THE EFFECT OF DUST ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR POWERED

STREET LAMPS IN UYO, NIGERIA

BY

NSIKAN SAM IKPE

(NDA/PGS/FE/M/2156/16)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NIGERIAN DEFENCE ACADEMY KADUNA

JULY, 2020
 THE EFFECT OF DUST ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR POWERED

STREET LAMPS IN UYO, NIGERIA

BY

NSIKAN SAM IKPE

(NDA/PGS/FE/M/2156/16)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL OF NIGERIAN

DEFENCE ACADEMY KADUNA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ENGINEERING (M.ENG) DEGREE IN
THERMO–FLUID & ENERGY ENGINEERING

JULY, 2020
 DECLARATION

I, Nsikan Sam Ikpe, hereby declare that this thesis titled “The Effect of Dust on The

Performance of Solar Powered Street Lamps in Uyo, Nigeria” is the product of my

research effort and has not been published or accepted in any previous publication for the

award of a higher degree. Other authors whose published works were used and other sources

of information have been acknowledged appropriately.

--------------------------------- ------------------------------
Nsikan Sam Ikpe Date
(NDA/PGS/FE/M/2156/16)

i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this thesis titled “The Effect of Dust on The Performance of Solar

Powered Street Lamps in Uyo, Nigeria” was carried out by NSIKAN SAM IKPE

(NDA/PGS/FE/M/2156/16), under my supervision has met the requirement governing the

award of Masters of Engineering (M. Eng. Thermo-Fluid and Energy Engineering) Degree in

the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,

Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna.

--------------------------------- ------------------------------
Dr S U Muhammad Date
Project Supervisor

ii
 APPROVAL

This thesis titled “The Effect of Dust on The Performance of Solar Powered Street

Lamps In Uyo, Nigeria” has fulfilled the partial requirement for the award of Masters of

Engineering (M. Eng. Thermo-Fluid and Energy Engineering) Degree in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,

Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna and is hereby approved.

---------------------------------- ------------------------------
Dr. S. U. Muhammad Date
Thesis Supervisor

---------------------------------- ------------------------------
Dr S.U. Muhammad Date
PG Coordinator

---------------------------------- ------------------------------
Dr (Capt) D.K. Garba (Rtd) Date
Head of Department

---------------------------------- ------------------------------
Prof. Y.A. Umar Date
Dean, Postgraduate School

iii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents, Mr and Mrs Sam Ikpe for their consistent show of

genuine love and support in my academic pursuits. God bless them!

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My heartfelt gratitude goes to God Almighty, the one who gives me grace and inspiration to

achieve anything in life. May his name alone be praised.

I will not forget to mention my supervisor Dr. S.U. Muhammad, who was very supportive

during the course of this project from start to finish.

I also want to specially acknowledge the efforts of my mentor and the wife, Professor and

Mrs. Aniedi O. Ette who took me in and gave me wise counsels and parental love. God bless

them immensely.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ v
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... ix
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of problem ................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Aim ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Objectives............................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 3
1.5 Scope of the Study ...................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 5
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Solar Power Generation .............................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Components of Solar Street Light ........................................................................ 6
2.2.2 Principles of Photovoltaic .................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Power output ....................................................................................................... 8
2.2.4 Conversion efficiency ........................................................................................... 9
2.2.5 Current output ................................................................................................... 11
2.2.6 Percentage decrease in power .......................................................................... 12
2.2.7 Percentage decrease in efficiency ..................................................................... 12
2.2.8 Efficiency of Solar Powered Street Light ............................................................ 13
2.3 Solar Power Cell ........................................................................................................ 13
2.4 Solar Power Failure ................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1 Role of Dust in The Failure Mechanism ............................................................. 14
2.4.2 Degradation of Solar Street Lights ..................................................................... 15

vi
 2.4.3 The Worrisome Experience of End-users .......................................................... 15
2.4.4 Incident of a loss and malfunction..................................................................... 16
2.4.5 Cell cracking ....................................................................................................... 17
2.4.6 Error of adhesion ............................................................................................... 19
2.4.7 Encapsulant discolouring ................................................................................... 19
2.4.8 Delamination ...................................................................................................... 20
2.4.9 Back-sheet defects ............................................................................................. 21
2.4.10 Hot Spots ............................................................................................................ 22
2.4.11 Ribbon carrier and mutual faults ....................................................................... 23
2.5 Review of Similar Studies on The Effect of Dust on Solar (PV) Panels ...................... 24
2.6 Research Gap identified from the Literature Review ............................................... 24
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS .................................................. 27
3.1 Materials ................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Equipment ................................................................................................................. 27
3.3 Site Description ......................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Methods .................................................................................................................... 30
3.4.1 Dust Samples Selection and Preparation ........................................................... 30
3.4.2 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................... 34
.................................................................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Variation of Current with Solar Intensity .................................................................. 34
4.2 Results of variation between Voltage and Temperature .......................................... 37
4.3 Results of deduced Power and Efficiency of both Solar Panels ................................ 42
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... 44
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 44
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 45
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................. 49
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................... 49

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 A stand-alone solar street light ................................................................................ 6

Figure 2.2 A typical solar cell ..................................................................................................... 7

Figure 2.3 Cross-section of a p-n junction [4]............................................................................ 8

Figure 2.4 Encapsulant Discolouration [19]............................................................................. 20

Figure 2.5 Delamination [14] ................................................................................................... 21

Figure 2.6 Crystalline silicon solar cells interconnected in series with tabbing ribbon [22] ... 23

Figure 3.1 The Map of Akwa Ibom State [27] .......................................................................... 30

Figure 3.2 Two clean solar panels (rated 20W) connected to loads (10W LEDs).................... 32

Figure 3.3 Experimental Setup ................................................................................................ 32

Figure 4.1 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY1 ............................. 34

Figure 4.2 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY2 ............................. 35

Figure 4.3 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY3 ............................. 36

Figure 4.4 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY1................................ 37

Figure 4.5 Variation of voltage with temperature for dusted panel DAY1 ............................. 38

Figure 4.6 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY2 ................................ 39

Figure 4.7 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY2................................ 39

Figure 4.8 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY3................................ 40

Figure 4.9 Variation of voltage with temperature for dusted panel DAY3 ............................. 41

Figure 4.10 Power Output (clean) vs Power Output (dusted) ................................................. 42

Figure 4.11 Efficiency (clean) vs Efficiency (dusted)................................................................ 42

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Electrical and dimensional specifications of solar panel ...........Error! Bookmark not

defined.

Table A1 Results of measured parameters for day one .......................................................... 49

Table A2 Results of measured parameters for day two .......................................................... 49

Table A3 Results of measured parameters for day three ....................................................... 50

Table A4 Results of deduced power and efficiency of both solar panels ............................... 50

ix
 ABSTRACT

Solar Street lamps are gradually replacing the conventional energy powered street lights in

the city of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. However, the accumulation of dust on the solar panels

powering the street lights in Uyo affects the power output and reduces the efficiency of the

solar street lamps. The study investigates the effect of dust on the electrical performance of

the solar panels. The method of investigation was designed in such a way that two solar

panels rated 20W each were used, one was kept for control (reference) while the other was

dusted with foreign particles (dust) and the experiment was conducted concurrently in Abak

Road in the city of Uyo using dust sample of 4um grain size equivalent to 10g by weight. The

result obtained showed that the efficiency of the solar system is significantly reduced by

61%. This reduction stems from the influence of both dust particles and temperature rise on

current output and voltage output respectively.

x
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The directional arrow of energy utilization for engineering processes (manufacturing and

production) and technological advancement is pointing towards renewable resources as its

driving force with much emphasis on solar energy as fossil fuel utilization is causing great

damage to our environment.

Street light is a Luminescent lighting system which is used on roads, streets and public

squares. It usually starts to shine at night or in the dark, and goes out after dawn. These lights

are found in major cities around Nigeria. Uyo, the capital of Akwa Ibom State, is one of the

cities that enjoyed the scintillation of this very important infrastructure.

But in recent times, major streets in the city of Uyo, have been bereft of the beautiful,

harmonious and comfortable environment provided by functional street lighting particularly

at night. Residents in the metropolis are now familiar with darkness looming major roads in

the city, sequel to the deplorable states of Street lights.

The overwhelming advantage of Street lights on major roads in the city cannot be

overemphasize. For instance, Street light have been very instrumental in the promotion of

security in urban areas as well as increase the quality of life by artificially extending the

hours in which it is light so that activities can take place. The functionality of Street lights

improve safety for drivers, riders and pedestrians during the night hours.

The sun interacts with the earth through a process known as radiation. Solar radiation is

generated by thermonuclear fusion reactions in the sun’s core, causing it to give off an

enormous number of electromagnetic rays as visible light. The sun emits about 63 million

Watts of energy per square meter, and by the time this energy reaches the earth having

1
journeyed through a distance of about 150 million kilometers, it reduces to 1,370 Watts per

square meter at the top of atmosphere directly facing the sun [1]. The amount reaching the

earth atmosphere is attenuated by the components of the atmosphere where part of it are

absorbed or reflected. Whereas the total amount of sun’s radiation that arrives at the surface

of the earth consist of two parts namely: the direct (beam) radiation and indirect or diffuse

radiation.

The technology used in harnessing this free gift of nature to mankind is photo-voltaic solar

panel or solar collectors. Photo-voltaic is a term which deals with the conversion of photon

into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibits the photo-voltaic effect: a

phenomenon that governs the creation of voltage and electric current in a material when

exposed to the sun [2].

1.2 Statement of problem

Despite that the technology for harnessing solar energy is available, there is still need to

improve its performance. The rate at which dust affects the performance of solar powered

street lights is alarming even with the speculation that solar panels could last for reasonable

number of years, as long as there is sunshine. The study proposes to look into the possible

causes of solar power street lamps inefficiencies using investigative approach and also need

to conduct experiments to determine the extent to which dust affects the performance of solar

panels.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of the study is to investigate the effect of dust particles on the performance of solar

powered street light.

2
1.3.2 Objectives

The objectives of the study are as follow:

a. To determine and compare the performance parameters such as voltage and current of

both dusted and clean panels

b. To determine the effect of temperature on both dusted and clean panels

c. To determine, compare and analyze the power and efficiency of the two solar

panels

d. Make appropriate recommendation based on the results obtained

1.4 Significance of the Study

On completion of the study, the effect of dust on the performance of solar street lamps on

Abak road, Uyo, would have been determined. The obtained results will not only reveal the

extent of the impact of dust on solar panels, but also illustrate how they can be mitigated to

improve performance.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This research is limited to the solar street lights situated in Abak Road in the city of Uyo,

Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The grain size of the dust particles used is 4μm equivalent to 10g

by weight.

1.6 Methodology

The following methods were adopted to carry out the study:

a) Carry out a market survey

b) Review of relevant literature

c) Design of the experiment

3
d) Purchase of solar panels and equipment to conduct the performance test

e) Set up the experiment

f) Conduct the experimentation and carry out the relevant measurements

g) Conduct analysis of the results obtained.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Extraction of sun’s photons and consequent change to power came to stay with

the revelation of the photoelectric instrument and ensuing advancement of the sun-

oriented cell. Solar module is made up of semiconductor material which turns photons into

direct current. The utilization of energy from the sunlight as traditional source of energy is

prevalent in rural areas where the national grid is difficult to access. As days go by, end-users

of solar arrays increase as the efficiency is perceived to increase also. [2]

2.2 Solar Power Generation

The innovations and technical know-how involved in harnessing solar

energy are critical for delivering the much-needed green energy which is void of pollution

for the longer term since they are not capital intensive in comparison to other

renewable energy sources. They are also found to be replenishing in nature, which makes

them the best replacement for fossil-fuel power generation for the future. [3]

The two most popular technologies for harnessing sun’s energy are concentrating solar power

(CSP) and Photovoltaic (PV) systems. There are other technologies such as thin film and

organic/inorganic dye-sensitized, which are also being used for energy generation and mostly

mounted on roof tops.

The concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies has gained relevance in renewable energy

utilization especially for an extensive generation of electricity via power machines. Solar

power generation would be successful if the following factors are put in place; varieties of

technologies, materials, energy storage and control method as well as the approach to its

application. [2]

5
2.2.1 Components of Solar Street Light

A typical solar powered street lighting system consist of the following components, PV panel

(rated in Watts), battery, charge-controller, lighting device (lamp) and a mounting platform.

Figure 2.1 A stand-alone solar street light [2]

Solar panel: Solar panel is a collection of several irradiant cells. They

are ordinarily utilized as photon detector, identifying incident light and other frequency band

close to the zone of visibilty on the spectrum.

The operation of photo-voltaic (PV) cell includes three crucial characteristics:

i. Absorption: Gathering of photons and era of electron-hole pairs.

ii. Polarity: The division of the charge carrier of inverse poles.

iii. Extraction: The isolated charge carriers are extricated to an outside circuit. [3]

6
 Figure 2.2 A typical solar cell [3]

Charge controllers: Charge controllers serve to direct the charging and releasing of batteries.

In other words, they constitute fundamental portion of the solar powered street light.

Nevertheless, charge controllers would completely be defenseless in sparing a solar

powered street light if the charging source-the photovoltaic (PV) module operation

has fizzled.

Battery: a battery comprises of one or more electro-chemical cells associated together

to deliver the specified voltage and current. Each battery has three basic parts: an anode, a

cathode and an electrolyte. The fabric utilized within the plan and development of

these fundamental things vary.

LED bulb: LED bulb is the present world standard for street lighting projects.

In understanding with how they vary, there exists numerous diverse makes within the market.

2.2.2 Principles of Photovoltaic

The influence of photo-voltaic can readily be described for a p-n intersection in a

semiconductor. In a regular semiconductor for instance silicon, each respective four valence

7
electrons of the substance iota is tied in a chemical bond, and at absolute zero electrons are

absent. When a relatively small quantity of such a silicon fabric is doped on one facet by a-

five valence electron material, like nitrogen or bismuth, there will be an abundance of

electrons therein facet, progressing to be an n-type semi-conductor. The electrons in large

quantity will be virtually at liberty to transit within the semi-conductor cross section.

Figure 2.3 Cross-section of a p-n junction [4]

When the edge of the same component is doped by a three-valence electron material, for

instance baron element, this will result in an insufficient electron driving to a p-type

semiconductor. And this insufficiency is communicated in terms of abundance of gaps at

liberty to transit within the grid. The portion of a semi-conductor, with one part being the p-

type and other side the n-type is called a p-n junction, Figure 2.3. [4]

2.2.3 Power output

The power output of any power generating device, such as a photovoltaic cell,

is equivalent to the product of the current and voltage. Hypothetically, a silicon solar

8
module ought to have a voltage of 1.1 volts derived from 1.1 electron-volts of vitality of the

mobile electrons generated. In practical applications, be that as it may, the maximum voltage

of a silicon diode is approximately 0.6 volts and it happens on open circuit, when

no electricity is conducted. [4]

The upper limit power of a silicon diode happens at a yield voltage of around 0.45 volts. In a

bright daylight, the current produced in a profit-oriented silicon solar powered panel is at that

point generally 270 A/m2 of uncovered surface. In this way the power produced by a

commercial silicon solar powered cell is 0.12 kW/m2, the change proficiency of

this specific cell is around 12 %. The electrical power produced by a photovoltaic cell

is generally corresponding to the measure of solar radiation falling on the surface of the solar

panel. Consequently, the resulting power of a solar cell in a given range can be expanded by

integrating it with a converging solar collector. [4]

The equation for maximum Power output is given underneath [4]

Pmax = ISC x VOC x F.F. (3.1)

Where,

VOC = the output voltage in Volts (V);

ISC = Circuitry current measured in Amperes (A) and F.F. is the fill factor.

A commonplace esteem of the fill factor for any given silicon cell is 0.8.

2.2.4 Conversion efficiency

The ch an ge pr odu ct i vi t y o f a s u n p ow er ed ce l l , equ al s t h e r at e of t h e su n -

oriented vitality occurrence on a PV gadget that's changed over into usable power. For

both hypothetical and common-sense reasons, not the entire sun-

based radiation vitality hitting the solar powered cell can be changed over into electricity.

9
Weak, low frequency (long wavelength) photons do usually possess enough energy to knock

out electrons. Intensive and extending frequency (short wavelength) photons have so much

energy, although they release electrons, unspecific amount of their energy is left over unused.

[5]

Efficiency (Ŋ) = Pmax / (G x A) (3.2)

Where Pmax is the maximum power in watts;

A = Area of the panel (m2);

G = Irradiation (W/m2)

Numerous variables in sun-oriented cell composition participate in restricting a

cell's capacity to change over the sunbeam it gets. Understanding the impact of

these variables is key to getting higher proficiency.

Wavelength—The daylight that comes to the layer of the earth possesses wavelengths

ranging from bright, through the unmistakable extend, to infrared. When light come upon the

exterior of a sun-oriented cell, a few quanta of photon bounce back, whereas the bulk of it is

transmitted through the cell. The energy of the rest of the photons are retained as heat.

Photon emission—When a negatively charged electron streams over the fabric of a

semiconductor, an electric current is conducted. Some other charge carrier also recognized as

a "gap," speaks of the nonappearance of an electron inside the fabric and representing a

positive charge. When an electron experiences a gap, they are likely to integrate and

thus invalidating their commitments to the electrical current. Coordinate recombination, in

which photons and gaps experience one another, merges again, and emit a photon, turns

around the method from which power is produced in a sun-based cell.

10
An undeviating recombination could be a handle in which the electrons

or gaps experience a debasement, a deformity within the crystal structure, that

makes it simpler for recombination and further discharge of the intrinsic energy as heat.

Quality of temperature—The solar-powered cells perform better at low temperatures.

Higher temperatures allow for a difference in the properties of the semiconductor, with the

current increasing marginally with lower voltage. Extraordinary increase in temperature can

destroy the cell and other modules which lead to a reduction in working life. The daytime

light on cells become drier and more effective and durable when the legitimate power of

thermal energy rises.

Reflectance—The output of a cell can be improved by reducing the total volume of reflected

light from the surface of the cell. For illustration purposes, raw silicon reflects over 30% of

the light incident on its surface. Anti-reflective materials and polished surfaces help to reduce

reflection. A high-performance cell may show as dark or light brown. [6]

2.2.5 Current output

The p-n junction of a module with a solar power is influenced by photons, which cause the

electron holing set to travel at a steady rate of an electric current. Therefore, the net current

differs from the typical current of the diode to the current produced by the solar radiation IL.

The internal structure resistance Rs will typically be caused by the high sheet resistance of

the diffused layer in accordance with the junction. [5] The current produced by the photon is

a stable current that provides the current at either the junction or a useful load, according to

the intersection characteristics and to the appreciation of the external load resistance.

The net current I is given by [5]

I = IL - Io [Exp[(V + IRs) e/kT]-1] (3.3)

11
Where V is voltage of the junction,

Rs is the internal structure resistance,

IL is the irradiation current,

e is electronic charge,

k is Boltzmann’s constant,

T is absolute temperature

V is the voltage.

Io is saturation current also called the dark current.

2.2.6 Percentage decrease in power

This is often the proportion of the contrast between the production capacity of

two solar panels in comparison to the power output of the control solar

panel communicated in rate. Mathematically, it is given as [7] :

(Pclean panel - Psoiled panel) x100%

% decrease in power (Pdecrease) = (3.4)
(Pclean panel)

2.2.7 Percentage decrease in efficiency

The contrast that is multiplied by 100% between the efficiency of two solar panels, divided

by the control panel efficiency, results in the efficiency deduction of the two solar panels.

It is expressed mathematically as shown below in equation 3.5.

(clean panel - soiled panel) x100%

% decrease in efficiency = (3.5)
(clean panel)

12
2.2.8 Efficiency of Solar Powered Street Light

The efficiency is the most used parameter for comparing the performance of one solar

powered module to the other. It is the share of solar panels ' energy output to the input of

solar energy. It also relies primarily upon the spectrum and strength of illumination and the

temperature of sun-focused cells in addition to the emphasis on the operation of solar cells.

As a result, the performance of the different gadgets must be carefully controlled to

determine productivity.

2.3 Solar Power Cell

An array of many solar cells is a Solar Panel. A solar cell has the capacity to transform sun

directed radiation into electricity. In the event of the power of the photons being sufficient to

disassemble electron sets, electromagnetic energy from other sources like lamps can also be

used by solar cells to create power.

Photovoltaic energy change in solar cells comprises of two imperative steps. The primary is

the retention of light which creates an electron-hole match. The electron and gap are at that

point isolated with electrons floating to the negative terminal and the positive terminal

respectively and subsequently the production of electricity. Most of the accessible solar cells

are made of silicon. The good thing about utilizing silicon is its mature way of being handled

by innovation. The huge wealth of silicon within the hull of the soil, and its non-toxicity

makes it a shrewd and self-evident choice. The silicon is utilized in PV cells for mono

crystalline (single crystalline) and multi-crystalline photovoltaic module generation. In mono

crystalline silicon, the crystal grid of the whole sample is non-stop with no grain boundaries.

Multi-crystalline are composed of a number of littler crystal

structure or different little silicon precious stone. In common, mono crystalline silicon

is superior in performance than the multi-crystalline silicon. A single or multi-

13
crystalline solar silicone cell's electric current voltage rises up to 0.5volts. This is due to the

voltage over the solar cell's negative and positive limit layer. The electrons that are thumped

into the conducting band depend on the current or amperage of the solar cell. The current is

the sum of the solar radiation in the solar cell. The solar cell stream can be expanded by

either expanding the solar cell area or by expanding the solar cell sum of solar radiation.

Solar cells are combined to create a ‘box’ that provides the power and voltage needed.

A number of solar powered cells put together is frequently called a photovoltaic module.

Power is equal to current multiplied by voltage, measured in Watts. The control rating of a

photovoltaic module is ordinarily cited as the power output of the module when

the occurrence solar radiation is 1000 Watts/meter squared and the temperature is 25º C

[7]. Usually a small amount in the middle of a bright summer day with sun radiation. So on a

bright day near midday would a 1-meter square module that is 15% efficient produce 150

Watts in yield.

The direct current used by a photovoltaic cluster is used to power the "load." This could be by

charging a battery in a calculator to running a house or town by driving the communications

system. When an electric gear that operates on alternating electric current is connected with a

PV array, it must be paired with an inverter that converts direct current to alternating current.

[8]

2.4 Solar Power Failure

2.4.1 Role of Dust in The Failure Mechanism

A broad ponder by the researcher [9] uncovered that a single clean storm

is competent of diminishing the power of PV module by 20%. The study

also demonstrated that the impact of dust can as it were be handled by carrying out

a planned cleaning of the solar panel. Another study conducted in Egypt by

14
two researchers [10] on the variety of electrical performance of a PV cell with regard to

the impact of dust, it was found that once dust is disseminated on the surface of the solar

panel, the maximum power output decreased by almost 50 per cent from 15.43 W to 7.2 W.

The amassing of debris on the surface of any solar panel constitutes a shade

which ruins the assimilation and transmission of light photons from the sun light. The

analyst [11] uncovered that dust deposition would thermally affect the module’s electrical

output through a thermic fluctuating effect.

2.4.2 Degradation of Solar Street Lights

Experimental studies in other situations that share comparative natural factors with Nigeria

report different degrees of diminution in power output of sun-based street lights.

Wakim [11] detailed 17% degradation in Kuwait. Another consideration by Salim et al

[12] detailed a debasement of up to 32% after eight months in Riyadh.

2.4.3 The Worrisome Experience of End-users

Solar oriented street lights were introduced in numerous inaccessible parts of

the nation. Solar powered street lights have ended up for numerous Nigerians, an

essential encounter of photovoltaic innovation in operation. Among solar powered users, this

was gathered to publicize the innovation and thrust for its entrance. By experience,

it appears that a few of the components of these solar powered street lights

have exceptionally high disappointment rate [13], in spite of tremendous venture related with

them. This is clearly troubling since it may prevent imminent clients of

the innovation. Subsequently, the failure mechanism of solar powered street lights in Nigeria

has been a subject of concern among researchers and other partners within the industry.

Tragically, the role of dust as the failure mechanism has

not gotten satisfactory consideration. Inside the same period, there

15
was also 23% decrease within the operational hours of the solar based street light.

This decrease in power regularly leads to improper charging of battery which triggers

its untimely disappointment.

2.4.4 Incident of a loss and malfunction

The nitty gritty about the in-service inefficiency of solar panels over the entire life time is not

available since most installation are still recent. Those providing the panels are not willing to

make accessible such measurements. failure on installations, grant figures between 1 and 2%

of all solar panels introduced [14]. However, a few simulation studies with quickened

lifetime have been embraced, but on a constrained number of panels. Regarding Solarex c-Si

panels, BP solar based company expects 0.13% loss for a duration of 8 years and National

Research Institute in Sandia has anticipated an average loss of 0.05% on the basis of data

from the field. [14]

Solar panel inefficiency could be partitioned within safety and performance. The failure

associated with safety may lead to component damage. While the performance-based failure

brings about reduction in the power output and efficiency.

The faults in solar panels happen within the following key ranges:

a. The encapsulation

b. The amorphous layers in amorphous PV

c. The wafers or cells in crystalline PV products

d. Wafer or cell faults

e. The glass base

f. Internal wiring

g. Frame and fittings

16
It is not considered fault or failure unless the rate of debasement exceeds the standard.

Deterioration of PV module is ordinary over cell’s life and it is not considered fault unless the

rate of debasement exceeds the standard. [15] The larger part of the fault is breaking of the

cell and damage to circuitry networks and conductors. Littler flaws emerge from Anti-

Reflective Coating (ARC) disruption and cell depletion. Photon actuated debasement in

homogeneous photovoltaic modules could be a familiar impact and isn't essentially classified

as loss. Potential Induced Degradation (PID) may be a recent occurrence due to progressively

increasing voltages utilized in solar powered panel frameworks.

2.4.5 Cell cracking

Breakages in solar panel modules are far reaching. They can grow into numerous phases of

the cell’s working life. During fabrication to be specific, soldering actuates extreme heat to

the cells. Transport handling and vibration can initiate or increase cell splitting.

[7] Splits starting with the cell interconnected ribbon are affected by the

residual stretch initiated through the process of soldering.

These breakages are regularly found at the conclusion or the connector’s reference

point, since highest residual stress happen at that point. This is the frequent sort of crack.

Eventually, panel on the field has wind (weight and vibrations) and snow (stress) loads

caused by mechanical problems. [16]

Micro-cracks also happen within the PV silicone polymer not often seen with bare eyes. In a

solar cell, cracks may develop in numerous extents and alignment.

Cell generation and the implanting handle amid the manufacturing process triggers

cell cracking within the modules. A specific barrier to the development of crisis is the

17
deepening cycle of solar cells. [17] With the module aging and enduring warm and physical

strain, fractures can occur. The ongoing development of the cracks cell parts will contribute

to the complete partition, leading to passive membrane parts.

The loss of the cell sections is sufficient for even a 60 W, 230 W solar panel as long as the

incorrect component is lighter than 8 percent of the cell region. [18] When cell cracks are

detected in a solar cell panel, there is an increased risk that small cell cracks may turn into

longer and larger cracks during its activity.

he mechanical extension due to wind or fog and bio-

mechanical stress on the solar modules can be attributed to the changes in the temperature ind

uced by weather changing clouds and weather varieties. Thermal, technological and moisture

content can cause the cell’s ‘empty’ or inactive’ portions to cause the power output of the

affected solar energy unit to fail in conjuction with the crack trends of larger divides. A

dormant cell component does not add to the full power production of the solar panel, and if

this inactive component is more prevalent than 8 % of the whole cell area it will contribute to

power failure. [19]

Cracks possibly develop over a longer operational time and in this

way amplify their noxious effect on the utility and productivity of a PV

package, possibly activating dead zones. Unrecognized, infinitesimal cracks

may reduce the anticipated field life expectancy of the photovoltaic (PV) and sometimes only

until deployment is the micro-cracks detected. There are distinctive quality

testing strategies to distinguish smaller scale cracks of which

Electroluminescence crack discovery (ELCD) testing is among the main related strategies.

EL testing is capable of identifying covered up shortcomings which were some time

recently hard to trace by different applicable test methods, such as Infrared (IR) imaging

18
incorporated with radiative lenses, Volt-Ammeter attributes and streak testing. A

few producers suggest standard assessment of introduced panels over the lifetime. [15,16]

2.4.6 Error of adhesion

For numerous factors the grip around window, encapsulating, fluid, and rear layers can be

impaired. Protective layer and certain PV innovation may further encapsulate

a Transparent Conductive Oxide (TCO) or comparable layer which will detach off

an adjoining wall with glass. oftentimes, in any case where the grip is compromised due

to corrosion (e.g. unsuitable washing of the crystal) or natural components, corrosion may

arise, preceded by dampness entrance and ingestion. Delamination at refractive interface will

cause optical reflection (for instance, power failure up to 4%, at unity air/cellulose layout)

and power failure in the arrays. [14]

2.4.7 Encapsulant discolouring

This sort of pigmentation is triggered by fading oxygen. So with a loosen base layer, the inner

section of the cells stain whereas the exterior remains clear. And this will result in a

few failure of transmission and hence a reduction in power. Agreeing to the analyst this

may happen due to deprived cross linking and/or added substances within the formation.[19]

19
Figure 2.4 Encapsulant Discolouration [19]

It appears that in the absence of concentration it requires 5 to 10 years for discolouration to

occur and in no time lessening output power. This deformity can prevent a few photons

from coming to the panel. [20]

2.4.8 Delamination

Delamination is the breaking of the glass or cell encapsulant. It may vary from superstratum

(glass), substratum (back plate) or encapsulating between cells. Front glass detachment may

occur as a result of weak fastening or bad glass cleaning techniques during manufacturing.

This deformity could obstruct a handful of glow from coming to the module.

The issue can be severe if humidity concentrates within the vacuum

and makes short circuits close to the splicing wires.

The current method, accompanied by corrosion, reduces module efficiency after delamination,

but don't consequently pose a health hazard. The rear panel delamination, though, could

20
render damage to volatile electric components more possible, may

even empower the likelihood of electrical dynamic variable display.

If a panel is built with glass front and back, extra pressures will boost breakage and/or

delamination. [11]

Figure 2.5 Delamination [14]

2.4.9 Back-sheet defects

The back-sheet of a panel protects electronic components from excessive environmental

exposure and guarantees safe operation in the presence of strong DC voltages. The rear plates

can be made up of glass or polymers and the metal foil can be consolidated.

Back-sheets are made up of glass, or polymers, and may consolidate a metal foil. Most

commonly, a back-sheet is made up of a cover structure with

a profoundly steady and Ultraviolet (UV) resistant polymer, frequently a fluoropolymer on

21
the exterior, straightforwardly uncovered to the environment, an inward layer, taken after by

the encapsulant layer.

Instead of a rear panel, when a rear glass is being utilized, it can break down. And should the

module be developed as a thin-film gadget in the background, there would be a significant

safety risk when the module expands to a critical power failure. There may be a slight

cracking along the fractures and a few voltages capable of generating and sustaining an

electrical arc. If this occurs in combination with the breakdown of the bypass diode, the full

system tension may be present over the break, rendering it an enormous and sustained

circular section liable to melt steel, conceivably causing a fire. Nevertheless, if the glass back

sheet should break up in a standard crystalline SI module, a certain degree of electric

insulation would still be provided by a layer of encapsulant. A damaged attachment layer of

the back sheet caused by the presentation of ultra-purple or an increase in temperature may

result in delamination. Yellowing on the front is caused by a weakening of the rubber used to

push the rear handle into the enclosure. [14]

Yellowing on the air side can be an indicator of ultraviolet sensitivity, which is enhanced by

high temperatures. The warm debasement also leads to this deformity in some backgrounds.

[21]

2.4.10 Hot Spots

Hot-spot heating takes place in a module when the operating current of a shadowed or

damaged cell or cell array surpass the reduced short-circuit current (Isc). When this occurs,

the cell or group of cells affected become limited into a reverse bias and must distribute

control. The reverse biased cell may overheat, leading to a softening of the patch and/or

silicone and a disintegration of the encapsulant and the back sheet, if the scatter control is

highly adequate or localized enough[ 22].

22
Figure 2.6 Crystalline silicon solar cells interconnected in series with tabbing ribbon [22]

2.4.11 Ribbon carrier and mutual faults

Two critical components, front and back contacts are used to manufacture solar cells, which

enable transmission of the current to the external circuit. Now, the buss strip are transferred

to both the front and rear contacts. Loop ribbon loss is synonymous with power failure. As a

result of heat development and compression, interconnection crack occurs. Therefore, thicker

ribbons help sever interconnections and contribute to short circuit cells and free circuit cells.

The solder joints are a fundamental part of the assembly. They consist of many materials that

are strengthened in conjunction with the soldering, bus bar, ribbon and silicon wafer. These

materials have distinctive thermal and mechanical properties.

The collection produces unwavering thermomechanical quality problems, caused by contrasts

within the thermal expansion coefficient of the reinforced material. The solder attaches the

terminal to the wire. The temperature change of the PV module is associated with the local

atmosphere, which in effect affects the risk of disintegration of the solder interconnection.

Although the use of soldering process in PV modules in solar cells has the advantage of

23
yielding items that have high quality at negligible production costs, innovation is produced at

high temperatures and the potential to inalienate shear stress in the silicon cell. Failure and

weakening of the solder joints cause increased array resistance, contributing to power output

misfortune.

2.5 Review of Similar Studies on The Effect of Dust on Solar (PV) Panels

Suleiman et al [23], investigated the effect of dust on the surface of a solar photovoltaic panel

in Petronas, Malaysia. An experiment was set up with artificially dusted 50W, 1004mm x

448mm x 43mm size panel in an indoor laboratory which was exposed to radiation energy a

500W spotlight system. An undusted solar panel with same specification and under the same

experimental condition was displayed as the control experiment. The study showed a

reduction in efficiency by up to 50%. This alone could discourage investment in solar energy

hence the need to proffer solution.

Mekhilef et al [24] investigated the effect of the thickness of the dust accumulated on the PV

modules and the change in the output of the solar panel, in University of Malaysia, Malaysia.

From the study, it was discovered that there was a significant decrease in the output of the

panel between 10% to 20% upon heavy dust storm.

Rajput and Sudhakar [25] examined the behavior of PV modules with deposited dust on their

surfaces. The results showed that power and efficiency of the PV module decreased to 92%

and 89% respectively as compared to clean modules.

Kumar and Chaurasia [26] found that the accumulation of dust on PV modules is on the

increase and as such there is need for routine cleaning of the surface of the panels. They also

discovered that the efficiency of a typical solar panel exposed to the dust reduces to

approximately 40%.

24
Touati et al. [27] experimentally investigated the effect of dust on PV module performance

considering temperature and relative humidity as factors that influences dust accumulation on

a PV in Qatar for a period of two years. The result shows that 50% degradation of power

output was recorded due to an eight-month exposure without cleaning.

El-Nashar [28] investigated the seasonal effect of dust deposition on PV performance in the

United Arab Emirates (UAE). Results from the study show that glass transmittance reduction

is higher during summer at approximately 10% and 6% during the winter. Results also show

that 70% of efficiency degradation was recorded when the PV module was not clean over a

period of one year. The result of the study further confirmed that a single dust storm could

reduce PV module output by about 20%.

Ghazi and Ip [29] investigated the dust effect on solar PV module considering weather effect

as the influencing factor in both outdoor and indoor experiments in Brighton, United

Kingdom (UK). Their results from the laboratory (indoor) experiment show a reduction of

11% of light transmittance caused by fine dust particles, while results from the outdoor

experiment show more severe degradation of the PV module performance which was related

to weather conditions.

Ramli et al. [30] investigated the dust effect on a solar PV module considering environmental

conditions in Indonesia. Their results show a 10.8% reduction during the dry season, more

than 40% during the rainy season with an average relative humidity of 76.32% and 45%

when the average relative humidity is 60.45%.

Sanusi [32] investigated with amorphous silicon PV module in southern Nigeria under dust

haze in harmattan season for a period of three months without cleaning. The result revealed a

20% degradation of solar PV cell performance.

25
Urrejola et al. [33] investigated PV modules (monocrystalline, polycrystalline and thin-film)

performance considering the effect of dust in Santiago Chile, for a period of two years. Their

results show a daily degradation of PV module performance that lies between 0.13% and

0.56%. An annual degradation was also recorded with polycrystalline having 1.29%, 1.74%

for thin-film system and monocrystalline having 2.77% reductions respectively.

2.6 Research Gap identified from the Literature Review

In conclusion, a number of factors could, at any point, be responsible for the high failure rate

of solar street lights. Many studies have been carried out on the defects of solar panel and

effect of dust on their output. However, one thing is common to all the methods used in

carrying out the experimental tests and that is the use of artificial source of radiation instead

of sun light. Moreover, most of the experiments were carried out indoor excluding the natural

effect of environmental factors. The study undertaken herein seeks to improve on the study

by exposing the PV modules to real sun radiations in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State as compared to

those in literature, Malaysia and Indonesia.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

The following materials were used for the study:

a. Dust particles (grain size of 4μm)

b. Two Solar Panels rated 20 W, Manufactured by SunPower in April 2018

c. Two 10 W LED bulbs, Manufactured by SunPower in January 2019

d. Sieve Machine, Manufactured by Eversun Machinery, 2012

3.2 Equipment

The following equipment were used:

a. Multimeter (MASTECH M3900) made in China, 2013

Figure 3.1 MASTECH M3900 Multimeter

27
Mastech M3900 is a digital multimeter. This meter is a compact, rugged, battery operated,

handheld digital multimeter with DC (1000V) and AC (700V) voltage measurement; DC and

AC current measurement (10A); Resistance measurement (20MΩ); Diode measurement;

Audible continuity test; Transistor hFE measurement (1~1000).

b. Digital Illuminance Meter (DT-1307) made in China, 2014

Figure 3.2 DT-1307 Illuminance Meter

c. Digital Weighing Balance (PCE - BS 300) made in China, 2013

Figure 3.3 PCE - BS 300 Digital Weighing Balance

28
The laboratory balance PCE-BS is a light, rugged precision balance suitable for different

purposes. The removable stainless-steel pan allows the laboratory balance to be cleaned

easily. The PCE-BS 300 and 300 balance can be used for weighing as well as for piece

counting. The calibration of this laboratory balance is done by means of external calibration

weights (automatic calibration procedure) or in accredited laboratory (ISO calibration).

d. Eversun Max/Min Thermometer (0-100°C) Manufactured by Eversun, 2000

Figure 3.4 Eversun Max/Min Thermometer

Digital Thermometer/Dual display Temperature Tester, Power supply: DC4 ~ 28V, Operating

temperature: -40°c to +80°c, Measuring accuracy: 1°c, Measuring range: -20°c to +100°c, It

has a small size, high efficiency, long term stable and reliable quality,easy installation and

use.

3.3 Site Description

Uyo is a huge city with the population close to 435,000 individuals. It is the capital of Akwa

Ibom State within the south region of Nigeria, a popular entertainment centre, [24]. Figure

3.5 shows the map of the city of Uyo.

29
Figure 3.5 The Map of Akwa Ibom State [27]

Uyo, Nigeria is on latitude 5.038963 and longitude 7.909470, 65m above the ocean level. [27]

3.4 Methods

The study is experimental. After the experiment was set up, Voltage and Current were

measured off directly and the result used to evaluate the Power and Efficiency of both the

clean and dusted solar panel. Soil dust samples were collected.

3.4.1 Dust Samples Selection and Preparation

Soil C samples were collected from the streets. Thereafter they were sieved to a grain size of

4μm and an equivalent weight of 10g using a sieving machine and a digital weighing balance

30
respectively. Samples of 10g dust particles were placed in a set of sieves ranging from 10μm

to 2μm. The sieves were agitated with the help of a vibrator for about 10mins.

The samples from 4μm sieve were collected and weighed using a digital weighing balance,

this is because dust particles of grain size less than 5μm scatters more light in the visible

range of the solar spectrum than particles with high size.

3.4.2 Experimental Set Up

The study was conducted using two solar panels. The specifications are as described in table

3.1

Table 3.1: Electrical and dimensional specifications of solar panel [AKT-20-M solar panel user
manual]

S/N Parameters Specifications

1 Peak Power ( Pmax) 20 W

2 Voltage at Pmax (Vm) 17.5 V

3 Current at Pmax (Im) 1.17 A

4 Short Circuit Current (Isc) 1.27 A

5 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 22.05 V

6 Output Tolerance + or - 5%

7 Surface Dimension 470mm by 350mm

Plate 3.1 represents the experimental set up before the solar panel was smeared with dust,

while Plate 3.2 shows the experimental set up when the panel had been dusted. From figure

3.3 panel A represents clean (or control) solar panel while panel B represents dusted (unclean)

solar panel. The two solar panels are connected to their respective lighting devices rated 10

W each.

31
Plate 3.1: Two clean solar panels (rated 20W) connected to loads (10W LEDs)

Plate 3.2: Experimental Setup

32
3.4.3 Experimental Procedure

The experiment was conducted concurrently with the two solar panels. The clean panel was

used as the control (that's the surface of the panel was not dusted). The experiment was

conducted at Ibrahim Babangida Avenue in the city of Uyo for three consecutive days from

10.00 am to 1pm daily when the sun intensity was at its peak. The sieved dust particles

weighing 10g were then spread over one of the panels while the other panel was left without

dust. Both panels were then exposed to solar radiation from 10:00 am to 1:00 pm.

Two digital illuminance meters were connected to panels A and B multimeters and

thermometer were used to record voltage and temperature across panels A and B Values of

solar intensity, current, voltage, and temperature were taken at intervals of every 30 minutes

for three days consecutively and the results are as tabulated in Appendix A.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the study are presented and discussed below.

4.1 Variation of Current with and Solar Intensity

The result of the variation of current and solar intensity is presented in Fig. 4.1

Figure 4.1 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY1

The line graph in figure 4.1 shows the rate at which the current produced by the solar module

for the first day varies with the solar radiation (intensity of the sun) for both cases (clean and

soiled solar panels).

Overall, we can see that there is a substantial increase in current as the intensity keeps on

increasing for the clean panel while that of the soiled panel shows a dragging increment,

which reflects about 40 % loss of energy compared to the clean panel. This statistic is in

tandem with the result obtained by Sulaiman. [22]

34
Figure 4.2 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY2

35
 Figure 4.3 Variation of current with solar intensity for both panels DAY3

Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 Illustrate the relation between the solar irradiance (intensity) and the

current produced by the solar module for the three (3) days respectively. It can be seen that

the module current increases as the intensity increases.

The drop in current is caused by deposit of dust particles scattered on the surface of the panel

which only allows little amount of radiation get in to the solar cells.

The trend of the current drop is approximately linear. And noticeably, the change in the trend

of the graph also indicates that the intensity of the sun affects the performance of the solar

module apart from the effects of dust particles. From the results obtained it is found that the

average percentage decrease of the output current is about 60% compared to the output

current of the clean solar panel. Moreover, it has been studied and shown that the decrease in

the current produced by solar panel is due to soiling (dust deposition). Some authors [22]

36
conducted experiments and found that solar panel loses about 40% of it current in ordinary

situations when there is no sand storm. Hence, the quantity of dust particles on a certain

surface of solar panel have high effect; because as the area of the surface covered by the dust

increases, a percentage of the surface would not be exposed to the sun intensity which will

lead to decrease in the current output.

4.2 Results of variation between Voltage and Temperature

The variation of voltage with temperature for both clean and dusted panels for the three days

are shown in Figures 4.4,4.5,4.6, 4.7,4.8 and 4.9 respectively.

Figure 4.4 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY1

37
 Figure 4.5 Variation of voltage with temperature for dusted panel DAY1

The trend of the graph is similar for both clean and dusted solar panels for the three days. It

can also be seen that the values of voltage decreased slightly as the values of temperature

increased. Consequently, as the temperature changed from about 25.5 oC to 29 oC, the values

of the voltage decreased linearly until when it got to the region of above 30oC where the

voltage drop became so high causing a steep in the trend. This is due to the heat generated

within the solar panel which could also result in the delamination of the solar cells.

38
Figure 4.6 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY2

Figure 4.7 Variation of voltage with temperature for dusted panel DAY2

39
Figure 4.8 Variation of voltage with temperature for clean panel DAY3

40
 Figure 4.9 Variation of voltage with temperature for dusted panel DAY3

Both the clean solar panel and dusted solar panel lost about 9.5% and 8.9% electrical voltages

respectively due to temperature rise, which coincides to a large extent with the ranges

mentioned in the previous studies [23], with a slight deviation. This may be due to

meteorological conditions.

The current obtained from the clean panel is far greater than that of the dusted panel.

Meanwhile the voltages recorded from both solar panels under same ranges of radiation was

found to be relatively the same which shows that the intensity does not really have so much

impact on the voltage. But looking at figures 4.5 to 4.9 it is observed that increased in the

values of temperature brought about decreased in the values of voltage for both clean and

dusted solar panels.

41
4.3 Results of deduced Power and Efficiency of both Solar Panels

The results of deduced power and efficiency for both clean and dusted panels for the three

days are shown in Figures 4.10 and 4.11 below:

Figure 4.10 Power Output (clean) vs Power Output (dusted)

Figure 4.11 Efficiency (clean) vs Efficiency (dusted)

Also, Figures 4.10 and 4.11 show that the output power increases as the radiation increases

owing to the increase in the current output of both solar panels. This means that radiation

42
plays a major role in the power output of any solar panel. A clear distinction was also noticed

between the output power of the clean and dusted panel. The average percentage decrease of

power output is about 61% as a direct effect of dust deposition on the solar panel. This is in

accordance with the result obtained by another researcher [24] which is 62%.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The followings are the conclusion drawn from the study:

The output current and voltage of dusted solar panel were found to be decreasing when

subjected to solar radiation while on the contrary, the clean solar panel experienced increment

of both output current and voltage.

Also, as the temperature rose, both dusted and clean solar panels experienced decrease in the

output voltage. Although the effect was infinitesimal for the clean solar panel, due to the heat

produced as the temperature increased, it was nevertheless evident for the dusty solar panel

Results from the analysis of power output and efficiency showed a clear distinction between

the overall electrical performance of dusted solar panel and clean solar panel. A percentage

difference of about 61 percent was recorded indicative of the effect of dust accumulation on

solar panel.

5.2 Recommendations

The following are recommended:

a. Install a wiper with sensor to detect and wipe any foreign material on the panel.

b. Use different grain particle sizes for further study.

C. Design and install a tracker on the panel to improve solar absorption and to boost the

overall efficiency of the system.

44
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 APPENDIX

Appendix A
Table 1 Results of measured parameters for day one

S/ Time Solar Temper Voltage Current Voltage for Current

N Intensity ature of for clean for clean dusted
panel panel panel panel for dusted
2
(W/m ) panel
(hrs) (oC) (V) (A) (V)
(A)
1 10.00am 171.67 26 17.35 0.22 17.38 0.08
2 10:30am 182.08 27 17.20 0.24 17.23 0.09
3 11:00am 190.83 29 17.16 0.25 17.13 0.10
4 11:30am 191.72 30 17.11 0.25 17.08 0.10
5 12:00pm 212.64 32 16.58 0.27 16.63 0.11
6 12:30pm 213.75 32 16.44 0.28 16.57 0.12
7 1:00pm 216.60 33 15.71 0.30 15.83 0.14

Table 2 Results of measured parameters for day two

S/ Time Solar Temper Voltage Current Voltage for Current

N Intens ature of for clean for clean dusted
ity panel panel panel panel for dusted
(oC) panel
(hrs) (W/m2 (V) (A) (V)
) (A)

1 10.00am 173.67 26.5 17.48 0.22 17.53 0.08

2 10:30 am 180.38 27.5 17.34 0.23 17.48 0.09

3 11:00 am 197.84 28.5 17.25 0.25 17.31 0.09

4 11:30 am 199.65 30.5 17.19 0.26 17.23 0.10

5 12:00 pm 211.76 32.0 16.57 0.27 16.42 0.11

6 12:30 pm 215.28 33.0 15.78 0.28 15.70 0.12

7 1:00 pm 219.17 33.5 15.49 0.30 15.38 0.13

49
Table 3 Results of measured parameters for day three

S/N Time Solar Temperature Voltage Current Voltage Current

Intensity of panel (oC) for for for
(hrs) clean clean dusted for
(W/m2) panel panel panel dusted
panel
(V) (A) (V)
(A)

1 10.00am 169.62 25.5 17.50 0.20 17.45 0.07

2 10:30 am 172.48 27.0 16.48 0.22 17.33 0.08

3 11:00 am 187.81 28.0 17.39 0.24 17.25 0.09

4 11:30 am 190.49 29.0 17.09 0.25 17.15 0.10

5 12:00 pm 201.65 32.0 16.18 0.26 16.41 0.10

6 12:30 pm 213.73 32.5 15.21 0.28 15.43 0.11

7 1:00 pm 215.89 33.0 15.06 0.29 15.07 0.12

Table 4 Results of deduced power and efficiency of both solar panels

Days Power(clea Power % Efficienc Efficienc %

n) (dusted) Decrea y (clean) y (dusted) Decrease in
se in Efficiency
W W Power Ŋ Ŋ

1 4.4 1.8 13.6 5.6 59

59.1

2 4.3 1.7 13.1 5.2 60

60.5

3 4.0 1.5 12.6 4.7 63

62.5

50