INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific

focused job. Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer,
fax machine, mobile phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of these
appliances will have a processor and special hardware to meet the specific requirement of
the application along with the embedded software that is executed by the processor for
meeting that specific requirement. The embedded software is also called “firm ware”.
The desktop/laptop computer is a general purpose computer. You can use it for a variety
of applications such as playing games, word processing, accounting, software
development and so on. In contrast, the software in the embedded systems is always fixed
listed below:
· Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do different
things. . Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory.
Generally, they do not have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy
disk. Embedded systems have to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be
completed within a specific time. In some embedded systems, called real-time systems,
the deadlines are stringent. Missing a deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or
damage to property. Embedded systems are constrained for power. As many embedded
systems operate through a battery, the power consumption has to be very low.
· Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such as
very high temperatures and humidity.

Application Areas
Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in
very market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation,
biomedical engineering, wireless communication,
data communication, telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances: At home we use a number of embedded systems which include

digital camera, digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote
controls for TV and air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders
etc. Today’s high-tech car has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control,
engine spark control, air-conditioning, navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now
becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which
we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word
processing.

Office automation: The office automation products using em embedded systems are
copying machine, fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation: Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process
control. These include pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy,
electricity generation and transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are
designed to carry out specific tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure,
humidity, voltage, current etc., and then take appropriate action based on the monitored
levels to control other devices or to send information to a centralized monitoring station.
In hazardous industrial environment, where human presence has to be avoided, robots are
used, which are programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are now becoming very
powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated tasks such as hardware
assembly.

Medical electronics: Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded

system. These equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure
measuring devices, X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation,
colonscopy, endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way for
more accurate diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking: Computer networking products such as bridges, routers,

Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
X.25 and frame relay switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary
data communication protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The
two networks may be running different protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain
the data packets from incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the
destination after doing necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments,
other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are
embedded systems
.
Telecommunications: In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be
categorized as subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals
such as key telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded
systems. The network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet
Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP
gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice
communication over the Internet.

Wireless technologies: Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many
interesting applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels
of the last decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that
provides voice communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants
and the palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet.
Mobile communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching
centers are also powerful embedded systems.

Insemination: Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all

scientific and engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to
measure parameters such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc.
are all embedded systems. Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic
analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio communication test set etc. are embedded systems built
around powerful processors. Thank to miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment
are now becoming portable facilitating easy testing and measurement in the field by
field-personnel.
Security: Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to
protect our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store.
Developing embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative
businesses nowadays. Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication
and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the
processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems. Embedded systems find
applications in . every industrial segment- consumer electronics, transportation, avionics,
biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial automation, data
communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to encrypt the data/voice
being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems
using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user
authentication in banking applications as well as for access control in high security
buildings.

Finance: Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as
Any Time Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-
controller and memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and
acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a
cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever
you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an embedded system!

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central
Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the
software is loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the
‘firmware’. The embedded system architecture can be represented as a layered
architecture as shown in Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above
the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a
desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to
have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote
control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you
can write only the software specific to that application.

For applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating

system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application software with the operating
system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is
transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long time you
don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;
· Central Processing Unit (CPU)
· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)
· Input Devices
· Output devices
· Communication interfaces
· Application-specific circuitry

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is
a low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other
components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter
etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of
external components required will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are
more powerful, but you need to use many external components with them. D5P is used
mainly for applications in which signal processing is involved such as audio and video
processing.

Memory:
The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip,
whereas ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is
stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the
program is program is executed.

Input devices:
Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the
embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you
press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits.
Many embedded systems used in process control do not have any input device for user
interaction; they take inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals
that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:
The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health
status of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:
The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may
have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided
with one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal
Serial Bus (USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:
Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the
processor to carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power
supply either through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to
design in such a way that the power consumption is minimized.