MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

SUB CODE/NAME :EE 8701 / HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

YEAR/SEM : IV /VII
SYLLABUS

UNIT I OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system – Lightning, switching surges and
temporary over voltages, Corona and its effects – Bewley lattice diagram- Protection against over
voltages.
UNIT-1
TWO MARKS

1) Why protection of transmission line important? (APR-MAY2011,18)

It is essential for electrical power engineers to reduce the number of outages and preserve the
continuity of service and electric supply.

2) What are the causes of over voltages in electric Power system? (Dec-11, Dec-
14,18)(OR)What are the various abnormalities in power system?(May 2015)
 Lightning over voltages
 Switching overvoltages

3) How does switching over voltage originate? (Dec-2008)(or) list the sources of switching
over voltage in power system.Dec-18
Switching over voltages originate in the system itself by connection and disconnection of
circuit breaker contact or due to initiation or interruption of faults.

4) What is Isokeraunic level or thunderstorm days? (May-2011,19, Nov-16,17)

Isokeraunic level is defined as the number of days in a year when thunder is heard or
recorded in particular location.

5) What are the factors that influence the lightning induced voltage on transmission
lines? (Nov 2015,19)

 The ground conductivity

 The leader stroke current
 Corona

6) How is transmission lines classified?

 Lines with no loss or ideal lines

 Line without distortion or distortion less lines
 Line with small losses
 Lines with infinite and finite length defined by all the four parameters

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7) What are the principles observed in the lattice diagram?

 All waves travel downhill, i.e., into the positive time.

 The position of the wave at any instant is given by means of the time scale at the left of
the lattice diagram
 The total potential at any instant of time is the super position of all the waves which arrive
at that point until that instant of time, displaced in position from each other by time
intervals equal to the time difference of their arrival/
 Attenuation is included so that the amount by which a wave is reduced is taken care
 The previous history of the wave, if desired can be easily traced. If the computation is
to be carried out at a point where the operations cannot be directly placed on the lattice
diagram, the arms can be numbered and the quantity can be tabulated and computed.

8) What are the components of switching surges?

Switching surges may include high natural frequencies of the system, damped normal
frequency voltage Component or the restriking and recovery voltage of the system with successive
reflected waves from terminations.

9) How does switching surges cause damage to circuit breaker? May-2008

In circuit breaking operation, switching surges with a high rate of rise of voltage may
cause repeated restriking of the arc between the contact of a circuit breaker, thereby causing
destruction of the circuit breaker contacts.

10) What are the factors of origin of switching surges? (NOV-DEC-2012)

 Open and closing the switch gears

 High natural frequency of the system
 Damped normal frequency voltage components
 Restriking and recovery voltage with successive reflective wave form terminations
 Repeated restriking of the arc between the contacts off

11) Give the factor for over voltages generation in EHV system.

Over voltages are generated in EHV system when there is sudden release of internal
energy stored either in the electrostatic form in the electromagnetic form.

12) Give the situation that give rise to switching over voltages of short duration and lower
magnitude?

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 Single pole closing of circuit breaker

 Interruption of fault current when the L-G or L-L fault is cleared
 Resistance switching used in circuit breakers
 Switching lines terminated by transformer
 Series capacitor compensated lines

13) What are the different method by which switching over voltages of short duration and
long magnitude be calculated?

 Mathematical modeling of a system using digital computer

 Scale modeling using transient network analyzers
 By conducting field tests to determine the expected maximum amplitude of the over
voltages and their duration at different points on the line.

14) What are the different measures to control or reduce over voltages?

 One step or multi step energization of lines by preinsertion or resistors

 Phase controlled closing or circuit breakers with proper sensors
 Drainage or trapped charges on long lines before the reclosing of the lines
 Limiting the over voltages by using surge diverter.

15) What are the causes for power frequency and its harmonic over voltages? (DEC-2013,17)

 Sudden loss of loads

 Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads
 Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults
 Saturation in transformers

16) How are the over voltage of power frequency harmonics and voltage with frequency
measure the Operating frequency caused?
These are caused during tap changing operations, by magnetic or Ferro resonance phenomena
in large power transformers and by resonating over voltages due to series capacitors with shunt
reactors or transformers.

17) What are the methods to control over voltages due to switching?

 Energization of transmission lines in one or more steps by inserting resistance and

withdrawing then afterwards
 Phase controlled closing of circuit breakers

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 Drainage of trapped charges before reclosing

 Use of shunt reactors
 Limiting switching surges by suitable surge diverters.

18) Give the factor by which over voltages due to lightning strokes can be minimized or
avoided in practice.

 Shielding the over head lines by using ground wires above the phase wires
 Using the ground rods and counter poise wires
 Including protective devices like expulsion gaps, protector tubes on the lines and surge
diverters at the line terminations and substations

19) . Where is surge arrester placed in substation?

Surge arresters are devices used at substations and at line terminations to discharge the
lightning over voltages and short duration switching surges. These are usually mounted at the
line end at the nearest point to the substation. They have a flash over voltage lower than that of
any other insulation or apparatus at the substation.

20) Define attenuation and distortion?

 The decrease in the magnitude of the wave as it propagates along the line is
called attenuation.
 The elongation or change of wave shape that occurs is called
distortion.
21)Define lightning phenomenon? NOV-DEC 2012

Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds discharge
in to a neighboring cloud or to the ground.

22) What is counterpoise wire/give it is uses? NOV-DEC 2012

Counter- Poise Wires are buried in the ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1m, running parallel to the
transmission line conductors and connected to the tower legs. Wire length may be 50 to 100 m
long.

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23) Mention the different kinds of over voltages?(MAY-JUNE 2013)

Different kinds of over voltages

External or Lightning voltage Internal overvoltage’s

Switching surges Insulation Failure Arcing ground Resonance Harmonics

24) What is stepped leader stroke? (MAY-JUNE 2013)

A lightning stroke begins with a faint pre discharge, called the leader, which goes
from the cloud to the ground. The leader establishes a path for the highly luminous return
stroke (what you really see) which propagates from the ground up to the cloud. The first
stroke of a flash is usually preceded by a "stepped leader", so called because it appears to
progress in discrete steps (about 100 segments, each 50 m long) from cloud to ground.

25) Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharges.(May-2014,18)

𝐼𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑍𝑜 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍 − 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
𝑍0
= 𝐼0 ( )𝑍
𝑍0 + 𝑧

𝑍
= 𝐼0 ( )
𝑍
1+𝑍
0

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26) Classify the lightning strokes.(May-2014,DEC-19)

Direct lightning strokes

In direct lightning strokes

27) What is Bewley Lattice Diagram?(Dec-14)

This is a graphical representation of the time-space relation,which shows the position and
direction of motion at any instant of incident,reflected and transmitted current or voltage surges in
the Lattice Diagram, the horizontal axes represent the distance travelled along the system and
vertical axis represent the time taken to travel. At each instant of change in impedance, the reflected
and transmitted values (current or voltage) can be calculated my multiplying incident wave values
with reflected and transmitted coefficients.

28)Why the simple spark gap cannot offer full protection against over voltage?(NOV 2015)

 The major disadvantage that it does not satisfy one of the basic requirements of a
lightning arrester i.e., it does not interrupt the power frequency follow current. This
means that every operation of the spark gap results in a L-G fault and the breakers must
operate to de-energize the circuit to clear the flashover. The spark gap, therefore, is
generally used as back up protection.
 The spark over voltage depends on atmospheric condition
 without series resistance with spark gap creates step voltage when current zero.

29.What are the characteristics of lightning strokes?(May 2015)

The characteristics of lightning are include the amplitude of current, rate of rise, probability of
distribution of current and wave shapes of lightning voltage and current.
1. The lightning strokes are predominantly of negative polarity. However the surges on
transmission lines can be negative as well as positive polarity depending on whether they are
caused by direct lightning strokes or by induction.
2.The percentage of positive to total surges reported are :strokes to transmission line 18%
distribution lightning arrester surges 37%,station lightning arrester 12%.
3.The total duration of lightning strokes may be about one second or so.
4.The peak current in the stroke may be from 1 KA to 200 KA.
5.Time to first peak is between 0 and 10 µS. The time to half wave on the tail between 5 and 90
µS
6.Field data indicates that very high stroke current do not coincide with very short time to crest.
About 50 % of stroke currents have a rate of rise exceeding 7.5 KA/ µS and 10 % exceed 25 KA/
µS.
30. what is back flashover? (Nov-16).
When a direct lightning stroke occurs on a tower, the tower has to carry huge impulse currents. If
the tower footing resistance is considerable, the potential of the tower rises to a large value,

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steeply with respect to the line and consequently a flashover may take place along the insulator
strings. This is known as back flashover.
31.Define Corona Critical Disruptive Voltage.(May-2017)
Critical Disruptive Voltage is defined as the minimum phase to neutral voltage required for the
Corona discharge to start.

32.What are the different method employed for protection of overhead lines against
lightning? (May-17)

i.Shielding the overhead lines by using ground wires above the phase wires.
ii.Using ground rods and counter-poise wire
iii.Protected device like expulsion gap, protector tubes on the line and surge diverters at line
termination and substations.

33.Draw the equivalent circuit of a surge diverter-(May-19)

𝐼𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑍𝑜 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍 − 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
𝑍0
= 𝐼0 ( )𝑍
𝑍0 + 𝑧

𝑍
= 𝐼0 ( )
𝑍
1+𝑍
0
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1000Ω𝑡𝑜 3000Ω𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 < 500Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 100Ω𝑡𝑜 150Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 10Ω𝑡𝑜 50Ω

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PART-B
1) Explain briefly internal Causes of over voltage and its effect on power system?Dec-2008

The over voltage causes may be broadly divided in to two main categories:

i) INTERNAL OVER VOLTAGES CAUSES

 Switching surges.
 Insulation Failure.
 Arcing Ground.
 Resonance.
ii) EXTERNALOVER VOLTAGES CAUSES
 Lightning.

INTERNAL CAUSES OF OVER VOLTAGE:

Internal causes of over voltage on the power system are primarily due to oscillations set
up by the sudden changes in the circuit conditions.

a) Switching surges:

The over voltage, produced on the power system due to switching operations are known
as switching surges. the few causes will be discussed here.

 Case of open line

 Case of loaded line
 Current chopping

i)Case of open line:

 During switching operations of unloaded line, travelling waves are set up to produce over
voltage on the line. When the unloaded line is connected to the voltage source a voltage
wave is setup which travels along the line.

 On reaching the terminal point A it’s reflected back to the supply end without change of
sign. This causes voltage doubling. If E RMS is the supply voltage, then the
instantaneous voltage that the lines have to with stand will be 2√2 E.This over voltage is
of temporary in nature.

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ii) Case of loaded Line:

 Over voltage will also be produce during switching operations of a loaded line. suppose a
loaded line is suddenly interrupted across the switch the voltage range is 2ZI

Where
I-Instantaneous value of current at the time of opening of line
Z-Natural impedance of the line.

iii) Current chopping:

 Current chopping results in the production of high voltage transients across the contacts of
the air-blast circuit breaker. when breaking low currents with air-blast breaker, the
powerful de-ionizing effects of air-blast causes the current to fall abruptly to zero will
before the nature current zero is reached
 This phenomenon is called current chopping and produces high voltage across breaker
contacts this current chopping are prevented by resistance switching.

b) Insulation Failure:

 The most case of insulation failure in a power system is grounding of conductor

(insulation failure between line and earth) which may cause over voltage in the system.

 Suppose a line at potential E is earthed at point X the earthling of the line cause two
equal voltage of-E to travel along XQ and XP containing currents.-E/Zn and + E/Zn
respectively. Both these current pass through X to earth. So that current to earth is 2E/Zn.

c) Arcing ground:

 The phenomenon of intermittent is taking place inline-to-ground fault of a three phase

system with consequent productions transients is known as arcing ground.

d) Resonance:

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 Resonance in an electrical system occurs when inductive reactance of the circuit

becomes equal to the capacitive reactance. Under resonance the impedance of the circuit
and the power factor is unity.

2) Explain briefly various charge formation theory and also explain briefly lightning
mechanism?
NOV-DEC 2012,17, NOV-DEC 2013,MAY-17,18

Lightning Phenomenon:

Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds discharge
in to a neighboring cloud or to the ground.

Charge formation in the clouds:

During thunderstorms, positive and negative charges become separated by the heavy air
currents with ice crystals in the upper part and rain in the lower part of the cloud. this charge
separation depends on the height of the clouds which range from 0.2 to 10 k.m with their charge
centers probably at a distance of about 0.35 to 2 K.m as shown in fig.

Charge inside the clouds - 1 to 100 coulomb

Potential of the cloud - 107 to108 Volt

Energy associated with the cloud - 250kwhr

The upper region of the clouds are usually positively charged where as lower region of the clouds
are negative charged except the local region near the base and head which is positive as shown in
fig.

Fair weather conditions - Max.gradient=1V/Cm.

Bad weather conditions - Maximum gradient reached.

At the ground level due to charged cloud - 300V/Cm.

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Charge Distribution Theory:

 Willson’s theory of charge separations

 Simpson’s theory
 Reynold and mason theory

i) Will son’s theory:

Willson’s theory based on the following assumption

 Large Number of ions present in the atmosphere.

 Many of the these ions attach themselves to small dust particles and water particles
 Electric field exists in the earth atmosphere during fair weather which is directed
downwards towards the earth.
 Subsequently the lower part of the drop attracts negative charges from the atmosphere and
leaving positive charges in the air.

 Thus this theory says since large negatively charged drops settle on the base of the cloud
and smaller positively charged settle on the upper direction of the clouds.

ii)Simpson’s Theory:

The Simpson’s theory explained with help of following regions shown in below figure.

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Below Region A:.

Air current travels above 800Cm/Sec and no rain drops fall through.
In Region A:
Air velocity is high enough to break the falling rain drops causing a positive charge sprays in
the cloud and negative charge in the air.
The spray is blown upwards but as the velocity of air decreases, the positively charged water
drops recombine with the large drops and fall again.
In Region B:

It becomes negatively charged by the air current.

In Region C:
The temperature is low (below freezing point) and only ice crystals exist. the impact of air on
these crystals makes them negatively charged.

iii) Reynold and Mason Theory:

Thunder clouds are developed at heights of 1to 2 k.m above the ground level. And may extend
upto 12 to 14 km above the ground

Air currents, moisture, specific temperature range are required for thunder clouds and charge
formations.

The air current controlled by the temperature gradient move upwards carry moisture and water
droplets below -40₀C (above 12 Km).

The water droplets in the cloud are blown up by air currents and get super cooled over a range of
height and temperature. When such freezing occurs the crystals grow in to large masses. Due to
weight and gravitational force it falls downwards.

3. Discuss about the mechanism of lightning Strokes:May-2008,May-2012,19,NOV-DEC

2013,16,17.
The cloud and the ground form two plates of capacitor and dielectric medium is air. Since the
lower part of the cloud is negatively charged the earth is positively charged by inductions.
Lightning discharge will require for break down the Air
 Electric field required is 30 kv/Cm (peak)
 Electric field required is 10 Kv/cm( If the moisture content of the air is large)

Type of lightning streamer:

 Pilot streamer
 Stepped Leader
 Return Stroke
 Second Charge center

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 Dart leader
 Heavy return Streamer

Pilot Streamer:

After the gradient of approximately 10Kv.cm is set up in the clouds the air surrounding gets
ionized.In this condition a streamer starts from clouds towards earth. The current in the streamer
is 100 A. and speed is 0.16m/µ Sec.This streamer is known as pilot streamer. This leads to the
lighting phenomenon.

Stepped Leader:
Depending upon the state of ionization of the air surrounding the streamer it’s branched to
several paths and this is known as stepped leader.

Return Stroke:

Once stepped layer contact with earth a power return stroke moves very fast up towards the
clouds through the already ionized path by the leader.

Second charge center:

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Negative charge of the cloud is being neutralized by the positive induced charge on the earth.
this instant gives rise to lighting flash which we observes with our naked eyes. There may be
another cell of charges in the cloud near the neutralize charged cell

Dart Leader:

This charged cell will try to neutralize through this ionized path. This streamer is known as dart
leader.

The velocity of dart leaderisabout3 % of the velocity of light. The effect of the dart leader is much
more severe that of the return stroke.

Heavy return stroke:

The second charge center is discharging to ground through the dart leader. positive streamers
are going up from ground. This is called heavy return stroke. This begins to discharge negative
charge under the cloud and the second charge center in the cloud.

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Rate of charging of thunder clouds

Let λ - conductivity of the medium
E - Electric field intensity
V - Velocity of separation of charges.
ρ - Charge density. Electric field intensity E is given by
𝑑𝐸
+ 𝜆𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣
𝑑𝑡
Solution of the equations is
𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
Multiply eλt on both sides
𝐸𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣𝑒 𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
𝜌𝑣 𝜆𝑡
𝐸𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝑐
𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝐸 = 𝜆 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
…………………………………………………(1)
To find c, substitute E=0;t=0; in equation (1)
𝜌𝑣
0= +𝑐
𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝑐=−
𝜆
𝜌𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝜆𝑡
∴𝐸= − 𝑒
𝜆 𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝐸= (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )
𝜆
Let Qs = separated charges; Qg=generated charge
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄𝑔
𝜌= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴ℎ

Where A-cloud area ,h-height of the charged region.

𝑄𝑠
𝐸=
𝐴𝜀0
Where 𝜀0 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

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𝑄𝑠
𝐴=
𝜀0𝐸

𝑄𝑠
𝑄𝑔= 𝜌𝐴ℎ = 𝜌 ℎ
𝜀0𝐸
𝜌𝑄𝑠 ℎ
= 𝜌𝑣
𝜀𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )
𝜆

4) Write shorts on Switching Surges and temporary overvoltage?(NOV-DEC 2011,18),(

NOV-DEC 2013)( NOV 2015,19) (May-19)

For transmission voltages (400 Kv and above) the advantages generated due to switching
is same as that of the magnitude of lightning over voltages. This over voltages exists for a long
time so it’s dangerous to the system.

Switching over voltages increases as the system voltage increases. In extra high voltage
line, switching over voltages determine the insulation levels of the lines and their dimensional and
cost.

Source (or) Origin of switching surges:

 Open and closing the switch gears

 High natural frequency of the system
 Damped normal frequency voltage components
 Restriking and recovery voltage with successive reflective wave form terminations
 Repeated restriking of the arc between the contacts off

Characteristics of switching surges:

Switching surges arise from any one of the following sources.

 De energizing of lines, cables, and shunt capacitor bank etc.

 Disconnection of unloaded transformer, reactors etc
 Opening and closing of protective devices connected to lines and reactive loads
 Switch off the loads suddenly
 Short circuit due to insulation failure, line to ground contact, line to line contact, L-L-G
contacts, three phase to ground contacts etc
 Clearing of the faults
 Arcing ground.
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Shape of switching surges:

Irregular

Power frequency with its harmonics

Relative magnitude-2.4 p.u for transformer energizing

1.4 to 2.0 p.u for switching transmission line.

Switching overvoltage in EHV and UHV system

Switching over voltages in EHV and UHV systems are generated when a sudden release of
internal energy stored due to electrostatic or electromagnetic form. This may happen due to

 Interruption of low inductive currents by high speed circuit breakers

 Interruption of small capacitive currents by switching off the unloaded line
 Ferro-resonance conditions
 Energization of long EHV or UHV lines
 Interruption of fault current when the fault is cleared
 Single pole closing circuit breakers
 Switching operations of series capacitor connected to line for compensation
 Sparking of the lightning arrester located at receiving end of line.
Temporary over voltage

Temporary over voltages represent a threat to equipment as well as to any surge protective
devices that may have been provided for the mitigation of surges.

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The scope of this Guide includes temporary over voltages only as a threat to the survival of
SPDs(surge protection devices), and therefore includes considerations on the selection of suitable
SPDs.
Following considerations are necessary to reach the goal of practical surge immunity:

 Desired protection
 Hardware integrity
 Process immunity
 Specific equipment sensitivities
 The power environment
 Surge characteristics
 Electrical system
 Performance of surge protective devices
 Protection
 Lifetime
 The test environment
 Cost effectiveness

Measure to control overvoltage due to switching and power frequency NOV-DEC 2013(NOV
2015)

In EHV or UHV lines we should control the switching voltages less than 2.5 p.u the following
measures are taken to reduce over voltage.

 One or multi-step energization of lines by inserting resistors.

 Phase controlled closing of circuit breaker with proper sensors.
 Drain the trapped charges before reclosing of the lines
 Using shunt reactors
 By using lightning arresters or surge diverters

One or multistep energization of lines by inserting resisters

 During switching of circuit breaker, inserting a series resistance in series with circuit
breaker contacts and short circuiting this resistance after a few cycles
 By using inserting resistance the transients due to switching reduces. If the resistance is
inserted for a long time, successive reflections takes place and the over voltage reaches
high value. therefore using the pre-inserting resistor limit the over voltage

Phase controlled closing of circuit breakers

 Life of the circuit breaker only depends on the no. Of. Time open and close of the contacts.
Over voltage can be avoided by closing three phase exactly at the same instant by using
phase controlled technique.
Drain and trapped charges before reclosing the lines

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 If transmission line is suddenly closed or switched off the electric charge will be stored on
capacitor and line conductors.
 These charges are drained by line insulator or through potential transformer.
 But the effective method is connecting temporary inserting to ground before re closure and
removing before closure of switching or circuit breaker.

Using shunt reactors:

 Shunt reactors are used to limit voltage rise due to Ferranti effect in EHV lines and reduce
surges due to sudden switching.
 But it will give oscillation with the capacitance of the system using connecting resistors
are in series with reactors suppress the oscillation and limit over voltage.

5) Write short notes on Power frequency over voltage in power system? (NOV-DEC 2012,18,
19,MAY-2013) OR

What are the causes for power frequency over voltage ?how are they controlled in power
system? NOV-DEC 2013,MAY-2014,MAY-17

In the lines (400 Kv and above) power frequency over voltages occurs are caused during tap
changing operations in transformer.

 Causes for power frequency over voltages;

 Sudden load rejection
 Disconnection of inductive loads
 Ferranti effect
 Unsymmetrical faults
 Saturation in transformer etc.
 Tap changing operations.

Sudden load rejections:

When sudden load rejection in the system cause the speeding up of generator prime movers hence
the system frequency will raise.

The speed governing system will respond by reducing the mechanical power generated by the
turbines. But initially both the frequency and voltage increases.

The approximate voltage rise is given by

𝑓 𝑓 𝑥𝑠
𝑣= 𝐸′ [(1 − ) ]
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜 𝑥𝑐

Where

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𝑥𝑠 - Reactance of the generator

𝑥𝑐 - Capacitive reactance
𝐸′ - Voltage generated before over operating and load rejections.
f - Increased frequency.
fo - normal frequency.
Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads:
 For improving voltage in transmission lines, inductive loads disconnected or capacitive
loads are added due to these switching operations, power frequency over voltages may
occur.

Ferranti effect:

 The receiving end voltage greater than the sending end voltage during light load or no load
operation. Due to Ferranti effect the power frequency over voltage may occurs. Shunt
reactors are used to limit voltage rise due to Ferranti effect in EHV lines.

Un symmetrical faults:

 Unsymmetrical faults are single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line to ground
fault. Consider a single line to ground fault occurs at phase ‘a’ va=0

Voltage at healthy phases b and c increases for solidly grounded system

𝑋𝑜 𝑅𝑜
≤ 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤1
𝑋1 𝑋1

Where

𝑋𝑜 - zero sequence reactance

𝑅𝑜 - Zero sequence resistance
𝑋1 - Positive sequence reactance
Rise in voltage ≯ 1.4 𝑝. 𝑢
Saturation transformer:
 When voltage applied to the transformer is more than the rated value or saturation value
magnetizing currents increases rapidly. This current produces harmonics due to harmonics
produces over voltages.

Tap changing transformer:

 Tap changing operations are required when the voltages changes due to load variations so
during these operations power frequency over voltages occurs.

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6)(i)Explain the various methods of Protection against over voltages in OHT lines?(NOV-
DEC-2011, MAY-2013,DEC-2013, 16,17)

What are the requirements of ground wire for protecting power conductor against direct
lightning stroke? Explain how they are achieved in practice.(MAY-JUNE-2014,18)

Types of faults that may occur in power lines

Symmetrical faults

 Three fault(LLLG)
Unsymmetrical faults

 L-G fault
 L-L fault
 L-L-G fault
Protection of equipments in the power system from over voltages due to lightning can done by:

 Using ground wires above the phase wires.

 Using ground rods.
 Using counter-poise wires.
 Using protective devices like rod gap, expulsion type and valve type surge arrester, etc.

Ground wires:

Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the main conductor of the transmission line,
supported on the same tower and earthed at every equally and regularly spaced towers. The
different arrangement of ground wires is as shown in below fig.

Important considerations of ground wires are:

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 Ground wire selection should be based on mechanical considerations rather than electrical
considerations.
 It should have high strength and non – corrosive.
 Ground resistance, insulation and clearances between the ground wire and the lines are
important in the design.

Shielding angle or Protection angleθs :

The angle between the vertical line drawn through the vertical of tower and a line through the
ground wire and the shielded conductor is as shown below.

Protection of Line Using Ground Wire

Assuming positively charged cloud is present above the line , it induces a negative charge near
the line conductors and ground wire. Ground Wire is earthed at regular intervals , so that the
negative charges drained to the Earth. As the ground wire is nearer to the line conductor , the
induced charged on it will be much less and the potential rise is small.

A single ground wire reduces the induced voltage to one half of that without ground wire. For
two ground wires, the reduction is one third of that without ground wire.

Effective protection depends on :

 h (height)
 θs (shielding angle) = 30⁰
Material used :Galvanized stranded steel conductors.
Uses
 It is used for direct stroke protection of lines for voltage of 110 KV and above.
 To protect lines from attenuation of travelling waves set up in the lines.
Using ground rods-DEC-19

Ground rods are used to reduce the tower footing resistance. These are buried into the ground
surrounding the tower structure.
Ground rods are a number of rods about 15 mm diameter and 3 m long driven into the ground.
The tower footing resistance can be varied by :

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 Varying the space of the rod.

 Varying the number of rods.
 Varying the depth to which they are driven.

Material used: Galvanized iron or copper bearing steel.

Using Counter – Poise Wires-DEC-19

Counter- Poise Wires are buried in the ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1m, running parallel to the
transmission line conductors and connected to the tower legs. Wire length may be 50 to 100 m
long. The arrangement of counter – poise is as shown.

 When the lightning stroke, incident on the tower, discharges first through the tower to the
ground and discharges through the counter – poise. For proper operation.
 Leakage resistance of counter poise< Surge impedance
 If lightning strikes a tower, current is injected and potential rises and flash over of insulator
disc takes which results in a L.G faults. So the tower footing resistance value should be
low.

Material used: Galvanized steel wire.

6)(ii)Basic Requirements of a Lightning Arrester or Surge Diverter and Explain its operation
with V-I characteristics(MAY-2014)

Using Protective Devices

Protective devices are used to protect the power system components against the travelling waves
caused by lightning.

The basic Requirements of a Lightning Arrester are :

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 It should not pass any current to the system component which is to be protected at abnormal
conditions.
 It should break down as quickly as possible when abnormal condition occurs.
 It should discharge the surge current without damaging it.
 It should interrupt the power frequency follow current after the surge is discharge to
ground.

Rod Gap(Nov 2015) 6 mark

Rod Gap is used to protect the system from lightning or thunderstorm activity is less.

A plain air gap usually between 1 inch square rods cut at right angles at the ends, connected
between line and earth. The rod gap arrangement is shown.

Advantages

 Simple in construction.
 Cheap.
 Rugged construction.

Disadvantages

 It does not interrupt the power frequency follow current.

 Every operation of the rod gap results in L –G fault and the breakers must operate to isolate
the faulty section.
Uses
 It is used as back – up protection.

Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester (Protector Tube)-MAY-17

 It is a device consists of a spark gap together with an arc quenching device which
extinguishes the current arc when the gaps break over due to over voltages. The expulsion
type lightning arrester is shown below.

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 When lightning incidents, the series gap and the gap in the tube spark and provide low
impedance path for power current to flow. The voltage across the terminals of the arrester
drops to a low value after spark over occurs and arrester exerts little opposition to the flow
of follow current.

The arc struck in the tube volatizes some of the fiber and emitting gas. This gas rushes out
through the vent and is interruption takes place at zero current.

Advantages

 Cheap
 To protect small rural transformers where value type arresters are expensive.

Disadvantages

 It is not suitable for protection of expensive station equipment because of poor volt –
time characteristics.

Uses

 To protect transmission line insulators(transmission line type)

 To protect distribution transformer(distribution type)

Value Type Lightning Arrester (Non – Linear Type)

Value Type Lightning Arresters are used to protect substations and at line terminations to
discharge the lightning over voltages and short duration switching surges. A value type
arrester is shown below.

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A number of non – linear resistor elements made of silicon carbide and stacked one over the
other into two or three sections. They are separated by spark gaps. Spark gaps and resistors are
protected by water tight housing. Non – linear resistor possess low resistance to high currents
and high resistance to low currents.

Volt – ampere characteristics is given by ,

I = K Vn

Where

I=discharge current
N=valve lies between 2 and 6
K=constant
V=applied voltage across the elements.
As over voltage occurs due to lighting the resistance of the non-linear element decreases series
gap sparks and the arrester discharges. If the current is more, number of series resistance can be
added.

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operation:

 When a surge voltage is applied to the surge arrester, it breaks down giving the
discharge current id and maintains a voltage Vd across it. Thus it provides a protection to
the protected above the protective level Vp.
 In heavy duty surge arrester the gaps are arranged that the arc burns in the magnetic field
of the coils excited by power frequency follow on current.
 During lightning discharges, a high voltage is induced in the coil by steep front of surges
and sparking occurs in the auxiliary gap.
 For power frequency follow on currents the auxiliary gap is extinguished, as sufficient
voltage will not be present across the auxillary gap to maintain an arc.
 The main gap arcs occur in the magnetic field of coils.
 The magnetic field aided by the horn shaped main gap electrodes, elongate the arc and
quenches it rapidly. The follow on current is limited by the voltage drop across the arc
and the resistance element.

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Merits:

 To protect station equipment rated 400 KV and above.

 To protect motors and generators
 To protect distribution transformer.

7) Discuss step by step procedure for constructing Bewley’s lattice diagram?(MAY-2014)

Obtain the expression of reflected and transmission of travelling waves at transmission

points. (Dec-2014,19)

Bewley lattice diagram from which the motion of reflected and transmitted waves and their
positions at every instant can be obtained. It overcomes the difficulty of keeping track of the
multiplicity of successive reflections at the various junctions.

Procedure to draw lattice diagram:

 When a voltage surge of magnitude unity reaches a junction between two sections with surge
impedance Z1 and Z2
 Then a part ‘a’ is reflected and a part ‘b’ is reflected back. In traversing the second line,
on reaching the termination at the end of second line, its amplitude=α.b
 Set the ends of the lines at intervals equal to the time of transit of each line.
 If a suitable time scale is chosen, then the diagonals on the lattice diagram show the
passage of the waves.

Properties of Bewley Diagram:

 The following are the properties of Bewley lattice diagram,

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 All waves travel downhill, because time always increases.

 The positions of any wave at any time can be deduced directly from the diagram.
 The total potential at any instant of time is the superposition of all waves which arrive at
the point until the instant of time, displaced in position from each other by time intervals equal to
the time difference of their arrival.
 Attenuation is included so that the wave arriving at the far end of the line corresponding to
the value entering multiplied by the attenuation factor

Open ended transmission line of surge impedance Z:

𝑍1 = 𝑍, 𝑍2 = ∞
Reflection coefficient at the receiving end
𝑍1
𝑍2 − 𝑍1 1 − 𝑍2
𝑎= =
𝑍2 + 𝑍1 1 + 𝑍1
𝑍 2
𝑍
1−∞
= =1
𝑍
1−∞
Reflection coefficient at the sending end
0−𝑍
𝑎′ = =1
0+𝑍

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Procedure:

 Assume T is the time taken for a wave to travel from one end to the end of line and α is
the attenuation factor. Assume amplitude s unity.
 At time t=0, the magnitude is +1.the wave is attenuated and reaches at T with magnitude
+1× 𝛼 = +𝛼
 At time T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +𝛼 × 𝑎 = +𝛼 and the wave is again
attunated and reaches at 2T with magnitude+α2
 At time 2T,the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +𝛼 2 × −𝑎 = −𝛼 2 and the wave is
again attenuated and reaches at 3T with magnitude −𝛼 3
 At time 3T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is – 𝛼 3 × 𝑎 = −𝛼 3 and the wave is
attenuated and reaches at 4T with magnitude−𝛼 4 and so on.
 Voltage at the receving end

= 2[𝛼 − 𝛼 3 + 𝛼 5 + ⋯ + 𝛼 2𝑛−1 ]𝑢(𝑡)

[1 − 𝛼 4(𝑛+1) ]
= 2𝛼 × 𝑢(𝑡)
[1 + 𝛼 2 ]
2𝛼
At t=∞, 𝑉∞ = 1+𝛼2 . 𝑢(𝑡)

8. A long transmission line is energized by a unit step voltage 1.0 V at the sending end and
is open circuited at the receiving end. Construct the Bewley lattice diagram and obtain the
value of the voltage at the receiving end after a long time. Take the attenuation factor a =
0.8.(Dec-2014, 19)(Nov 2015,April/May-18,19)
Solution: Let the time of travel of the wave = 1 unit
At the receiving end
Reflection coefficient γ= ( - Z)/ ( + Z) =1.0
Transmission coefficient = 1 + γ = 2.0
At the sending end
Reflection coefficient γ = (0 - Z)/(0+ Z) = - 1.0
Transmission coefficient = 1+γ = O
Since the source impedance ZS= 0 and Z2, the open receiving end impedance is 
(infinity), as shown in the lattice diagram of Fig Below.
From the lattice diagram, the wave magnitudes are tabulated as shown below:
At the receiving end At the Sending end Time unit

1 0 0
1 1 
1+2 2 2
1 3 2-3
1-4 4 2-23
1 5 2 - 23+5
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1+6 6 2 - 23+25

The voltage at the receiving end after 4n units of time is

V=2(-3+5-+…..)u(t)
= 2[(l-4(n + 1))/(l + 2)]u(t)
Voltage at the receiving end after a long time (i.e. t=) is Vu(t)=[2 /(1+2)]u(t)
Substituting  = 0.8, we get V = 0.9756 u(t)
9. Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharge and explain.(or)Briefly describe a
method of recording the occurrence of lightning in an over head transmission line?(Nov-
16,17,18)

Mathematical Model for Lightning

During the charge formation process, the cloud may be considered to be a nonconductor.
Hence, various potentials may be assumed at different parts of the cloud. If the charging
process is continued, it is probable that the gradient at certain parts of the charged region exceeds
the breakdown strength of the air or moist air in the cloud.
Hence, local breakdown takes place within the cloud. This local discharge may finally lead
to a situation wherein a large reservoir of charges involving a considerable mass of cloud hangs
over the ground, with the air between the cloud and the ground as a dielectric.

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When a streamer discharge occurs to ground by first a leader stroke, followed by main
strokes with considerable currents flowing, the lightning stroke may be thought to be a current
source of value I0with a source impedance Z0 discharging to earth.
If the stroke strikes an object of impedance Z, the voltage built across it may be taken as,

𝐼𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑍𝑜 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍 − 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
𝑍0
= 𝐼0 ( )𝑍
𝑍0 + 𝑧

𝑍
= 𝐼0 ( )
𝑍
1+𝑍
0
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1000Ω𝑡𝑜 3000Ω𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 < 500Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 100Ω𝑡𝑜 150Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 10Ω𝑡𝑜 50Ω

The source impedance of the lightning channels are not known exactly, but it is estimated
to be about 1000 to 3000 Ω.
o The objects of interest to electrical engineers, namely, transmission line, etc. have
surge impedances less than 500Ω (overhead lines 300 to 500Ω, ground wires 100
to 150Ω, towers 10 to 50Ω, etc.).
o Therefore, the value Z/Z0 will usually be less than 0.1 and hence can be neglected.
Hence, the voltage rise of lines, etc. may be taken to be approximately V =I0Z.
o where I0 is the lightning stroke current and Z the line surge impedance.
o If a lightning stroke current as low as 10,000 A strikes a line of 400 Ωsurge
impedance, it may cause an overvoltage of 4000 kV.

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o This is a heavy overvoltage and causes immediate flashover of the line conductor
through its insulator strings.
o In case a direct stroke occurs over the top of an unshielded transmission line, the
current wave tries to divide into two branches and travel on either side of the line.
o Hence, the effective surge impedance of the line as seen by the wave is Z0/2and
taking the above example, the overvoltage caused may be only 10,000 x (400/2) =
2000 kV.
o If this line were to be a 132 kV line with an eleven 10 inch disc insulator string, the
flashover of the insulator string will take place, as the impulse flashover voltage of
the string is about 950 kV for a 2 μ sec front impulse wave.
 The incidence of lightning strikes on transmission lines and sub-stations is related to the
degree of thunderstorm activity.
 It is based on the level of ‘Thunderstorm days’ (TD) known as "Isokeraunic Level" defined
as the number of days in a year when thunder is heard or recorded in a particular location.
 But this indication does not often distinguish between the ground strikes and the cloud-to-
cloud strikes. If a measure of ground flashover density (Ng) is obtained, then the number
of ground flashovers can be computed from the TD level.
 From the past records and the past experience, it is found that Ng = (0.1 to 0.2)
TD/strokes/km2-year.
 It is reported that TD is between 5 and I5 in Britain, Europe and Pacific west of North
America, and is in the range of 30 to 50 in Central and Eastern states of U.S.A.
 A much higher level is reported from South Africa and South America. No literature is
available for the different regions in India, but a value of 30 to 50 may be taken for the
coastal areas and for the central parts of India
10)Explain corona and its effect?(April/May-18, DEC-19)
Definition
If the field is uniform , then an increase in voltage(A.C.) directly leads to breakdown without any
preliminary discharge. However in non-uniform geometry, the increase in a.c. voltage will cause
a luminous discharge with the production of hissing noise at points with highest electric field
intensity. This form of discharge is termed as Corona discharge and is accompanied by the
formation of ozone , as is indicated by the characteristic order of this gas.

If the voltage is d.c., then the appearance will be different . The positive wire will
be having a uniform glow and negative wire has a more patchy glow often accompanied

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by streamers.

An important point in connection with corona that it is accompanied by a loss of

power and this means that there is a flow of current to the wire. The current waveform is
non-sinusoidal and the non-sinusoidal drop of volts caused by it may be more important
than loss of power. It gives rise to radio interference.
Attenuation due to corona:

 The effect of corona is to reduce the crest of the voltage wave underpropagation, limiting
the peak value to the critical corona voltage.
 Hence, the excess voltage above the critical voltage will cause power loss byionizing the
surrounding air.

Practical Importance of Corona:

1.)Under normal conditions the loss of power due to corona is of no good importance ,
and consequently corona calculations do not enter directly into transmission line design.
The basis of such design is entirely financially the most economical line being the most
acceptable.
2.)The non-sinusoidal coronal current causes a non-sinusoidal drop of volts and these
may cause some interference with neighbouring communication circuits
due to electromagnetic and electrostatic induction .The current contains large third
harmonic.
3.)Average corona loss on several lines from 345 KV to 750 KV gave 1 to 20 KW/Km in
fair weather the higher values referring to higher voltages . In foul-weather the losses can
go upto 300 KW/Km.
4)When a line is energized and no corona is present , the current is a pure sine wave
and capacitive.

without corona voltage and current with corona voltage and current

5)An advantage of corona is that it reduces transients , since charges induced on the line
by lightning or other causes will be partially dissipated as a corona loss . In this way it
acts as a safety value.
6)Audible noise: generation and characteristics.
When corona is present on the conductors EHV lines generate audible
noise which is especially high during foul weather . The noise is in broad band , which

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extends from a very low frequency to about 20 KHz.

Corona discharges generate positive and negative ions which are alternatively attracted and
repelled by the periodic reversal of polarity of the ac excitation .
Their movement gives rise to sound pressure waves at frequencies of twice the power frequency
and its multiples in addition to the broadband spectrum which is the result of random motions of
the ions as shown in Fig.below.

The audible noise generated by a line is a function of the following factors:

1. The surface voltage gradient on conductor.
2. The number of sub conductors in the bundle.
3. Conductor diameter.
4. Atmospheric conditions.
5. The lateral distance(aerial distance) from the line conductors to the point where
noise is to be evaluated.
6) Radio interference:

There are in general two types of corona discharge from transmission line conductors
1. Pulse less or glow corona
2. Pulse type or streamer corona.
Both give rise to energy loss, but only the pulse type of ma gives interference to
radio broadcast in the range of 5MHz to 1.6MHz. Besides thin, sparked
discharges from broken insulators and loose guy wires interfere with TV
reception in the 80-200MHz range. Corona on conductors also causes interference
to carrier communication and signaling in the frequency range 30kHz to 500kHz.

11. Derive the expressions for reflection coefficient and refraction coefficient and explain the
behavior of travelling waves at short circuited line ?DEC-19

Whenever there is an abrupt change in the parameters of a transmission line such as an

open circuit or a termination, the travelling wave undergoes a transition, of the wave is reflected
or sent back and only a portion is transmitted forward.

At the transition point (or) junction, the voltage or current wave may attain a value which
say vary from zero to twice its initial value.

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The incoming wave is called the incident wave and the other waves are called reflected and
transmitted (refracted waves at :3. transition point). Such waves are formed according to the
Kirchoffs laws.

The current and voltage at any point on the line is written by

𝑍
𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑥 + 𝑍0 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑝𝑥
𝑡
𝑣= 𝐸(𝑥)
𝑍
𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑥 + 𝑍𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑝𝑥
𝑡

𝑍0
1 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑥 + 𝑍𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑝𝑥
𝐼= [ ] 𝐸(𝑥)
𝑍0 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑥 + 𝑍𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑝𝑥
𝑍𝑡

General differential solution of above equation

𝑉(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑝𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑝𝑥

1
𝐼(𝑥) = (𝐴𝑒 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑝𝑥 )
𝑍0

The incident voltage and current consists of reflection and refraction waves.

V(x)=V1+V2

I(x)=I1+I2
𝑉 𝐴𝑒 𝑝𝑥
I1= 𝑍1 = ---------Forward travelling wave
0 𝑍0

−𝑉 −𝐵𝑒 −𝑝𝑥
I2= 𝑍 2= 𝑍0
--------Backward travelling Wave
0

The Voltage expression can be written as

𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
𝑒 𝑝𝑥 (1 + 𝑍0 ) + 𝑒 −𝑝𝑥 𝑍0 (1 − 𝑍0 )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑉=[ ] 𝐸(𝑥)
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
𝑒 𝑝𝐿 (1 + 𝑍0 ) + 𝑒 −𝑝𝐿 𝑍0 (1 − 𝑍0 )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

𝑍0 − 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝑡 − 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Take x=0 from terminal and x=L at source end
At x=0

The above expression is changed as

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MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

𝑍
(1 + 𝑍0 ) + 0)
𝑡
𝑉=[ ] 𝐸(𝑥)
𝑝𝐿 𝑍0 −𝑝𝐿 𝑍0 𝑍0
𝑒 (1 + 𝑍 ) + 𝑒
𝑡 𝑍 (1 − 𝑍 )
𝑡 𝑡

𝑍
(1 + 𝑍0 )𝐸(𝑥)
𝑡
𝑉=[ ]
𝐷

Where D is a denominator

The total voltage across 𝑍𝑡 =V= Vi+Vr

Vi-Incident voltage

Vr -reflected voltage

V -refracted voltage
𝑍
reflected voltage 1+ 0
𝑍𝑡
Kr = = 𝑍0
Incident voltage 1−
𝑍𝑡

Kr - reflection co efficient
𝑍 −𝑍
Kr =𝑍𝑡+𝑍0
𝑡 0

Refracted coefficient(or)Transmission coefficient

Total voltage at junction
Kt =Incident voltage at junction

𝑍 𝑍
= (1 + 𝑍0 )+( 1 − 𝑍0 )
𝑡 𝑡

𝑍 𝑍
(1+ 0 )+( 1− 0 ) 2𝑍
𝑍𝑡 𝑍𝑡
= 𝑍 = 𝑍 +𝑍𝑡
1− 0 𝑡 0
𝑍𝑡

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Case (ii):

When a wave travelling on a transmission line reaches a point where the line is joined to a second
line of different characteristic impedance.(ie) when line is divided into n other lines

For the refracted wave

V3 B
I 3B 
ZB

V3c V
I 3c  ,.....I 3 N  3 N
Zc ZN

 V2 A
For the reflected wave I2A 
Z Ac

For continuity of voltage V1A  V2 A  V3B  V3c  V3D....  V3 N

and for continuity of current I1A  I 2 A  I 3B  I 3c  I 3D....  I 3 N

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12. Explain the behaviour of travelling waves at line terminations?

Reflection and transmission of a travelling wave at junction points of unequal impedances

in a transmission line are of great importance in transmission system.

Depending upon the type of impedance at transition points, the travelling wave is modifiedand
sometimes voltage rise or build-up of voltage can occur. The following cases are practical
importance.

Case (i) Short Circuited line:

When a travelling wave of voltage reaches a short circuit, the reflected voltagemust
precisely cancel out the incident wave so that the refracted wave is zero.

Let,

V1 — Incident voltage wave

I1 — Incident current wave

Then Reflected voltage, V2  V1

Reflected current I 2  I1
The reflected wave of voltage is same as the incident wave as it returns, whilethe
reflected current wave augments the incident current wave, doubling the currentflowing in the line.
Let take

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Incident Voltage wave = V1

V1
Incident current wave = I 1 
ZA

Surge impedances, Z A  Z

ZB  0
ZB  ZA
Coefficient of reflection a  ( )
ZA  ZB
a  1
Reflected Voltage wave V2  V1

 V2  (V1 )
Reflected Wave I 2  
ZA ZA

V1
I2   I1
ZA

I 2  I1
The total current at the junction point
 I1  I 2  2I
Thus the current at the junction point rises to double the value of the incident current wave. .
When fed by a voltage source:

When a short circuit is applied to a transmission line fed by a voltage source,(zero

impedance and constant voltage V, neglect the line resistance), the fault current will increase
indefinitely at a rate of E, where IL is the inductance to the point of fault L meters away. This is
approximately true as long as travelling wave phenomena are involved.

Our specification of the problem implies certain boundary conditions. These are that at the
short circuit the voltage is always zero, but at the source it is V at all times.

To satisfy the first of these conditions, When the short circuit is applied, a wave of
voltage —V travels toward the source, reducing the line voltage to zero.

When this wave reaches the source, the boundary condition there demands theinitiation
of a new wave of voltage +V, which because of its direction, is associated V with current Z. This
is shown in figure (b). These waves in due course reach the short circuit, where upon the cycle
repeats figure (c), so that short circuit current as seen at the fault or at the source increases in
discrete steps as shown in figure (d) and 2V figure (e)

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Case (ii) Open Circuit:

An open circuit at the end of a transmission line demands that the current at that point be
zero at all times. Thus when a current wave of +1 arrives at the open circuit, a current wave of -1
is at once initiated to satisfy the boundary condition. This will travel toward the source with a
voltage wave of +V.

Incident Voltage Wave = V1

Incident Current Wave = I1
ZA  Z
ZB  
ZA Z
1 1
ZB  ZA ZB  1
Coefficient of Reflection a  ( ) 
ZA  ZB Z Z
1 A 1 A
ZB 
Reflected voltage wave V2  aV1  V1

 V2  V1
Reflected current wave I 2    1
ZA ZA

I1  I 2  0

Refracted voltage wave V3  (1  a)V1  2V1

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Hence the voltage at the opened rises to double its value.

When energized from constant voltage source:

In this situation, the magnetic energy associated with the current disappears when the
current is brought to zero at the open circuit.

It reappears as electric energy, which manifests itself in the doubling of the voltage. The travel
time for the wave along the line is t seconds, by the time the initial current and voltage waves reach
the distant end,

an amount of energy joules will have been fed to the line from the source.

Half of this will reside in the electric field and half in the magnetic field 1 seconds later, joules will
have been imparted to the line, but this is now all in the electric field.

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There is now four times the energy in the electric field. Therefore, at time 1 the voltage along the
line must be twice as high, since energy varies directly as the square of the voltage.

Case (ii) General Terminations:

Line terminated with a resistance equal to the surge impedance of the line.

ZA  Z
ZB  R  Z
ZB  ZA RZ Z Z 0
a( )   0
ZA  ZB R  Z Z  Z 2Z
a0
Reflected Voltage Wave V2  aV1

V2  0
Reflected Voltage Wave V3  (1  a)V1

V3  V1
Thus, there is no reflected wave. There is no discontinuity of the line, and thetravelling wave
proceeds without reflection and disappears. Thus there will be noreflections at thejunction, if a
transmission line or cable is terminated with a resistanceequal to the surge impedance of the line
or cable.
Case (iv) Line terminated with a capacitor:

Z A  Z B (behaves as a resistor independent of s.)

1
ZB 
C1 s

ZB  ZA
a
ZB  ZA
1
( )  ZA
C1 s
Reflection coefficient a 
1
( )  ZA
C1 s

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2
( )
2Z B C1 s
Refraction coefficient b  
ZB  ZA 1
( )  ZA
C1 s
Thus the laplace transform of the reflected wave
V2 (s)  aV1 (s)
1
( )  ZA
V1 C1 s
 [ ]
s 1
( )  ZA
C1 s
1
( )s
V1 C1 Z A
 [ ]
s 1
( )s
C1 Z A

1
( ) 
C1 Z A

V1   S
V2 ( S )  ( )
S  S

 1
 V1 (  )
S (S   ) S 

Taking inverse laplace transforms

V2 (t )  V1[1  e t  e t ]

V2 (t )  V1[2  e t ]

Refracted wave V3  V1  V2

V3  V1 (2  e t )

V3 (S )  bV1 (S )

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

2
) (
V1 C1 s
 [ ]
s 1
C1 s  Z A

2
( )
V1 C1 Z A
 [ ]
s 1
C1 Z A  s

2
 V1 ( )
s[ s   ]

V3 (t )  V1[2  e t ]

When the incident wave reaches the capacitor C, it cannot instantaneously change its potential.
Momentarily, the capacitor behaves like a short circuit, the front of the reflected wave cancels out
the incident wave as we observed with a short circuit.

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It can be inferred that the steepness of the front is reduced and the wave rises slowly in an
exponential manner. The voltage at the junction point finally rises to twice the magnitude of the
incident wave.

Case (iv) Transmission line terminated by an inductance L:

Inductive termination is the dual of the capacitive termination. When the wavearrives at its
terminals, momentarily it appears like an open circuit. In due course the pure inductance presents
no impedance to a direct current, so that ultimately it appears ' as a short circuit.

ZA  ZA
Z B  L1 s
V1 L1 s  Z A
Transform of reflected wave V2 ( s)  ( )
s L1 s  Z A
𝑍
𝑠− 𝐴 𝑣
𝐿1 1
𝑍
𝑠+ 𝐴 𝑠
= 𝐿1

Taking partial fraction

1 2
𝑣2 (𝑠) =-𝑣1 (𝑠 − 𝑍 )
𝑠+ 𝐴
𝐿1

𝑍𝐴
𝑡
𝑣2 (𝑡) = −𝑣1 (1 − 2𝑒 𝐿1 )

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

𝑣1 2𝐿1 𝑠
Transform of refracted wave,𝑣3 (𝑠) = ( )
𝑠 𝐿1 𝑠+𝑍𝐴

𝑣 2𝐿1 𝑠
= 1( 𝑍 )
𝑠 𝐿1 (𝑠+ 𝐴
𝐿 1

𝑣 2
= 1( 𝑍 )
1 (𝑠+ 𝐴
𝐿 1

Taking inverse laplace transform we get

𝑍𝐴
𝑡
𝑣3 (𝑡) = 2𝑣1 𝑒 𝐿1

The voltage across the inductor initially rises to double the value of the incident wave and
decays exponentially.

13) Explain Why a steep fronted surge wave form are more vulnerable to insulation?(May
2015)(8 mark)
 For steep fronted travelling waves, the voltages at different points in the sub-station can
exceed the protective level by amounts that depend on the distance from the diverter
location, the steepness of the wave front and other electrical parameters.
 Hence, it is necessary to decide the number of locations at which surge diverters are to be
located and their ratings. It is necessary to keep this number to a minimum. Also, care must
be taken regarding switching over-voltages generated due to current chopping which may
destroy the transformer or the equipment near the circuit breakers.
 The Basic Impulse Level (BIL) is often determined as simply 1.25 to 1.30 times the
protective level offered by the surge diverter. Usually, the next higher BIL value from the
standard values is chosen.
 Usually the circuit breaker, the transformer and other equipment are placed at finite
distances from the surge diverter and connected through a short distance overhead line or
cable. When a surge arises, it suffers multiple reflections between each of the equipment
which may give rise to over voltages of considerable magnitude (the travel time is usually
less than a microSec).
 It can be shown that when a surge diverter, a breaker and a transformer are in line, the
voltage that can build up at a distance D from the surge diverter point is given as V(D) =
Vp + 2S7*, where Vp is the spark over voltage/protective level, S is the steepness of the
wave front, and T is the travel time =DIv. Here, v is the velocity of the wave travel,
assuming that the line extends to a large distance such that no reflections come from the
line end.
 The maximum value of V(D) is attained when 2T = TQ, the spark over time of the diverter.

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

 "Distance effect" is to be suitably allowed for when surge diverters are to be used for SDL
also; a margin of 15 to 20% is normally allowed over the protective level.
 Distance effect is negligible for long fronted switching surges.

14)Briefly explain with the aid of suitable diagrams, the statistical method of insulation co-
ordination?(16 mark)(May 2015)

 Insulation coordination means the correlation of the insulation of the various equipments
in a power
 system to the insulation of the protective devices used for the protection of those
equipments against over-voltages.
 In a power system various equipments like transformers, circuit breakers, bus supports
etc. have different breakdown voltages and hence the volt-time characteristics. In order
that all the equipments should be properly protected it is desired that the insulation of the
various protective devices must be properly coordinated.
 Curve A is the volt-time curve of the protective device and B the volt-time curve of the
equipment to be protected.
 Thus, any insulation having a withstand voltage strength in excess of the insulation
strength of curve B is protected by the protective device of curve A.

The insulation design of EHV and UHV system is based on the following principles.
 The station have transformers and other valuable equipment that have non self restoring
insulation.
 The protective levels for lightning surges and switching surges are almost equal and even
overlap.
 BIL cannot give protection against switching impulses. So separate SIL needed. So when
controlling of switching voltage control device works fail that time surge arrester suppress
switching surges.
 The protection level provided by the protective devices like surge arresters is same as for
other apparatus difference is surge arrester absorb surge.
 The safety margin is arrived at by considering the risk factor R for the devices used for the
protection and the insulation structure to be protected.

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

 In normal practice the insulation level and the protective safety margin are arrived at by
i)Selecting the risk of failure(R)
ii)Statistical safety factor(𝛾)
iii)Fixing the withstand voltage and designing the insulation level of any equipment
corresponding to 90%,95% of the withstand voltage thus fixed.
Statistical approach
 The statistical methods is a very rigorous experimentation and analysis work so as to find
probability of occurence of over-voltages and probability of failure of insulation. It is
found that the distribution of breakdown for a given gap follows with some exceptions
approximately normal or Gaussian distribution. Similarly the distribution of over voltages
on the system also follows the
 Gaussian distribution. In order to coordinate electrical stresses due to over-voltages with
the electrical strengths of the dielectric media, it has been found convenient to represent
overvoltage distribution in the form of probability density function and the insulation
breakdown probability by the cumulative
 Distribution function as shown in Fig.
 Suppose P0(Vk) is the probability density of an overvoltage Vk and P0 (Vk) dVk the
probability of
occurence of the over voltages having a peak value Vk. To obtain the probability to
disruptive discharges due to these overvoltages having a value between Vk and Vk + dVk ,
their probability of occurrence P0(Vk) dVk, shall be multiplied by Pb(Vk) that an impulse
of the given type and of value Vk will produce a discharge.
The resultant probability or risk of failure for overvoltage between Vk and Vk + dVk is
thus,
dR= Pb(Vk) P0(Vk) dVk
 For the total voltage range we obtain the total probability of failure or risk of failure.
∞
R=∫0 Pb(Vk) P0(Vk) dVk

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UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART-A

1) Why protection of transmission line important? (APR-MAY2011)

2) What are the causes of over voltages in electric system? (NOV-DEC2011,2014)
3) What is Isokeraunic levelor thunderstorm days? (May-2011,NOV-16)
4) What are the factors of origin of switching surges? (NOV-DEC-2012)
5)Define lightning phenomenon? NOV-DEC 2012
6) What is counterpoise wire/give it is uses? NOV-DEC 2012
7) Mention the different kinds of over voltages?(MAY-JUNE 2013)
8) What is stepped leader stroke? (MAY-JUNE 2013)
9) Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharges.(May-2014)
10) Classify the lightning strokes(May-2014)
11) What is Bewley Lattice Diagram?(Dec-14)
12)What are the factors that influence the lightning induced voltage on transmission line?
13)Why a simple spark gap cannot offer full protection against over voltage?
14) What are the causes of over voltages in electric Power system? (Dec-11, Dec-14)(OR)

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 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE8701-HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

What are the various abnormalities in power system?(May 2015)

15) What are the factors that influence the lightning induced voltage on transmission
lines? (Nov 2015)
16)Why the simple spark gap cannot offer full protection against over voltage?(NOV 2015)
17)What are the characteristics of lightning strokes?(May 2015)
18)what is back flashover? Nov-16.

PART-B
1) Explain briefly various charge formation theory and also explain briefly lightning mechanism?
(NOV-DEC 2012)
2). Discuss about the mechanism of lightning Strokes:(MAY-2008, MAY-2012,NOV-16)
3) Write shorts on Switching Surges and temporary over voltage? (NOV-DEC 2011)(NOV 2015)
4) Write short notes on Power frequency over voltage in power system? (NOV-DEC 2012,
MAY-2013) )(NOV 2015)
5) Explain the various methods of Protection against over voltages? (NOV-DEC-2011, MAY-
2013)
6)What are the causes for switching and power frequency over voltage ? how are they controlled
in power system? NOV-DEC 2013,MAY-2014,(NOV 2015)
7)What are the requirements of ground wire for protecting power conductor against direct lightning
stroke? Explain how they are achieved in practice.(MAY-JUNE-2014)

8)Basic Requirements of a Lightning Arrester or Surge Diverter and Explain its operation with
V-I characteristics.(MAY-2014)(NOV 2015)
9) Explain step by step procedure to draw (OR) constructing Bewley’s lattice diagram?(MAY-
2014) (OR)Obtain the expression of reflected and transmission of travelling waves at transmission
points (DEC-14)

10)A long transmission line is energized by a unit step voltage 1.0 V at the sending end and is
open circuited at the receiving end. Construct the Bewley lattice diagram and obtain the value of
the voltage at the receiving end after a long time. Take the attenuation factor a = 0.8.
(DEC-14)(NOV 2015)
11)Derive the expressions for reflection coefficient and refraction coefficient and explain the
behavior of travelling waves at short circuited line ?
12) Explain the behaviour of travelling waves at line terminations?
13) Explain Why a steep fronted surge wave form are more vulnerable to insulation?(May
2015)(8 mark)
14)Briefly explain with the aid of suitable diagrams, the statistical method of insulation co-
ordination?(16 mark)(May 2015)
15)Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharge and explain.(or)Briefly describe a
method of recording the occurrence of lightning in an over head transmission line?Nov-16
16)Explain the various methods of Protection against over voltages in OHT lines?(NOV-DEC-
2011, MAY-2013,DEC-2013, 16)

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