a single independent Current Source IN and a
Parallel Resistance RN.

1.12.1 Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Norton’s Theorem

1. Short the load resistor

21
2. Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (IN)
3. Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN)
5. Now, Redraw the circuit with measured short circuit Current (IN) in Step (2) as current Source
and measured open circuit resistance (RN) in step (4) as a parallel resistance and connect the
load resistor which we had removed in Step (3). This is the Equivalent Norton Circuit of that
Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed. You
have done.
6. Now find the Load current flowing through and Load Voltage across Load Resistor by using
the Current divider rule. IL = IN / (RN / (RN+ RL)) ((For better understanding…check the solved
example)
Where,
IL = Load current
IN = Norton’s current
RN = Norton’s resistance
RL = Load resistance
1.12.2 Sample Solved Example
Determine current flowing in the circuit shown in fig. 27 using Norton’s theorem.

Fig. 27

22
 Fig. 28

The first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it from the original circuit as shown
in fig.29:

Fig. 29
To find the Norton current (for the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit), place a
direct wire (short) connection between the load points and determine the resultant current as
shown in fig. 30:

Fig. 30

With zero voltage dropped between the load resistor connection points, the current through R 1 is
strictly a function of B1‘s voltage and R1‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). Likewise, the current

23
through R3 is now strictly a function of B2‘s voltage and R3‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). The
total current through the short between the load connection points is the sum of these two
currents: 7 amps + 7 amps = 14 amps. This figure of 14 A becomes the Norton source current
(INorton) in our equivalent circuit:

Fig. 31
Remember, the arrow notation for a current source points in the direction opposite that of
electron flow. For better or for worse, this is standard electronic symbol notation. To calculate
the Norton resistance (RNorton), we do the exact same thing as we did for calculating Thevenin
resistance (RThevenin): take the original circuit (with the load resistor still removed), remove the
power sources (in the same style as we did with the Superposition Theorem: voltage sources
replaced with wires and current sources replaced with breaks), and figure total resistance from
one load connection point to the other:

Fig. 32

Now our Norton equivalent circuit looks as shown in fig. 33:

24
 Fig. 33

Using current division rule: IL = 14*(0.8) / (2+0.8) = 4 A

1.13 Time domain analysis of first order R-C series circuits

1.13.1 Charging and discharging of capacitor through a resistor:

• Capacitor Charging Circuit

Fig. 34

Initially switch is open; no charge on capacitor and initial current through circuit is zero.
At t = 0, switch is closed to connect the circuit with source.

When an increasing DC voltage is applied to a discharged capacitor, the capacitor draws a

charging current and “charges up”, and when the voltage is reduced, the capacitor discharges in
the opposite direction. Because capacitors are able to store electrical energy they act like small
batteries and can store or release the energy as required.
The charge on the plates of the capacitor is given as: Q = CV. This charging (storage) and
discharging (release) of a capacitors energy is never instant but takes a certain amount of time to

25
occur with the time taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to within a certain percentage
of its maximum supply value being known as its Time Constant ( τ ).
Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully open.
These are the initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the switch is
closed the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) the capacitor appears to be a short
circuit to the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit restricted only
by the resistor R.

• Voltage and current curves during charging of capacitor

Fig. 35

26
 The capacitor now starts to charge up as shown, with the rise in the RC charging curve steeper at
the beginning because the charging rate is fastest at the start and then tapers off as the capacitor
takes on additional charge at a slower rate.
As the capacitor charges up, the potential difference across its plates slowly increases with the
actual time taken for the charge on the capacitor to reach 63% of its maximum possible voltage,
in our curve 0.63Vs being known as one Time Constant, (T).
This 0.63Vs voltage point is given the abbreviation of 1T, (one time constant).
The capacitor continues charging up and the voltage difference between Vs and Vc reduces, so
does the circuit current, i. Then at its final condition greater than five time constants ( 5T ) when
the capacitor is said to be fully charged, t = ∞, i = 0, q = Q = CV. Then at infinity the current
diminishes to zero, the capacitor acts like an open circuit condition therefore, the voltage drop is
entirely across the capacitor.
So mathematically we can say that the time required for a capacitor to charge up to one time
constant, (1T) is given as:

This RC time constant only specifies a rate of charge where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.
Since voltage V is related to charge on a capacitor given by the equation, Vc = Q/C, the voltage
across the value of the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) at any instant in time during the
charging period is given as:

Where:

• Vc is the voltage across the capacitor

• Vs is the supply voltage
• t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage
• RC is the time constant of the RC charging circuit

And charging current is IC=I0 e-t/RC where I0 = V/R

After a period equivalent to 4 time constants, (4T) the capacitor in this RC charging circuit is
virtually fully charged and the voltage across the capacitor is now approximately 98% of its
maximum value, 0.98Vs. The time period taken for the capacitor to reach this 4T point is known
as the Transient Period.

27
After a time of 5T the capacitor is now fully charged and the voltage across the capacitor, (Vc) is
equal to the supply voltage, (Vs). As the capacitor is fully charged, no more current flows in the
circuit. The time period after this 5T point is known as the Steady State Period.

13.1.2 Sample Solved Example

Calculate the RC time constant, τ of the following circuit shown in fig. 36.

Fig. 36

The time constant, τ is found using the formula T = R x C in seconds.

Therefore, the time constant τ is given as: T = R x C = 47k x 1000uF = 47 Secs
a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7-time constants?
At 0.7-time constants (0.7T) Vc = 0.5Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 5V = 2.5V
b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 1 time constant?
At 1-time constant (1T) Vc = 0.63Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.63 x 5V = 3.15V
c) How long will it take to “fully charge” the capacitor?
The capacitor will be fully charged at 5-time constants.
1 time constant (1T) = 47 seconds, (from above). Therefore, 5T = 5 x 47 = 235 secs
d) The voltage across the Capacitor after 100 seconds?
The voltage formula is given as Vc = V (1 – e-t/RC)
Which equals: Vc = 5(1-e-100/47) RC = 47 seconds from above, Therefore, Vc = 4.4 volts

• Capacitor Discharging Circuit

In the previous RC Charging Circuit in fig.34, it is seen how a Capacitor, C charges up through
the resistor until it reaches an amount of time equal to 5-time constants or 5T and then remains
fully charged.

28
If this fully charged capacitor was now disconnected from its DC battery supply voltage it would
store its energy built up during the charging process indefinitely (assuming an ideal capacitor and
ignoring any internal losses), keeping the voltage across its terminals constant.
If the battery was now removed and replaced by a short circuit, when the switch was closed
again the capacitor would discharge itself back through the resistor, R as we now have a RC
discharging circuit. As the capacitor discharges its current through the series resistor the stored
energy inside the capacitor is extracted with the voltage Vc across the capacitor decaying to zero
as shown below.

Fig. 37

As with the previous RC charging circuit, in a RC Discharging Circuit, the time constant (τ) is
still equal to the value of 63%. Then for a RC discharging circuit that is initially fully charged,
the voltage across the capacitor after one time constant, 1T, has dropped to 63%of its initial
value which is 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 or 37% of its final value.
So now this is given as the time taken for the capacitor to discharge down to within 37% of its
fully discharged value which will be zero volts (fully discharged), and in our curve this is given
as 0.37Vc.
As the capacitor discharges, it loses its charge at a declining rate. At the start of discharge the
initial conditions of the circuit, are t = 0, i = 0 and q = Q. The voltage across the capacitors plates
is equal to the supply voltage and Vc = Vs. As the voltage across the plates is at its highest value
maximum discharge current flows around the circuit.

29
 • Voltage and current curves during discharging of capacitor

Fig. 38

With the switch closed, the capacitor now starts to discharge as shown, with the decay in the RC
discharging curve steeper at the beginning because the discharging rate is fastest at the start and
then tapers off as the capacitor loses charge at a slower rate. As the discharge continues, Vc goes
down and there is less discharge current.
As with the previous charging circuit the voltage across the capacitor, C is equal
to 0.5Vcat 0.7T with the steady state fully discharged value being finally reached at 5T.
For a RC discharging circuit, the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) as a function of time during
the discharge period is defined as:

Where:

30
• Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
• Vs is the supply voltage
• t is the elapsed time since the removal of the supply voltage
• RC is the time constant of the RC discharging circuit

And discharging current is Id= - I0 e-t/RC where I0 = V/R

Just like the previous RC Charging circuit, we can say that in a RC Discharging Circuit the
time required for a capacitor to discharge itself down to one time constant is given as:

Where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

Note that as the discharging curve for a RC discharging circuit is exponential, for all practical
purposes, after five time constants a capacitor is considered to be fully discharged.
So a RC circuit’s time constant is a measure of how quickly it either charges or discharges.

13.1.3 Sample Solved Example

Calculate the RC time constant, τ of the following RC discharging circuit in fig. 39.

Fig. 39
The time constant, τ is found using the formula T = R*C in seconds.
Therefore the time constant τ is given as: T = R*C = 100kΩ x 22uF = 2.2 Seconds
a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7-time constants?
At 0.7-time constants (0.7T) Vc = 0.5Vc. Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 10V = 5V
b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor after 1 time constant?
At 1-time constant (1T) Vc = 0.37Vc. Therefore, Vc = 0.37 x 10V = 3.7V

31
c) How long will it take for the capacitor to “fully discharge” itself, (equals 5-time
constants)
1 time constant (1T) = 2.2 seconds. Therefore, 5T = 5 x 2.2 = 11 Seconds
Suggested Readings:
1. A Textbook of Electrical Technology ‘Volume- I ‘–B. L. Theraja, S. Chand and Company
Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Basic Electrical Engineering - V. K. Mehta, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering - S. K. Bhattacharya, Pearson Education.
4. Electrical and electronics Technology- Edward Hughes, Pearson Education.
5. Basic Electrical Engineering- I. J. Nagrath and Kothari, Tata McGraw Hill.
6. Basic Electrical Engineering- D. C. Kulshreshtha, McGraw Hill.

32