MIT CTL - sc1x Supply Chain Fundamentals - Key Concepts
MIT CTL - sc1x Supply Chain Fundamentals - Key Concepts
CTL.SC1x
Supply
Chain
Fundamentals
Key
Concepts
Document
V5.1
SC1x
is
an
online
course
offered
by
MITx
on
the
edX
platform.
It
was
created
and
is
run
by
the
MIT
Center
for
Transportation
&
Logistics.
It
was
the
first
of
the
five
courses
in
the
MITx
MicroMaster’s
Credential
program
in
Supply
Chain
Management
launched
in
2015.
For
more
details
on
the
specifics
of
the
credential,
see
http://scm.mit.edu/micromasters.
This
is
the
Key
Concepts
document
for
SC1x.
It
is
a
guide
to
be
used
in
conjunction
with
the
other
course
materials
such
as
videos
and
practice
problems.
We
created
the
Key
Concepts
document
at
the
request
of
students
in
the
first
running
of
SC1x
(then
call
Supply
Chain
and
Logistics
Fundamentals)
in
the
fall
of
2014.
We
had
not
provided
any
sort
of
“take-‐home”
reference
for
students
beyond
the
slides
used
in
each
video
lecture
segment.
We
found
that
students
desired
a
clear
and
concise
document
that
covered
all
of
the
material
for
quick
reference.
We
hope
this
document
fills
that
need.
This
document
is
meant
to
complement,
not
replace,
the
lesson
videos,
slides,
practice
problems,
and
quick
questions.
It
is
a
reference
for
you
to
use
going
forward
and
therefore
we
assume
you
have
learned
the
concepts
and
completed
the
practice
problems.
This
document
is
probably
not
the
best
way
to
learn
a
topic
for
the
first
time.
That
is
what
the
videos
are
for!
It
is
organized
week
by
week
with
a
chapter
for
each
lesson.
Also,
the
Normal
and
Poisson
Distribution
tables
are
in
the
appendix.
This
document
has
had
many
contributors.
The
initial
draft
was
created
by
Andrew
Gabris
in
Spring
2015
and
revised
heavily
by
Dr.
Eva
Ponce
in
the
Spring
of
2016.
Any
and
all
mistakes
lie
with
me,
however!
I
hope
you
find
it
useful!
We
are
continually
updating
and
improving
this
document.
Please
post
any
suggestions,
corrections,
or
recommendations
to
the
Discussion
Forum
under
the
topic
thread
“Key
Concept
Document
Improvements”
or
contact
us
directly.
Best,
Chris
Caplice
caplice@mit.edu
Lesson
Summary:
This
lesson
presented
a
short
overview
of
the
concepts
of
Supply
Chain
Management
and
logistics.
We
demonstrated
through
short
examples
how
the
supply
chains
for
items
as
varied
as
bananas,
women’s
shoes,
cement,
and
carburetors
have
common
supply
chain
elements.
There
are
many
definitions
of
supply
chain
management.
The
simplest
one
that
I
like
is
the
management
of
the
physical,
financial,
and
information
flow
between
trading
partners
that
ultimately
fulfills
a
customer
request.
The
primary
purpose
of
any
supply
chain
is
to
satisfy
an
end
customer’s
need.
Supply
chains
try
to
maximize
the
total
value
generated
as
defined
as
the
amount
the
customer
pays
minus
the
cost
of
fulfilling
the
need
along
the
entire
supply
chain.
It
is
important
to
recognize
that
supply
chains
will
always
include
multiple
firms.
While
Supply
Chain
Management
is
a
new
term
(first
coined
in
1982
by
Keith
Oliver
from
Booz
Allen
Hamilton
in
an
interview
with
the
Financial
Times),
the
concepts
are
ancient
and
date
back
to
ancient
Rome.
The
term
“logistics”
has
its
roots
in
the
Roman
military.
Supply
chains
can
be
viewed
in
many
different
perspectives:
• Geographic
Maps
-‐
showing
origins,
destinations,
and
the
physical
routes.
• Flow
Diagrams
–
showing
the
flow
of
materials,
information,
and
finance
between
echelons.
• Process
View
–
consisting
of
four
primary
cycles
(Customer
Order,
Replenishment,
Manufacturing,
and
Procurement)
–
See
Chopra
&
Meindl
for
more
details.
• Macro-‐Process
or
Software
–
dividing
the
supply
chains
into
three
key
areas
of
management:
Supplier
Relationship,
Internal,
and
Customer
Relationship.
• Supply
Chain
Operations
Reference
(SCOR)
Model
–
developed
by
the
Supply
Chain
Council
in
the
1980’s,
the
SCOR
model
breaks
supply
chains
into
Source,
Make,
Deliver,
Plan,
and
Return
functions.
• Traditional
Functional
Roles
–
where
supply
chains
are
divided
into
separate
functional
roles
(Procurement,
Inventory
Control,
Warehousing,
Materials
Handling,
Order
Processing,
Transportation,
Customer
Service,
Planning,
etc.).
This
is
how
most
companies
are
organized.
And
finally:
• Systems
Perspective
–
where
the
actions
from
one
function
are
shown
to
impact
(and
be
impacted
by)
other
functions.
The
idea
is
that
you
need
to
manage
the
entire
system
rather
than
the
individual
siloed
functions.
As
one
expands
the
scope
of
management,
there
are
more
opportunities
for
improvement,
but
the
complexity
increases
dramatically.
• Supply
chain
strategy:
how
to
structure
the
supply
chain
over
the
next
several
years
(long-‐term
decisions,
e.g.
locations
and
capacities
of
facilities).
• Supply
chain
planning:
decisions
over
the
next
quarter
or
year
(medium-‐term
decisions,
e.g.
which
markets
will
be
supplied
from
which
location,
inventory
policies,
timing
and
size
of
market
promotions,
mode
and
carrier
selection).
• Supply
chain
operation:
daily
or
weekly
operational
decisions
(short-‐term
decisions,
e.g.
allocate
orders
to
inventory
or
production,
generate
pick
lists
at
a
warehouse,
place
replenishment
orders).
As
Supply
Chain
Management
evolves
and
matures
as
a
discipline,
the
skills
required
to
be
successful
are
growing
and
changing.
Because
supply
chains
cross
multiple
firms,
time
zones,
and
cultures,
the
ability
to
coordinate
has
become
critical.
Also,
the
need
for
soft
or
influential
leadership
is
more
important
than
hard
or
hierarchical
leadership.
Key
Concepts:
Supply
Chains
are
two
or
more
parties
linked
by
a
flow
of
resources
–
typically
material,
information,
and
money
–
that
ultimately
fulfill
a
customer
request.
The
Supply
Chain
Process
has
four
Primary
Cycles:
Customer
Order
Cycle,
Replenishment
Cycle,
Manufacturing
Cycle,
and
Procurement
Cycle
(see
Figure
1
to
the
right).
Not
every
supply
chain
contains
all
four
cycles.
The
Supply
Chain
Operations
Reference
(SCOR)
Model
is
another
useful
perspective.
It
shows
the
four
major
operations
in
a
supply
chain:
source,
make,
deliver,
plan,
and
return.
(See
Figure
2
below)
Figure
1
Supply
Chain
P rocess.
Source:
Chopra
&
Meindl,
2013
• Look
to
maximize
value
across
the
supply
chain
rather
than
a
specific
function
such
as
transportation.
• Note
that
while
this
increases
the
potential
for
improvement,
complexity
and
coordination
requirements
increase
as
well.
• Recognize
new
challenges
such
as:
o Metrics—how
will
this
new
system
be
measured
o Politics
and
power—who
gains
and
loses
influence,
and
what
are
the
effects
o Visibility—where
data
is
stored
and
who
has
access
o Uncertainty—compounds
unknowns
such
as
lead
times,
customer
demand,
and
manufacturing
yield
o Global
Operations—most
firms
source
and
sell
across
the
globe
Supply
chains
must
adapt
by
acting
as
both
a
bridge
and
a
shock
absorber
to
connect
functions
as
well
as
neutralize
disruptions.
References:
Chopra,
Sunil,
and
Peter
Meindl.
"Chapter
1."
Supply
Chain
Management:
Strategy,
Planning,
and
Operation.
5th
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2013.
Lesson
Summary:
We
focused
on
three
fundamental
concepts
for
logistics
and
supply
chain
management
in
this
lesson:
push
versus
pull
systems,
segmentation,
and
modeling
uncertainty.
Virtually
all
supply
chains
are
a
combination
of
push
and
pull
systems.
A
push
system
is
where
execution
is
performed
ahead
of
an
actual
order
so
that
the
forecasted
demand,
rather
than
actual
demand,
has
to
be
used
in
planning.
A
pull
system
is
where
execution
is
performed
in
response
to
an
order
so
that
the
actual
demand
is
known
with
certainty.
The
point
in
the
process
where
a
supply
chain
shifts
from
being
push
to
pull
is
sometimes
called
the
push/pull
boundary
or
push/pull
point.
In
manufacturing,
the
push/pull
point
is
also
known
as
the
decoupling
point
(DP)
(Hoekstra
and
Rome,
1992;
Mason-‐Jones
and
Towill,
1999)
or
customer
order
decoupling
point
(CODP)
(Olhager,
2012).
The
CODP
coincides
with
an
important
stock
point,
where
the
customer
order
arrives
(switching
inventory
based
on
a
forecast
to
actual
demand),
and
also
allows
to
differentiate
basic
production
systems:
make-‐to-‐stock,
assemble-‐to-‐
order,
make-‐to-‐order,
or
engineer-‐to-‐order.
Push
systems
have
fast
response
times
but
can
result
in
having
either
excess
or
shortage
of
materials
since
demand
is
based
on
a
forecast.
Pull
systems,
on
the
other
hand,
do
not
result
in
excess
or
shortages
since
the
actual
demand
is
used
but
have
longer
response
times.
Push
systems
are
more
common
in
practice
than
pull
systems,
but
most
are
a
hybrid
mix
of
the
push
and
pull.
Postponement
is
a
common
strategy
to
combine
the
benefits
of
push
(product
ready
for
demand)
and
pull
(fast
customized
service)
systems.
Postponement
is
where
the
undifferentiated
raw
or
components
are
“pushed”
through
a
forecast,
and
the
final
finished
and
customized
products
are
then
“pulled”.
We
used
the
example
of
a
sandwich
shop
in
our
lessons
to
illustrate
how
both
push
and
pull
systems
have
a
role.
Segmentation
is
a
method
of
dividing
a
supply
chain
into
two
or
more
groupings
where
the
supply
chains
operate
differently
and
more
efficiently
and/or
effectively.
While
there
are
no
absolute
rules
for
segmentation,
there
are
some
rules
of
thumb,
such
as:
items
should
be
homogenous
within
the
segment
and
heterogeneous
across
segments;
there
should
be
critical
mass
within
each
segment;
and
the
segments
need
to
be
useful
and
communicable.
The
number
of
segments
is
totally
arbitrary
–
but
needs
to
be
a
reasonable
number
to
be
useful.
A
segment
only
makes
sense
if
it
does
something
different
In
an
ABC
segmentation,
the
products
driving
the
most
revenue
(or
profit
or
sales)
are
Class
A
items
(the
important
few).
Products
driving
very
little
revenue
(or
profit
or
sales)
are
Class
C
items
(the
trivial
many),
and
the
products
in
the
middle
are
Class
B.
A
common
breakdown
is
the
top
20%
of
items
(Class
A)
generate
80%
of
the
revenue,
Class
B
is
30%
of
the
products
generating
15%
of
the
revenue,
and
the
Class
C
items
generate
less
than
5%
of
the
revenue
while
constituting
50%
of
the
items.
The
distribution
of
percent
sales
volume
to
percent
of
SKUs
(Stock
Keeping
Units)
tends
to
follow
a
Power
Law
distribution
(y=axk)
where
y
is
percent
of
demand
(units
or
sales
or
profit),
x
is
percent
of
SKUs,
and
a
and
k
are
parameters.
The
value
for
k
should
obviously
be
less
than
1
since
if
k=1
the
relationship
is
linear.
In
addition
to
segmenting
according
to
products,
many
firms
segment
by
customer,
geographic
region,
or
supplier.
Segmentation
is
typically
done
using
revenue
as
the
key
driver,
but
many
firms
also
include
variability
of
demand,
profitability,
and
other
factors,
to
include:
Supply
chains
operate
in
uncertainty.
Demand
is
never
known
exactly,
for
example.
In
order
to
handle
and
be
able
to
analyze
systems
with
uncertainty,
we
need
to
capture
the
distribution
of
the
variable
in
question.
When
we
are
describing
a
random
situation,
say,
the
expected
demand
for
pizzas
on
a
Thursday
night,
it
is
helpful
to
describe
the
potential
outcomes
in
terms
of
the
central
tendency
(mean
or
median)
as
well
as
the
dispersion
(standard
deviation,
range).
We
will
often
characterize
the
distribution
of
potential
outcomes
as
following
a
well-‐known
function.
We
discussed
two
in
this
lesson:
Normal
and
Poisson.
If
we
can
characterize
the
distribution,
then
we
can
set
a
policy
that
meets
standards
to
a
certain
probability.
We
will
use
these
distributions
extensively
when
we
model
inventory.
Key
Concepts:
Pull
vs.
Push
Process
• Push—work
performed
in
anticipation
of
an
order
(forecasted
demand)
• Pull—execution
performed
in
response
to
an
order
(demand
known
with
certainty)
• Hybrid
or
Mixed—push
raw
products,
pull
finished
product
(postponement
or
delayed
differentiation)
• Push/pull
boundary
point
—
point
in
the
process
where
a
supply
chain
shifts
from
being
push
to
pull
• In
manufacturing,
also
known
as
“decoupling
point”
(DP)
or
“customer
order
decoupling
point”
(CODP)
—
the
point
in
the
material
flow
where
the
product
is
linked
to
a
specific
customer
• Mass
customization
/
Postponement
—
to
delay
the
final
assembly,
customization,
or
differentiation
of
a
product
until
as
late
as
possible
Handling
Uncertainty
Uncertainty
of
an
outcome
(demand,
transit
time,
manufacturing
yield,
etc.)
is
modeled
through
a
probability
distribution.
We
discussed
two
in
the
lesson:
Poisson
and
Normal.
−( x0 −µ )2
2σ x2
e
( )
f x x0 =
σ x 2π
The
Normal
Distribution
is
formally
defined
as:
We
will
also
make
use
of
the
Unit
Normal
or
Standard
Normal
Distribution.
This
is
~N(0,1)
where
the
mean
is
zero
and
the
standard
deviation
is
1
(as
is
the
variance,
obviously).
The
chart
below
shows
the
standard
or
unit
normal
distribution.
We
will
be
making
use
of
the
transformation
from
any
Normal
Distribution
to
the
Unit
Normal
(See
Figure
3).
We
will
make
extensive
use
of
spreadsheets
(whether
Excel
or
LibreOffice)
to
calculate
probabilities
under
the
Normal
Distribution.
The
following
functions
are
helpful:
• NORMDIST(x,
µ,
σ,
true)
=
the
probability
that
a
random
variable
is
less
than
or
equal
to
x
under
the
Normal
Distribution
~N(µ,
σ).
So,
that
NORMDIST(25,
20,
3,
1)
=
0.952
which
means
that
there
is
a
95.2%
probability
that
a
number
from
this
distribution
will
be
less
than
25.
• NORMINV(probability,
µ,
σ)
=
the
value
of
x
where
the
probability
that
a
random
variable
is
less
than
or
equal
to
it
is
the
specified
probability.
So,
NORMINV(0.952,
20,
3)
=
25.
To
use
the
Unit
Normal
Distribution
~N(0,1)
we
need
to
transform
the
given
distribution
by
calculating
a
k
value
where
k=(x-‐
µ)/σ.
This
is
sometimes
called
a
z
value
in
statistics
courses,
but
in
almost
all
supply
chain
and
inventory
contexts
it
is
referred
to
as
a
k
value.
So,
in
our
example,
k
=
(25
–
20)/3
=
1.67.
Why
do
we
use
the
Unit
Normal?
Well,
the
k
value
is
a
helpful
and
convenient
piece
of
information.
The
k
is
the
number
of
standard
deviations
the
value
x
is
above
(or
below
if
it
is
negative)
the
mean.
We
will
be
looking
at
a
number
of
specific
values
for
k
that
are
widely
used
as
thresholds
in
practice,
specifically,
Because the Normal Distribution is symmetric, there are also some common confidence intervals:
• μ
±
σ
68.3%
—
meaning
that
68.3%
of
the
values
fall
within
1
standard
deviation
of
the
mean,
• μ
±
2σ
95.5%
—
95.5%
of
the
values
fall
within
2
standard
deviations
of
the
mean,
and
• μ
±
3σ
99.7%
—
99.7%
of
the
values
fall
within
3
standard
deviations
of
the
mean.
x
e−λ λ 0
p[x0 ] = Prob !" x = x0 #$ = for x0 = 0,1,2,...
x0 !
x
0
e−λ λ x
F[x0 ] = Prob !" x ≤ x0 #$ = ∑
x=0 x!
The
chart
below
(Figure
4)
shows
the
Poisson
Distribution
for
λ=3.
The
Poisson
parameter
λ
is
both
the
mean
and
the
variance
for
the
distribution!
Note
that
λ
does
not
have
to
be
an
integer.
20%
15%
P(x=x0)
10%
5%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
Figure
4.
Poisson
Distribution
• POISSON(x0,
λ,
false)
=>
P(x
=
x0)
=
the
probability
that
a
random
variable
is
equal
to
x0
under
the
Poisson
Distribution
~P(λ).
So,
that
POISSON(2,
1.56,
0)
=
0.256
which
means
that
there
is
a
25.6%
probability
that
a
number
from
this
distribution
will
be
equal
to
2.
• POISSON(x0,
λ,
true)
=>
P(x
≤
x0)
=
the
probability
that
a
random
variable
is
less
than
or
equal
to
x0
under
the
Poisson
Distribution
~P(λ).
So,
that
POISSON(2,
1.56,
1)
=
0.793
which
means
that
there
is
a
79.3%
probability
that
a
number
from
this
distribution
will
be
less
than
or
equal
to
2.
This
is
simply
just
the
cumulative
distribution
function.
References:
Push/Pull
Processes:
Chopra
&
Meindl
Chpt
1;
Nahmias
Chpt
7;
Segmentation: Nahmias Chpt 5; Silver, Pyke, & Peterson Chpt 3; Ballou Chpt 3
Probability Distributions: Chopra & Meindl Chpt 12; Nahmias Chpt 5; Silver, Pyke, & Peterson App B
Fisher, M. (1997) “What Is the Right Supply Chain for Your Product?,” Harvard Business Review.
Olavson,
T.,
Lee,
H.
&
DeNyse,
G.
(2010)
“A
Portfolio
Approach
to
Supply
Chain
Design,”
Supply
Chain
Management
Review.
Lesson
Summary:
This
lesson
is
the
first
of
six
that
focus
on
demand
forecasting.
It
is
important
to
remember
that
forecasting
is
just
one
of
three
components
of
an
organization’s
Demand
Planning,
Forecasting,
and
Management
process.
Demand
Planning
answers
the
question
“What
should
we
do
to
shape
and
create
demand
for
our
product?”
and
concerns
things
like
promotions,
pricing,
packaging,
etc.
Demand
Forecasting
then
answers
“What
should
we
expect
demand
for
our
product
to
be
given
the
demand
plan
in
place?”
This
will
be
our
focus
in
these
next
six
lessons.
The
final
component,
Demand
Management,
answers
the
question,
“How
do
we
prepare
for
and
act
on
demand
when
it
materializes?”
This
concerns
things
like
Sales
&
Operations
Planning
(S&OP)
and
balancing
supply
and
demand.
We
will
cover
these
topics
in
the
online
edX
course
CTL.SC2x.
Within
the
Demand
Forecasting
component,
you
can
think
of
three
levels,
each
with
its
own
time
horizon
and
purpose.
Strategic
forecasts
(years)
are
used
for
capacity
planning,
investment
strategies,
etc.
Tactical
forecasts
(weeks
to
months
to
quarters)
are
used
for
sales
plans,
short-‐term
budgets,
inventory
planning,
labor
planning,
etc.
Finally,
operations
forecasts
(hours
to
days)
are
used
for
production,
transportation,
and
inventory
replenishment
decisions.
The
time
frame
of
the
action
dictates
the
time
horizon
of
the
forecast.
Forecasting
is
both
an
art
and
a
science.
There
are
many
“truisms”
concerning
forecasting.
We
covered
three
in
the
lectures
along
with
proposed
solutions:
1. Forecasts
are
always
wrong
–
Yes,
point
forecasts
will
never
be
completely
perfect.
The
solution
is
to
not
rely
totally
on
point
forecasts.
Incorporate
ranges
into
your
forecasts.
Also
you
should
try
to
capture
and
track
the
forecast
errors
so
that
you
can
sense
and
measure
any
drift
or
changes.
2. Aggregated
forecasts
are
more
accurate
than
dis-‐aggregated
forecasts
–
The
idea
is
that
combining
different
items
leads
to
a
pooling
effect
that
will
in
turn
lessen
the
variability.
The
peaks
balance
out
the
valleys.
The
coefficient
of
variation
(CV)
is
commonly
used
to
measure
variability
and
is
defined
as
the
standard
deviation
over
the
mean
(𝐶𝑉 = 𝜎/𝜇).
Forecasts
are
generally
aggregated
by
SKU
(a
family
of
products
versus
an
individual
one),
time
(demand
over
a
month
versus
over
a
single
day),
or
location
(demand
for
a
region
versus
a
single
store).
Forecasting
methods
can
be
divided
into
being
subjective
(most
often
used
by
marketing
and
sales)
or
objective
(most
often
used
by
production
and
inventory
planners).
Subjective
methods
can
be
further
divided
into
being
either
Judgmental
(someone
somewhere
knows
the
truth),
such
as
sales
force
surveys,
Delphi
sessions,
or
expert
opinions,
or
Experimental
(sampling
local
and
then
extrapolating),
such
as
customer
surveys,
focus
groups,
or
test
marketing.
Objective
methods
are
either
Causal
(there
is
an
underlying
relationship
or
reason)
such
as
regression,
leading
indicators,
etc.
or
Time
Series
(there
are
patterns
in
the
demand)
such
as
exponential
smoothing,
moving
average,
etc.
All
methods
have
their
place
and
their
role.
We
will
spend
a
lot
of
time
on
the
objective
methods
but
will
also
discuss
the
subjective
ones
as
well.
Regardless
of
the
forecasting
method
used,
you
will
want
to
measure
the
quality
of
the
forecast.
The
two
major
dimensions
of
quality
are
bias
(a
persistent
tendency
to
over-‐
or
under-‐predict)
and
accuracy
(closeness
to
the
actual
observations).
No
single
metric
does
a
good
job
capturing
both
dimensions,
so
it
is
worth
having
multiple.
The
definitions
and
formulas
are
shown
below.
The
most
common
metrics
used
are
MAPE
and
RMSE
for
showing
accuracy
and
MPE
for
bias.
But,
there
are
many,
many
different
variations
used
in
practice,
so
just
be
clear
about
what
is
being
measured
and
how
the
metric
is
being
calculated.
Key
Concepts:
Forecasting
Truisms
• Forecasts
are
always
wrong
o Demand
is
essentially
a
continuous
variable
o Every
estimate
has
an
“error
band”
o Compensate
by
using
range
forecasts
and
not
fixating
on
a
single
point
• Aggregated
forecasts
are
more
accurate
o Forecasts
aggregated
over
time,
SKU
or
location
are
generally
more
accurate
o Pooling
reduces
coefficient
of
variation
(CV),
which
is
a
measure
of
volatility
o Example
aggregating
by
location:
Three
locations
(n=3)
with
each
normally
distributed
demand
~N(μ,σ)
𝜎
𝐶𝑉/01 =
𝜇
𝜇233 = 𝜇4 + 𝜇6 + 𝜇7
𝜎 3 𝜎 𝐶𝑉/01
𝐶𝑉233 = = =
3𝜇 𝜇 3 3
Forecasting
Metrics
There
is
a
cost
trade-‐off
between
cost
of
errors
in
forecasting
and
cost
of
quality
forecasts
that
must
be
balanced.
Forecast
metric
systems
should
capture
bias
and
accuracy.
Notation:
At:
Actual
value
for
observation
t
µ: mean
σ:
standard
deviation
=
CV:
Coefficient
of
Variation
–
a
measure
of
volatility
–
𝐶𝑉 =
>
Formulas:
C
BDE AB
Mean
Deviation:
𝑀𝐷 =
0
C
BDE AB
Mean
Absolute
Deviation:
𝑀𝐴𝐷 =
0
C I
BDE AB
Mean
Squared
Error:
𝑀𝑆𝐸 =
0
C AI
BDE B
Root
Mean
Squared
Error:
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 =
0
C LB
BDEM
B
Mean
Percent
Error:
𝑀𝑃𝐸 =
0
C LB
BDE M
B
Mean
Absolute
Percent
Error:
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐸 =
0
Statistical
Aggregation:
6
𝜎233 = 𝜎46 + 𝜎66 + 𝜎76 + ⋯ + 𝜎06
𝜇233 = 𝜇4 + 𝜇6 + 𝜇7 + ⋯ + 𝜇0
𝜇233 = 𝜇4 + 𝜇6 + 𝜇7 + ⋯ + 𝜇0 = 𝑛𝜇/01
𝜎 𝑛 𝜎 𝐶𝑉/01
𝐶𝑉233 = = =
𝜇𝑛 𝜇 𝑛 𝑛
References:
There are literally thousands of good forecasting references. Some that I like and have used include:
• Makridakis,
Spyros,
Steven
C.
Wheelwright,
and
Rob
J.
Hyndman.
Forecasting:
Methods
and
Applications.
New
York,
NY:
Wiley,
1998.
ISBN
9780471532330.
• Hyndman,
Rob
J.
and
George
Athanasopoulos.
Forecasting:
Principles
and
Practice.
OTexts,
2014.
ISBN
0987507109.
• Gilliland,
Michael.
The
Business
Forecasting
Deal:
Exposing
Bad
Practices
and
Providing
Practical
Solutions.
Hoboken,
NJ:
Wiley,
2010.
ISBN
0470574437.
Within
the
texts
mentioned
earlier:
Silver,
Pyke,
and
Peterson
Chapter
4.1;
Chopra
&
Meindl
Chapter
7.1-‐7.4;
Nahmias
Chapter
2.1-‐2.6.
Also,
I
recommend
checking
out
the
Institute
of
Business
Forecasting
&
Planning
(https://ibf.org/)
and
their
Journal
of
Business
Forecasting.
Lesson
Summary:
Time
Series
is
an
extremely
widely
used
forecasting
technique
for
mid-‐range
forecasts
for
items
that
have
a
long
history
or
record
of
demand.
Time
series
is
essentially
pattern
matching
of
data
that
are
distributed
over
time.
For
this
reason,
you
tend
to
need
a
lot
of
data
to
be
able
to
capture
the
components
or
patterns.
There
are
five
components
to
time
series
(level,
trend,
seasonality,
error,
and
cyclical)
but
we
only
discuss
the
first
four.
Business
cycles
are
more
suited
to
longer
range,
strategic
forecasting
time
horizons.
• Cumulative
–
where
everything
matters
and
all
data
are
included.
This
results
in
a
very
calm
forecast
that
changes
very
slowly
over
time
–
thus
it
is
more
stable
than
responsive.
• Naïve
–
where
only
the
latest
data
point
matters.
This
results
in
very
nervous
or
volatile
forecast
that
can
change
quickly
and
dramatically
–
thus
it
is
more
responsive
than
stable.
• Moving
Average
–
where
we
can
select
how
much
data
to
use
(the
last
M
periods).
This
is
essentially
the
generalized
form
for
both
the
Cumulative
(M
=
∞)
and
Naïve
(M=1)
models.
All
three
of
these
models
are
similar
in
that
they
assume
stationary
demand.
Any
trend
in
the
underlying
data
will
lead
to
severe
lagging.
These
models
also
apply
equal
weighting
to
each
piece
of
information
that
is
included.
Interestingly,
while
the
M-‐Period
Moving
Average
model
requires
M
data
elements
for
each
SKU
being
forecast,
the
Naïve
and
Cumulative
models
only
require
1
data
element
each.
• Level
(a)
o Value
where
demand
hovers
(mean)
o Captures
scale
of
the
time
series
o With
no
other
pattern
present,
it
is
a
constant
value
• Trend
(b)
o Rate
of
growth
or
decline
o Persistent
movement
in
one
direction
o Typically
linear
but
can
be
exponential,
quadratic,
etc.
• Season
Variations
(F)
o Repeated
cycle
around
a
known
and
fixed
period
o Hourly,
daily,
weekly,
monthly,
quarterly,
etc.
o Can
be
caused
by
natural
or
man-‐made
forces
• Random
Fluctuation
(e
or
ε)
o Remainder
of
variability
after
other
components
o Irregular
and
unpredictable
variations,
noise
Forecasting Models
Notation:
xt:
Actual
demand
in
period
t
𝑥:,:R4 :
Forecast
for
time
t+1
made
during
time
t
a:
Level
component
b:
Linear
trend
component
Ft:
Season
index
appropriate
for
period
t
et:
Error
for
observation
t,
𝑒: = 𝐴: − 𝐹:
t:
Time
period
(0,
1,
2,…n)
Level
Model:
𝑥: = 𝑎 + 𝑒:
Trend
Model:
𝑥: = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑒:
Mix
Level-‐Seasonality
Model:
𝑥: = 𝑎𝐹: + 𝑒:
Mix
Level-‐Trend-‐Seasonality
Model:
𝑥: = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡)𝐹: + 𝑒:
• If
M=t,
we
have
the
cumulative
model
where
all
data
is
included
• If
M=1,
we
have
the
naïve
model,
where
the
last
data
point
is
used
to
predict
the
next
data
point
References:
• Makridakis,
Spyros,
Steven
C.
Wheelwright,
and
Rob
J.
Hyndman.
Forecasting:
Methods
and
Applications.
New
York,
NY:
Wiley,
1998.
ISBN
9780471532330.
• Hyndman,
Rob
J.
and
George
Athanasopoulos.
Forecasting:
Principles
and
Practice.
OTexts,
2014.
ISBN
0987507109.
Within
the
texts
mentioned
earlier:
Silver,
Pyke,
and
Peterson
Chapter
4.2-‐5.5.1
&
4.6;
Chopra
&
Meindl
Chapter
7.5-‐7.6;
Nahmias
Chapter
2.7.
Also,
I
recommend
checking
out
the
Institute
of
Business
Forecasting
&
Planning
(https://ibf.org/)
and
their
Journal
of
Business
Forecasting.
Lesson
Summary:
Exponential
smoothing,
as
opposed
to
the
three
other
time
series
models
we
have
discussed
in
the
previous
lesson
(Cumulative,
Naïve,
and
Moving
Average),
treats
data
differently
depending
on
its
age.
The
idea
is
that
the
value
of
data
degrades
over
time
so
that
newer
observations
of
demand
are
weighted
more
heavily
than
older
observations.
The
weights
decrease
exponentially
as
they
age.
Exponential
models
simply
blend
the
value
of
new
and
old
information.
We
have
students
create
forecast
models
in
spreadsheets
so
they
understand
the
mechanics
of
the
model
and
hopefully
develop
a
sense
of
how
the
parameters
influence
the
forecast.
The
alpha
factor
(ranging
between
0
and
1)
determines
the
weighting
for
the
newest
information
versus
the
older
information.
The
“α”
value
indicates
the
value
of
“new”
information
versus
“old”
information:
Forecasting
Models:
Simple
Exponential
Smoothing
Model
(Level
Only)
–
This
model
is
used
for
stationary
demand.
The
“new”
information
is
simply
the
latest
observation.
The
“old”
information
is
the
most
recent
forecast
since
it
encapsulates
the
older
information.
Exponential
Smoothing
for
Level
&
Trend
–
also
known
as
Holt’s
Method,
assumes
a
linear
trend.
The
forecast
for
time
t+τ
made
at
time
t
is
shown
below.
It
is
a
combination
of
the
latest
estimates
of
the
level
and
trend.
For
the
level,
the
new
information
is
the
latest
observation
and
the
old
information
is
the
most
recent
forecast
for
that
period
–
that
is,
the
last
period’s
estimate
of
level
plus
the
last
period’s
estimate
of
trend.
For
the
trend,
the
new
information
is
the
difference
between
the
most
recent
estimate
of
the
level
minus
the
second
most
recent
estimate
of
the
level.
The
old
information
is
simply
the
last
period’s
estimate
of
the
trend.
𝑥:,:R_ = 𝑎: + 𝜏𝑏:
𝑏: = 𝛽 𝑎: − 𝑎:^4 + 1 − 𝛽 𝑏:^4
Damped
Trend
Model
with
Level
and
Trend
–
We
can
use
exponential
smoothing
to
dampen
a
linear
trend
to
better
reflect
the
tapering
effect
of
trends
in
practice.
_
𝑥:,:R_ = 𝑎: + 𝜑 / 𝑏:
/c4
𝑏: = 𝛽 𝑎: − 𝑎:^4 + (1 − 𝛽)𝜑𝑏:^4
Mean
Square
Error
Estimate
–
We
can
also
use
exponential
smoothing
to
provide
a
more
robust
or
stable
value
for
the
mean
square
error
of
the
forecast.
• Makridakis,
Spyros,
Steven
C.
Wheelwright,
and
Rob
J.
Hyndman.
Forecasting:
Methods
and
Applications.
New
York,
NY:
Wiley,
1998.
ISBN
9780471532330.
• Hyndman,
Rob
J.
and
George
Athanasopoulos.
Forecasting:
Principles
and
Practice.
OTexts,
2014.
ISBN
0987507109.
Within
the
texts
mentioned
earlier:
Silver,
Pyke,
and
Peterson
Chapter
4;
Chopra
&
Meindl
Chapter
7;
Nahmias
Chapter
2.
Key
Concepts:
Seasonality
• For
multiplicative
seasonality,
think
of
the
Fi
as
“percent
of
average
demand”
for
a
period
i
• The
sum
of
the
Fi
for
all
periods
within
a
season
must
equal
P
• Seasonality
factors
must
be
kept
current
or
they
will
drift
dramatically.
This
requires
a
lot
more
bookkeeping,
which
is
tricky
to
maintain
in
a
spreadsheet,
but
it
is
important
to
understand
Notation:
xt:
Actual
demand
in
period
t
x\,\R4 :
Forecast
for
time
t+1
made
during
time
t
α:
Exponential
smoothing
factor
(0
≤
α
≤
1)
β:
Exponential
smoothing
trend
factor
(0
≤
β
≤
1)
γ:
Seasonality
smoothing
factor
(0
≤
γ
≤
1)
Ft:
Multiplicative
seasonal
index
appropriate
for
period
t
i
P:
Number
of
time
periods
within
the
seasonality
(note:
gc4 Fg = P)
𝑥:,:R_ = 𝑎: 𝐹:R_^j
𝑥:
𝑎: = 𝛼 + (1 − 𝛼)(𝑎:^4 )
𝐹:^j
𝑥:
𝐹: = 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 𝐹:^j
𝑎:
Holt-‐Winter
Exponential
Smoothing
Model
(Level,
Trend,
and
Seasonality)
–
This
model
assumes
a
linear
trend
with
a
multiplicative
seasonality
effect
over
both
level
and
trend.
For
the
level
estimate,
the
new
information
is
again
the
“de-‐seasoned”
value
of
the
latest
observation,
while
the
old
information
is
the
old
estimate
of
the
level
and
trend.
The
estimate
for
the
trend
is
the
same
as
for
the
Holt
model.
The
Seasonality
estimate
is
the
same
as
the
Double
Exponential
smoothing
model.
𝑥:
𝑎: = 𝛼 + (1 − 𝛼)(𝑎:^4 + 𝑏:^4 )
𝐹:^j
𝑏: = 𝛽 𝑎: − 𝑎:^4 + (1 − 𝛽)𝑏:^4
𝑥:
𝐹: = 𝛾 + 1 − 𝛾 𝐹:^j
𝑎:
Normalizing
Seasonality
Indices
–
This
should
be
done
after
each
forecast
to
ensure
the
seasonality
does
not
get
out
of
synch.
If
the
indices
are
not
updated,
they
will
drift
dramatically.
Most
software
packages
will
take
care
of
this
–
but
it
is
worth
checking.
𝑃
𝐹:lmn = 𝐹:opq : opq
/c:^j 𝐹:
• Makridakis,
Spyros,
Steven
C.
Wheelwright,
and
Rob
J.
Hyndman.Forecasting:
Methods
and
Applications.
New
York,
NY:
Wiley,
1998.
ISBN
9780471532330.
• Hyndman,
Rob
J.
and
George
Athanasopoulos.
Forecasting:
Principles
and
Practice.
OTexts,
2014.
ISBN
0987507109.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
4.
• Chopra,
Sunil,
and
Peter
Meindl.
Supply
Chain
Management:
Strategy,
Planning,
and
Operation.
5th
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2013.
Chapter
7.
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
2.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson
we
introduced
causal
models
for
use
in
forecasting
demand.
Causal
models
can
be
very
useful
when
you
can
determine
(and
measure)
the
underlying
factors
that
drive
the
demand
of
your
product.
The
classic
example
is
that
the
number
of
births
drives
demand
for
disposable
diapers.
We
used
Ordinary
Least
Squares
Regression
(OLS)
to
develop
linear
models
of
demand.
A
lot
of
the
lesson
was
filled
with
the
mechanics
of
using
Excel
or
LibreOffice
for
regression
–
you
can
use
any
package,
such
as
R,
to
perform
the
same
analysis.
It
is
always
important
to
test
your
regression
model
for
overall
fit
(adjusted
R-‐square)
as
well
as
significance
of
each
coefficient
(look
at
p-‐values).
You
should
have
an
understanding
of
why
each
variable
is
in
the
model.
Key
Concepts:
Causal
Models
• Used
when
demand
is
correlated
with
some
known
and
measureable
environmental
factor
(demand
is
a
function
of
some
variables
such
as
weather,
income,
births,
discounts,
etc.).
• Requires
more
data
to
store
than
other
forecasting
methods
and
treats
all
data
equally.
The
table
below
(Table
1)
shows
the
LINEST
output
for
two
explanatory
variables,
b1
and
b3.
See
each
tool’s
own
help
section
for
more
details
on
how
to
use
these
or
other
functions.
Table
1.
LINEST
Output
Model
Validation
• Basic
Checks
o Goodness
of
fit—look
at
the
adjusted
R2
values
o Individual
coefficients—perform
t-‐tests
to
get
the
p-‐value
• Additional
Assumption
Checks
o Normality
of
residuals—plot
the
residuals
in
a
histogram
and
check
to
see
if
they
are
normally
distributed
o Heteroscedasticity—create
a
scatter
plot
of
the
residuals
and
look
to
see
if
the
standard
deviation
of
the
error
terms
differs
for
different
values
of
the
independent
variables
o Autocorrelation—is
there
a
pattern
over
time
or
are
the
residuals
independent?
o Multi-‐collinearity—look
for
correlations
in
the
independent
variables.
The
dummy
variables
may
be
over
specified.
References:
Regression
is
its
own
sub-‐field
within
statistics
and
econometrics.
The
basics
are
covered
in
most
statistics
books.
The
Kahn
Academy
has
a
nice
module
if
you
want
to
brush
up
on
the
concepts
(https://www.khanacademy.org/math/probability/regression).
The use of regression in forecasting is also covered in these texts:
• Makridakis,
Spyros,
Steven
C.
Wheelwright,
and
Rob
J.
Hyndman.
Forecasting:
Methods
and
Applications.
New
York,
NY:
Wiley,
1998.
ISBN
9780471532330.
• Hyndman,
Rob
J.
and
George
Athanasopoulos.
Forecasting:
Principles
and
Practice.
OTexts,
2014.
ISBN
0987507109.
If you want to learn more details on either LibreOffice or Excel, you should go directly to their sites.
Lesson
Summary:
This
is
always
a
fun
lesson
to
teach.
We
covered
different
types
of
new
products
and
discussed
how
the
forecasting
techniques
differ
according
to
their
type.
The
fundamental
idea
is
that
if
you
do
not
have
any
history
to
rely
on,
you
can
look
for
history
of
similar
products
and
build
one.
We
also
discussed
the
use
of
Bass
Diffusion
models
to
estimate
market
demand
for
new-‐to-‐world
products.
When
the
demand
is
very
sparse,
such
as
for
spare
parts,
we
cannot
use
traditional
methods
since
the
estimates
tend
to
fluctuate
dramatically.
Croston’s
method
can
smooth
out
the
estimate
for
the
demand.
Key
Concepts:
New
Product
Types
• Not
all
new
products
are
the
same.
We
can
roughly
classify
them
into
the
following
six
categories
(listed
from
easiest
to
forecast
to
hardest):
o Cost
Reductions:
Reduced
price
version
of
the
product
for
the
existing
market
o Product
Repositioning:
Taking
existing
products/services
to
new
markets
or
applying
them
to
a
new
purpose
(aspirin
from
pain
killer
to
reducing
effects
of
a
heart
attack)
o Line
Extensions:
Incremental
innovations
added
to
complement
existing
product
lines
(Vanilla
Coke,
Coke
Zero)
or
Product
Improvements:
New,
improved
versions
of
existing
offering
targeted
to
the
current
market—replaces
existing
products
(next
generation
of
product)
o New-‐to-‐Company:
New
market/category
for
the
company
but
not
to
the
market
(Apple
iPhone
or
iPod)
o New-‐to-‐World:
First
of
their
kind,
creates
new
market,
radically
different
(Sony
Walkman,
Post-‐it
notes,
etc.)
• While
they
are
a
pain
to
forecast
and
to
launch,
firms
introduce
new
products
all
the
time
–
this
is
because
they
are
the
primary
way
to
increase
revenue
and
profits
(See
Table
2)
Table
2.
New
product
introductions.
Source:
Adapted
from
Cooper,
Robert
(2001)
Winning
at
New
Products,
Kahn,
Kenneth
(2006)
New
Product
forecasting,
and
PDMA
(2004)
New
Product
Development
Report.)
Figure
5.
New
product
development
process
Notation:
P:
Innovation
effect
in
Bass
Diffusion
Model;
p
~
0.03
and
often
<0.01
q: Imitation effect in Bass Diffusion Model; q ~ 0.38 and often 0.3 ≤ q ≤ 0.5
𝑁 𝑡−1
𝑛(𝑡)
=
𝑝[𝑚 − 𝑁(𝑡 − 1)]
+
𝑞 [𝑚 − 𝑁(𝑡 − 1)]
𝑚
Peak sales time period using Bass Diffusion assuming a continuous value of time (not year by year).
𝑞
ln
𝑝
𝑡∗ =
𝑝+𝑞
We
can
use
regression
to
estimate
Bass
Diffusion
parameters.
The
dependent
variable,
nt,
is
a
function
of
the
previous
cumulative
sales,
Nt-‐1,
and
its
square
and
takes
the
form:
Then,
in
order
to
find
the
values
of
m
(total
number
of
customers),
p
(innovation
factor),
and
q
(imitation
factor),
we
use
the
following
formulas:
𝛽4 ± 𝛽46 − 4𝛽6 𝛽e
𝑚=
−2𝛽6
𝛽e
𝑝=
𝑚
𝑞 = −𝛽6 𝑚
Croston’s
Method
We
can
use
Croston’s
method
when
demand
is
intermittent.
It
allows
us
to
use
the
traditional
exponential
smoothing
methods.
We
assume
the
Demand
Process
is
𝑥t
=
𝑦tzt
and
that
demand
is
independent
between
time
periods,
so
that
the
probability
that
a
transaction
occurs
in
the
current
time
period
is
1/n:
1 1
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏 𝑦: = 1 =
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏 𝑦: = 0 = 1 −
𝑛 𝑛
Updating
Procedure:
𝑧: = 𝛼𝑥: + (1 − 𝛼)𝑧:^4
Forecast:
𝑧:
𝑥:,:R4 =
𝑛:
References:
• Cooper,
Robert
G.
Winning
at
New
Products:
Accelerating
the
Process
from
Idea
to
Launch.
Cambridge,
MA:
Perseus
Pub.,
2001.
Print.
• Kahn,
Kenneth
B.
New
Product
Forecasting:
An
Applied
Approach.
Armonk,
NY:
M.E.
Sharpe,
2006.
• Adams,
Marjorie.
PDMA
Foundation
NPD
Best
Practices
Study:
The
PDMA
Foundation’s
2004
Comparative
Performance
Assessment
Study
(CPAS).
Oak
Ridge,
NC:
Product
Development
&
Management
Association,
2004.
Lesson
Summary:
Inventory
management
is
at
the
core
of
all
supply
chain
and
logistics
management.
This
lesson
provides
a
quick
introduction
to
the
major
concepts
that
we
will
explore
further
over
the
next
several
lessons.
There
are
many
reasons
for
holding
inventory.
These
include
minimizing
the
cost
of
controlling
a
system,
buffering
against
uncertainties
in
demand,
supply,
delivery
and
manufacturing,
as
well
as
covering
the
time
required
for
any
process.
Having
inventory
allows
for
a
smoother
operation
in
most
cases
since
it
alleviates
the
need
to
create
product
from
scratch
for
each
individual
demand.
Inventory
is
the
result
of
a
push
system
where
the
forecast
determines
how
much
inventory
of
each
item
is
required.
There
is,
however,
a
problem
with
having
too
much
inventory.
Excess
inventory
can
lead
to
spoilage,
obsolescence,
and
damage.
Also,
spending
too
much
on
inventory
limits
the
resources
available
for
other
activities
and
investments.
Inventory
analysis
is
essentially
the
determination
of
the
right
amount
of
inventory
of
the
right
product
in
the
right
location
in
the
right
form.
Strategic
decisions
cover
the
inventory
implications
of
product
and
network
design.
Tactical
decisions
cover
deployment
and
determine
what
items
to
carry,
in
what
form
(raw
materials,
work-‐in-‐process,
finished
goods,
etc.),
and
where.
Finally,
operational
decisions
determine
the
replenishment
policies
(when
and
how
much)
of
these
inventories.
This
course
mainly
covers
the
operational
decisions
on
replenishment.
We
can
classify
inventory
in
two
main
ways:
Financial/Accounting
or
Functional.
The
financial
classifications
include
raw
materials,
work
in
process
(WIP),
components,
and
finished
goods.
These
are
the
forms
that
recognize
the
added
value
to
a
product
and
are
needed
for
accounting
purposes.
The
functional
classifications,
on
the
other
hand,
are
based
on
how
the
items
are
used.
The
two
main
functional
classifications
are
Cycle
Stock
(the
inventory
that
you
will
need
during
a
replenishment
cycle,
that
is,
the
time
between
order
deliveries)
and
Safety
or
Buffer
Stock
(the
inventory
needed
to
cover
any
uncertainties
in
demand,
supply,
production,
etc.).
There
are
others,
but
these
are
the
two
primary
functional
forms.
Note
that
unlike
the
financial
categories,
you
cannot
identify
specific
items
as
belonging
to
either
safety
or
cycle
stock
by
looking
just
at
it.
The
distinction
is
important,
though,
because
we
will
manage
cycle
and
safety
stock
very
differently.
The
Total
Cost
(TC)
equation
is
typically
used
to
make
the
decisions
of
how
much
inventory
to
hold
and
how
to
replenish.
It
is
the
sum
of
the
Purchasing,
Ordering,
Holding,
and
Shortage
costs.
The
We
seek
the
Order
Replenishment
Policy
that
minimizes
these
total
costs
and
specifically
the
Total
Relevant
Costs
(TRC).
A
cost
component
is
considered
relevant
if
it
impacts
the
decision
at
hand
and
we
can
control
it
by
some
action.
A
Replenishment
Policy
essentially
states
two
things:
the
quantity
to
be
ordered,
and
when
it
should
be
ordered.
As
we
will
see,
the
exact
form
of
the
Total
Cost
Equation
used
depends
on
the
assumptions
we
make
in
terms
of
the
situation.
There
are
many
different
assumptions
inherent
in
any
of
the
models
we
will
use,
but
the
primary
assumptions
are
made
concerning
the
form
of
the
demand
for
the
product
(whether
it
is
constant
or
variable,
random
or
deterministic,
continuous
or
discrete,
etc.).
Key
Concepts:
Reasons
to
Hold
Inventory
• Cover
process
time
• Allow
for
uncoupling
of
processes
• Anticipation/Speculation
• Minimize
control
costs
• Buffer
against
uncertainties
such
as
demand,
supply,
delivery,
and
manufacturing.
Inventory
Decisions
• Strategic
supply
chain
decisions
are
long
term
and
include
decisions
related
to
the
supply
chain
such
as
potential
alternatives
to
holding
inventory
and
product
design.
• Tactical
are
made
within
a
month,
a
quarter
or
a
year
and
are
known
as
deployment
decisions
such
as
what
items
to
carry
as
inventory,
in
what
form
to
carry
items
and
how
much
of
each
item
to
hold
and
where.
• Operational
level
decisions
are
made
on
daily,
weekly
or
monthly
basis
and
replenishment
decisions
such
as
how
often
to
review
inventory
status,
how
often
to
make
replenishment
decisions
and
how
large
replenishment
should
be.
The
replenishment
decisions
are
critical
to
determine
how
the
supply
chain
is
set
up.
Relevant
Costs
Total
cost
=
Purchase
(Unit
Value)
Cost
+
Order
(Set
Up)
Cost
+
Holding
(Carrying)
Cost
+
Shortage
(stock-‐
out)
Cost
• Purchase:
Cost
per
item
or
total
landed
cost
for
acquiring
product.
• Ordering:
It
is
a
fixed
cost
and
contains
cost
to
place,
receive
and
process
a
batch
of
good
including
processing
invoicing,
auditing,
labor,
etc.
In
manufacturing
this
is
the
set
up
cost
for
a
run.
• Holding:
Costs
required
to
hold
inventory
such
as
storage
cost
(warehouse
space),
service
costs
(insurance,
taxes),
risk
costs
(lost,
stolen,
damaged,
obsolete),
and
capital
costs
(opportunity
cost
of
alternative
investment).
• Shortage:
Costs
of
not
having
an
item
in
stock
(on-‐hand
inventory)
to
satisfy
a
demand
when
it
occurs,
including
backorder,
lost
sales,
lost
customers,
and
disruption
costs.
Also
known
as
the
penalty
cost.
A cost is relevant if it is controllable and it applies to the specific decision being made.
Notation:
c:
Purchase
cost
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
References:
There
are
more
books
that
cover
the
basics
of
inventory
management
than
there
are
grains
of
sand
on
the
beach!
Inventory
management
is
also
usually
covered
in
Operations
Management
and
Industrial
Engineering
texts
as
well.
A
word
of
warning,
though.
Every
textbook
uses
different
notation
for
the
same
concepts.
Get
used
to
it.
Always
be
sure
to
understand
what
the
nomenclature
means
so
that
you
do
not
get
confused.
I
will
make
references
to
our
core
texts
we
are
using
in
this
course
but
will
add
some
additional
texts
as
they
fit
the
topics.
Inventory
Management
is
introduced
in
the
following
books:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
4.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
1
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
Lesson
Summary:
The
Economic
Order
Quantity
or
EOQ
is
the
most
influential
and
widely
used
(and
sometimes
misused!)
inventory
model
in
existence.
While
very
simple,
it
provides
deep
and
useful
insights.
Essentially,
the
EOQ
is
a
trade-‐off
between
fixed
(ordering)
and
variable
(holding)
costs.
It
is
often
called
Lot-‐Sizing
as
well.
The
minimum
of
the
Total
Cost
equation
(when
assuming
demand
is
uniform
and
deterministic)
is
the
EOQ
or
Q*.
The
Inventory
Replenishment
Policy
becomes
“Order
Q*
every
T*
time
periods”
which
under
our
assumptions
is
the
same
as
“Order
Q*
when
Inventory
Position
(IP)=0”.
Like
Wikipedia,
the
EOQ
is
a
GREAT
place
to
start,
but
not
necessarily
a
great
place
to
finish.
It
is
a
good
first
estimate
because
it
is
exceptionally
robust.
For
example,
a
50%
increase
in
Q
over
the
optimal
quantity
(Q*)
only
increases
the
TRC
by
~
8%!
While
very
insightful,
the
EOQ
model
should
be
used
with
caution
as
it
has
restrictive
assumptions
(uniform
and
deterministic
demand).
It
can
be
safely
used
for
items
with
relatively
stable
demand
and
is
a
good
first-‐cut
“back
of
the
envelope”
calculation
in
most
situations.
It
is
helpful
to
develop
insights
in
understanding
the
trade-‐offs
involved
with
taking
certain
managerial
actions,
such
as
lowering
the
ordering
costs,
lowering
the
purchase
price,
changing
the
holding
costs,
etc.
Key
Concepts:
EOQ
Model
• Assumptions
o Demand
is
uniform
and
deterministic.
o Lead
time
is
instantaneous
(0)
–
although
this
is
not
restrictive
at
all
since
the
lead
time,
L,
does
not
influence
the
Order
Size,
Q.
o Total
amount
ordered
is
received.
• Inventory
Replenishment
Policy
o Order
Q*
units
every
T*
time
periods.
o Order
Q*
units
when
inventory
on
hand
(IOH)
is
zero.
• Essentially,
the
Q*
is
the
Cycle
Stock
for
each
replenishment
cycle.
It
is
the
expected
demand
for
that
amount
of
time
between
order
deliveries.
Formulas:
Total
Costs:
TC
=
Purchase
+
Order
+
Holding
+
Shortage
This
is
the
generic
total
cost
equation.
The
specific
form
of
the
different
elements
depends
on
the
assumptions
made
concerning
the
demand,
the
shortage
types,
etc.
𝐷 𝑄
𝑇𝐶 𝑄 = 𝑐𝐷 + 𝑐: + 𝑐A + 𝑐• 𝐸[𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡]
𝑄 2
𝐷 𝑄
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑄 = 𝑐: + 𝑐A
𝑄 2
2𝑐: 𝐷
𝑄∗ =
𝑐A
2𝑐:
𝑇∗ =
𝐷𝑐A
Note: Be sure to put T* into units that make sense (days, weeks, months, etc.). Don’t leave it in years!
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑄 ∗ = 2𝑐: 𝑐A 𝐷
𝑇𝐶 𝑄 ∗ = 𝑐𝐷 + 2𝑐: 𝑐A 𝐷
Sensitivity
Analysis
The
EOQ
is
very
robust.
The
following
formulas
provide
simple
ways
of
calculating
the
impact
of
using
a
non-‐optimal
Q,
an
incorrect
annual
Demand
D,
or
a
non-‐optimal
time
interval,
T.
𝑇𝑅𝐶(𝑄) 1 𝑄∗ 𝑄
∗
= +
𝑇𝑅𝐶(𝑄 ) 2 𝑄 𝑄∗
Note: If optimal quantity does not make sense, it is always better to order little more rather ordering
little less.
𝑇𝑅𝐶(𝑄“∗ ) 1 𝐷” 𝐷“
∗ = +
𝑇𝑅𝐶(𝑄” ) 2 𝐷“ 𝐷”
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝑇∗
∗
= +
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑇 2 𝑇∗ 𝑇
References:
All
texts
that
cover
inventory
will
cover
the
EOQ
model.
The
following,
I
believe,
do
a
really
good
job
in
this
area:
• Schwarz,
Leroy
B.,
“The
Economic
Order-‐Quantity
(EOQ)
Model”
in
Building
intuition
:
insights
from
basic
operations
management
models
and
principles,
edited
by
Dilip
Chhajed,
Timothy
Lowe,
2007,
Springer,
New
York,
(pp
135-‐154).
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
5
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
Lesson
Summary:
The
Economic
Order
Quantity
can
be
extended
to
cover
many
different
situations.
We
covered
three
extensions:
lead-‐time,
volume
discounts,
and
finite
replenishment
or
EPQ.
We
developed
the
EOQ
previously
assuming
the
rather
restrictive
(and
ridiculous)
assumption
that
lead-‐
time
was
zero.
That
is,
instantaneous
replenishment
like
on
Star
Trek.
However,
we
show
in
the
lesson
that
including
a
non-‐zero
lead
time
while
increasing
the
total
cost
due
to
having
pipeline
inventory
will
NOT
change
the
calculation
of
the
optimal
order
quantity,
Q*.
In
other
words,
lead-‐time
is
not
relevant
to
the
determination
of
the
needed
cycle
stock.
Volume
discounts
are
more
complicated.
Including
them
makes
the
purchasing
costs
relevant
since
they
now
impact
the
order
size.
We
discussed
three
types
of
discounts:
All-‐Units
(where
the
discount
applies
to
all
items
purchased
if
the
total
amount
exceeds
the
break
point
quantity),
Incremental
(where
the
discount
only
applies
to
the
quantity
purchased
that
exceeds
the
breakpoint
quantity),
and
One-‐Time
(where
a
one-‐time-‐only
discount
is
offered
and
you
need
to
determine
the
optimal
quantity
to
procure
as
an
advance
buy).
Discounts
are
exceptionally
common
in
practice
as
they
are
used
to
incentivize
buyers
to
purchase
more
or
to
order
in
convenient
quantities
(full
pallet,
full
truckload,
etc.).
Finite
Replenishment
is
very
similar
to
the
EOQ
model,
except
that
the
product
is
available
at
a
certain
production
rate
rather
than
all
at
once.
In
the
lesson
we
show
that
this
tends
to
reduce
the
average
inventory
on
hand
(since
some
of
each
order
is
manufactured
once
the
order
is
received)
and
therefore
increases
the
optimal
order
quantity.
Key
Concepts:
• Lead
time
is
greater
than
0
(order
not
received
instantaneously)
o Inventory
Policy:
§ Order
Q*
units
when
IP=DL
§ Order
Q*
units
every
T*
time
periods
• Discounts
o All
Units
Discount—Discount
applies
to
all
units
purchased
if
total
amount
exceeds
the
break
point
quantity
Notation:
c:
Purchase
cost
($/unit)
ci:
Discounted
purchase
price
for
discount
range
i
($/unit)
e
c i:
Effective
purchase
cost
for
discount
range
i
($/unit)
[for
incremental
discounts]
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
holding
Costs
($/unit/time);
Equal
to
ch
cs:
Shortage
costs
($/unit)
cg:
One
Time
Good
Deal
Purchase
Price
($/unit)
Fi:
Fixed
Costs
Associated
with
Units
Ordered
below
Incremental
Discount
Breakpoint
i
D:
Demand
(units/time)
DA:
Actual
Demand
(units/time)
DF:
Forecasted
Demand
(untis/time)
h:
Carrying
or
holding
cost
($/inventory
$/time)
L:
Order
Leadtime
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
Q*:
Optimal
Order
Quantity
under
EOQ
(units/order)
Qi:
Breakpoint
for
quantity
discount
for
discount
i
(units
per
order)
Qg:
One
Time
Good
Deal
Order
Quantity
P:
Production
(units/time)
T:
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
T*:
Optimal
Time
between
Replenishments
(time/order)
N:
Orders
per
Time
or
1/T
(order/time)
TRC(Q):
Total
Relevant
Cost
($/time)
TC(Q):
Total
Cost
($/time)
Formulas:
Inventory
Position
Inventory
Position
(IP)
=
Inventory
on
Hand
(IOH)
+
Inventory
on
Order
(IOO)
–
Back
Orders
(BO)
–
Committed
Orders
(CO)
Inventory
on
Order
(IOO)
is
the
inventory
that
has
been
ordered,
but
not
yet
received.
This
is
inventory
in
transit
and
also
knows
as
Pipeline
Inventory
(PI).
𝐴𝑃𝐼 = 𝐷𝐿
𝐷 𝑄
𝑇𝐶 𝑄 = 𝑐𝐷 + 𝑐: + 𝑐A + 𝐷𝐿 + 𝑐• 𝐸[𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡]
𝑄 2
Note
that
as
before,
though,
the
purchase
cost,
shortage
costs,
and
now
pipeline
inventory
is
not
relevant
to
determining
the
optimal
order
quantity,
Q*:
2𝑐: 𝐷
𝑄∗ =
𝑐A
Discounts
If
we
include
volume
discounts,
then
the
purchasing
cost
becomes
relevant
to
our
decision
of
order
quantity.
The
procedure
for
a
single
range
All
Units
quantity
discount
(where
new
price
is
c1
if
ordering
at
least
Q1
units)
is
as
follows:
1. Calculate
Q*C0,
the
EOQ
using
the
base
(non-‐discounted)
price,
and
Q*C1,
the
EOQ
using
the
first
discounted
price
2. If
Q*C1
≥
Q1,
the
breakpoint
for
the
first
all
units
discount,
then
order
Q*C1
since
it
satisfies
the
condition
of
the
discount.
Otherwise,
go
to
step
3.
3. Compare
the
TRC(Q*C0),
the
total
relevant
cost
with
the
base
(non-‐discounted)
price,
with
TRC(Q1),
the
total
relevant
cost
using
the
discounted
price
(c1)
at
the
breakpoint
for
the
discount.
If
TRC(Q*C0)<
TRC(Q1),
select
Q*C0,
otherwise
order
Q1.
Note that if there are more discount levels, you need to check this for each one.
𝐷 ℎ𝑄
𝑇𝑅𝐶 = 𝐷𝑐e + 𝑐: + 𝑐e
𝑓𝑜𝑟
0 ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄4
𝑄 2
Note:
All
units
discount
tend
to
raise
cycle
stock
in
the
supply
chain
by
encouraging
retailers
to
increase
the
size
of
each
order.
This
makes
economic
sense
for
the
manufacturer,
especially
when
he
incurs
a
very
high
fixed
cost
per
order.
Incremental
Discounts
Discount
applies
only
to
the
quantity
purchased
that
exceeds
the
break
point
quantity.
The
procedure
for
a
multi-‐range
Incremental
quantity
discount
(where
if
ordering
at
least
Q1
units,
the
new
price
for
the
Q-‐Q1
units
is
c1)
is
as
follows:
The effective cost, cei, can be used for the TRC calculations.
2𝐷(𝑐: + 𝐹/ )
𝑄∗ =
ℎ𝑐/
𝐹/
𝑐/A = 𝑐/ +
𝑄/∗
Simply
calculate
the
Q*g
and
that
is
your
order
quantity.
If
Q*g
=Q*
then
the
discount
does
not
make
sense.
If
you
find
that
Q*g
<
Q*,
you
made
a
mathematical
mistake
–
check
your
work!
𝑄3 𝑄3
𝑇𝐶 = 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝐶 ∗ + 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 2𝑐: ℎ𝑐𝐷 + 𝑐𝐷
𝐷 𝐷
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇𝐶{j
𝑄3 𝑄3 𝑄3 𝑄3
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 2𝑐: ℎ𝑐𝐷 + 𝑐𝐷 − 𝑐3 𝑄3 + ℎ𝑐3 + 𝑐:
𝐷 𝐷 2 𝐷
• ∗ žŸRq(ž^ž )
𝑄3∗ =
Ÿž
𝐷
𝑐: 𝐷 𝑄 1 − 𝑃 ℎ𝑐
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑄 = +
𝑄 2
2𝑐: 𝐷 𝐸𝑂𝑄
𝐸𝑃𝑄 = =
𝐷 𝐷
ℎ𝑐 1 − 1−
𝑃 𝑃
References:
Here
are
texts
that
do
a
good
job
in
this
area:
:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
4.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
5.
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
• Schwarz,
Leroy
B.,
“The
Economic
Order-‐Quantity
(EOQ)
Model”
in
Building
intuition
:
insights
from
basic
operations
management
models
and
principles,
edited
by
Dilip
Chhajed,
Timothy
Lowe,
2007,
Springer,
New
York,
(pp
135-‐154).
• Muckstadt,
John
and
Amar
Sapra
"Models
and
Solutions
in
Inventory
Management".,
2006,
Springer
New
York,
New
York,
NY.
Chapter
2
&
3.
Lesson
Summary:
The
single
period
inventory
model
is
second
only
to
the
economic
order
quantity
in
its
widespread
use
and
influence.
Also
referred
to
as
the
Newsvendor
(or
for
less
politically
correct
folks,
the
Newsboy)
model,
the
single
period
model
differs
from
the
EOQ
in
three
main
ways.
First,
while
the
EOQ
assumes
uniform
and
deterministic
demand,
the
single-‐period
model
allows
demand
to
be
variable
and
stochastic
(random).
Second,
while
the
EOQ
assumes
a
steady
state
condition
(stable
demand
with
essentially
an
infinite
time
horizon),
the
single-‐period
model
assumes
a
single
period
of
time.
All
inventories
must
be
ordered
prior
to
the
start
of
the
time
period
and
they
cannot
be
replenished
during
the
time
period.
Any
inventory
left
over
at
the
end
of
the
time
period
is
scrapped
and
cannot
be
used
at
a
later
time.
If
there
is
extra
demand
that
is
not
satisfied
during
the
period,
it
too
is
lost.
Third,
for
EOQ
we
are
minimizing
the
expected
costs,
while
for
the
single
period
model
we
are
actually
maximizing
the
expected
profitability.
We
start
the
lesson,
however,
by
extending
the
EOQ
model
by
allowing
planned
backorders.
A
planned
backorder
is
where
we
stock
out
on
purpose
knowing
that
customers
will
wait,
although
we
do
incur
a
penalty
cost,
cs,
for
stocking
out.
From
this,
we
develop
the
idea
of
the
critical
ratio
(CR),
which
is
the
ratio
of
the
cs
(the
cost
of
shortage
or
having
too
little
product)
to
the
ratio
of
the
sum
of
cs
and
ce
(the
cost
of
having
too
much
or
an
excess
of
product).
The
critical
ratio,
by
definition,
ranges
between
0
and
1
and
is
a
good
metric
of
level
of
service.
A
high
CR
indicates
a
desire
to
stock
out
less
frequently.
The
EOQ
with
planned
backorders
is
essentially
the
generalized
form
where
cs
is
essentially
infinity,
meaning
you
will
never
ever
stock
out.
As
cs
gets
smaller,
the
Q*PBO
gets
larger
and
a
larger
percentage
is
allowed
to
be
backordered
–
since
the
penalty
for
stocking
out
gets
reduced.
The
critical
ratio
applies
directly
to
the
single
period
model
as
well.
We
show
that
the
optimal
order
quantity,
Q*,
occurs
when
the
probability
that
the
demand
is
less
than
Q*
=
the
Critical
Ratio.
In
other
words,
the
Critical
Ratio
tells
me
how
much
of
the
demand
probability
that
should
be
covered
in
order
to
maximize
the
expected
profits.
Notation:
B:
Penalty
for
not
satisfying
demand
beyond
lost
profit
($/unit)
b:
Backorder
Demand
(units)
b*:
Optimal
units
on
backorder
when
placing
an
order
(unit)
c:
Purchase
cost
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
holding
Costs
($/unit/time);
Equal
to
ch
cs:
Shortage
Costs
($/unit)
D:
Average
Demand
(units/time)
g:
Salvage
value
for
excess
inventory
($/unit)
h:
Carrying
or
holding
cost
($/inventory
$/time)
L:
Replenishment
Lead
Time
(time)
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
Q∗i¤¥ :
Optimal
Order
Quantity
with
Planned
backorders
T:
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
TRC(Q):
Total
Relevant
Cost
($/time)
TC(Q):
Total
Cost
($/time)
Formulas:
EOQ
with
Planned
Backorders
This
is
an
extension
of
the
standard
EOQ
with
the
ability
to
allow
for
backorders
at
a
penalty
of
cs.
6
𝐷 𝑄−𝑏 𝑏6
𝑇𝑅𝐶 𝑄, 𝑏 = 𝑐: + 𝑐A + 𝑐•
𝑄 2𝑄 2𝑄
∗
𝑐A 𝑄j¦o 𝑐• ∗
𝑏∗ = = 1− 𝑄j¦o
𝑐• + 𝑐A 𝑐• + 𝑐A
∗
𝐷
𝑇j¦o = ∗
𝑄j¦o
References:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
5.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
10.
• Porteus,
Evan
L.,
“The
Newsvendor
Problem”
in
Building
intuition:
insights
from
basic
operations
management
models
and
principles,
edited
by
Dilip
Chhajed,
Timothy
Lowe,
2007,
Springer,
New
York,
(pp
115-‐134).
• Muckstadt,
John
and
Amar
Sapra
"Models
and
Solutions
in
Inventory
Management".,
2006,
Springer
New
York,
New
York,
NY.
Chapter
5.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
expanded
our
analysis
of
the
single
period
model
to
be
able
to
calculate
the
expected
profitability
of
a
given
solution.
In
the
previous
lesson,
we
learned
how
to
determine
the
optimal
order
quantity,
Q*,
such
that
the
probability
of
the
demand
distribution
covered
by
Q*
is
equal
to
the
Critical
Ratio,
which
is
the
ratio
of
the
shortage
costs
divided
by
the
sum
of
the
shortage
and
excess
costs.
In
order
to
determine
the
profitability
for
a
solution,
we
need
to
calculate
the
expected
units
sold,
the
expected
cost
of
buying
Q
units,
and
the
expected
units
short,
E[US].
Calculating
the
E[US]
is
tricky,
but
we
show
how
to
use
the
Normal
Tables
as
well
as
spreadsheets
to
determine
this
value.
Notation:
B:
Penalty
for
not
satisfying
demand
beyond
lost
profit
($/unit)
c:
Purchase
cost
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
holding
Costs
($/unit);
For
single
period
problems
this
is
not
necessarily
equal
to
ch,
since
that
assumes
that
you
can
keep
the
inventory
for
later
use.
cs:
Shortage
Costs
($/unit)
D:
Average
Demand
(units/time)
g:
Salvage
value
for
excess
inventory
($/unit)
k:
Safety
Factor
x:
Units
Demanded
E[US]:
Expected
Units
Short
(units)
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
TRC(Q):
Total
Relevant
Cost
($/period)
TC(Q):
Total
Cost
($/period)
Formulas:
Profit
Maximization
In
words,
the
expected
profit
for
ordering
Q
units
is
equal
to
the
sales
price,
p,
times
the
expected
number
of
units
sold,
E[x]),
minus
the
cost
of
purchasing
Q
units,
cQ,
minus
the
expected
number
of
units
I
would
be
short
times
the
sales
price.
The
difficult
part
of
this
equation
is
the
expected
units
short,
or
the
E[US].
𝐸 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑄 − 𝑝𝐸[𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡]
−𝑐𝑄 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑄 − 𝑥
𝑖𝑓
𝑥 ≤ 𝑄
𝑃 𝑄 =
−𝑐𝑄 + 𝑝𝑄 − 𝐵 𝑥 − 𝑄 𝑖𝑓
𝑥 ≥ 𝑄
𝐸 𝑃 𝑄 = 𝑝 − 𝑔 𝐸 𝑥 − 𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑄 − 𝑝 − 𝑔 + 𝐵 𝐸 𝑈𝑆
𝐸 𝑃 𝑄 = 𝑝 𝐸 𝑥 − 𝐸 𝑈𝑆 − 𝑐𝑄 + 𝑔 𝑄 − 𝐸 𝑥 − 𝐸 𝑈𝑆 − 𝐵(𝐸 𝑈𝑆 )
In
words,
the
expected
profit
for
ordering
Q
units
is
equal
to
four
terms.
The
first
term
is
the
sales
price,
p,
times
the
expected
number
of
units
sold,
E[x]),
minus
the
expected
units
short.
The
second
term
is
simply
the
cost
of
purchasing
Q
units,
cQ.
The
third
term
is
the
expected
number
of
items
that
I
would
have
left
over
for
salvage,
times
the
salvage
value,
g.
The
fourth
and
final
term
is
the
expected
number
of
units
short
times
the
shortage
penalty,
B.
Expected
Values
E[Units
Demanded]
« «
Continuous:
Uce
𝑥𝑓U 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
Discrete:
Uce 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥
E[Units
Sold]
• « • «
Continuous:
Uce
𝑥𝑓U 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑓
Uc• U
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Discrete:
Uce 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 +𝑄 Uc•R4 𝑃 𝑥
E[Units
Short]
« «
Continuous:
Uc•
(𝑥 − 𝑄)𝑓U 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Discrete:
Uc•R4(𝑥 − 𝑄)𝑃 𝑥
References:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
5.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
10.
• Porteus,
Evan
L.,
“The
Newsvendor
Problem”
in
Building
intuition:
insights
from
basic
operations
management
models
and
principles,
edited
by
Dilip
Chhajed,
Timothy
Lowe,
2007,
Springer,
New
York,
(pp
115-‐134).
• Muckstadt,
John
and
Amar
Sapra
"Models
and
Solutions
in
Inventory
Management".,
2006,
Springer
New
York,
New
York,
NY.
Chapter
5.
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
continue
to
develop
inventory
replenishment
models
when
we
have
uncertain
or
stochastic
demand.
We
built
off
of
both
the
EOQ
and
the
single
period
models
to
introduce
three
general
inventory
policies:
the
Base
Stock
Policy,
the
(s,Q)
continuous
review
policy
and
the
(R,S)
periodic
review
policy
(the
R,S
model
will
be
explained
in
the
next
lesson).
These
are
the
most
commonly
used
inventory
policies
in
practice.
They
are
imbedded
within
a
company’s
ERP
and
inventory
management
systems.
To put them in context, here is the summary of the five inventory models covered so far:
Notation:
B1:
Cost
associated
with
a
stock
out
event
($/event)
c:
Purchase
cost
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
holding
Costs
($/unit/time);
Equal
to
ch
cs:
Shortage
costs
($/unit)
D:
Average
Demand
(units/time)
DS:
Demand
over
short
time
period
(e.g.
week)
DL:
Demand
over
long
time
period
(e.g.
month)
h:
Carrying
or
holding
cost
($/inventory
$/time)
L:
Replenishment
Lead
Time
(time)
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
T:
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
μDL:
Expected
Demand
over
Lead
Time
(units/time)
σDL:
Standard
Deviation
of
Demand
over
Lead
Time
(units/time)
k:
Safety
Factor
s:
Reorder
Point
(units)
S:
Order
up
to
Point
(units)
R:
Review
Period
(time)
N:
Orders
per
Time
or
1/T
(order/time)
IP:
Inventory
Position
=
Inventory
on
Hand
+
Inventory
on
Order
–
Backorders
IOH:
Inventory
on
Hand
(units)
IOO:
Inventory
on
Order
(units)
IFR:
Item
Fill
Rate
(%)
CSL:
Cycle
Service
Level
(%)
CSOE:
Cost
of
Stock
Out
Event
($
/
event)
CIS:
Cost
per
Item
Short
E[US]:
Expected
Units
Short
(units)
G(k):
Unit
Normal
Loss
Function
References:
Base
stock
and
continuous
inventory
models
are
covered
in:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
5.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
7.
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
• Muckstadt,
John
and
Amar
Sapra
"Models
and
Solutions
in
Inventory
Management".,
2006,
Springer
New
York,
New
York,
NY.
Chapter
9.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
examined
the
trade-‐offs
between
the
different
performance
metrics
(both
cost-‐
and
service-‐based).
We
demonstrated
that
once
one
of
the
metrics
is
determined
(or
explicitly
set)
then
the
other
three
are
implicitly
set.
Because
they
all
lead
to
the
establishment
of
a
safety
factor,
k,
they
are
dependent
on
each
other.
This
means
that
once
you
have
set
the
safety
stock,
regardless
of
the
method,
you
can
calculate
the
expected
performance
implied
by
the
remaining
three
metrics.
We
also
introduced
the
Order-‐Up
To
Periodic
Review
Policy,
(R,S).
We
demonstrated
that
the
same
methods
of
determining
the
four
performance
metrics
in
the
(S,Q)
model
can
be
used
here,
with
minor
modifications.
Periodic
Review
policies
are
very
popular
because
they
fit
the
regular
pattern
of
work
where
ordering
might
occur
only
once
a
week
or
once
every
two
weeks.
The
lead-‐time
and
the
review
period
are
related
and
can
be
traded-‐off
to
achieve
certain
goals.
We learned two ways to calculate k: Service based or Cost based metrics:
Figure
7.
Relationship
among
the
four
metrics
References:
Base
stock
and
continuous
inventory
models
are
covered
in:
• Nahmias,
S.
Production
and
Operations
Analysis.
McGraw-‐Hill
International
Edition.
ISBN:
0-‐07-‐
2231265-‐3.
Chapter
5.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
7.
• Ballou,
R.H.
Business
Logistics
Management.
ISBN:
978-‐0130661845.
Chapter
9.
• Muckstadt,
John
and
Amar
Sapra
"Models
and
Solutions
in
Inventory
Management".,
2006,
Springer
New
York,
New
York,
NY.
Chapter
10.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
expanded
our
development
of
inventory
policies
to
include
multiple
items
and
multiple
locations.
Up
to
this
point
we
assumed
that
each
item
was
managed
separately
and
independently
and
that
they
all
came
from
a
single
stocking
location.
We
loosened
those
assumptions
in
this
lesson.
There
are
several
problems
with
managing
items
independently,
including:
• Lack
of
coordination—constantly
ordering
items
• Ignoring
of
common
constraints
such
as
financial
budgets
or
space
• Missed
opportunities
for
consolidation
and
synergies
• Waste
of
management
time
Aggregation
Methods
When
we
have
multiple
SKUs
to
manage,
we
want
to
aggregate
those
SKUs
where
I
can
use
the
same
policies.
This
greatly
simplifies
things
–
and
is
why
we
learned
how
to
segment
in
Week
1!
Notation:
ci:
Purchase
cost
for
item
i
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
holding
Costs
($/unit/time);
Equal
to
ch
cs:
Shortage
costs
($/unit)
Di:
Average
Demand
for
item
i
(units/time)
h:
Carrying
or
holding
cost
($/inventory
$/time)
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
T:
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
TPractical:
Practical
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
k:
Safety
Factor
w0:
Base
Time
Period
(time)
s:
Reorder
Point
(units)
R:
Review
Period
(time)
N:
Number
of
Inventory
Replenishment
Cycles
TACS:
Total
Annual
Cycle
Stock
TSS:
Total
Value
of
Safety
Stock
TVIS:
Total
Value
of
Items
Short
G(k):
Unit
Normal
Loss
Function
Formulas:
Power
of
Two
Policy
The
process
is
as
follows:
}∗
ÊË / ÊË 6
𝑇¨È2ž:/ž2É = 2 6
0 • V žV žB 4 0 0 qV Ÿ 4 0
𝑇𝐴𝐶𝑆 = /c4 6 = /c4 𝐷/ 𝑐/
𝑁= /c4 • = /c4 𝐷/ 𝑐/
Ÿ 6 V žB 6
Process
Process:
Pooled
Inventory
The
Chart
1
shows
ordering
quantities
for
independent
and
pooled
inventories.
Chart
1.
Comparison
between
independent
and
pooled
inventories
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
7
&
8.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
expanded
our
development
of
inventory
policies
to
include
Class
A
and
Class
C
items.
Additionally,
we
discussed
real
world
challenges
to
implementing
inventory
management
policies
in
practice.
Key
Concepts:
Inventory
Management
by
Segment
A
Items
B
Items
C
Items
Type
of
Records
Extensive,
Transactional
Moderate
None-‐use
a
rule
Level
of
Management
Frequent
(Monthly
or
Infrequently— Only
as
Aggregate
Reporting
More)
Aggregated
Interaction
with
Demand
Direct
Input,
High
Data
Modified
Forecast
Simple
Forecast
at
Best
Integrity,
Manipulate
(promotions,
etc.)
(pricing,
etc.)
Interaction
with
Supply
Actively
Manage
Manage
by
Exception
Non
Initial
Deployment
Minimize
Exposure
(high
Steady
State
Steady
State
v)
Frequency
of
Policy
Very
Frequent
(Monthly
Moderate
Very
Infrequent
Review
or
More)
(Annually/Event
Based)
Importance
of
Parameter
Very
High—Accuracy
Moderate—Rounding
Very
Low
Precision
Worthwhile
and
Approximation
ok
Shortage
Strategy
Actively
Manage
Set
Service
Level
&
Set
&
Forget
Service
Levels
(Confront)
Manage
by
Exception
Demand
Distribution
Consider
Alternatives
to
Normal
N/A
Normal
as
Situation
Fits
Management
Strategy
Active
Automatic
Passive
Table
4.
Inventory
management
by
segment
Notation:
B1:
Cost
Associated
with
a
Stock
out
Event
c:
Purchase
Cost
($/unit)
ct:
Ordering
Costs
($/order)
ce:
Excess
Holding
Costs
($/unit/time);
Equal
to
ch
cs:
Shortage
Costs
($/unit)
cg:
One
Time
Good
Deal
Purchase
Price
($/unit)
D:
Average
Demand
(units/time)
h:
Carrying
or
Holding
Cost
($/inventory
$/time)
L[Xi]:
Discrete
Unit
Loss
Function
Q:
Replenishment
Order
Quantity
(units/order)
T:
Order
Cycle
Time
(time/order)
μDL:
Expected
Demand
over
Lead
Time
(units/time)
σDL:
Standard
Deviation
of
Demand
over
Lead
Time
(units/time)
μDL+R:
Expected
Demand
over
Lead
Time
plus
Review
Period
(units/time)
σDL+R:
Standard
Deviation
of
Demand
over
Lead
Time
plus
Review
Period
(units/time)
k:
Safety
Factor
s:
Reorder
Point
(units)
S:
Order
Up
to
Point
(units)
R:
Review
Period
(time)
N:
Orders
per
Time
or
1/T
(order/time)
IP:
Inventory
Position
=
Inventory
on
Hand
+
Inventory
on
Order
(IOO)
–
Backorders
IOH:
Inventory
on
Hand
(units)
IOO:
Inventory
on
Order
(units)
IFR:
Item
Fill
Rate
(%)
CSL:
Cycle
Service
Level
(%)
E[US]:
Expected
Units
Short
(units)
G(k):
Unit
Normal
Loss
Function
Formulas:
Fast
Moving
A
Items
𝐷 𝑄 𝐷
𝑇𝑅𝐶 = 𝑐: + 𝑐A + 𝑘𝜎qp + 𝐵4 𝑃[𝑥 > 𝑘]
𝑄 2 𝑄
𝐷𝐵4
𝑘∗ = 2 ln
2𝜋𝑄𝑐A 𝜎qp
For a discrete function, the loss function L[Xi] can be calculated as follows (Cachon & Terwiesch)
References:
• Cachon,
Gérard,
and
Christian
Terwiesch.
Matching
Supply
with
Demand:
An
Introduction
to
Operations
Management.
Boston,
MA:
McGraw-‐Hill/Irwin,
2005.
• Silver,
E.A.,
Pyke,
D.F.,
Peterson,
R.
Inventory
Management
and
Production
Planning
and
Scheduling.
ISBN:
978-‐0471119470.
Chapter
8
&
9.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
introduced
freight
transportation
systems
through
an
extended
example
of
shipping
shoes
from
Shenzhen
(China)
to
Kansas
City
(USA).
This
lesson
is
more
of
a
visual
introduction.
We
started
with
the
fundamentals
of
freight
transportation,
introducing
different
modes
of
transportation
and
some
different
ways
to
make
decisions
of
the
mode
choice,
analyzing
the
trade-‐offs
between
cost
and
level
of
service.
Different
levels
of
transportation
networks
(from
strategic
to
physical)
are
also
covered
in
this
lesson.
The
Physical
network
represents
how
the
product
physically
moves,
the
actual
path
from
origin
to
destination.
Costs
and
distances
calculations
are
made
based
on
this
level.
Decisions
from
nodes
(decision
points)
and
arcs
(a
specific
mode)
are
made
in
the
Operational
network.
The
third
network,
the
strategic
or
service
network,
represents
individual
paths
from
end-‐to-‐end,
and
those
decisions
that
tie
into
the
inventory
policies
are
made
in
the
Strategic
or
Service
network
level.
For
instance,
how
routing
decisions
tie
to
Total
Relevant
Costs
(TRC)
is
shown.
We
also
introduced
different
type
of
packaging.
The
Primary
packaging,
has
direct
contact
with
the
product
and
is
usually
the
smallest
unit
of
distribution
(e.g.
a
bottle
of
wine,
a
can,
etc.).
The
Secondary
packaging
contains
product
and
also
a
middle
layer
of
packaging
that
is
outside
the
primary
packaging,
mainly
to
group
primary
packages
together
(e.g.
a
box
with
12
bottle
of
wines,
cases,
cartons,
etc.).
The
Tertiary
packaging
is
designed
thinking
more
on
transport
shipping,
warehouse
storage
and
bulk
handling
(e.g.
pallets,
containers,
etc.).
Typically,
tertiary
packaging,
such
as
pallets,
is
returnable
transportation
items.
The
company
CHEP
is
a
good
example
of
how
to
balance
this
type
of
reusable
article,
a
very
interesting
closed-‐loop
supply
chain
problem!
Finally,
different
types
and
characteristics
of
shipping
containers
are
presented.
Key
Concepts:
Trade-‐offs
between
Cost
and
Level
of
Service
(LOS):
• Provides
path
view
of
the
Network
• Summarizes
the
movement
in
common
financial
and
performance
terms
• Used
for
selecting
one
option
from
many
by
making
trade-‐offs
Transportation
Networks
• Physical
Network:
The
actual
path
that
the
product
takes
from
origin
to
destination
including
guide
ways,
terminals
and
controls.
Basis
for
all
costs
and
distance
calculations
–
typically
only
found
once.
• Operational
Network:
The
route
the
shipment
takes
in
terms
of
decision
points.
Each
arc
is
a
specific
mode
with
costs,
distance,
etc.
Each
node
is
a
decision
point.
The
four
primary
components
are
loading/unloading,
local-‐routing,
line-‐haul,
and
sorting.
• Strategic
Network:
A
series
of
paths
through
the
network
from
origin
to
destination.
Each
represents
a
complete
option
and
has
end-‐to-‐end
cost,
distance,
and
service
characteristics.
Notation:
TL:
Truckload
References:
• Ballou,
Ronald
H.,
Business
Logistics:
Supply
Chain
Management,
3rd
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2003.
Chapter
6.
• Chopra,
Sunil
and
Peter
Meindl,
Supply
Chain
Management,
Strategy,
Planning,
and
Operation,
5th
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2013.
Chapter
14.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
analyzed
how
variability
in
transit
time
impacts
the
total
cost
equation
for
inventory.
The
linkages
between
transportation
reliability,
forecast
accuracy,
and
inventory
levels
were
displayed
and
discussed.
Mode
selection
is
shown
to
be
heavily
influenced
not
only
by
the
value
of
the
product
being
transported,
but
also
the
expected
and
variability
of
the
lead-‐time.
Key
Concepts:
Impact
on
Inventory
Transportation
affects
total
cost
via
• Cost
of
transportation
(fixed,
variable,
or
some
combination)
• Lead
time
(expected
value
as
well
as
variability)
• Capacity
restrictions
(as
they
limit
optimal
order
size)
• Miscellaneous
factors
(such
as
material
restrictions
or
perishability)
Formulas:
Random
Sums
of
Random
Variables
l
𝐸 𝑆 =𝐸 𝑋/ = 𝐸 𝑁 𝐸[𝑋]
/c4
References:
• Ballou,
Ronald
H.,
Business
Logistics:
Supply
Chain
Management,
3rd
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2003.
Chapter
7.
• Chopra,
Sunil
and
Peter
Meindl,
Supply
Chain
Management,
Strategy,
Planning,
and
Operation,
5th
edition,
Pearson
Prentice
Hall,
2013.
Chapter
14.
Lesson
Summary:
In
this
lesson,
we
showed
one
method
to
quickly
approximate
costs
of
a
complicated
transportation
system:
one-‐to-‐many
distribution.
The
main
idea
was
to
develop
a
very
simple
approximate
total
cost
equation
using
as
little
data
as
possible.
This
approach
can
be
very
powerful
for
initial
analysis.
Also,
it
has
been
shown
to
be
more
robust
than
some
more
detailed
analyses
since
these
other
methods
require
very
restrictive
assumptions.
Key
Concepts:
Distribution
Methods
• One-‐to-‐one:
direct
or
point-‐to-‐point
movements
from
origin
to
destination
• One-‐to-‐many:
multi-‐stop
moves
from
a
single
origin
to
many
destinations
• Many-‐to-‐many:
moving
from
multiple
origins
to
multiple
destinations
usually
with
a
hub
or
terminal
Formulas:
Distance
Estimation:
Point
to
Point
Euclidean
Space:
𝑑”^¦ = (𝑥” − 𝑥¦ )6 + (𝑦” − 𝑦¦ )6
Grid: 𝑑”^¦ = 𝑥” − 𝑥¦ + 𝑦” − 𝑦¦
For long distances within the same hemisphere (great circle equation)
𝑑”^¦ = 3959(arccos sin 𝐿𝐴𝑇” sin 𝐿𝐴𝑇¦ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝐴𝑇” cos 𝐿𝐴𝑇¦ cos 𝐿𝑂𝑁𝐺” − 𝐿𝑂𝑁𝐺¦ )
𝐸[𝐷/ ] 1 𝐸[𝑛/ ]
𝐸 𝑑”ÉÉ}ÚÛÈ• = 2 + 𝑑 + 𝑘 }{j
𝑄Z2U 2 p/0AÜ2ÛÉ 𝛿/
/ /
References:
• Daganzo,
Carlos,
Logistics
Systems
Analysis,
4th
edition,
Springer-‐Verlag,
2004.
Key
Concepts:
Final
Thoughts
• Information
is
often
gating
factor
for
analysis
o Data
is
not
always
available,
accessible,
or
relevant
o People
are
good
resources
but
often
need
help
• Supply
chains
are
all
about
trade-‐offs
o Fixed
vs.
Variable
costs
o Shortage
vs.
Excess
costs
o Lead
Time
vs.
Inventory
o Cost
vs.
Level
of
Service
• CTL.SC1x
gave
you
a
toolbox
of
methods
for:
o Demand
Forecasting
o Inventory
Management
o Transportation
Planning
• Problems
rarely
announce
themselves,
so
knowing
which
tool
to
use
is
as
critical
as
how
to
use
it!
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐸 𝑥 =
3
1
𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑥 = (𝑎 6 + 𝑏 6 + 𝑐 6 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐)
18
1 2 𝑏−𝑑
𝑃 𝑥>𝑑 = 𝑏−𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏
2 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑐
𝑏−𝑑 6
=
𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑐
𝑑 = 𝑏 − 𝑃 𝑥 > 𝑑 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏
F(x) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 F(x)
0
0.99005
0.98020
0.97045
0.96079
0.95123
0.94176
0.93239
0.92312
0.91393
0.90484
0.86071
0.81873
0.77880
0.74082
0.70469
0.67032
0.63763
0.60653 0
1
0.99995
0.99980
0.99956
0.99922
0.99879
0.99827
0.99766
0.99697
0.99618
0.99532
0.98981
0.98248
0.97350
0.96306
0.95133
0.93845
0.92456
0.90980 1
2
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99997
0.99995
0.99992
0.99989
0.99985
0.99950
0.99885
0.99784
0.99640
0.99449
0.99207
0.98912
0.98561 2
3
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99998
0.99994
0.99987
0.99973
0.99953
0.99922
0.99880
0.99825 3
4
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99997
0.99994
0.99989
0.99983 4
5
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99999 5
6
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000 6
F(x) 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 F(x)
0
0.47237
0.36788
0.28650
0.22313
0.17377
0.13534
0.10540
0.08208
0.06393
0.04979
0.03877
0.03020
0.02352
0.01832
0.01426
0.01111
0.00865
0.00674 0
1
0.82664
0.73576
0.64464
0.55783
0.47788
0.40601
0.34255
0.28730
0.23973
0.19915
0.16479
0.13589
0.11171
0.09158
0.07489
0.06110
0.04975
0.04043 1
2
0.95949
0.91970
0.86847
0.80885
0.74397
0.67668
0.60934
0.54381
0.48146
0.42319
0.36957
0.32085
0.27707
0.23810
0.20371
0.17358
0.14735
0.12465 2
3
0.99271
0.98101
0.96173
0.93436
0.89919
0.85712
0.80943
0.75758
0.70304
0.64723
0.59141
0.53663
0.48377
0.43347
0.38621
0.34230
0.30189
0.26503 3
4
0.99894
0.99634
0.99088
0.98142
0.96710
0.94735
0.92199
0.89118
0.85538
0.81526
0.77165
0.72544
0.67755
0.62884
0.58012
0.53210
0.48540
0.44049 4
5
0.99987
0.99941
0.99816
0.99554
0.99087
0.98344
0.97263
0.95798
0.93916
0.91608
0.88881
0.85761
0.82288
0.78513
0.74494
0.70293
0.65973
0.61596 5
6
0.99999
0.99992
0.99968
0.99907
0.99780
0.99547
0.99163
0.98581
0.97757
0.96649
0.95227
0.93471
0.91372
0.88933
0.86169
0.83105
0.79775
0.76218 6
7
1.00000
0.99999
0.99995
0.99983
0.99953
0.99890
0.99773
0.99575
0.99265
0.98810
0.98174
0.97326
0.96238
0.94887
0.93257
0.91341
0.89140
0.86663 7
8
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99997
0.99991
0.99976
0.99945
0.99886
0.99784
0.99620
0.99371
0.99013
0.98519
0.97864
0.97023
0.95974
0.94701
0.93191 8
9
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99998
0.99995
0.99988
0.99972
0.99942
0.99890
0.99803
0.99669
0.99469
0.99187
0.98801
0.98291
0.97636
0.96817 9
10
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99994
0.99986
0.99971
0.99944
0.99898
0.99826
0.99716
0.99557
0.99333
0.99030
0.98630 10
11
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99997
0.99993
0.99985
0.99971
0.99947
0.99908
0.99849
0.99760
0.99632
0.99455 11
12
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99996
0.99992
0.99985
0.99973
0.99952
0.99919
0.99870
0.99798 12
13
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99996
0.99992
0.99986
0.99975
0.99957
0.99930 13
14
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99996
0.99993
0.99987
0.99977 14
15
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99998
0.99996
0.99993 15
16
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999
0.99999
0.99998 16
17
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.99999 17
18
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000 18
F(x) 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75 9.00 9.25 9.50 F(x)
0
0.00525
0.00409
0.00318
0.00248
0.00193
0.00150
0.00117
0.00091
0.00071
0.00055
0.00043
0.00034
0.00026
0.00020
0.00016
0.00012
0.00010
0.00007 0
1
0.03280
0.02656
0.02148
0.01735
0.01400
0.01128
0.00907
0.00730
0.00586
0.00470
0.00377
0.00302
0.00242
0.00193
0.00154
0.00123
0.00099
0.00079 1
2
0.10511
0.08838
0.07410
0.06197
0.05170
0.04304
0.03575
0.02964
0.02452
0.02026
0.01670
0.01375
0.01131
0.00928
0.00761
0.00623
0.00510
0.00416 2
3
0.23167
0.20170
0.17495
0.15120
0.13025
0.11185
0.09577
0.08177
0.06963
0.05915
0.05012
0.04238
0.03576
0.03011
0.02530
0.02123
0.01777
0.01486 3
4
0.39777
0.35752
0.31991
0.28506
0.25299
0.22367
0.19704
0.17299
0.15138
0.13206
0.11487
0.09963
0.08619
0.07436
0.06401
0.05496
0.04709
0.04026 4
5
0.57218
0.52892
0.48662
0.44568
0.40640
0.36904
0.33377
0.30071
0.26992
0.24144
0.21522
0.19124
0.16939
0.14960
0.13174
0.11569
0.10133
0.08853 5
6
0.72479
0.68604
0.64639
0.60630
0.56622
0.52652
0.48759
0.44971
0.41316
0.37815
0.34485
0.31337
0.28380
0.25618
0.23051
0.20678
0.18495
0.16495 6
7
0.83925
0.80949
0.77762
0.74398
0.70890
0.67276
0.63591
0.59871
0.56152
0.52464
0.48837
0.45296
0.41864
0.38560
0.35398
0.32390
0.29544
0.26866 7
8
0.91436
0.89436
0.87195
0.84724
0.82038
0.79157
0.76106
0.72909
0.69596
0.66197
0.62740
0.59255
0.55770
0.52311
0.48902
0.45565
0.42320
0.39182 8
9
0.95817
0.94622
0.93221
0.91608
0.89779
0.87738
0.85492
0.83050
0.80427
0.77641
0.74712
0.71662
0.68516
0.65297
0.62031
0.58741
0.55451
0.52183 9
10
0.98118
0.97475
0.96686
0.95738
0.94618
0.93316
0.91827
0.90148
0.88279
0.86224
0.83990
0.81589
0.79032
0.76336
0.73519
0.70599
0.67597
0.64533 10
11
0.99216
0.98901
0.98498
0.97991
0.97367
0.96612
0.95715
0.94665
0.93454
0.92076
0.90527
0.88808
0.86919
0.84866
0.82657
0.80301
0.77810
0.75199 11
12
0.99696
0.99555
0.99366
0.99117
0.98798
0.98397
0.97902
0.97300
0.96581
0.95733
0.94749
0.93620
0.92341
0.90908
0.89320
0.87577
0.85683
0.83643 12
13
0.99890
0.99831
0.99749
0.99637
0.99487
0.99290
0.99037
0.98719
0.98324
0.97844
0.97266
0.96582
0.95782
0.94859
0.93805
0.92615
0.91285
0.89814 13
14
0.99963
0.99940
0.99907
0.99860
0.99794
0.99704
0.99585
0.99428
0.99227
0.98974
0.98659
0.98274
0.97810
0.97257
0.96608
0.95853
0.94986
0.94001 14
15
0.99988
0.99980
0.99968
0.99949
0.99922
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16
0.99996
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0.99935
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0.99862
0.99804
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0.98227 16
17
0.99999
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0.99991
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0.99946
0.99921
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18
1.00000
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0.99980
0.99970
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19
1.00000
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0.99989
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20
1.00000
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0.99996
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21
1.00000
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1.00000
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23
1.00000
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24
1.00000
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1.00000
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1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
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0.99999
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25
1.00000
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0.99999 25
26
1.00000
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1.00000
1.00000 26