Journal

of

Leadership Education

...is an international, refereed journal that serves scholars and professional

practitioners engaged in leadership education.

...provides a forum for the development of the knowledge base and professional
practice of leadership education world wide.

...is made available through the continued support and efforts of the
membership of the Association of Leadership Educators.

Copyright 2012 by the Association of Leadership Educators.

All rights reserved.

ISSN 1552-9045

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Volume 11, Number 1 – Winter 2012

The Journal of Leadership Education (JOLE) is the official publication of the
Association of Leadership Educators. The purpose of JOLE is to provide a forum
for development of the knowledge base and practice of leadership education. The
journal is intended to promote a dialogue that engages both academics and
practitioners. Thus, JOLE has a particular interest in applied research and it is the
premise of JOLE that feedback between theory and practice tests both and makes
each better. The journal provides several categories for submittals to promote
diversity of discussion from a variety of authors.

The members and board of the Association of Leadership Educators became

aware of the need for a journal about leadership education in the early 1990s. The
challenge of educating people about leadership is particularly provocative,
complex, and subtle. Other journals with leadership in the title focus primarily on
defining and describing leadership, and journals concerning education seldom
address the subject of leadership. Indeed, one common argument in society is that
leadership is innate (you have it or you don’t) and teaching leadership is difficult
and often ineffective. This attitude is expressed, perhaps, in the dearth of
leadership courses on our university campuses.

In this context, JOLE provides a means to test the hypothesis that leadership
education is possible. Our journal sits at the nexus of education theory and
practice and leadership theory and practice, and from this divide, this mountain
pass there is a need to look “both ways.” Whether leadership education is a
discipline of its own is unclear, at least at present. If nothing else, by looking both
ways this journal hopes to provide a passageway between two disciplines,
enriching both in the process.

JOLE is an electronic journal open to all, both as writers and readers. The journal
has been conceived as an “on-line” journal that is available on the world-wide
web and is to be self-supporting. To this end, at some time in the future a fee may
be charged for publication. At present, all editorial, Board, and reviewer services
are provided without cost to JOLE or its members by volunteer scholars and
practitioners.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Editorial Staff
Editor
• Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University

Associate Editor
• Brent J. Goertzen, Fort Hays State University

Editorial Reviewers
• Scott Allen, John Carroll University
• Tony Andenoro, Gonzaga University
• Jill Arensdorf, Fort Hays State University
• Paul Arsenault, West Chester University
• Elizabeth Bolton, University of Florida
• Amy Boren, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
• Chester Bowling, Ohio State University
• Christie Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Curt Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Jackie Bruce, University of Pennsylvania
• Robert Colvin, Christopher Newport University
• Marilyn Corbin, Pennsylvania State University
• Chris Crawford, Fort Hays State University
• Ken Culp III, University of Kentucky
• Renee Daugherty, Oklahoma State University
• Dennis Duncan, University of Georgia
• Don DiPaolo, University of Detroit
• Garee Earnest, Ohio State University
• Chanda Elbert, Texas A&M University
• Janet Fox, Louisiana State University
• Nancy Franz, University of Illinois
• Susan Fritz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
• Greg Gifford, University of Florida
• Mark Grandstaff, Brigham Young University
• Kathy Guthrie, Florida State University
• Paige Haber, University of San Diego
• David Jones, North Carolina State University
• Eric Kaufman, Virginia Tech University
• Douglas Lindsay, United States Air Force Academy
• Billy McKim, Texas A&M University
• Tony Middlebrooks, University of Delaware
• Jeffery P. Miller, Innovative Leadership Solutions
• Lori Moore, Texas A&M University
• Chris Morgan, University of Georgia

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

• Martha Nall, University of Kentucky

• Penny Pennington-Weeks, Oklahoma State University
• Adrian Popa, Gonzaga University
• Carolyn Roper, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
• John Ricketts, Tennessee State University
• Kris Ricketts, University of Kentucky
• David Rosch, University of Illinois
• Manda Rosser, Texas A&M University
• Mark Russell, Purdue University
• Nicole Stedman, University of Florida
• Carrie Stephens, University of Tennessee
• Kelleen Stine-Cheyne, Texas A&M University
• Wanda Sykes, North Carolina State University
• Kurt Takamine, Brandman University
• Laurie Thorp, Michigan State University
• Jim Ulrich, Antioch University
• Willis M. Watt, Methodist University
• Bill Weeks, Oklahoma State University
• Carol Wheeler, Our Lady of the Lake University
• Andrew White, Boise State University
• Jennifer Williams, Texas A&M University

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Table of Contents
From the Editors’ Clipboard viii
Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University

Exploring Signature Pedagogies in Undergraduate Leadership 1

Education
Outstanding 2011 ALE Conference Paper
Daniel M. Jenkins, Ph.D., University of South Florida

The Durable Effects of Short-term Programs On Student Leadership 28

Development
David M. Rosch, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Arran Caza, Wake Forest University

Impact of Personal Growth Projects on Leadership Identity 49

Development
Summer F. Odom, Texas A&M University
Barry L. Boyd, Texas A&M University
Jennifer Williams, Texas A&M University

Insights From Six Women On Their Personal Journeys To Becoming 64

Deans of Agriculture: A Qualitative Study
Sarah Kleihauer, Wilson Central High School
Carrie Ann Stephens, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
William E. Hart, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Adolescent Involvement in Extracurricular Activities: Influences on 84

Leadership Skills
Donna Hancock, University of Georgia
Patricia Hyjer Dyk, University of Kentucky
Kenneth Jones, University of Kentucky

What Managerial Leadership Behaviors do Student Managerial 102

Leaders Need? An Empirical Study of Student Organizational
Members
Tim O. Peterson, Ph.D., North Dakota State University
Claudette M. Peterson, Ed.D., North Dakota State University

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

What’s Context Got To Do With It? An Exploration of Leadership 121

Development Programs for the Agricultural Community
Eric K. Kaufman, Virginia Tech
Richard J. Rateau, Virginia Tech
Hannah S. Carter, University of Florida
L. Rochelle Strickland, University of Georgia

First-Year Student Perceptions Related to Leadership Awareness and 140

Influences
Melissa R. Shehane, Texas A&M University
Kathryn A. Sturtevant, Texas A&M University
Lori L. Moore, Texas A&M University
Kim E. Dooley, Texas A&M University

Professor as Facilitator: Shaping an Emerging, Living System of Shared 157

Leadership in the Classroom
David S. Bright, Ph.D., Wright State University
Elizabeth Fisher Turesky, Ph.D., University of Southern Maine
Roger Putzel, Ph.D., St. Michael’s College
Thomas Stang, Wright State University

Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: An Integrative, Process-Oriented 177

Theory of Student Leadership
Scott J. Allen, Ph.D., John Carroll University
Marcy Levy Shankman, Ph.D., MLS Consulting, LLC
Rosanna F. Miguel, Ph.D., John Carroll University

Evaluating Innovative Leadership Preparation: How What You 204

Want Drives What (and How) You Evaluate
Frederick C. Buskey, Western Carolina University
Meagan Karvonen, Western Carolina University

Summer Leadership Development Program for Chemical 222

Engineering Students
Annie E Simpson, University of Toronto
Greg J Evans, University of Toronto
Doug Reeve, University of Toronto

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Enhancing Leadership Skills in Volunteers 233

Landry L. Lockett, Ed. D., Texas A&M University
Barry Boyd, Ph. D., Texas A&M University

Using the 5Ps Leadership Analysis to Examine The Battle of 245

Antietam: An Explanation and Case Study
Bradley Z. Hull, Ph.D., John Carroll University
Scott J. Allen, Ph.D., John Carroll University

Personal, Professional Coaching: Transforming Professional 263

Development for Teacher and Administrative Leaders
Janet Patti, Ed.D., Hunter College
Allison A. Holzer, M.A.T., Ruler Group
Robin Stern, Ph.D. Teacher’s College
Marc A. Brackett, Ph.D., Yale University

Submission Guidelines 275

Le Culminant 277

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

From the Editor’s Clipboard

Volume 11, Number 1 – Winter 2012
Resolutions
New Year’s resolutions – we all make them and we all break them. Some have
given up on making resolutions because of the difficulty in keeping them. But I
see the beginning of a new year, and a new semester, as an opportunity for
renewal; the chance to make a change for the better. Therefore, I propose a few
New Year’s resolutions for leadership educators.
I resolve:
• First, to continue to grow as a leadership educator. New theories and
model of leadership and instruction are emerging daily. If I do not model
life-long learning, how can I expect my students to embrace the concept?
• Second, to try to get to know my students on a somewhat personal level.
Teaching, like leadership, is about relationships. Students won’t care how
much you know until they know how much you care.
• And finally, I resolve to engage my students on a deep level. I’m
reminded of Plutach, “A mind is a fire to be kindled, not a vessel to be
filled.”
Most leadership educators that I know are passionate people; passionate about
most aspect of their lives, but especially passionate about leadership education.
My resolutions may already be on your list, but if they aren’t, join me in renewing
your commitment and your passion for students. Happy New Year.

Respectfully Submitted,

Barry L. Boyd, Editor

Issue Information
We are honored to print the Outstanding Research Paper from the 2011 ALE
Conference in Denver. This is a first for JOLE and will become a regular feature
of the Winter issue.

In addition, fifty-four manuscripts were submitted for this issue, a record for
JOLE. The acceptance rate for this issue is 26%. My thanks to the members of
the Editing Board for their careful review of the submitted manuscripts and a
special thanks to those who reviewed an extra manuscript to ensure that all
manuscripts received a thorough review. Your efforts contribute to the
advancement of the theory and practice of leadership education.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Exploring Signature Pedagogies in Undergraduate Leadership Education

Outstanding 2011 ALE Conference Paper
Jenkins conducted a national survey to identify instructional strategies most used
by leadership educators. This paper was selected as the Outstanding Research
Paper at the 2011 Association of Leadership Educators’ Conference. Jenkins
discovered that class discussion was the signature pedagogy used in
undergraduate leadership education. Read further to discover the remaining
strategies that made the top ten.

Research Features
The Durable Effects of Short-term Programs On Student Leadership
Development
Rosch and Caza examined the impact of short-term leadership programs on
students using the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale. Their findings indicate
that some leadership competencies can be enhanced through short-term programs
while other competencies may require longer duration efforts.

Impact of Personal Growth Projects on Leadership Identity Development

Odom, Boyd, and Williams examined the impact that Personal Growth Projects
(PGP) had on students in a personal leadership education course. Written
reflections from the PGP assignments were analyzed through the lens of the
Leadership Identity Development model (LID). The Personal Growth Project
contributed to the development of students’ leadership identity, especially in the
“developing-self” component of the LID model.

Insights From Six Women On Their Personal Journeys To Becoming Deans

of Agriculture: A Qualitative Study
Reflection on one’s leadership journey is a powerful tool to understanding
leadership development. Kleihauer, Stephens, and Hart examined the leadership
journeys of six female deans of agriculture. What factors contributed to their
success? While it may not surprise the readers that family support was important,
other factors may surprise you. Read further to find out about these six
fascinating women.

Adolescent Involvement in Extracurricular Activities: Influences on

Leadership Skills
The roles that students’ have in extracurricular activities, as well as the support of
family and other adults, has a significant impact on students’ perceptions of their
leadership skills. Hancock, Dyk, and Jones’s used the Search Institute’s Profiles
of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors instrument and the 4-H Essential
Elements in their study of 647 high school students. They recommend that youth-

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

adult relationships exist as formal mentoring relationships to enhance students’

perceptions of their leadership skills.

What Managerial Leadership Behaviors do Student Managerial Leaders

Need? An Empirical Study of Student Organizational Members
Student leadership learning may not be occurring at the depth that most
educators believe. Peterson and Peterson examined the critical managerial
leadership behaviors that student leaders require to move their organizations
forward. Among the eight critical behaviors identified in the study, building
trust and credibility was seen as the most important by participants.

What’s Context Got To Do With It? An Exploration of Leadership

Development Programs for the Agricultural Community
What’s Context Got to Do With It is not a hit song by Tina Turner, but a hit
manuscript by Kaufman, Rateau, Carter, and Strickland. The authors examine the
components for an emerging leadership program for the agricultural sector from
the viewpoint of stakeholders. Existing leadership programs set in the context of
agriculture are used as the lens for this research.

First-Year Student Perceptions Related to Leadership Awareness and

Influence
When do students first become aware of being involved in leadership and what do
they believe influenced their leadership? These are important questions that can
guide educators in designing effective leadership development programs.
Shehane, Sturtevant, Moore, and Dooley identified two themes related to
leadership awareness, pre-college and positional versus non-positional roles, and
four themes related to perceived leadership influences: external role models,
internal beliefs, previous experience, and types of leadership/leadership
philosophy.

Professor as facilitator: Shaping an Emerging, Living System of Shared

Leadership in the Classroom
Most leadership educators describe themselves as facilitators of learning as
opposed to teachers or instructors, but this rarely happens in reality. Bright,
Turesky, Putzel, and Stang describe a case where the instructors allowed the
classroom culture to emerge, allowing the students to practice leadership in
developing the classroom structure and culture.

Theory Features
Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: An Integrative, Process-Oriented
Theory of Student Leadership

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Allen, Shankman, and Miguel outline a theory of Emotionally Intelligent

Leadership (EIL) that combines the relevant models and theories in leadership
with that of emotional intelligence. They describe 21 capacities that equip
individuals with the knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics to
achieve desired results.

Evaluating Innovative Leadership Preparation: How What You Want

Drives What (and How) You Evaluate
Leadership programs are challenged to produce evidence of their impact while
also evaluating for formative purposes. Buskey and Karvonen outline a
collaborative process for evaluating a leadership program that uses multiple
sources of data, yet is not burdensome to faculty or participants.

Application Briefs and Cases

A Summer Leadership Development Program for Chemical Engineering
Students
Leadership occurs across many contexts. Simpson, Evans, and Reeve describe a
leadership development program for chemical engineering students. Components
of the program include Self, Relational, Organizational, and Societal Leadership
components. Their program encompasses curricular, co-curricular, and extra-
curricular activities to engage the students.

Enhancing Leadership Skills in Volunteers

Lockett and Boyd offer specific methods that administrators of volunteers can use
to specifically foster the leadership development of volunteers. While the authors
use the context of Cooperative Extension programs, their suggestions have
implications for all contexts in which volunteers operate.

Using the 5Ps Leadership Analysis to Examine The Battle of Antietam: An

Explanation and Case Study
Hull and Allen examine the leadership of generals Robert E. Lee and George B.
McClellan during the battle of Antietam in 1862. The 5Ps Leadership Analysis is
used as the tool to analyze their leadership effectiveness and to draw implications
for leadership in today’s organizations. The authors describe how this case can be
used effectively in the classroom to critically analyze leadership and transfer that
knowledge to modern contexts.

Personal, Professional Coaching: Transforming Professional Development

for Teacher and Administrative Leaders
Patti, Holzer, Stern, and Bracket describe a coaching strategy that they
successfully use in leadership training and development for teacher and
administrative leaders. Their strategy encompasses reflective practices that

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cultivate self-awareness, emotion management, social awareness, and relationship

management.

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Exploring Signature Pedagogies in Undergraduate

Leadership Education

Daniel M. Jenkins, Ph.D.

Adjunct Professor of Leadership Studies
College of Undergraduate Studies
Center for Leadership and Civic Engagement
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL
DJenkin2@usf.edu

Abstract
This research explores the instructional strategies most frequently used by
leadership educators who teach academic credit-bearing undergraduate leadership
studies courses through a national survey and identifies signature pedagogies
within the leadership discipline. Findings from this study suggest that class
discussion—whether in the form of true class discussion or a hybrid of interactive
lecture and discussion—is the signature pedagogy for undergraduate leadership
education. While group and individual projects and presentations, self-
assessments and instruments, and reflective journaling were also used frequently,
overall, discussion-based pedagogies were used most frequently. These findings
offer attributes that a variety of leadership educators have shared as effective for
teaching and learning within the discipline and may facilitate the development of
new leadership programming policies, provide direction for future research, and
contribute to the existing body of literature.

Introduction
Since 1990 only a few studies have explored the instructional strategies utilized in
student leadership development programming (e.g., Allen & Hartman, 2009;
Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990; Conger, 1992; Day, 2000; Eich, 2008; London, 2002;
Yukl, 2006). While these studies have addressed various stakeholders’
perceptions of leadership development programming (and student perceptions in
depth), only a handful collected data from leadership practitioners not identified
specifically as university instructors. For example, in a grounded theory study of
high quality leadership programs, Eich (2008) interviewed 62 stakeholders in
leadership programs that ranged in type from an academic course, to a week
retreat, to a co-curricular program, to a service leadership program. Yet, only 17

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

of the stakeholders were practitioners (i.e., instructors). Similarly, Allen and

Hartman (2009) surveyed undergraduate business students and attendees of a
student leadership conference. And while their research provided insight as to
student preferences and experiences in leadership development programming, we
know little about the experiences of those who deliver said programming or the
instructional strategies they employ. In fact, relatively few studies have focused
on the teaching methods, instructional approaches, or leadership studies
curriculum design and content while a greater number have focused on leadership
studies programs (e.g., Allen & Hartman, 2009; Eich, 2008; Komives, Dugan,
Owen, Slack, & Wagner, 2006; Ritch & Mengel, 2009; Roberts, 2007). Yet,
according to the International Leadership Association Directory of Leadership
Programs more than 1,500 leadership studies programs exist today!

Despite the interest in student leadership development programming, the sparse

few studies that have investigated instructors who teach academic credit-bearing
courses have been limited to an insufficient number of participants. In fact, almost
no research exists in regard to leadership educators. To address this overlooked
question, this study specifically targeted instructors that teach academic credit-
bearing courses through a national survey.

Purpose and Significance of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify the instructional strategies that are most
frequently used by instructors when they teach courses in the leadership discipline
and identify potential signature pedagogies. Despite the increased interest in
leadership education, the literature has only sparsely reviewed specific leadership
pedagogies as a group. To explore this inquiry, a quantitative survey of most
commonly utilized instructional strategies designed chiefly around the learning
sources leader development as offered by Allen and Hartman (2009) was used.

Allen and Hartman (2008a, 2009b, & 2009) created one of the first
comprehensive lists of leadership development teaching methods found in the
literature (see also Avolio, 1999; Day, 2000; London, 2002; Yukl, 2006). This list
was embedded in the framework offered by Conger (1992) from his experiences
in leadership training programs outside of academia. In the 1992 work Learning
to Lead, Jay A. Conger explored five innovative leadership training programs
outside universities and joined them as a participant and observer (p. xiii).
Following his documented experiences in these, Conger and his research team
reported no “one best” program for leadership training. Instead, they found that
instructional methods each had distinct strengths and drawbacks and the
researchers categorized leadership training into four key approaches: (a) personal
growth, (b) conceptual, (c) feedback, and (d) skill-building (p. 155). Several years

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later in 2008 and 2009, Allen and Hartman built upon Conger’s work and
published three articles in peer-reviewed journals that identified 40 commonly
used learning sources (2008a, 2009b, & 2009). Yet, through their research on
students in leadership studies courses, no distinguishable leadership pedagogy
emerged. Instead, they had a collection of sorts, identifying 40 sources of learning
commonly used in leadership development programming for collegians. This
study builds upon the work of Conger (1992) and Allen and Hartman (2008a,
2008b, & 2009). Through a national survey investigating instructional strategy
use in undergraduate leadership education this study aimed to address these gaps
in the literature and identify distinguishable or signature pedagogies within the
discipline.

Research Questions

1. What are the most frequently employed instructional strategies used by

instructors teaching undergraduate leadership studies courses?

2. Are there identifiable signature pedagogies in the leadership discipline?

Literature Review
With the current state and growth of leadership studies, the need for research
exploring the various strategies for teaching and learning in the discipline has
never been greater. While there are several bodies of relevant literature that
informed this study such as research on college teaching and learning and
different types of instructional strategies, studies investigating the profile of
instructional strategies used across the disciplines are still very limited. Further,
the quality or use of specific instructional strategies in leadership education such
as reflection (Burbach, Matkin, & Fritz, 2004; Densten & Gray, 2001), service
learning (Scharff, 2009; Seemiller, 2006), teambuilding (Moorhead & Griffin,
2009), research leadership (Jones & Kilburn, 2005), critical thinking (Gifford,
2010; Jenkins & Cutchens, 2011), feedback (Day, 2000), self-assessments
(Buschlen, 2009), role-play (Sogurno, 2003), simulation (Allen, 2008), exams
(Moore, 2010) and the case-in-point approach (Parks, 2005) have been reviewed
only in small quantities. Equally, the literature is sparse of exploration into the
preferences of leadership educators. Furthermore, the literature offers just a
hodgepodge of research on various teaching and assessment strategies in
leadership education. And while the literature surveying instructional strategies in
leadership education is growing, it remains underdeveloped. Likewise, a gap in
the literature related to best practices within the discipline also remains. In order
to provide relevant leadership education, it is important to carefully assess
stakeholders responsible for delivering knowledge within the discipline. In the

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

same way, gaining an understanding of leadership educators’ preferences at the

most basic level is the critical first step to further inquiry within the discipline.

Allen and Hartman’s (2008a, 2008b, 2009) conceptualization of Conger’s (1992)

framework of sources of learning in leadership development was used as the
conceptual framework giving meaning and direction to the instructional strategy
inquiry in this study. The present study focused on 24 instructional strategies
including 12 of Allen and Hartman's (2009) 20 focused sources of learning used
in a variety of leadership development programs as well as three of an additional
20 Allen and Hartman tagged as more appropriate for an organizational context.
The remaining nine strategies and final selection for inclusion in this study (see
Table 1) were based on a combination of recommendations from a panel of
experts, a review of the literature, and the researcher’s expertise and experience.
Admittedly, all instructional methods have their pros and cons. Indeed, because
learning leadership and developing leadership skills may be different than
learning other content in a traditional classroom setting, leadership education may
need different strategies for facilitating learning (Eich, 2008; Komives, Lucas, &
McMahon, 2007; Wren, 1995). Accordingly, leadership education requires its
own examination to determine how effective teaching and learning of leadership
is done.

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Table 1
Instructional Strategies
No. Instructional Strategy Description
1. *Case Studies Students examine written or oral stories or vignettes
that highlight a case of effective or ineffective
leadership.
2. Class Discussion Instructor facilitates sustained conversation and/or
question and answer segment with the entire class.
3. Exams Students complete tests or exams that last the majority
of the class period intended to assess subject matter
mastery.
4. *Games Students engage in interactions in a prescribed setting
and are constrained by a set of rules and procedures.
(e.g., Jeopardy, Who Wants to be a Millionaire,
Family Feud, etc.)
5. **Group Students work on a prescribed project or presentation
Projects/Presentations in a small group.
6. **Guest Speaker Students listen to a guest speaker/lecturer discuss their
personal leadership experiences.
7. *Icebreakers Students engage in a series of relationship-building
activities to get to know one another.
8. In-Class Short Writing Students complete ungraded writing activities
designed to enhance learning of course content.
9. *Individual Leadership Students develop specific goals and vision statements
Development Plans for individual leadership development.
10. Interactive Instructor presents information in 10-20 minute time
Lecture/Discussion blocks with period of structured interaction/discussion
in-between mini-lectures.
11. Interview of a Leader Students observe or interview an individual leading
others effectively or ineffectively and report their
findings to the instructor/class.
12. *Lecture Students listen to instructor presentations lasting most
of the class session.
13. Media Clips Students learn about leadership theory/topics through
film, television, or other media clips (e.g., YouTube,
Hulu).
14. Quizzes Students complete short graded quizzes intended to
assess subject matter mastery.
15. *Reflective Journals Students develop written reflections on their

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No. Instructional Strategy Description

experiences.
16. *Research Students actively research a leadership theory or topic
Project/Presentation and present findings in oral or written format.
17. *Role Play Activities Students engage in an activity where they act out a set
of defined role behaviors or positions with a view to
acquire desired experiences.
18. *Self-Assessments & Students complete questionnaires or other instruments
Instruments designed to enhance their self-awareness in a variety
of areas (e.g., learning style, personality type,
leadership style, etc.).
19. *Service Learning Students participate in a service learning or
philanthropic project.
20. *Simulation Students engage in an activity that simulates complex
problems or issues and requires decision-making.
21. *Small Group Discussions Students take part in small group discussions on the
topic of leadership or some aspect of group dynamics.
22. *Story or Storytelling Students listen to a story highlighting some aspect of
leadership; often given by an individual with a novel
experience.
23. Student Peer Teaching Students, in pairs or groups, teach designated course
content or skills to fellow students.
24. **Teambuilding Students engage in group activities that emphasize
working together in a spirit of cooperation (e.g.,
setting team goals/priorities, delegating work,
examining group relationships/dynamics, etc.).
*Denotes one of Allen and Hartman’s (2009) 20 focused “sources of learning.”
**Denotes one of (or an adaption of one of) Allen and Hartman’s (2009) “other sources of
learning.”

Further, this study was informed by Lee S. Shulman’s (2005) framework of

signature pedagogies. These frameworks place the research within its intended
context of collegiate teaching and learning within the leadership discipline, which
begins with the exploration of the target population in order to identify and
explore their teaching preferences. According to Shulman (2005), signature
pedagogies are the forms of instruction that leap to mind when we first think
about the preparation of members of particular professions. They implicitly define
what counts as knowledge in a field and how things become known. They define
how knowledge is analyzed, criticized, accepted, or discarded as well as inform
students to think, to perform, and to act with integrity. To date, literature does not

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

exist which discusses signature pedagogies in the leadership discipline. Yet,

scholars have applied Shulman’s model to other disciplines. Perhaps it is because
the study of leadership transcends the academic disciplines and professions
(Northouse, 2010; Rost & Barker, 2000; Yukl, 2006). Since 2005 a number of
published books have examined educating specific professions such as clergy
(Foster, Dahill, Golemon, & Tolentino, 2005), lawyers (Sullivan, Colby, Wegner,
& Bond, 2007), nurses (Benner, Sutphen, Leonard, & Day, 2009), engineers
(Sheppard, Macatangay, & Colby, 2009), and physicians (Cooke, Irby, O’Brien,
& Shulman, 2010). Most recently, Exploring Signature Pedagogies: Approaches
to Teaching Disciplinary Habits of Mind (Gurung, Chick, & Haynie, 2009)
provide a collection of discussions describing commonly employed pedagogies in
the disciplines of humanities (history and literary studies), fine arts (creative
writing and arts), social sciences (geography, human development, and
psychology), natural sciences (agriculture and biological sciences), and
mathematics (computer science, mathematics, and physics).

Shulman (2005) explains that effective signature pedagogies are those that
incorporate active student participation, make students feel deeply engaged,
promote a learning environment where students feel visible (making it hard for
students to disappear and become anonymous). Furthermore, signature
pedagogies tend to be interactive, meaning students are not only accountable to
their teacher, but also to fellow students. Ultimately, signature pedagogies breed
accountability of performance and interaction, as well as simply removing the
cloak of invisibility leading to a much higher affective level in class. In fact, the
pedagogical attributes that enhance student learning and leadership development
are at the center of determining excellence in leadership education (Eich, 2008).
Arguably, since leadership development workshops, classic teambuilding
seminars, and other interactive activities represent the earliest forms of leadership
education, leadership educators have consistently demonstrated these types of
techniques. Is there then, a signature pedagogy in leadership education? Are
leadership studies educators/programs preparing members of particular
professions? Many scholars argue that leadership studies transcend the disciplines
and prepare students for all professions (e.g., Doh, 2003; Wren, Riggio, &
Genovese, 2009; Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999). Thus, the challenge of
identifying signature pedagogies in leadership is an important one.

Methods
The 303 instructor participants that teach academic credit-bearing undergraduate
leadership studies courses is the largest reported study of this population in any
area. Participants self-reported having taught an in-class/face-to-face (not online)
academic credit-bearing undergraduate leadership course in the United States

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within the previous two years. This initial question determined the eligibility of
participants and to use said course as a reference point while they completed the
survey. The analyzed data was collected from a web-based questionnaire through
a national study that targeted thousands of leadership studies instructors through
two primary sources from October 25, 2010 through December 1, 2010. The first
source was the organizational memberships and databases of the following
professional associations/organizations or their respective member interest
groups: the International Leadership Association (ILA), NASPA (Student Affairs
Professionals in Higher Education) Student Leadership Programs group, and the
National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP). The second source was
a random sample of instructors drawn from the ILA Directory of Leadership
Programs, a searchable directory of leadership programs available to all ILA
members. While the first source was more of a shotgun approach—these
organizations were most likely to have ideal participants as members—return
rates for the 303 analyzed surveys for the ILA (7.84%), NCLP (10.04%), and
NASPA (0.93%) were less than desirable. Conversely, the second and more
directly targeted source from the ILA directory provided a 52.49% return rate.
These data collection procedures provided the researcher with the best possible
sources to generalize the population.

The majority of participants were white (83.8%) and female (54.8%). Also, 58.4%
had doctorates, 38.6% had master’s degrees, and 60.2% reported having more
than five years of teaching experience. Perhaps surprisingly, only 7.9% of the
participants earned their advanced degree in leadership or leadership studies.
Instead, degrees in organizational studies (13.9%), higher education (12.9%),
college student affairs, development, or personnel (12.2%), and miscellaneous
education-related degrees (11.6%) were more prominent. Participants’ primary
activity at their institutions was teaching (46.2%), student affairs (23.4%), or
administration (19.5%). Additionally, 95% of participants taught at a four-year
public or private university or college. At these institutions, the academic college
delivering the undergraduate leadership courses taught by the participants was
usually Business (13.9%), Arts and Sciences (12.2%), or Education (11.6%). The
specific academic department offering these courses was Leadership (19.1%),
Business, Management, or Organizational Studies (16.2%), or Student Affairs
(14.9%). More than half of all participants reported having personally experienced
undergraduate leadership experiences while in college (50.2%) and 74.3%
reported taking graduate coursework in leadership.

Type of Research Data

The analyzed data was collected from a web-based questionnaire through a

national study. The questionnaire format of the web-based survey in this study
implemented as many principles from Evans and Mathur (2005) and Dillman,

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Tortora, and Barker (1999) as possible. The questionnaire was modeled after the
approach used by Djajalaksana (2011) to collect data identify the most frequently
used instructional strategies for teaching Information Systems (IS) courses and
identify possible signature pedagogies found within the IS discipline. In this
study, the survey instrument was used to collect demographic information to
profile the participants and identify the most frequently used instructional
strategies for teaching leadership courses, to identify possible signature
pedagogies in the leadership discipline, and asses the learning goals instructors
teaching these courses emphasize most. Based on Shulman’s (2005) description,
signature pedagogies are those teaching methods that first come to a faculty
member’s mind when he or she is asked to identify the most dominant
instructional strategies used to teach a specific discipline. The 24 instructional
strategies included in the survey were derived chiefly from Allen and Hartman’s
Sources of Learning in Collegiate Leadership Development Programs (2009),
reviewed by a panel of experts and tested in a pilot study.

Data Analysis Techniques

Answering Research Question One involved creating a frequency tabulation and

percentage of responses for the items on the survey that looked at instructional
strategy use. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the mean and confidence
intervals of the item responses indicating frequency of instructional strategies use.
Answering Research Question Two involved an explanatory factor analysis—
specifically principal axis factoring (common factor analysis)—in order to
identify the patterns of instructional strategies most often used in the leadership
discipline. Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess reliability. Descriptive statistics
were used to analyze the composite scores of each subgroup.

Findings
Instructional Strategy Use in Undergraduate Leadership Education

Answering research questions one involved creating a frequency tabulation and

calculating the percentage of responses for the items on the survey that looked at
instructional strategy use. Participants reported frequency of use of each strategy
using the following rating scale:

• 0 - Never (0% of my class sessions).

• 1 - Rarely (Less than 10% of my class sessions).

• 2 - Occasionally (11-33% of my class sessions).

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• 3 - Frequently (34-65% of my class sessions).

• 4 - Almost Always (66-90% of my class sessions).

• 5 - Always (91-100% of my class sessions).

Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the mean and confidence intervals of
the item responses indicating frequency of instructional strategies used. Table 2
contains the means, standard deviations, and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of
instructional strategies used. In Table 3 the original five-point rating scale was
condensed into three categories (0-33% of class sessions, 34-65% of class
sessions, and 66-100% of class sessions) to sharpen the visual representation of
the results. A subsequent survey question asked participants to identify the three
instructional strategies they used most frequently in their course. This question
included the same 24 instructional strategies from the previous questions, but also
included an “other” field in which participants could add an additional
instructional method. Three participants noted using Ronald Heifetz’s famed
strategy, “Case-in-point” (Heifetz, 1994) while no “other” instructional strategy
appeared more than once. Table 4 illustrates the instructional strategies
participants reported in their Top 3.

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Table 2
Mean Frequency of Use of Instructional Strategies with Confidence Intervals and
Standard Deviations (N = 303)
95% CI
Instructional Method M (SD) LL UL
Class Discussion 4.48 (0.79) 4.39 4.56
Interactive Lecture & Discussion 3.84 (1.15) 3.71 3.97
Small Group Discussion 3.49 (1.19) 3.35 3.62
Group Projects & Presentations 3.31 (1.29) 3.17 3.46
Research Project Presentations 3.00 (1.61) 2.82 3.19
Reflective Journals 2.80 (1.61) 2.62 2.98
Self-Assessments/Instruments 2.80 (1.38) 2.64 2.95
Media Clips 2.62 (1.31) 2.48 2.77
Team Building 2.61 (1.47) 2.45 2.78
Case Studies 2.42 (1.18) 2.29 2.56
Individual Leader Development Plans 2.32 (1.63) 2.14 2.50
Lecture 2.28 (1.46) 2.12 2.45
Ice Breakers 2.21 (1.46) 2.05 2.38
Guest Speakers 2.03 (1.26) 1.89 2.18
Games 1.96 (1.28) 1.81 2.10
In-class Short Writing 1.93 (1.48) 1.77 2.10
Service Learning 1.91 (1.66) 1.72 2.10
Interview of a Leader 1.91 (1.47) 1.75 2.08
Peer Teaching 1.87 (1.52) 1.70 2.04
Stories 1.84 (1.51) 1.67 2.01
Exams 1.76 (1.61) 1.58 1.94
Role Play 1.71 (1.30) 1.56 1.86
Simulation 1.69 (1.37) 1.53 1.84
Quizzes 1.42 (1.44) 1.26 1.58

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Table 3
Percentage of Instructors’ Instructional Strategies Use in Class Sessions
0-33% 34-65% 66-100%
Instructional Method of class of class of class
sessions sessions sessions
Class Discussion 2.0% 6.9% 91.1%
Interactive Lecture/Discussion 11.6% 21.8% 66.7%
Small Group Discussions 18.5% 29.7% 51.8%
Group Projects/Presentations 25.7% 30.7% 43.6%
Research Project/Presentation 38.3% 19.1% 42.6%
Reflective Journals 46.5% 15.8% 37.6%
Teambuilding 50.5% 19.5% 30.0%
Self-Assessments & Instruments 42.6% 29.0% 28.4%
Individual Leadership Development Plans 56.8% 16.5% 26.7%
Media Clips 47.9% 28.7% 23.4%
Lecture 60.7% 17.5% 21.8%
Icebreakers 65.7% 13.9% 20.5%
Service Learning 66.0% 14.2% 19.8%
Case Studies 61.4% 21.5% 17.2%
In-Class Short Writing 70.0% 12.9% 17.2%
Exams 76.9% 6.3% 16.8%
Story or Storytelling 71.9% 11.2% 16.8%
Interview of a Leader 70.6% 13.5% 15.8%
Student Peer Teaching 70.0% 14.5% 15.5%
Guest Speaker 71.3% 14.5% 14.2%
Simulation 76.6% 10.2% 13.2%
Games 70.6% 16.5% 12.9%
Quizzes 80.2% 8.6% 11.2%
Role Play Activities 79.9% 9.9% 10.2%

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Table 4
Instructor’s “Top 3” Most Used Instructional Strategies
Method n % of Sample
Class Discussion 165 54.5
Interactive Lecture & Discussion 143 47.2
Group Projects & Presentations 87 28.7
Self-Assessments & Instruments 72 23.8
Small Group Discussion 72 23.8
Reflective Journals 64 21.1
Case Studies 34 11.2
Service Learning 34 11.2
Research Projects & Presentations 33 10.9
Media Clips 26 8.6
Individual Leadership Development Plans 20 6.6
Lecture 20 6.6
Teambuilding 20 6.6
Guest Speakers 18 5.9
Peer Teaching 14 4.6
Exams 13 4.3
Simulation 12 4.0
Other 10 3.4
Leader Interviews 10 3.3
Games 9 3.0
Stories or Storytelling 9 3.0
Quizzes 8 2.6
Role Play 8 2.6
Ice Breakers 4 1.3
In-Class Short Writing 4 1.3

Overall, instructors teaching undergraduate leadership studies courses use varying

forms of Class Discussion more so than any other instructional strategy.
Specifically, Class Discussion, Interactive Lecture/Discussion and Small Group
Discussion had the highest means scores and were used more frequently in 66-

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100% of class sessions than all other instructional strategies surveyed.

Conversely, these instructors use skill-building instructional strategies such as
Simulation, Games, and Role Play Activities far less. Specifically, two out of
three instructors surveyed used Class Discussion or Interactive
Lecture/Discussion in 66-100% of their class sessions and 88.5% use them at least
one third of the time. Further, 54.5% of instructors listed Class Discussion and
47.2% listed Interactive Lecture/Discussion in their Top 3 most used instructional
strategies. At the same time, only 10.2% of instructors use Role Play Activities,
Games, or Simulation 66-100% of the time with only 20.1% using them at least
34% of the time. Also of note, only 11.2% of instructors use Quizzes or Exams
66-100% of the time with only 19.8% using them at least 34% of the time.
Likewise, only 4.3%, 3.0%, and 2.6% of instructors, respectively, listed
Simulation, Games, and Role Play Activities in their Top 3 (see Table 4).
Additionally, only 4.3% of instructors listed Exams in their Top 3 and only 2.6%
listed Quizzes.

To answer research question two, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was

applied to explore which of the 24 instructional strategies from the questionnaire
related most closely to one another (see Table 5). Then, the groups or “factors”
from this statistical procedure were analyzed to see which groups emerged as
those used most frequently. It was anticipated in the current study that the
instructional strategies would group together similarly to the Four Approach
models of leadership development posited by Conger (1992) and Allen and
Hartman (2009). The four approaches in these models were: (a) Personal Growth,
(b) Conceptual Understanding, (c) Feedback, and (d) Skill Building. While
Personal Growth and Skill Building were retained, Conceptual Understanding was
split into three separate dimensions: Research/Observation Conceptual
Understanding, Interactive Conceptual Understanding, and Conceptual
Understanding & Feedback. Accordingly, the third dimension of Conceptual
Understanding from this study, Conceptual Understanding & Feedback, included
instructional strategies found in both the Feedback and Conceptual Understanding
approaches of the original models.

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Table 5
Factor Loadings for Promax Oblique Seven-Factor Solution for the Items of the
Web-Based Questionnaire
Item Factor Loading
Factor 1: Skill Building
17. Role Play Activities. .88
20. Simulation. .56
4. Games. .54
Factor 2: Personal Growth
15. Reflective Journals. .61
19. Service Learning. .49
7. Icebreakers. .41
9. Individual Leadership Development Plans. .39
8. In-Class Short Writing. .37
Factor 3: Conceptual Understanding & Feedback
11. Interview of a Leader. .59
12. Lecture. .54
22. Story or Storytelling. .47
9. Individual Leadership Development Plans. .45
13. Media Clips. .42
16. Research Project/Presentation. .37
18. Self-Assessments & Instruments. .35
Factor 4: Traditional Assessment
3. Exams. .73
14. Quizzes. .72
Factor 5: Research/Observation Conceptual Understanding
5. Group Projects/Presentations. .59
16. Research Project/Presentation. .51
6. Guest Speaker. .44
Factor 6: Interactive Conceptual Understanding
21. Small Group Discussions. .77
23. Student Peer Teaching. .42
24. Teambuilding. .33
Factor 7: Class Discussion

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Item Factor Loading

2. Class Discussion. .70
10. Interactive Lecture/Discussion. .50
*Note: N = 303 and α = .88

Labeling and Analysis of the Factors

Of greatest interest to the researcher was the emergence of two new approaches
not included in the original models posited by Conger (1992) and Allen and
Hartman (2009). These dimensions were Factor 7: Class Discussion and Factor 4:
Traditional Assessment. While Traditional Assessment (exams and quizzes)
proved to be the least frequently used group of instructional strategies, Class
Discussion was used more often than any other group. The Class Discussion
group includes traditional class discussion where the instructor facilitates
sustained conversation and/or question and answer segment with the entire class
as well as interactive lecture/discussion where the instructor presents information
in 10-20 minute time blocks with period of structured interaction/discussion in-
between mini-lectures.

The instructional strategies contained in Factor 1: Skill Building (role play

activities, simulation, and games) all fell within Allen and Hartman’s (2009)
categorization of “Skill Building.” These instructional strategies all emphasize
active, experiential, classroom-based pedagogies that promote students doing and
engaging in learning. Use of these pedagogies is often considered medium- to
high-risk (the risks that students will not participate, use higher-order thinking, or
learn sufficient content, that faculty members will feel a loss of control, lack
necessary skills, or be criticized for teaching in unorthodox way) by college
instructors (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). While the instructional strategies contained
in Factor 2: Personal Growth (reflective journals, service learning, icebreakers,
individual leadership development plans, and in-class short writing) all fell within
Allen and Hartman’s (2009) categorization of “Personal Growth,” with the
exception of icebreakers and in-class short writing (which was not one of the
sources of learning contained in their model). In their model, informal networking
appeared in this category and arguably, icebreakers are as much about breaking
the ice as they are about networking in an informal environment. Further, in-class
short writing is clearly an individual activity designed to stimulate the learner to
think, write, and reflect. This group of instructional strategies emphasizes
personal growth through some type of reflection, service, or articulating through
writing a personal vision statement.

The instructional strategies contained in Factors 3 (Conceptual Understanding &

Feedback), 5 (Research/Observation Conceptual Understanding), and 6

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(Interactive Conceptual Understanding) were all closely related to Allen and

Hartman’s (2009) categorization of “Conceptual Understanding.” Following
Class Discussion, these three categories were used most frequently. In leadership
education, conceptual understanding focuses on improving the learner’s
knowledge through exposure to the topic of leadership and is much more
observer-oriented (Conger, 1992); while other instructional strategies involve
more individual activity and inclusion (Allen & Hartman, 2009). The
differentiation between these three factors emerged from the approaches of the
instructional strategies therein. First, Factor 3 included the following instructional
strategies: interview of a leader, lecture, story or storytelling, individual
leadership development plans, media clips, research project/presentation, and self-
assessments & instruments. This group focused on the understanding of
leadership concepts through a variety of instructional strategies designed to
invoke and connect with the pragmatic and also provide useful feedback. Yet,
while lecture, stories, interviewing leaders, individual leadership development or
vision plans, and media clips are only briefly mentioned in the literature, there is
an extensive literature base on the use of assessments and instruments in
leadership education. Second, Factor 5 included the instructional strategies group
project/presentation, research project/presentation, and guest speaker. These
instructional strategies emphasize students presenting leadership research and/or
observing peers or guest speakers. Third, Factor 6 include the instructional
strategies small group discussions, student peer teaching, and teambuilding. In
this study, the term “interactive” was used to describe the active, group-oriented,
and relational aspects of these concept-focused instructional strategies.

The analysis of the composite scores based on the mean of the items in each
group resulted in findings similar to those from the initial frequency tabulations.
Specifically, Class Discussion was group of instructional strategies instructors
reporting using most (M=4.16/5.00), while Skill Building (M=1.79) and
Traditional Assessment (M=1.59) were the strategies instructors reported using
least. The composite (mean) scores of Research/Observation Conceptual
Understanding (M=2.78), Interactive Conceptual Understanding (M=2.40), and
Conceptual Understanding & Feedback (M=2.24) were separated by only 0.38.
Personal Growth (M=2.24) was used slightly less than the three Conceptual
Understanding groups and more so than Skill Building and Traditional
Assessment.

Signature Pedagogies in Undergraduate Leadership Education

Until now, no one has investigated signature pedagogies in leadership education.

According to Shulman (2005), signature pedagogies are the forms of instruction
that leap to mind when we first think about the preparation of members of
particular professions. They implicitly define what counts as knowledge in a field,

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how things become known, and how knowledge is analyzed, criticized, accepted,
or discarded. One of the unique characteristics of leadership studies is that it
transcends the disciplines and prepares students for all professions (Doh, 2003;
Wren, Riggio, & Genovese, 2009; Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999). This
question prompted the researcher in this study to ask: “What are the signature
pedagogies used to prepare the future leaders of our organizations?”

The findings of this study suggest that class discussion whether in the form of true
class discussion or interactive lecture and discussion are used most frequently.
Perhaps, class discussion or “discussion pedagogy” is the signature pedagogy for
undergraduate leadership education. Yet, the results of this study also indicate that
instructional strategies that include group and individual projects and
presentations as well as self-assessments and instruments, small group discussion,
and reflective journaling are also used far more frequently than most others. Thus,
the signature pedagogies in undergraduate leadership education might be a
collection of class discussion, projects and presentations, self-assessments and
instruments, and critical reflection.

Implications for Practice

This study was undertaken with the vision that it could be pragmatically used by
leadership educators and student affairs professionals. This exploratory study of
instructional strategies and learning goals within the leadership discipline has
numerous implications for practice for a variety of individuals who seek to
advance teaching and learning leadership. As well, the findings of this study have
implications for leadership studies and pedagogy. These findings can provide a
foundation to develop workshops for leadership educators or enhance existing
ones. Findings from this study may also catalyze ideas for innovations to the way
leadership is taught or promote focused research on the use and best practices of
the most frequently used instructional strategies.

Instructional Strategy Use

There ought to be workshops on best practices in leadership education. For

example, while simulation, games and role play are used quite infrequently by the
instructors surveyed in this study, perhaps they value it but do not know how to
use it effectively. Workshops that emphasize best practices including the design
of these activities, what high quality work looks like, and how to assess their
effectiveness could prove extremely beneficial in the discipline.

Equally, if discussion-based pedagogies are the most frequently employed

instructional strategy used by instructors teaching academic credit-bearing

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undergraduate leadership studies courses, it is imperative that this strategy is

utilized effectively. Yet, a review of the literature uncovered very few resources
that help faculty effectively facilitate class discussion. Experts agree that leading a
producing discussion is among the most challenging and demanding tasks of an
instructor—and one of the most satisfying when things go well (Cross, 2002).
According to Davis (1993):

A good give-and-take discussion can produce unmatched learning

experiences as students articulate their ideas, respond to their
classmates’ points, and develop skills in evaluating the evidence
for their own and others’ positions. Initiating and sustaining a
lively productive discussion are among the most challenging of
activities for an instructor. (p. 63)

Cross (2002) stresses that participation is a necessary but hardly sufficient

condition for learning. Further, like leadership, leading productive discussion
takes planning. Cross used a basketball metaphor to explain that just as a
basketball coach goes into the game with a strategy, one flexible enough to
change if conditions demand it but firm enough to reach the goal, a teacher must
do likewise and have their eye on the objective. This is related to the leadership
practice and application in meetings posited by Eich (2008). Meaningful
discussions and episodes of difference might very well occur during class
discussion; the most frequently reported instructional strategy from this study.
However, what we do not know is whether leadership programs or their
instructors are doing these things effectively. How will student affairs
professionals such as leadership program directors or leadership studies faculty
know they are being effective?

Resonating with the well-known research of Kouzes and Posner’s (2007) Five
Practices of Exemplary Leadership, leaders must inspire a shared vision.
Likewise, instructors teaching leadership to undergraduates must have a vision for
the class discussion. Where will it go? What, specifically, do they want students
to learn from each class meeting? Undergraduates in leadership studies courses
aptly enjoy these courses. In fact, the unique pedagogical practices in
undergraduate leadership courses are a magnet for many. Yet, instructors must—
must—be purposeful in their pedagogical processes.

Future Research

The use of instructional strategies in collegiate leadership education are

underdeveloped in the literature and thus a potentially rich area for further
research. Moreover, the process of conducting this research and viewing the
current state of the leadership teaching and learning literature, a number of

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opportunities and recommendations for future research have surfaced. While the
comparisons among leadership educators and their teaching methods with
reference to gender, ethnicity, and other demographic perspectives is endless,
other areas offer more holistic merit. Specifically, while this study measured
frequency of instructional strategy use, future studies might delve into the quality
of their impact, effectiveness, and student learning outcomes. Just because
instructors are using this or that instructional strategy frequently does not mean
they are using them effectively. Also, does the use of certain instructional
strategies actually improve student learning? Research is needed to assess
strategies for instructors within the discipline in order to guide and inform to use
of teaching methods.

This study was also limited to U.S.-based undergraduate face-to-face courses.

Research is needed to explore instructional strategy use the global level. Future
studies might look at graduate level, non-academic, or even online leadership
courses. While this study was the first to explore instructional strategy use in
leadership education empirically with such a large sample, research is needed to
expound these findings.

Lastly, this study also collected data to help describe the participants. One key
area was the academic college and department where the academic credit-bearing
leadership studies courses were delivered on each campus. An analysis of these
data suggests that instructional strategy use varies somewhat depending on what
academic area is delivering the leadership course. For example, instructors in
business departments used exams, quizzes, research projects/presentation, case
studies, and lecture far more frequently than instructors from student affairs.
Equally, instructors from student affairs used peer teaching and reflective journals
more often than their business counterparts. Research is needed to explore
instructional strategy use within academic departments as well as identify best
practices for each area.

Conclusions
In closing, the findings from this study offer new knowledge into the instructional
attributes—specifically from the instructor’s point of view—of undergraduate
academic credit-bearing leadership studies courses. The purpose of this study was
to identify the instructional strategies that are most frequently used by instructors
when they teach courses in the leadership discipline and identify potential
signature pedagogies within the discipline. In the absence of any prior studies
exploring instructional strategies from the educators’ perspective, signature
pedagogies in the leadership discipline or from an empirical perspective, the
findings from this study provided insight in the current state of undergraduate

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

leadership education and identified the instructional strategies most currently

utilized.

The most widely used instructional strategies in leadership education were at one
time considered limited to approaches that emphasized personal growth,
conceptual understanding, feedback, and skill building. Yet, instructors teaching
leadership education may succumb to discussion-based and modeling behaviors
as much as they also emphasize active and experiential learning strategies.
Holistically, leadership education is defined as learning activities and educational
environments that are intended to enhanced and foster leadership abilities
(Brungardt, 1996). Arguably, this definition is limited. Leadership education can
and should do more than enhance and foster leadership abilities in a vacuum.
More so, leadership education should be transcendental. Moreover, leadership
education is uniquely positioned to prepare future leaders across the disciplines.
Regardless of a student’s major or career path, leadership education compliments
any academic track and helps prepare students across the disciplines to be leaders
in a global society. And it does so in educational environments that model
inclusiveness by utilizing inclusive pedagogies.

At the largest level the researcher hopes that institutions, academic departments,
and leadership programs will be able to use these findings to evaluate and plan
leadership education in meaningful ways. Moreover, it is an aim of this research
that future scholars implement workshops, conference sessions, and publications
on best practices in instruction within the discipline. At the more scalable level,
the researcher hopes these findings will be able to catalyze innovation in
leadership education and stimulate new ideas in the classroom. At the very least,
these findings should offer attributes that a variety of leadership educators have
shared as effective for teaching and learning within the discipline. In addition, the
findings from this study may facilitate the development of new leadership
programming policies, provide direction for future research, and contribute to the
existing body of literature. Incorporating ideas for the sake of quality and
innovation in leadership education can offer opportunities for further assessment
and research that can contribute both nationally and globally.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

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Author Biography
Daniel Jenkins, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Professor of Leadership Studies with the
Center for Leadership and Civic Engagement and College of Undergraduate
Studies as well as an academic advisor for Hospitality Management and B.S. in
Applied Science majors at the University of South Florida. He received his
doctorate in Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis in Higher Education
Administration and Organizational Leadership from the University of South
Florida in 2011. He teaches undergraduate courses in Leadership Theories,
Organizational Leadership, and Leadership Fundamentals. His primary research
interests include leadership education, pedagogy, diversity and development,
college teaching, and higher education policy.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

The Durable Effects of Short-Term Programs

on Student Leadership Development

Dr. David M. Rosch

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
1401 W. Green St. #290
Urbana, IL 61801
(217) 333-0604
dmrosch@illinois.edu

Dr. Arran Caza

Wake Forest University Schools of Business
P.O. Box 7285
Winston-Salem, NC 27109
(336) 758 5731
cazaa@wfu.edu

Abstract
Research involving students (N=612) at a large, research-extensive university
who participated in voluntary short-term leadership programs showed an increase
in leadership capacity, even when measured three months later. A popular
assessment tool, the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS), was used.
Not all leadership competency scores showed significant increase after training,
which may indicate that some leadership capacities may be more amenable than
others to development through short-term programs. However, most competency
scores displayed stronger relationships with each other after training, suggesting
that training fostered a more integrated understanding of leadership. In addition,
the analysis suggested the need for further study of the SRLS.

Introduction
Even a quick glance at many universities’ mission and vision statements reveals
the strong focus that professional educators place on leadership education and
training (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001). While the training
of society’s future leaders has been a long-standing responsibility of higher
education (Boyer, 1987), an increased emphasis on such efforts has been
emerging recently on many college campuses (Astin & Astin, 2000; Dugan &
Komives, 2007; Dugan, Komives, & Segar, 2009; Lipman-Bluman, 1996). This
increasing attention to developing leaders is consistent with current public

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concerns about leadership. For example, a recent study showed that 80% of
United States citizens feel that our society needs more effective leadership to
avoid a national decline (Rosenthal, Pittinsky, Purvin, & Montoya, 2007). There
seems to be a clear need and desire to develop future leaders focused within
training programs on the college campus.

However, Avolio, Walumba, and Weber (2009) reported that training leaders is
complex, and often very difficult. The range and subtlety of skill required for
effective leadership has risen (Astin & Astin, 2000; Eich, 2008). Leaders in
contemporary society must competently collaborate with others (Allen & Cherrey,
2000; Lipman-Bluman, 1996), manage emotions (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee,
2002), create positive stress to affect lasting organizational change (Heifetz,
Grashow, & Linksy, 2009), and lead with transparency (Seidman, 2007).
Engendering these sophisticated skills could be challenging, as many students
continue to espouse outdated beliefs about leadership (Astin & Astin, 2000).
Research has shown contemporary college students frequently define leadership
as engaging in command and control behaviors (Schertzer & Schuh, 2004). This
mismatch between students’ expectations and the demands of modern leadership
means that training programs must not only support students in skill development,
but help them understand the broader need for those skills. Given these needs,
several educators have stated that the development of effective leadership
programs is one of the most important issues facing education (Astin & Astin,
2000; Lipman-Bluman, 1996; Pearce & Conger, 2003). It is crucial to develop
methods that help students to understand and acquire the skills they will need as
leaders in contemporary society. Therefore, we examine the effect of a short-term
leadership training program that is intended to give college students a more
realistic conception of modern leadership.

The Face of Modern Leadership

Social structures and work practices have become flatter, more complex, and
more relationship-oriented (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007), demanding
corresponding changes in how we think about leadership (Fischer, Overland, &
Adams, 2010; Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006). Consistent with
this, leadership theory has shifted from the so-called industrial paradigm of focus
on hierarchy, control, and division of labor to a post-industrial orientation that
emphasizes relationships, networks, trust, ethics, and participation (Kezar et al.,
2006; Rost, 1993). Following these theoretical movements, emerging models of
leadership development now focus on leadership as a relational process, rather
than on leadership as the exercise of hierarchical power. In particular, popular
models have focused on the emotional competencies required for creating
effective relationships (Goleman et al., 2002), described how leaders work with
groups to create adaptive change in organizations and society (Heifetz et al.,

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2009), and emphasized leader authenticity and integrity (Avolio & Gardner,
2005).

Universities’ leadership development programs need to change in a similar

fashion. Some efforts have been made to do so (Faris & Outcalt, 2001), but many
existing models of leadership development were created within the context of
work organizations, and therefore have limited applicability to students in a
higher education setting because these models emphasize employee-employer
relations within a corporate environment (Komives et al., 2007; Shankman &
Allen, 2008). Students require a model more appropriate to their context and
priorities (Fincher & Shalka, 2009). The Social Change Model (SCM) of
Leadership Development (Astin, 1996) was designed for this purpose.

Social Change Model of Leadership Development

The Social Change Model of Leadership Development was created to be a

paradigm for leadership development that simultaneously met the needs of higher
education and the demands of modern leadership, by emphasizing the importance
of relationships, ethics, and sustainable engagement within society (Astin, 1996).
The SCM is based on the belief that effective leaders possess a strong and well-
developed sense of personal values that link to action, a set of interpersonal and
networking skills that incorporate systems thinking and conflict management into
the development of trusting teams, and a desire to engage ethically, positively,
and sustainably with society (Higher Education Research Institute, 1996).
Collectively, these attributes define eight competencies that form the core
capacities required for effective modern leadership. These competencies are
consciousness of self, congruence, commitment, collaboration, common purpose,
controversy with civility, citizenship, and change. These are summarized in Table
1.

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Table 1
The Eight Capacities within the Social Change Model
Competency Description
Consciousness of One’s awareness of the beliefs, values, attitudes, and
Self emotions that motivate action.
Congruence One’s ability to think, feel, and behave with consistency.
Commitment The psychic energy that motivates one to serve, even
during challenging times.
Collaboration The capacity to work with others in a group effort.
Common Purpose The capacity to construct shared aims and values with
others.
Controversy with One’s ability to recognize that differences in viewpoint
Civility are inevitable, and then to navigate respectful solutions to
those differences.
Citizenship The capacity to become responsibly connected to one’s
community.
Change One’s capacity for positive impact on a group and the
larger society.

While the SCM has been in existence in its current form and taught in co-
curricular programs on college campuses since 1996, until recently research on
these programs and co-curricular programs in general has been scarce.

Research on Student Leadership Development in Higher Education

Little empirical research had been conducted on student leadership development

until a decade ago (Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999). Recent studies
conducted on the impact of comprehensive leadership programs in college
indicated moderate benefits from structured efforts at leadership skill
development. For example, in a national study spanning several institutions,
students who participated in specific leadership interventions, in the form of
short-term trainings, workshops, or retreats, displayed higher levels of
responsibility and multicultural awareness, as well as a deeper sense of both
personal and societal values (Cress et al., 2001). The Multi-Institutional Study of
Leadership (MSL) included a series of national studies of on-campus leadership
development, and highlighted the significant degree to which participation in
structured leadership programs predicted better scores on leadership efficacy and
practice (Dugan & Komives, 2007). Moreover, such programs predicted higher
levels of skill in related areas, such as practicing community service and engaging
in socio-political discussion with peers (Segar, Hershey, & Dugan, 2008).

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While there has been growing evidence that structured leadership programs can
benefit students’ leadership ability, less is currently known about the best method
for making such interventions (Posner, 2009). As Posner pointed out, “Despite the
plethora of leadership programs scattered across college campuses, scant
empirical investigation has been conducted into the benefits of such education
efforts” (p. 551). Particularly, evidence for the benefits of short-term interventions
(e.g., a retreat or day-long training) in helping students acquire necessary
leadership attitudes and skills has been limited, especially when compared to
long-term programs (e.g., an academic course or multi-semester certificate
program). Posner and Rosenberger (1998) reported that students in leadership
positions who participated in a short-term leadership training displayed behaviors
comparable to those of students engaged in a semester-long program. Similarly,
initial results from the first year of the MSL showed that short-term training
interventions produced effects similar to longer-term interventions, which were to
increase leadership abilities relative to those of students with no such intervention
(Dugan & Komives, 2007). Moreover, in related findings, a multi-institutional
study of students from colleges across Eastern Europe found that factors such as
the creation of a sense of community within a program and students’ sense of
belonging were more significant than the structure of the training intervention to
the participants’ subsequent practice of effective leadership (Humphreys, 2007).
Taken together, these findings suggest that short-term training may be an effective
intervention option for developing students’ leadership. Nonetheless, more must
be done to understand the specific effects that particular programs have on
learning, particularly since most prior research has been cross-sectional, and thus
not taken account of the effects of change over time.

Thus far, we have noted that there is a growing emphasis on leadership

development among college students, particularly in response to the observation
that the demands of modern leadership have changed. The need for intervention is
increased by the observation that how naïve students think about leadership may
not be appropriate for the requirements of modern leadership. Some studies have
suggested that short-term leadership development programs can be effective, but
these studies have relied primarily on comparisons between groups at a single
point in time, which leaves uncertainty about the long-term effectiveness of short
programs. In response, this study examined the durability of effects from a short-
term training intervention on students’ leadership competencies by addressing the
following questions:

• Does a short-term program lead to significant differences in how

participants score on the SCM assessment?

• Do any of the observed changes last? Does the effect of a short-term

program persist?

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Method
Population

This study was conducted with leadership development participants at a large

public university in the Midwestern United States. An office on this campus,
which we will call the Leadership Center, served as a campus-wide hub for
leadership development programs, and espoused a philosophy of leadership
consistent with that in the SCM. The Leadership Center’s primary objective was
to teach students a comprehensive set of skills necessary for competence within
the SCM, and the principal means of delivering this education was to offer short-
term programs that were open to all students regardless of prior training,
academic major, or involvement level on campus.

Participants in this study were drawn from the population of students who
registered for one of five short-term leadership programs at the Leadership
Center. Each program lasted for an average of eight hours, and each program was
open to any interested student. While each one of the five programs was offered at
multiple times during the year, students could participate in any particular
program only once. The five programs each focused on a different aspect of
leadership skills: self-awareness, interpersonal skills, ethics and integrity,
organizational effectiveness, and transitional leadership skills. In each program,
students had the opportunity to learn theory relevant to the skill set being taught,
practice the requisite skills, and reflect upon their learning through individual
journaling and small-group discussion. These programs were free, and students
received no academic credit for participating.

Sample

The sample for this study consisted of 612 students drawn from participants in the
Leadership Center’s programs from 2007-2010. Of these, 95% (n=583)
participated in only one program, while the remainder (n=29) participated in two.
Overall, 65% of the sample was female. Caucasian students represented 57% of
the sample, while African-American (8%), Latino (6%), Asian-American (13%)
and international students (15%) comprised the remainder. Participants were
spread across all class years. The largest proportion was comprised of freshman
(32%), while sophomores (21%), juniors (24%), seniors (16%) and graduate
students (8%) were also represented. Students from each of the major colleges
within the university participated. Within this sample, women and freshman were
overrepresented compared to overall university student demographics, while men
and seniors were underrepresented.

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Data Collection

Data were collected from three different groups of program participants. Group I
data were collected before participation in the leadership program. Students who
were assigned to Group I after registering to attend a Leadership Center program
were invited to complete an online survey prior to the program. A total of 194
surveys were completed, corresponding to a response rate of 51%. Students
assigned to Group II were invited to complete the survey immediately after their
participation in one of the leadership programs. Among these students, a total of
219 surveys were completed (response rate 31%). Students assigned to Group III
were invited to complete the survey three months after completing the leadership
program. We received 199 surveys from this group (response rate 28%). The
overall response rate was 34% across all groups, which is consistent with
response rates seen in online survey research (Couper, 2000). As well, the
demographic characteristics of those who completed surveys were not
significantly different than those of Leadership Center participants who did not.

We collected data for each group at multiple times during the three years of this
study, to be sure that all five Leadership Center programs were equally
represented in the three groups. Data collection periods are summarized in Table
2. This rotating data collection process resulted in a series of “snapshots” of
students’ self-reported competencies at different periods of participation in a
system of short-term leadership development programs. Therefore, the structure
of the data allow for between-person comparisons, rather than within-person or
test-retest analysis. Nonetheless, because participants were randomly assigned to
groups, there is no a priori reason to believe there are significant differences
between respondents in each group. Therefore, the responses in each group should
be representative of all individuals at that phase of leadership training, which
allows for comparison across the time-lagged cross-sectional snapshots.

Instrumentation

Participants completed an online survey asking a variety of demographic

questions (race, gender, class year, academic college), and including the Socially

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Table 2
Data collection periods 2007-2010

2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010

Fall Winter Spring Fall Winter Spring Fall Winter Spring
Group I – Pre-test
X X X

Group II – Post-test
X X X

Group III – Lagged

post X X X

Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS), a 68-item instrument designed to measure

the self-reported SCM leadership capacities of participants (Higher Education
Research Institute, 1996; Slack, 2006). Items on the SRLS used a five-point
Likert-scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” through “Neutral” to “Strongly
Agree” and referred to participants’ attitudes or abilities with regard to one of the
eight competencies of the SCM (e.g., agreement with the statement that
“creativity can come from conflict” measured the ‘controversy with civility’
capacity). Previous work has shown that reliability scores for the SRLS ranges
from .75 on the “controversy with civility” scale to .82 on “commitment” (Dugan
& Komives, 2010). The SRLS has been used as the leadership effectiveness
instrument of choice in an emerging national study of the effects of college
involvement on student leadership development that annually includes over 100
colleges and universities and 50,000 student participants – the Multi-Institutional
Study of Leadership (Dugan & Komives, 2007). It has been used to examine
differences in leadership practices across gender, race, and sexual orientation
(Dugan, Komives, & Segar, 2008), the effects of college involvement on
leadership success (Dugan, 2006), and the effects of mentoring on effective
leadership practices (Jabaji, Slife, Dugan, & Komives, 2008), as well as with
students outside the United States (Humphreys, 2007).

Data Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using maximum likelihood

estimation structural equation models. CFA was used to test the convergent and
discriminant validity of the SRLS competencies, as well to compare the factor
structure among sample groups (i.e., Groups I, II and III). The length of the full
SRLS instrument (68 items) implied a large number of parameter estimates in an
unconstrained model, more than was appropriate for estimation given the
available sample size (MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996). To address this
problem, we opted against item parceling, so as to maximize the rigor of the scale

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analysis (Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994). Instead, we used an iterative split-sample

modeling approach (Kline, 1998) which involved using half of the participant
responses to identify the subset of items for each competency that best fit the data.
We limited the CFA to these items and the resulting model was then tested for
appropriate fit in the remainder of the participant sample, in order to reduce the
risk of capitalizing on chance (McDonald & Marsh, 1990). The final CFA model
was subsequently used in a group-based comparison across the three phases to test
for similarities and differences in the pattern of responses. All fit decisions were
based on the criteria suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999).

Results
Basic descriptive statistics for the survey responses are provided in Table 3. The
values in Table 3 were calculated using the entire 68-item scale for comparability
with previous studies, and the values are consistent with those reported by others
(Dugan, 2006; Dugan & Komives, 2007). For parsimony, all further results
reported are from the final CFA model that was adopted.

Table 3
Descriptive statistics
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Change 3.86 .43 .76
2 Citizenship 4.15 .46 .54 .85
3 Collaboration 4.19 .41 .57 .59 .78
4 Commitment 4.46 .42 .38 .47 .57 .77
5 Common 4.21 .39 .50 .63 .71 .56 .81
purpose
6 Congruence 4.23 .43 .38 .51 .53 .60 .58 .79
7 Consciousness 3.97 .48 .48 .43 .53 .49 .50 .57 .76
8 Controversy 3.98 .37 .65 .48 .60 .49 .46 .37 .44 .70
with civility
Cronbach’s alpha in diagonal. All correlations significant (p<.05) N= 612

As explained in the description of the analysis, all 68 items of the SRLS were not
used in the final model. Moreover, the proposed eight-factor structure of the SCM
was not observed in the data; several of the competencies had correlations too
high to support their discriminant validity as independent factors (Bagozzi &
Edwards, 1998). Rather, a six-factor structure was found to be more appropriate,
consisting of items associated with the competencies of congruence, commitment,
common purpose, controversy with civility, citizenship, and change (see Table 4).
The data did not support the discriminant validity of the consciousness of self and
collaboration competencies.

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Our final result was a model comprised of the six competencies in Table 4. This
model was a statistically appropriate representation of the data (Χ2120=255.70,
CFI=0.96, RMSEA=0.04, SRMR=0.04). All items in the table displayed good
measurement properties. In terms of convergent validity – the extent to which the
competencies could be recognized in the data – the model performed well (all

Table 4
Final six-competency factor structure and items
Competency Retained SRLS items Α
Citizenship I believe I have responsibilities to my community .79
I believe I have a civic responsibility to the greater
public
I value opportunities that allow me to contribute to
my community
Commitment I hold myself accountable for responsibilities I agree .78
to
I can be counted on to do my part
I follow through on my promises
Congruence My actions are consistent with my values .82
My behaviors are congruent with my beliefs
My behaviors reflect my beliefs
Controversy I am open to others’ ideas .73
with Civility I value differences in others
I respect opinions other than my own
Common It is important to develop a common direction in a .71
Purpose group in order to get anything done
Common values drive an organization
I work well when I know the collective values of a
group
Change Change makes me uncomfortable (reverse coded) .72
I work well in changing environments
New ways of doing things frustrate me (reverse
coded)

factor loadings in excess of the recommended minimum of 0.5; Chin, 1998). The
model also performed well in terms of discriminant validity, which is the extent to
which competencies could be distinguished from each other (the largest
correlation among factors was 0.52; Bagozzi & Edwards, 1998). The final model
had equally good measurement properties within each training group: Group I,
before training (Χ2120=205.03, CFI=0.91, RMSEA=0.06, SRMR=0.06); Group II,
immediately after training (Χ2120=174.28, CFI=0.95, RMSEA=.0.05,

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

SRMR=0.05); and Group III, three months after training (Χ2120=211.78,

CFI=0.92, RMSEA=.0.06, SRMR=0.06). In all cases, the results met the criteria
for good fit, indicating that the final model is an appropriate interpretation of the
data (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

The next step of the analysis was a group-based comparison to test for differences
in their responses. The first comparison was between Groups I and II, which
assessed possible differences in the respondents’ leadership model and self-
reported competencies before and after training. The first model we tested
constrained both groups to have identical measurement models (i.e., same factor
structure, same factor loadings, same measurement intercepts). As shown in Table
5 (see Model 1) this model had an acceptable fit with the data, suggesting that
respondents’ mental models of leadership before and after training had the same
six-competency factor structure, meaning that students grouped their response
patterns similarly both before and after attending the training sessions. Models 2
and 3 then required further equivalence between the two groups’ responses;
specifically that the two groups have the same mean levels in the competencies
(Model 2) and the same correlations among the competencies (Model 3). Both of
these models had significantly worse fits with the data, as indicated by the
significant increase in their Χ2 score, relative to Model 1.

Table 5
Alternative models in group comparison
Equivalence ∆Χ2
Model Samples Χ2(df) CFI RMSEA SRMR
comparison (df)
Factor 398.96
1 -- .94 .03 .06
structure (264)
Groups I Factor 412.99 14.03
2 .93 .04 .06
& II means (270) (6)*
Factor 448.47 35.48
3 .92 .04 .08
correlations (291) (21)*
Factor 412.90
4 -- .93 .04 .05
structure (264)
Groups Factor 419.02 6.12
5 .93 .04 .05
II & III means (270) (6)
Factor 437.05 18.03
6 .94 .03 .06
correlations (291) (21)
* p<.05

The worse fit of Model 2 indicates that there were significant differences in the
mean levels of some competencies among respondents in the two groups.
Specifically, respondents reported significantly higher competency in

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

commitment (Cohen’s d=.40), common purpose (d=.20), controversy with civility

(d=.22), and citizenship (d=.17) after training (p<.05). These are small to
moderate effects that suggest that immediately after training participants felt more
competent in these areas than they did before training. There was no difference
between Groups I and II in their reported competency with congruence or change.
Further, the worse fit of Model 3 indicates that there were significant differences
in the correlation structures between groups, implying that the respondents
perceived different relationships among the competencies before and after
training. As shown in Table 6, most Pearson’s r correlations were higher after
training (i.e., in Group II), which suggests that the participants considered the
competencies to be more interrelated and closely linked after training.

The final step in the analysis was to compare the responses of Groups II and III.
As shown in Model 4 of Table 5, constraining these two groups to have identical

Table 6
Correlations among competencies before and after training (Phase I score/Phase
II score)
1 2 3 4 5
1 Change
2 Citizenship .29/.52
3 Commitment .32/.41 .12/.46
4 Common .20/25 .41/.44 .18/.57
purpose
5 Congruence .08/.39 .23/.49 .49/.53 .39/40
6 Controversy .40/.54 .33/41 .36/.36 .36/.20 .15/.16
with civility
Note: All correlations > 0.21 are significant (p<.05)

measurement models yielded a good fit with the data. Moreover, the results of
Models 5 and 6 indicate that the two groups had similar means and correlations
among the competencies; there were no significant differences. These results
suggest that participants reported similar levels of competency and similar mental
models of leadership immediately after training and three months later. Combined
with the previous results, this shows that the short-term training had a lasting
effect on the participants: immediately after training, participants reported higher
levels of competency and perceived stronger links among the competencies, and
these increases persisted for at least three months.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of short-term leadership
programs on students’ self-reported scores on an assessment of SCM
competencies. The results indicate that there may be many areas of leadership
development that can be addressed through participation in short-term training
programs. Moreover, the results suggest that the increased scores persist over
time. Three months after training, participants still retained the effects they
showed immediately after training. An additional interesting finding was that the
correlations among SCM competencies generally increased after participation,
pointing to the possibility of a more integrated understanding of the skills required
for effective post-industrial leadership. However, all of these findings should be
interpreted with the caveat that there may be issues to be resolved concerning the
psychometric properties of the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS),
since the predicted eight-factor structure could not be extracted from the data.
Nonetheless, these results provide empirical evidence that students can derive
lasting benefits from participating in short-term leadership training, and indicate
important directions for future research and the potential structure of leadership
programs.

Previous studies (Healy, 2000; Rosch & Schwartz, 2009; Schuh & Upcraft, 1998)
have shown the existence of a honeymoon effect in self-reported assessment of
skill immediately after an educational experience, such that students overestimate
the impact of their learning compared to a measurement taken months later. In
this study, student scores remained elevated relative to pre-program results three
months after training, and were equal to the gains seen immediately after the
program. This persistence corroborates past research (Dugan & Komives, 2007),
indicating the durable benefit of students attending short-term leadership
interventions. The results seem to show that well-structured short-term programs
can impact student leadership practices long after attendance.

At the same time, the results also signify that not all areas of leadership
competency are similarly affected by such programs. Specifically, while students
reported greater competency on measures of capacity for commitment, common
purpose, controversy with civility, and citizenship, there was no apparent effect
from training on their capacity for congruence or change. This difference may
indicate that some skills required for socially responsible leadership are more
amenable to training within a single, short program (e.g., team development,
values prioritization, discussion facilitation, and conflict management skills). In
contrast, mastering more complex skills such as moral reasoning and systems
thinking (i.e., skills required for the effective practice of congruence and change)
may be better accomplished in a long-term educational structure, such as an

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

academic course or multi-semester leadership certificate program. The fact that

perceived acquisition of some SCM competencies appears to occur from
participation in short-term programs while others do not may have important
implications for the curriculum included in co-curricular educational programs,
which are often based on short-term interventions such as evening workshops or
weekend retreats.

The other interesting pattern in the findings was that most of the correlations
among the SCM competencies increased and remained elevated after leadership
training. This may indicate that, in addition to any changes in individuals’
particular competencies, leadership training programs may promote more
integrated thinking about all of the skills required to lead in complex, modern
contexts. For example, as students become more proficient at the practice of
gaining consensus for group action (i.e., common purpose), they may also gain a
better sense of the comprehensive knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to stay
committed to personal goals in the face of opposition, manage interpersonal
conflict, and embrace diversity in groups.

Even though the training did not appear to contribute to increased scores in the
competencies of congruence and change, post-training participants generally
reported higher correlations among these and other competencies. These higher
correlations may indicate that even though their reported skill does not increase,
students may leave a well-designed short-term leadership program with a more
integrated understanding of what is required to exercise congruence or manage a
complex change process. While students may not be able to master these more
complex skills within a short-term program, they may still receive meaningful
gains in knowledge about these competencies.

Finally, the results also have potential implications for the use of the Socially
Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS) as an assessment tool in leadership
programs. Despite its increasing popularity in assessing student leadership
development, little psychometric research has been published on the SRLS
beyond exploratory factor analysis. While the Cronbach’s alpha score for each
competency was similar to that found in past research (Dugan, 2006; Dugan &
Komives, 2007), further analysis indicated a lack of convergent and discriminant
validity among the competencies, requiring post-hoc deletion of scale items and
competencies. While we were able to develop a valid model that was consistent
with six of the SCM competencies, additional research might examine the
psychometric properties of the SRLS in detail and in diverse samples of students.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Implications for Policy and Practice

These results show evidence that one-shot programs can serve as effective tools
for lasting leadership development, but that not all leadership skills are acquired
at the same speed or in the context of such programs. The addition of academic
courses or long-term certificate programs in leadership development is human
resource-heavy and time intensive; therefore, using short-term programs that can
effectively educate students may be more fiscally efficient and can provide a
means to scale up new initiatives in a potentially more cost-effective and quicker
fashion. Our results reveal the efficacy of such programs for some competencies.
Still, leadership educators in student affairs should be intentional with the design
of their overall suite of programs, ensuring that the complexity that accompanies
several contemporary leadership skills is adequately addressed through longer-
term programs and initiatives. The SCM capacity of change, for example, may
require mastery of the concept of effective systems-thinking. Such mastery
requires the successful identification of stakeholders, building relationships with
diverse others, testing one’s assumptions, and creating effective feedback loops
(Conger & Benjamin, 1999). Acquiring the skills to successfully create systemic
change in contemporary systems may not be realistic in the scope of a one-day
program.

These results also suggest that even if students do not leave short-term programs
perceiving that they possess the skills necessary to practice complex leadership
actions, they may acquire a more integrated sense of thinking about leadership.
For example, some students may not leave a program more competent in
matching their words and actions (i.e., the SCM capacity of congruence);
however, they may recognize the important role that their personal values (i.e., the
SCM capacity of consciousness of self) play in such behavior. This may have
important implications for student affairs leadership educators and how they
structure the programs they offer. Many leadership programs are marketed as
discrete skill-building opportunities rather than as parts of a complex whole of
leadership capacity-building. The educational impact of these programs may be
increased by explicitly providing students with a more holistic picture of how the
skills they are learning are connected to related skills for leading others.
Moreover, the creation of a linked set of short-term programs, where students
build skill in one area first before advancing to master a more complex skill, may
aid administrators in effectively creating a comprehensive leadership development
initiative.

Limitations, Future Research, and Conclusions

This study had several important limitations. Significantly, these results are based
on students at a single four-year research-extensive public university in the

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Midwest, all of whom volunteered to participate in relatively short training

programs that took place on the weekends or over summer and winter breaks.
While this sample of students was demographically representative of the general
student body at that particular campus, the ability to generalize results to a more
national or global population of students may be limited by the single-institution
population, the fact that all participants were self-selected volunteers, and the
nature of the programs in question. Consequently, more research involving multi-
campus student populations and programs of varying lengths should be conducted
to better understand the impact of short-term training on student leadership
development.

Additionally, the post-participation element of the study design was limited to

three months, thus constraining the degree to which conclusions about long-term
effects can be drawn. The field of leadership development in higher education
suffers from a paucity of research that examines true longitudinal change in
student abilities (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005;
Posner, 2009). While this research began to address this problem, more efforts
must be made in assessing the leadership gains of students over time. A specific
direction that should be addressed in future research is the difference between
knowledge, skills, and attitudes in post-industrial leadership development. While
the SRLS is an assessment of self-reported skills, future research could examine
how students develop and grow in each of these three areas, and the relationships
among them.

In conclusion, our results show that while short-term training is a viable option for
student affairs educators in helping students develop leadership skills, not all
relevant skills may be appropriately addressed and mastered in a short-term
program. More research must be conducted to understand which types of
leadership skills can best be fostered in students through short programs, and
which skills may be better left to long-term programming initiatives. As campuses
are increasingly pressed to become more efficient and better stewards of existing
financial and human resources, such knowledge would aid leadership educators in
creating the most benefit from their efforts.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

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Author Biographies
David M. Rosch serves as an Assistant Professor in the Agricultural Education
program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His particular areas of
interest include student leadership development and the accurate assessment of
leadership effectiveness. He earned his doctorate in Higher Education
Administration from Syracuse University in 2007, a master's in Student Affairs in
Higher Education from Colorado State University in 1999, and a bachelor's
degree from Binghamton University (NY) in 1996.

Arran Caza is an Assistant Professor of Business Administration in the Wake

Forest University Schools of Business. He earned his doctorate at the University
of Michigan and is a research affiliate of the New Zealand Leadership Institute.
Arran’s research focuses on leaders and followers in organizations, with a
particular emphasis on how leaders’ discretionary behaviors influence follower
outcomes.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Impact of Personal Growth Projects on Leadership

Identity Development

Summer F. Odom
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
2116 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-2116
summerodom@tamu.edu
(979) 862-7650
Barry L. Boyd
Associate Professor
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
2116 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-2116
b-boyd@tamu.edu
(979) 862-3693

Jennifer Williams
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
2116 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-2116
dr.jen@tamu.edu
(979) 862-1423

Abstract
Within personal leadership education courses, leadership educators should include
experiences which help students develop themselves as leaders. In this article, the
authors discuss results from a qualitative research study involving the analysis of
Personal Growth Project (PGP) assignments in a personal leadership education
collegiate course. The authors analyzed PGP assignments using the lens of the
Leadership Identity Development model (Komives et al., 2005). All aspects of the
developing self component of the model including deepening self-awareness,
building self-confidence, establishing interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills,

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and expanding motivations were evident in student reflections about their PGP.
The PGP assignment seems to be very effective in promoting the development of
students’ leadership identity, especially in the “developing self” category of the
Leadership Identity Model (Komives et al., 2005).

Introduction
“Personal growth is such an interesting thing that it almost isn’t fully
learned or understood until after the season of growth.” (Student B19)

Boyd and Williams (2010) identified a classroom assignment in a personal

leadership education collegiate course designed to foster life-long learning in
students. Students in this course are required to complete a personal growth
project where they learn a new skill or gain new knowledge. Students are allowed
to choose their project with the approval of the instructor. The students must
choose to learn something completely new. Examples of projects include learning
a musical instrument, learning to cook, learning a new physical activity such as
yoga, or expanding their spiritual awareness. Students document and reflect on
their personal growth throughout the project and connect course content to their
personal growth process. Course content includes topics such as emotional
intelligence, personality type, strengths, values, life purpose, creativity, and
personal vision. Beyond fostering life-long learning skills, there are other
beneficial outcomes to the personal growth project assignment such as developing
self- awareness.

As leadership development is mostly personal development, becoming more

aware of one’s self is a necessary component of personal development (Day,
Zaccaro, & Halpin, 2004). To effectively lead others, one must first be able to
lead themselves (Neck & Manz, 2007). “The instrument of leadership is the self,
and the mastery of the art of leadership comes from the mastery of the self” (p.
344). Being aware of your strengths and weaknesses, what you value and believe,
and your preferences for learning, thinking, and relating help you relate to others
and establish credibility in those relationships (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon,
2006).

Leadership occurs in the context of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal skill

development enhances our capacity to lead others as we learn from our
experiences, acquire new skills, and develop our self-concept (Fritz, Brown,
Lunde, & Banset, 2004). Interpersonal skill development is really about
discovering who you are. This self-discovery which leads to self-confidence is
“really awareness of and faith in your own powers. These powers become clear
and strong only as you work to identify and develop them” (Kouzes & Posner,

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1990, p. 298). Because people are not fully conscious of all aspects of their
identities (Day et al., 2004), leadership educators should help students become
aware of the components of their self and develop a deeper self-awareness of the
individual.

This paper discusses the impact of using Personal Growth Projects (PGPs) to help
students “develop self” in a personal leadership education collegiate course.
Students’ reflections from completing a personal growth project were analyzed
using the Leadership Identity Development model as the framework (Komives,
Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005).

Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

London (2009) describes leadership development as a process contributing to
continuous growth of the person. One of the four primary components to
leadership development is personal growth (Conger, 1992). An integral part of the
development process is the concept of continuous learning. London states that
continuous learning is imperative if leaders are to keep up with the rapid pace of
technological change and the expansion of the global economy. London and
Smither (1999) defined continuous learning as “a self-initiated, discretionary,
planned, and proactive pattern of formal or informal activities that are sustained
over time for the purpose of applying or transporting knowledge for career
development’’ ( p. 81).

Leadership educators should try to foster continuous learning experiences in

students to help them develop as leaders. One way to do this is through
experiential learning activities such as the PGP. Kolb (1984) described
experiential learning as a process which links education, work, and personal
development. Kolb’s model, based on the work of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1958),
and Piaget (1970), revolves around four key points in cyclical form. First,
individuals have a concrete experience, which is followed by reflective
observations, abstract conceptualizations, and active experimentation (Kolb,
1984). Each point is unique to the learner’s experience. Giving learners an
opportunity to reflect on and observe experiences is key to learning in Kolb’s
model (1984).

PGPs allow students to experience something new (concrete experience), reflect

on their experience and what they learned (reflective observations), state changes
they foresee or may encounter (abstract conceptualizations), and apply it to other
aspects of their life (active experimentation). By purposefully constructing the
PGP assignment, leadership educators create an experiential learning activity for
students.

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Based on grounded theory research, the Komives et al. (2005) model for
developing a leadership identity is a useful framework for assessing the effect of
PGPs on student learning and development. Komives et al. proposed a model for
developing a leadership identity based on an emergent design. This study linked
student development theories with the process of leadership development to build
a model for assisting leadership educators in facilitating leadership development
in students. In the study by Komives et al., a sample of students who exemplified
relational leadership were identified and interviewed to arrive at the process of
developing a leadership identity.

In the Leadership Identity Development (LID) model, six stages of the

developmental process were identified as leadership constructs (Komives et al.,
2005):

• Awareness.

• Exploration/Engagement.

• Leader Identified.

• Leadership Differentiated.

• Generativity.

• Integration/Synthesis.

“Leadership identity develops through six stages moving from awareness to

integration/synthesis” (Komives et al., 2005, pp. 608-609). These stages are
conceptualized as cyclical, which allows for individuals to go between stages and
repeat stages, learning and acquiring information through each repeated stage.
Five organizational categories also emerged for the process of developing
leadership identity:

• Developmental influences.

• Developing self.

• Group influences.

• Changing view of self with others.

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• Broadening view of leadership.

Developing self, one of the categories emergent in Komives et al. (2005) study,
was the focus of this research study. Dimensions of personal growth were evident
in the developing self category, which includes “deepening self-awareness,
building self-confidence, establishing interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills,
and expanding motivations” (p. 599).

Deepening self-awareness involves moving from having a vague sense of self to

affirming your strengths, weaknesses, and roles in which you thrive. According to
George (2007), members of the Stanford Graduate School of Business Advisory
Council listed self-awareness unanimously as the “most important capability for
leaders to develop” (p. 69). Self-awareness includes affirmation of personal
values, sense of personal integrity, strengths, and weaknesses.

Self-confidence evolves through meaningful experiences, which support a

positive self-concept. This self-confidence results in taking more risks and a
feeling of empowerment (Komives et al., 2005).

Learning to “relate to and communicate with people different from themselves”

(Komives et al., 2005, p. 601) is a part of establishing interpersonal efficacy. By
working closely with others who are different from you, an appreciation of
diverse points of view and the valuing of different perspectives occur.

Applying new skills occurred as a result of being involved in different

experiences. Public speaking skills, delegating, motivating, team-building,
facilitating, and listening skills are examples of new skills which can be acquired
due to engagement in multiple experiences (Komives et al., 2005).

While making friends or participating in interesting activities was an initial reason

to get involved in experiences, as students gained more experience, their goals
were refined and their focus changed to that of seeking out those things which
meant something to them. Their experiences sparked a “deep sense of
commitment to something and knew that passion would be a strong motivation to
action” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 602). Expanding motivations includes following
your passion or interest, exploring and engaging in a concept beyond the initial
introduction to it.

There is very little empirical research found in the literature regarding the
leadership identity development model. Furthermore, research on the leadership
identity development model focuses on how students developed their leadership
identity. For instance, Oldham (2008) focused on the “unique collegiate
experiences of African American students at a predominantly White institution,

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with the intent of finding avenues to further support not only their academic
journeys, but also their personal growth and development” (p. 108). This research
study focused on the use of a collegiate course assignment in helping students
develop self. While theory is useful in describing, explaining, and predicting
student behavior, influencing student development is the ultimate goal of
leadership education and practice (McEwen, 2003). Komives et al. (2009)
recommended that “all leadership courses and other educational experiences
should integrate opportunities for self-awareness and personal assessment that
were critical to the development in each of the LID stages” (p. 37).

The use of PGPs promotes leadership identity development in students by

providing experiences from which they can develop their sense of self. Through
their PGPs, students are challenged to participate in an experience which takes
them out of their comfort zone and creates new conditions and contexts from
which to grow. By reflecting on these new experiences, students deepen their self-
awareness, build self-confidence, establish interpersonal efficacy, apply new
skills, and expand their motivations.

Methodology
Understanding how a leadership identity is formed is a severely multifarious
phenomenon. According to Conger (1998), qualitative research “can be the richest
of studies, often illuminating in radically new ways phenomena as complex as
leadership” (p. 107). Basic qualitative methodology was chosen as the most
effective means to investigate the research question.

As Flaum (2002) noted, effective leadership is often learned during leadership

experiences. Because of this and based on the work of several leadership scholars
(Flaum, 2002; Brungardt, 1996; Bass & Bass, 2008), the researchers chose to
frame this study in the inquiry paradigm of phenomenology. Phenomenology
explores “how human beings make sense of experience and transform experience
into consciousness” (Patton, 2002, p. 104).

Population and Sample

The population for this study is undergraduate students enrolled in a personal

leadership education course at Texas A&M University. One of the objectives of
the course is for students to become more aware of, apply, and reflect upon
personal leadership capacities. Students achieve this objective by participating in
the abovementioned PGP.

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The sample of this study consists of 90 students’ PGP reflection papers. Three
different instructors during the Spring 2010 and Fall 2010 semesters contributed
random samples of students’ PGP reflections (a total possible n of 229). A sample
of 34 reflections came from the Spring 2010 section, 26 from one section in the
Fall of 2010, and 30 from another section in the Fall of 2010. Purposeful random
sampling was chosen to “to reduce bias” (Patton, 2002, p. 244) in sampling three
different sections of Personal Leadership Education. Each reflection paper was
given a code identifying which section (S, J, or B) it was taken from and
numbered at random.

Data Collection

The type of data collected should be emergent from the research design and the
purpose of the research. In this phenomenological study, it was concluded that
students’ reflections of their experiences in their personal growth projects would
yield the most rich data. In phenomenology, reflection is retrospective, not
introspective (Van Manen, 1990), so asking students to reflect on their lived
experiences within the PGP assignment fulfills this retrospective reflection. As
part of the PGP assignment, students were asked to reflect on their PGP
experience. Students cogitated on how their chosen project effected their
leadership development as well as how the PGP helped them experience models
and theories covered in class. The random sample yielded 90 usable reflections.
These reflections vary on length and chosen PGP.

Data Analysis

Deductive content analysis was conducted on the 90 student sample reflections.

The developing self component of the Leadership Identity Development (LID)
model (Komives et al., 2005) was used as the deductive lens. In order to establish
inter-rater reliability, all three researchers conducted separate hand-coded content
analysis. Each researcher coded the reflections into unitized data in accordance to
their perception of LID application. Data units were extracted from the original
sources and then categorized into core consistencies (Lincoln & Guba, 1989). The
combined efforts of the researchers resulted in over 200 unitized data segments.
Inter-rater reliability or the triangulation of analysis, in which “two or more
persons independently analyze the same qualitative data and compare their
findings” (p. 560) adds to the reliability of data analysis (Patton, 2002).

Because the same procedure of unitizing data was used by all researchers,
triangulation was established by comparing the data units which were assigned to
the five sub-categories of the LID model. Data units, which were coded into
internally homogeneous categories by the researchers, were used as a viable pool
for describing the findings of the research. The narrative descriptions of the data

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units and core consistencies provided sufficient detail to enable the reader to make
adequate interpretations and transferability decisions. An audit trail including the
initial hand-coded content analysis and compilation of data units into core
consistencies was kept with each coded writing sample to ensure dependability
and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1989).

Findings
This study examined the leadership identity development of students who
completed a PGP in an upper-level course on personal leadership education.
Specifically, the researchers examined students’ development as it relates to the
Developing Self component of the LID model (Komives et al., 2005). The
Developing Self component consists of five sub-categories – Deepening Self-
Awareness, Building Self-Confidence, Establishing Interpersonal Efficacy,
Applying New Skills, and Expanding Motivations.

Deepening Self-Awareness

Eighty-five point five percent of the sample described becoming more aware of
certain personal traits than they were before the personal growth project. Areas of
self-awareness that were reported included realizing how they learn and solve
problems, their levels of patience when tackling new and unfamiliar tasks, as well
as their levels of drive and persistence in completing their projects.

One student noted, “It (the project) forced me to take a long hard look internally,
where I came to realize things about me that I thought were good, but also many
things that I know I need to improve on.” Student B21 observed, “I normally rely
on people for help with many things in life. This project made me see that I am
capable of learning new things and doing tasks on my own.”

Other students, such as S26, noted that “I really like learning new things” and “I
learned that I excel under pressure!”

Building Self-Confidence

Almost 52% of the sample described an increase in self-confidence as a result of

completing their growth project. This increase in self-confidence instilled within
the students a desire to continue attempting new things and move out of their
comfort zone. Many students noted that this new-found confidence would
encourage them to seek leadership roles and be more vocal in their organizational
meetings.

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Student S19 claimed that “My life has already changed a great deal from taking
this class (Crossfit), it has truly inspired me to be better in every aspect of my
life.” Another student noted, “a new confidence in me has come with it. Now I am
no longer afraid to tackle new challenges that are placed in front of me.” (S21)
This same sentiment is echoed by other students. “This experience has helped me
realize that I should not let fear keep me from trying something new” (B22) and
“In the future, if a strenuous assignment is placed before me, I know that I have
the capability to go out and accomplish it.” (J4)

Establishing Interpersonal Efficacy

More than 44% of the sample reported increases in their interpersonal efficacy.
This lower percentage might be explained by the number of projects where
students worked independently and thus did not have the opportunity to interact
with others and build this skill. Those who did report gains in this area noted
stronger relationships with family members and friends who shared an interest in
their topic as well as new friendships that were established.

“My ego has had to take a back seat while learning this skill (archery) and I am
now more empathetic when others come to me for help.” (J12)

This student understood the need to identify followers who can compensate for
her weaknesses as a leader. In the context of her cooking project she described
the experience stating, “I see with greater clarity the need for people on my team
or in my community that complement what I do well by picking up the slack
where I am weak. If I am an especially salty and starch-heavy course of chicken
and dumplings, then I need people with me who add sweetness like a pie or
crisp, lively energy like a green salad.” (B5).

Applying New Skills

Nearly 57% of the sample reported learning new skills that could be applied in
their leadership roles. The ability to listen to others was a key skill noted by
students. Other leadership skills included improved problem solving and time-
management skills. Continuous learning is an essential attitude for leaders.

This student proclaimed, “I can take the steps I used in cake decorating and apply
them to any new thing that I want to learn in the future. “ (B2) Another student
stated “I have always taken the easy route in life and this project helped me to see
that sometimes it is more beneficial to stray away from the safe zone in order to
expand your knowledge.” (B4) Student S12 observed, “I actually saw that in
different situations that I actually could see my strengths take action.”

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Expanding Motivations

Expanding motivations is described as narrowing or focusing goals and seeking a

deeper commitment to something (Komives, et al., 2005). Almost 39% of the
sample noted growth in this area.

Student B15 stated, “This project alone made me realize the importance of finding
a career that suits my strengths and addresses my personality type. …I am
determined to find a career that addresses my creativity and allows the artistic
side of me to flourish.” Student S11 found a new passion in the project, “I think
that this experience is going to become a pastime that I will embrace for the rest
of my life.” “I realized that even knowledgeable leaders also have room to grow
and learn more,” noted student J33.

Student B26 noted that “in many situations, you may have all of the resources
sitting right before your eyes, but be unable to put them all together. The project
helped me look at those pieces and instead of just seeing pieces, I saw the big
picture that those pieces, when working together, could create. As a leader, people
will look at you to be that person who is able to take those pieces and create the
‘bigger picture’ that no one else can see.”

Student J10 learned that leaders cannot do it alone: “I cannot do everything by

myself no matter how strong I think I am at any given thing. I need a team of
people around me to tell me how they were able to succeed and give me
perspective when I look at something too narrowly.” (J10)

The actual number of students making at least one comment for each sub-category
is listed in Table 1. Additional themes emerging from the sample included:

• Their chosen project reduced stress in their lives.

• Increased levels of patience.

• Learned independence.

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Table 1
Number and percentage of students reporting in each sub-stage of the LID Model,
N=90.
LID Subcategory n* Percentage
Developing Self-Awareness 77 85.5
Building Self-Confidence 45 51.8
Establishing Interpersonal 40 44.4
Efficacy
Applying New Skills 51 56.7
Expanding Motivations 35 38.9
*Note: n=number of students from the sample of 90 that exhibited growth in that
trait.

Conclusions
The PGP assignment seems to be very effective in promoting the development of
students’ leadership identity, especially in the “developing self” category of the
Leadership Identity Model (Komives et al., 2005). Researchers found evidence of
each component of Developing Self (deepening self-awareness, building self-
confidence, establishing interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills, and
expanding motivations) in students’ reflections. The greatest area of growth was
in Developing Self-awareness. Sparrowe (2005) notes that self-awareness is a key
component for developing authenticity. Continual development of self-awareness
is part of the journey to students’ developing their leadership identity. Over one-
half of the students gained self-confidence in their ability to complete new and
challenging tasks. Kolb (1999) found that self-confidence to be a predictor for
identifying emerging leaders for further training and development. Because
developing relationships is critical to effective leadership, improving
Interpersonal Efficacy is an important concept in developing a leadership identity.
More than 50% of the students were able to see how the skills they developed in
their PGP could be transferred to a leadership role. Taking concepts learned in
one context, reflecting on their application in a different context, then testing
those concepts in that new context perfectly describes Kolb’s Experiential
Learning Model (1984). The Expanding Motivations subcategory had the fewest
number of students indicating growth. The prompts for reflection in this
assignment were not designed to have students reflect on this concept and could
indicate the lower number of students reporting growth in this area.

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Recommendations and Implications

Having students complete a PGP assignment can be effective in helping them
develop self. Developing self is important in leading others (Neck & Manz, 2007;
Komives, 1998). As leadership educators, we should be concerned about how
students learn leadership. Huber (2002) stated “as leadership educators, we help
people to understand what it means to be a leader” (p. 31).

This PGP assignment has implications for leadership educators who teach
personal leadership education courses. As the research concluded, leadership
educators could use this PGP assignment to help students develop self. The
reflection is a critical component to this assignment. Providing students with a
few questions to think about in regard to their personal growth is important in this
process.

This assignment gives students the opportunity to learn something new, take risks,
learn outside the classroom, and do something they really enjoy. This ultimately
leads to promoting “developing self” in order to grow as a leader and gain self-
knowledge.

Additional research is needed that focuses on other outcomes of the PGP

assignment. Other possible avenues include examining the effect of the PGP on
the development of emotional intelligence, as well as the development of the
attitude of life-long learning.

Comparing courses which use similar projects to develop personal leadership

skills and knowledge would add to the validity of the study. This would also
cross-validate the assignment as a viable option in personal leadership
development.

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References
Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory,
research, and managerial applications (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.

Boyd, B. L., & Williams, J. (2010). Developing life-long learners through

personal growth projects. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(2), 144-150.

Brungardt, C. (1996). The making of leaders: A review of the research in

leadership development and education. The Journal of Leadership Studies,
3(3), 81-95.

Conger, J. A. (1998). Qualitative research as the cornerstone methodology for

understanding leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 9(1), 107-121.

Day, D. V., Zaccaro, S. J., & Halpin, S. M. (2004). Leader development for
transforming organizations: growing leaders for tomorrow. Mahway, NJ:
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Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Flaum, S. A. (August 2002). Six Ps of great leadership. Executive Excellence,

19(8), 3-4.

Fritz, S. M., Brown, W., Lunde, J. P, & Banset, E. A. (2004). Interpersonal skills
for leadership (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

George, B. (2007). True North. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Huber, N. (2002). Approaching leadership education in the new millennium.

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Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kolb, J. A. (1999). The effect of gender role, attitude toward leadership, and self-
confidence on leader emergence: Implications for leadership development.
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Komives, S. R. (1998). Exploring leadership for college students who want to

make a difference. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L.
(2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of
College Student Development, 46(6), 593-611.

Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (2006). Exploring leadership:

For college students who want to make a difference. San Francisco:
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Komives, S. R., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F., Osteen, L., Owen, J. E., &
Wagner, W. (2009). Leadership identity development: Challenges in
applying a developmental model. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(1),
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Wiley Higher Education.

Lewin, K. (1958). Field theory in social sciences. New York: Harper & Row.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1989). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.

London, M. (2009). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and

professional growth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

London, M., & Smither, J. W. (1999). Career-related continuous learning:

Defining the construct and mapping the process. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.),
Research in Human Resources Management, 17, 81-121.

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Woodard (Eds.). Student services: A handbook for the profession (4th ed.),
pp. 53-178. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Neck, C. P., & Manz, C. C. (2007). Mastering self-leadership: Empowering

yourself for personal excellence (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
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Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sparrowe, R. T. (2005). Authentic leadership and the narrative self. The

Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 419-439.

Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an

action sensitive pedagogy. New York: State University of New York.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Insights from Six Women on Their Personal

Journeys to Becoming Deans of Agriculture:
A Qualitative Study

Sarah Kleihauer
Agricultural Science Instructor
Wilson Central High School

Carrie Ann Stephens

Associate Professor
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN

William E. Hart
Associate Professor
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN

Abstract
Understanding one’s personal journey provides for effective learning, growth, and
development (Madsen, 2010). Reflection on the influences and experiences of
successful women leaders is essential to understanding the factors that have
enabled them to obtain and sustain leadership positions in nontraditional career
fields. The purpose of this qualitative study was to conceptualize and describe the
personal journeys of women who became deans of agriculture. The central
research question was, “Describe your personal journey to becoming a dean of
agriculture?” Six women deans of agriculture were interviewed and observed in
an attempt to recognize the impact their personal journeys have had in developing
their leadership styles and sustaining their leadership role. Conclusions were (a)
they were first born children, (b) influenced by parental qualities and spousal
support, and (c) mentors recognized their gifts and talents and encouraged them to
pursue advanced degrees and leadership positions.

Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Understanding one’s own personal journey provides for effective learning,
growth, and development of self (Madsen, 2010). Reflection on the influences and
experiences of successful women leaders is essential to understanding the factors

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that have enabled them to obtain and sustain leadership positions in nontraditional
career fields. Bennis (1989) believed that in order for one to pass on their insight
and perceptions of their experiences, they must fully understand and recognize the
true value of the experience. He noted:

There are lessons in everything, and if you are fully deployed, you will
learn most of them. Experiences are not truly yours until you think about
them, analyze them, examine them, question them, reflect on them, and
finally understand them. The point, once again, is to use your experiences
rather than being used by them, to be the designer, not the design, so that
experiences empower rather than imprison. (p. 98)

If one is to examine the true value of her experiences, a women’s development

and journey (e.g., culture, traditions, religion, values, backgrounds, education,
work-family issues, self-concept, gender barriers, expectations, previous
opportunities, perceived future opportunities) must be reflected upon and
understood (Madsen, 2007). Madsen suggested that “understanding the
influences, backgrounds, and career paths of women who have succeeded in
obtaining and maintaining powerful positions of influence within higher
education is essential in deepening and broadening our understanding of
leadership development as a whole within higher education” (p. 184). Therefore,
to understand this phenomenon, one must begin with exploring her childhood
which is in essence the beginning of her journey.

Hennig and Jardim (1977) recognized childhood as being a significant period in

an individual’s development. Cooke (2004) agreed childhood relationships,
developmental activities, and experiences (including hardships and times of pain)
come together to create each human being. Sulloway (1996) maintained that
“childhood and the family are central to the story of human behavior because they
provide the immediate casual context for these developmental scenarios” (p. 118).
Furthermore, “a person’s inner sense of authority will be developed during
childhood in the system of family relations, when the parents express their
expectations, ideas, and emotions to their child” (Lorenzen, 1996, p. 26).

Parental interactions and expectations, however, differ according to the child’s

birth order. According to Ernst and Angst (1983), first born children experience
more parental involvement, specifically verbal stimulation and strict parenting,
than later born children. Falbo (1981) argued that a combination of positive
parental attention and high parental expectations lead first born children to setting
higher standards for themselves. As a result, first born children developed higher
education aspirations and a higher degree of achievement motivation than later
born children. Additionally, first born children share a closer relationship with

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their parents and thus compare themselves to their parents whereas last born
children compare themselves to their older siblings.

In addition to birth order, relationships within the immediate family circle are
central to the effective development of an individual’s feelings of success,
competence, and confidence (Falbo, 1981; Hartman, 1999; Wells, 1998).
Furthermore, women in nontraditional occupations have parents who are highly
supportive of their daughter’s career interests (Auster & Auster, 1981). In
addition, successful women leaders are primarily raised in homes that are
occupied by two parents (Hennig & Jardim, 1977; Keown & Keown, 1982; Woo,
1985) who have contributed to their daughters’ development, resulting in the
enhancement of each woman’s confidence, knowledge, and skills important for
leadership (Madsen, 2007).

In addition to parental support, achievements and behavior of parents greatly

influence the motivation and values of women (Madsen, 2007). Madsen
determined the strong educational background and community commitment of
mothers provided a powerful model for women. While most of the women saw
their mothers as “loving, committed, and dedicated,” almost all of them also saw
their mothers as “influential, competent, strong, intelligent, and fun” (Madsen,
2007, p. 577). Similarly, Matz (2002) found that a mother’s impact on their
daughter’s self-esteem and inspiration was greater than the father’s.

In contrast, women emphasized characteristics such as respect, strength, high

expectations, and protection when describing their fathers (Madsen, 2006). For
the most part, the fathers considered it important to “teach their daughters, as well
as provide encouragement, opportunities, and education for them to become self-
sufficient” (Madsen, 2006, p. 577). Hennig and Jardim (1977) and Astin and
Leland (1991) also reported fathers had a stronger influence on the development,
aspirations, and educational goals of their daughters. Hennig and Jardim (1977)
noted that women were “taught, encouraged and supported by fathers, who
expected them to aspire to and prepare for a career” (p. 118). Overall, women
believe both parents are influential but that mothers have a stronger influence
(Madsen, 2006).

The importance of parental relationships and influence to the development of

women leaders is well documented (Astin & Leland, 1991; Cubillo & Brown,
2003; Hennig & Jardim, 1977; Madsen, 2007). In Madsen’s (2007) study of
university presidents, when asked to speak about the individuals who influenced
them through their adolescent and college years, most mentioned their parents’
“encouragement to learn, be educated, use their minds, and aspire for college”
(p. 10). Parents and family, along with faculty members, academic leaders, friends
and peers, and other mentors help to establish a supportive and challenging

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environment, both personally and academically, which is important for the career
success of women (Hennig & Jardim, 1977).

Madsen (2007) reported “all of the women had authority figures who saw their
gifts and talents and demanded quality and rigor” (p. 10). Van Velsor and Hughes
(1990) and Wells (1998) determined that women have a remarkable capacity to
learn from relationships and connections with others. Wells (1998) further noted
women’s self-images were not only founded in relationships they formed with
others, but were also shaped by reinforcement and rewards of respected
individuals. Good friends and peers are also excellent mentors to women as they
progress in their careers (Madsen, 2007). These individuals acted as “sounding
boards” (p. 113) and provided open and honest feedback, which was critical in
gaining personal insight and strength.

Despite the support of family and mentors, however, women who pursue their
career and leadership aspirations are confronted with choosing between family
and career. McDonald (2004) argued the greatest challenge to women
entrepreneurs is the difficulty of juggling a growing company and growing
family. In Matz’s (2002) study of women leaders, however, over 62% of the
women sampled were married and almost 80 percent had children. Additionally,
Matz found that over half of the women leaders felt their career never or only
occasionally interfered with their personal lives. The women’s success in keeping
family and career separate may be explained by their spouses’ willingness to
share household labor and childcare. This domestic support had allowed these
women to take on leadership positions in their careers while maintaining a
household.

In a study of women administrators, Woo (1985) noted that women attributed

their success to immense determination to have careers and the encouragement
and support they received from their families. The majority of the women
believed “their husbands’ support had been a crucial factor in their careers” (Woo,
1985, p. 287). Without that support, each woman believed she would have
sacrificed her work before disbanding the marriage. Woo (1985) related women’s
need for encouragement and assistance to men in leadership roles who also rely
heavily on their spouses for support. Indeed, the success of women and men in
leadership roles is greatly influenced by the commitment of their spouses and
families to their careers.

The effectiveness of an individual in a leadership role is also impacted by the

style with which the individual leads; any difference is generally perceived as a
product of gender and ultimately affects people’s views of who should advance to
a leadership position (Eagly & Carli, 2004). As more women have begun
occupying positions of leadership, numerous studies have been conducted to

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determine whether or not there are distinct differences in female and male
leadership styles.

Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and van Engen (2003) confirmed that women’s

typical leadership styles are more transformational than those of men. Female
leaders are more focused on mentoring and empowering their followers to help
develop their full potential and thus contribute more effectively to the
organization (Eagly & Carli, 2004). Conversely, male leaders appear to be more
prone to exhibiting aspects of transactional leadership. This leadership style
resembles traditional management practices, which consists of assigning a
subordinate responsibility, rewarding them for meeting objectives, and correcting
them for failing to meet objectives. Most managerial experts advocate the more
feminine and androgynous skills of negotiation, cooperation, diplomacy, team
building, and inspiring and nurturing others rather than distinctively masculine
traits and skills. These feminine qualities parallel those that depict
transformational leadership and are thus perceived as necessary attributes of
effective leaders.

In examining a woman’s journey to establish a leadership position, many factors

seem to be common: strong family upbringing, excellent mentoring and spousal
support. In a male-dominated field, such as agriculture, the question becomes do
women have the same successful experiences? It is important to note that from
our nation’s earliest days, agriculture has held a crucial place in the American
economy and culture. Today, the United States is looking to agricultural
institutions for solutions to growing global concerns regarding economic
uncertainty; natural resource and environmental issues; food security and
sustainable agricultural practices; increasing foreign competition; and decreasing
consumer understanding. While there are many complex factors that influence
economic conditions and consumer awareness, it is clear that education in
agriculture plays an important role in preparing farmers, researchers, educators,
extension staff, members of agri-businesses, and others to make productive
contributions (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1998).
As a result, visionary and competent individuals are needed to drive higher
education institutions to new levels of excellence and innovation and direct the
future of the agricultural industry and our nation. However, Rubin (2004) argued
that the development, attraction, and retention of extraordinary leaders are one of
eight fundamental challenges facing higher education today.

Despite this documented concern about the preparation and retention of future
educational leaders, there is little published research on the development of
individuals who acquire leadership positions, such as college women deans. The
role and leadership abilities of college deans are of particular importance in higher
education because of the influence these leaders have on the direction and

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management of their institutions as well as the relationships they create and

maintain with government officials, industry and community leaders, and their
own faculty, staff, and students. Therefore, this article explored birth order, family
influences, mentor experiences, and the spousal support system as each affected
the leadership development and leadership success of woman deans.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this qualitative study was to conceptualize and describe the
personal journeys of women on their road to becoming deans of agriculture. The
central research question addressed during the study was, “Describe your personal
journey to becoming a dean of agriculture?” Each participant was asked probing
or follow-up questions in an effort to indirectly guide their responses to provide
the sought after information. Interview questions included (a) describe your
family upbringing, (b) describe your immediate family, and (c) tell me about your
road to becoming a dean of agriculture.

Methods and Procedures

In order to fully comprehend the experiences participants shared, the study was
performed using the qualitative research method, which provided for a “complex,
detailed understanding of the issue” (Creswell, 2007, p. 40). Gathering
information from interviews, observations, documents, and pictures provided the
researcher with a bank of data from which themes could be created,
interpretations made, and a “rich, full picture of a research situation” painted
(Wright, 2002/3, p. 8). A phenomenological approach was utilized in an attempt
to gain entry into the conceptual world of study participants in order to understand
how and what meaning they construct from their lived experiences (Bogden &
Biklen, 2007). Phenomenology allowed for the accurate interpretation and
description of the meaning of the six women deans’ experiences in sustaining
their leadership roles in a predominantly male field.

The population for this study consisted of six women deans of agriculture in
Land-Grant Institutions. Twenty-five women deans and associate deans were
identified as possible study participants using the 2009 Directory of Deans and
Directors of Academic Programs in Schools and Colleges of Agriculture
(Association of Public and Land-grant Universities, 2009). While the researchers
initially sought to engage women deans from each region of the Continental
United States, women associate deans were asked to participate in regions where
women deans were not accessible in an effort to maintain a representative sample
of women who have all experienced the phenomenon of sustaining their
leadership roles in a male-dominated field. Each dean was assigned a pseudonym

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to protect their identity and ensure the confidentiality of their statements. Heather
and Kelly were interviewed from the northern region; in the southern region,
Maggie was interviewed; Rachel and Laura were interviewed from the eastern
region; and in the western region, Shelley was interviewed.

Gaining Entry

An Institutional Review Board Form B was completed and approval received by

the University of Tennessee Research Compliance Services on April 27, 2009 to
conduct the research. Each perspective participant was contacted by phone and
email to secure authorization to participate in the study. Prior to conducting the
interviews with each individual, an informed consent letter was signed and
collected at the interview.

Data Collection

The methods employed to collect data in this study included one to two hour in-
depth interviews. The researcher’s presence as a participant observer in the
environments of each of the six women deans for two days was also utilized.
During each field visit, the researcher recorded descriptive and reflective notes as
she observed events and interactions in each dean’s daily routine; which included
meetings, workshops, classes, time with family at home. This enabled the
researcher to gain an accurate account of the field as well as maintain the
subjectivity of her understanding of each dean’s experience. In addition, each
dean participated in an audio-taped, semi-structured interview in which the
researcher asked open-ended, non-leading questions (Creswell, 2007). The
interviews focused on revealing the influences and experiences which helped to
develop each woman. The interview protocol asked each participant to describe
her family upbringing, her immediate family, and her road to becoming a dean of
agriculture.

Data Analysis

The in-depth interviews were transcribed and analyzed along with the researcher’s
field notes. The data was examined using several methods, which included
identifying significant statements and elements of meaning; creating textural and
structural descriptions; and recognizing descriptions which revealed
commonalities among the participants’ experiences (Creswell, 2007). Emerging
themes from all data were coded and sorted into specific categories by the
researcher.

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Validation Strategies

Prior to launching the study, the researcher reflected on qualities she possessed
which may impact her relationship with the environment and people in the study.
First, the researcher holds a strong passion for agriculture as she grew up on a
farm and is pursuing a degree in agriculture. The researcher’s strong interest in
this field may result in more focus on the selected women’s impact in agriculture
and how they have achieved their current status. Next, the researcher is female
and possesses moderate feminist beliefs. She takes special interest in the stories of
women who have overcome challenges in fields subjugated by males. This may
influence the interview questions asked of participants pertaining to how they
have achieved and sustained leadership positions in agriculture, a predominantly
male field. Finally, the researcher has developed leadership characteristics and
independence that have enabled her to take on a variety of leadership roles. Prior
to commencing the study, the researcher believed women deans were independent
and have assumed many leadership roles throughout their lives.

In an effort to keep a neutral viewpoint, the researcher reflected on her biases of

the research topic and assumptions of the outcomes of the study prior to and
during the research to maintain as impartial of a position as possible. The
researcher personally reflected on each occasion of contact and communication
with the participants. The researcher also structured the research question and
probing questions in such a way that did not lead or guide the participant’s
responses in a predetermined direction.

In addition to the researcher’s efforts to reduce the impact of bias on the data
collected, several validation strategies were employed to document the “accuracy”
and value of this phenomenological research study. Prolonged engagement in the
field and the triangulation of data sources, methods, and investigators were
techniques used to establish credibility (Creswell, 2007). From the researcher’s
observations, a thick description of each participant and their environment was
constructed to help readers determine the transferability of the research.
Dependability of the study was established through peer review by another
researcher trained in qualitative analysis throughout the research process.
Additionally, member checks of data, analyses, interpretations, and conclusions
were conducted to confirm credibility of the study.

Findings
The results section is divided into four subsections: (a) birth order, (b) family
influences, (c) mentor experiences, and (d) spousal support systems.

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Birth Order

Five of the six women deans in this study were first born children. The sixth dean
was not the chronologically first born child, but was raised as the first born due to
special circumstances. Being the first born child provides opportunities that
younger siblings do not experience such as being a caretaker, taking on
supervisory responsibilities and learning how to provide leadership at a young
age. As stated by one of the deans:

Being the oldest, you become a parent of sorts. You take on care
responsibilities, supervisory responsibilities, and …I think you’re just
looked to fill in when your parents are not around. When mother and dad
were out doing farm chores, I would watch after them. I think that you’re
just looked to sort of step up and fill in for the parents and many times I
think that that’s probably a role that older children take.

In addition to taking on supervisory responsibilities and leadership roles, first

born children also assume parental duties, as note participant stated:

My father was killed when I was a freshman, so I think that there’s

another leadership role I sort of took on to help mother a little bit. You’re
the oldest and you’re the most mature adult anyway that she could talk to
so I just think that older siblings normally have a different kind of
expectation and role than younger children do.

First born children are also subject to strict parental rules and high expectations.
As one dean stated:
My father was the authoritarian, and he was the one that set the bar high,
very demanding, and pushed….he was always one that if I got an A- I’d
be saying, ‘yeah!’ and he’d be saying, ‘Why isn’t it an A?’”

Family Influence

Mothers and fathers of these women played a significant role in their

accomplishment of becoming deans of agriculture. In general, the mothers were
identified as the caregivers and the fathers were the authoritarians of the
household. As expressed by one of the women deans, caregivers and
authoritarians holistically develop individuals:

It was a team, it wasn’t like they were working against one another, it was
always that… my dad showed love in a very different way. I can
remember getting upset sometimes and crying about something that
happened and he would say ‘Okay, that’s enough, just suck it up and lets

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go.’ And my mom would say, ‘Oh, honey, I understand,’ and pat me on
the back. I needed both of these. I needed to hear ‘Suck it up and move
on,’ but I also needed somebody to give me a hug and say, ‘I understand.’
They worked great as a team and so I’m really thankful for that.

While mothers were generally perceived as caregivers and fathers as

authoritarians, each dean had a unique way of describing parents. Therefore,
Table 1 and 2 contain descriptive words used by deans of agriculture about their
mothers and fathers.

Table 1
Descriptive Words Used by Deans of Agriculture about their Mothers
My Mother was/is…
Homemaker Strong Adventurous
Educated Determined Brave
Independent Stubborn Generous
Quiet Traditional Not supportive of career
Bookish Hospitable Nurturing
Practical Completely dependent Disciplinarian
Nuts and Bolts Housewife Strong personality
Decision maker Feminist Creative
Inspiring Extremely involved Organized

Table 2
Descriptive Words Used by Deans of Agriculture about their Fathers

My Father was/is…

Educated Intellectual Motivated

Quiet Analytical Unconventional
Bookish Good Wild
Intelligent Sense of Service Creative
Theoretical Non-emotional Survivor
Cerebral Not accessible Authoritarian
Smart Environmentalist Demanding
Prideful Humorous Handy
Driven Strong
Respectful of Education Supportive of daughter’s education

As described in Table 1 and 2, the qualities of both the mothers and fathers
strongly influenced the women deans’ personalities. Specific characteristics that
were common among all of the deans’ mothers were homemaker, educated,
extremely involved, and nurturing; and, specific characteristics that were common

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among the fathers were educated, driven, supportive of daughter’s education,

authoritarian, and demanding. The women deans largely attribute their self-
assurance and motivation in their advancement to leadership to the support that
both parents provided them growing up:

I think that having the support from my family to do whatever I wanted

was really very important…When I look back across my career, a lot of
the things that I accomplished, you know it wasn’t that I was especially
brave; I just didn’t even acknowledge what the obstacles were. And you
know… I just walked around obstacles because it didn’t dominate my
psyche and I think a lot of that was because of the supportive environment
that I came up in at home.

Mentor Influence

While the deans’ parents played a role in their development as an individual, their
professional advancement was mainly influenced by their mentors. Although not
all of the mentorship experience was positive, all of the women deans advanced
out of malice for or encouragement from their mentors:

I didn’t have good mentors at all. I was told verbally, “Ah, don’t worry
about research, it’s not even important.” That’s what my old department
head told me. Because he was just thinking totally of education, education,
education …and there’s a bigger pond out there than education. But see, I
was so naive… I was so used to outreach, outreach, outreach, service,
service, service. Well, that’s not really right; you need to have some
scholarship. So, I didn’t get that message. And when I went up for full
professor, our new chancellor said ‘Oh no, this person has not had enough
scholarship’ and I was denied the promotion to full professor.

While negative mentoring or lack of mentoring affected some of the women

deans, others experienced positive mentoring which shaped the advancement and
success of their selected profession. As one dean explained:

My major advisor encouraged me to go on for a Ph.D. And I hadn’t really

thought about it. He said, ‘Hey, you can do this, you can do this, you’d
enjoy it, you’d be good at it.’ And he started giving me some leads of
people that I might work with at other universities and I wound up
working with the fella who had served as my advisor’s advisor…it’s the
people who encourage you and, like my decision to go on for a Ph.D.
program, it wasn’t going to happen, but somebody sat down and said hey,
you need to do that, and that’s all it took.

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Spousal Support

The women in this study attribute their success as deans of agriculture to not only
the positive influences of family members and mentors, but also the immense
support they have received from their spouses. The deans’ husbands have non-
academic professions which enable them to carry out household duties and
support these women in their leadership role. As one dean revealed:

I don’t clean the house, I rarely cook, although I’m perfectly capable of it.
A lot of times I leave the house at 7:00 a.m. in the morning and don’t
come back till 8:30 at night, so I’m not going to prepare dinner at 8:30 at
night, so he has to do a lot of those things.” These women realize that their
husbands’ career sacrifices have been essential to their advancement in
academia. “I think having a really supportive husband and a husband who
is portable in his career is hugely positive.” Furthermore, another dean
described her husband’s sacrifice as assuming the role of a stay-at-home
dad. “My husband is a very introspective person, a very artsy kind of
thinker, creative, a very good writer, and published in terms of poetry and
literature. He didn’t work, so he was home with the kids. He is just a big
kid himself, loves life, loves doing things and having fun. When I was out
of town, they would make pancakes and he would flip them up in the air
and they would catch them on their plates and I’d find out when I came
home that the spot on the ceiling was from a pancake hitting the ceiling
when they were tossing it across the room.”

In addition to their complimenting professions, the husbands’ accommodating

personalities are compatible with the driven personalities of their spouses.

We’re really strong partners, really strong partners. He is protective of me,

he’s supportive of me, he doesn’t serve as much of a critic in a sense, but
he is always kind of my touch stone for what’s a good idea, what’s not a
good idea. He’s a critical asset for me. And…it’s interesting, he has no
college background, he has just a very little bit of college, and has worked
in the trade his whole life. That kind of very practical, real, tangible
relationship to the world is actually in some respects very similar to what I
do. I do a lot of building too….and it isn’t necessarily with nails, but its
building and he builds. And he’s built a fabulous business on a business.
We bring very similar kinds of values about the way we do business, a real
commitment to integrity and quality work. Very frequently, people think
dual career couples are two academics…we’re not that way. And I think
it’s been a wonderful balance for the intensity of my life. And the degree
to which academic communities tend to get fairly self-absorbed, often
focused on some fairly small things, he’s always a check on that. The

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politics and who’s more important than who or who’s being recognized.
It’s not very interesting to him…and that’s helpful for me in terms of
keeping my bearings.

Conclusions
Each of these women were essentially first born children which led them to
develop a higher degree of achievement motivation, become linear thinkers, and
establish higher expectations of themselves (Falbo, 1981). As one dean
commented about her dad’s high expectations as motivation to do better, she
described herself as having a “linear and A-type personality.” First born children
also possess a stronger predisposition to leadership than later born children
(Adler, 1970). In addition to being first born children, the influence of parental
qualities has also impacted their success as women deans of agriculture. In a study
of women university presidents, Madsen (2007) found that the mothers provided a
positive role model for their daughters through strong educational backgrounds
and community commitment. The women presidents described their mothers as
loving, committed, and dedicated as well as influential, competent, strong,
intelligent, and fun. Similarly, maternal qualities such as being a homemaker,
educated, extremely involved, and nurturing were identified in this study and
provided the deans with an internal drive to be fully engaged in their institutions.
For example, these women have a sense of urgency to keep faculty, student, and
community relations personable. As noted:

I keep in very close touch with a lot of students. They’ve gone on to really
exciting lives and are contributing in a whole host of ways. And they still
keep in touch which is really meaningful for me now that I’m in a dean
role…because they still ask for advice and I still get to…track their lives
and their contributions, both professional and I get to watch their personal
lives. I get pictures of their kids and their new houses and…stay connected
to them through the jobs they’re taking and what they’re trying to do. It’s
about passion, and it’s about making a difference in the lives of students.
If I took the piece away to make a difference in the lives of students from
my life…my life would not be nearly as fulfilled in terms of my
professional career.

Furthermore, the women presidents in Madsen’s (2007) study associated

characteristics such as respect, strength, high expectations, and protection with
their fathers. Moreover, paternal qualities such as being educated, driven,
supportive of daughter’s education, authoritarian, and demanding motivated these
women deans to achieve higher expectations of themselves, as well as expect
more from faculty and students. As one dean stated:

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Every job I’ve ever taken, that’s been my measure…is this the kind of job
that I could spend the rest of my career doing and feel rewarded and feel
like I’m making a difference and feel like I can contribute in very
meaningful ways? I never want to take a job where I feel like I’m taking
more than I’m giving, I never want to take a job where I don’t have that
passion for what I do, and I never want to take a job that I don’t think I’m
adequately prepared for. It’s always going to be a stretch, you always have
to take a stretch, you always have to take that next step, but you know
inside whether you have the tools, if it’s the right time for that step.

The influences of parental attributes combined with growing up during the baby
boom era helped to shape and influence the development of the women deans.
While the women of their mothers’ generation tended to marry early and leave the
workforce to raise their children and tend to household duties, their daughters
achieved higher academic aspirations and pursued non-traditional career fields for
women (Albers, 1999). The deans in this study obtained degrees in agricultural
and extension education, agricultural engineering, animal science, biology,
horticulture, and entomology. They married later than their mothers and continued
working after having children (Albers, 1999). It also became more acceptable for
women to contribute to the household financially and pursue professional careers,
enabling them to achieve their independence. One dean described the landscape
for women during this transitional time:

Now, during that period of time, there were very few females that sort of
branched out of their sort of pre-determined career fields at the time, and
so for a female to be in agriculture was really not an option. I don’t know
that there were any here to be honest with you… you live in the sort of
social expectations and so that was just sort of the first group of more
females entering into college…working outside the home. More and more
women were working outside the home and taking on professional careers,
so I was just sort of on that edge, that cutting edge of that transition
period.

As compared to Madsen’s (2007) study, these women deans of agriculture had

mentors who recognized their gifts and talents. In addition, they also encouraged
them to pursue advanced degrees and leadership positions. While some of the
mentors were faculty, other mentors were involved in the women’s lives outside
of academics. A participant stated:

I’ve been very fortunate, had great mentors, my dad introduced me to a

life mentor. He was in the livestock industry and had no children. He was
a hard driver, and pushed people…I worked for him and he became a life

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long friend. He was just super and really, really encouraged me outside of
my family because you’re family’s supposed to say good things and your
family’s supposed to encourage you, but to have somebody like that
outside… He became a mentor for me when I was 9 years old and he was
a mentor until he died when I was 47. He was just a champion of people
and I love him and a little piece of him is always inside of me. But that’s
what good mentors do and that’s what I want to do for others, whether it’s
students or my staff or early career faculty, I want them to look back
someday and say, “A little piece of _______ is here,” and that’s what it’s
about, it’s making a difference in the lives of others.

The women deans in this study relied heavily on the support and sacrifices of their
spouses. Woo’s (1985) research supports the notion that spousal support is crucial
to women’s career advancement. Similarly, in this study, the deans’ husbands
facilitated the women’s success by taking on the day to day activities of the home
and children so they could focus on their careers. In addition, spousal
commitment and professional sacrifices of the deans’ husbands provided
opportunities for these women to pursue a leadership role in academia.
Furthermore, the personalities of the deans’ husbands were another contributing
factor to the deans’ success. The husbands assumed the role of the listener and
provided an outlet for work-related frustrations of the women.

Implications
This paper offers important implications for young women in pursuit of
leadership roles in academia. Women with the desire to pursue leadership need to
identify a positive role model and/or mentor to encourage and foster growth in the
academia profession. Without the advice, knowledge, and encouragement of a
mentor, leadership advancement in academia is difficult. Furthermore, women
wanting to pursue leadership roles in academia should examine spousal and
family support in pursuit of their leadership goals. While both spouses may be
successful in academic leadership roles, this study has shown that women who
pursue leadership roles in academia acknowledge they have supportive husbands
who are willing to manage the daily household activities.

Recommendations and Future Research Questions

Based on this study, several research questions have surfaced particularly related
to the husbands’ perceptions of their spouses’ leadership role. Three questions the
researchers feel should be explored are (a) How have husbands of women deans
been impacted by the success of their wives pursuing a leadership role in
academia? (b) How have husbands of women deans perceived their role as non-

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alpha males? and (c) How has the family been impacted by the role of their
spouse or mother?

In addition to exploring the husbands’ perceptions, a follow-up study should be

conducted in five years with these six women deans to (a) identify their leadership
advancement if applicable, (b) determine if mentorship is still a viable component
of their leadership sustainability, and (c) determine whether spousal support
remains an integral part of their success as a leader.

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Author Biographies
Sarah Kleihauer graduated from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville with a
Master’s of Science in Agricultural and Extension Education. Sarah is currently
teaching agricultural education at Wilson Central High School in Lebanon,
Tennessee. Sarah is actively involved in the FFA and the Tennessee Association
of Agricultural Educators.

Carrie Stephens is an Associate Professor in the Agricultural Leadership,

Education and Communications Department at the University of Tennessee. She
is active in the Association of Leadership Educators, American Association of
Agricultural Educators, Tennessee Association of Agricultural Educators, and
American Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. She actively
serves in leadership roles in the Knoxville community. Carrie has published
articles in the Journal of Leadership Education, Journal of Agricultural
Education, North American Colleges and Teachers Association Journal, and co-
authored a book chapter. Carrie enjoys teaching and conducting research in the
areas of teaching, learning, and supervisory leadership.

William E. Hart is an Associate Professor in the Biosystems Engineering and Soil

Science Department at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He is active
member of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. He
has published articles primarily in ASABE Journals, Applied Engineering in
Agriculture and Transactions of the ASABE. He teaches courses in the
Biosystems Engineering Technology curriculum and his areas of research include
machinery systems, agricultural chemical application technology, and precision
agriculture.

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Adolescent Involvement in Extracurricular Activities:

Influences on Leadership Skills

Donna Hancock
Ph.D. Student
Department of Child and Family Development
123 Dawson Hall
University of Georgia
Athens, GA
Dlhanc2@uga.edu

Patricia Hyjer Dyk, Ph.D.

Director of the Center for Leadership Development and Associate Professor
Department of Community and Leadership Development
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY
pdyk@uky.edu

Kenneth Jones, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Community and Leadership Development
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY
Krjone3@email.uky.edu

Abstract
Study examined adolescents’ participation in sports, school, and community
extracurricular activities to assess the influence of different involvement roles and
adult support on leadership skills. The study found that males and females who
perceived their adult support more positively had more positive perceptions of
their leadership skills. Findings suggest adolescents’ perceptions towards their
leadership skills are influenced by extracurricular activity involvement roles and
the support of their parents and other adults. The findings contribute to future
school and community based prevention and intervention programs, suggesting
the importance of adolescent leadership involvement at all grade levels and the
influence of adult support on adolescents’ perception toward their leadership
skills. Educators should consider facilitating youth leadership through
extracurricular activities involving younger high school students. This affords the
opportunity for youth to develop critical skills early and put into practice what

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they learned. We strongly encourage adult involvement in extracurricular

activities.

Introduction
Since leadership has been described as a set of skills and attitudes that can be
learned and practiced (van Linden & Fertman, 1998), it is not surprising that
adolescence is a critical time for leadership development. Through structured in-
school and out-of-school clubs, sports, and community service activities these
young people are exploring their strengths and learning how they can make a
difference. Adolescents who participated in the greatest variety of activities
reported having more leadership opportunities (Gambone & Arbreton, 1997) and
greater voice in the decision making processes that affect their lives (van Linden
& Fertman, 1998).

Review of the Literature

Approximately 83% of adolescents ages 12-17 participate in at least one
extracurricular activity (Moore, Hatcher, Vandivere, & Brown, 2000).
Adolescents often develop their skills and self competencies through participation
in extracurricular activities (Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Mahoney & Stattin, 2006).
Positive developmental experiences that occurred in extracurricular activities
predicted a more positive general self-worth and social and academic self-concept
(Bloomfield & Barber, 2011). This participation has been associated with
increased school engagement, self-concept, and academic achievement (Fredricks
& Eccles, 2006) and less opportunities for time to be spent in unsupervised risky
activities (Eccles & Barber, 1999; Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). These associations
have been found to be stronger when youth are involved in a variety of activities
and have opportunities to assume leadership roles (Eccles & Templeton, 2002).
However, it is evident that participation in multiple types of activities (e.g., band,
sports) has been associated with additional beneficial outcomes for adolescents in
structured settings where adults are present and supportive (Eccles & Barber,
1999; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006; Larson & Verma, 1999).

Adult Support

Leadership and leaders involve social processes; therefore, the interaction

between adults and adolescents in extracurricular activities is important (Van
Linden & Fertman, 1998). The theory of social learning posits that young people
are heavily influenced by their social relationships and interactions with others. In
particular, parents and other adults are important in the socialization process and
influence attitudes and behaviors that are learned and acquired by adolescents

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(Bandura, 1977). Specifically, Van Linden and Fertman (1998) suggest that as
facilitators of leadership development, adults should work with adolescents to
help them understand themselves, communicate more effectively, improve
interpersonal skills, manage their time and work with groups. In extracurricular
activities, partnerships with supportive adults and sustained relationships with
caring adults are more likely to be available to adolescents (Benson & Pittman,
2001). Social relationships adolescents establish with adults are important because
they have protective effects. For instance, adult and youth partnerships enhance
adolescent engagement levels in school and prevent school dropout (Mahoney &
Stattin, 2000). Furthermore, adolescents who participate in extracurricular
activities have greater opportunities to build their leadership skills through
positive, active, and constant support from adults in a mentoring culture (Van
Linden & Fertman, 1998). Adults who are intentional about helping adolescents
succeed can serve as more effective role models, mentors, and motivators
(Englund, Egeland, & Collins, 2008). However, in one study two out of every
three adolescents reported not having positive family communication or a caring
school (Scales & Leffert, 1999). Parental support, defined as parent involvement
in school, has been associated with higher school engagement, higher self-esteem,
greater self-concept, and self-worth in adolescents (Scales et al., 1999).
Adolescents who participate in multiple extracurricular activities in school and
community settings have been found to have greater access to larger social
networks (Benson, 2006; Fredricks et al., 2006). One study found that youth who
participated in a leadership development program within a community-based
context had more positive perceptions of their relationships with adults (Jones,
2009).

Adolescent Involvement

Involvement in extracurricular activities has been associated with a number of

adolescent outcomes. For instance, adolescents involved in school and community
based civic activities reported more religiosity, academic engagement, and
positive perceptions of parents and peers than uninvolved youth (Ludden, 2011).
More specifically, when the types of activities were considered, research found
that adolescents who participated in band, orchestra, chorus, or in a school play or
musical were significantly less likely than non-participants to engage in problem
behaviors such as alcohol consumption or drug use (Zill et al., 1995). In another
study, organized activity participation was associated with higher than expected
grades, school value, self-esteem, resiliency, and prosocial peers, though the
pattern of findings differed by activity context (Fredricks & Eccles, 2008).

Different types of extracurricular activities provide distinct patterns of

experiences. Previous research suggests that involvement in sport activities has
positive (e.g., self esteem) and negative effects (e.g., higher alcohol use) on

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adolescents (Eccles & Barber, 1999). More specifically, in another study,

researchers found that those who participated only in sports had more positive
outcomes compared with those who had little or no involvement in organized
activities, but less positive outcomes compared with those who participated in
sports plus other activities (Linver, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009). When gender
was considered, sports involvement has been found to impact males and females
differently. For example, males who were participants in sports reported higher
rates of alcohol consumption (Eccles et al., 1999; Fredricks & Eccles, 2005);
although in another research study, female participants in sports had more
friendships with higher achieving students (Crosnoe, 2001).

In addition to the type of activity adolescents are involved in, researchers have
also considered the amount of time adolescents spend in extracurricular activities.
The more time adolescents spend in structured extracurricular activities, the less
time they have to become involved in unsupervised activities (Mahoney et al.,
2000). In contrast, however, Marsh (1992) found that excessive extracurricular
activity participation may decrease the time adolescents spend in their academic
studies. The over-scheduling hypothesis (Mahoney, Harris, & Eccles, 2006) posits
that youth who participate in too many extracurricular activities could experience
poor adjustment and stress, spend less time with family, and experience an early
movement into adult roles (Rosenfeld & Wise, 2000). Although over-scheduling
has been found to have negative effects on youth outcomes, other researchers
have found that the benefits of extracurricular activity involvement increased as
the level of participation increased (Mahoney et al., 2006). However, Luthar and
colleagues (2006) found youth were more likely to experience negative effects of
high participation when they perceived their parents were critical of their
engagement or if their parents had no expectations of their performance.

Current Study
There is a lack of research considering the differences among adolescents who
participate at different roles since past research has not specifically focused on
adolescent’s leadership role in extracurricular activities. To add to existing
literature, we will examine how support from individuals in these contexts
influence adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills. In this study, we give
particular attention to parental school support, adult support at school when
examining the participation role (non-participant, participant, or leader) of
adolescents in sport, school, and community extracurricular activities. The central
focus of this investigation was to determine how adolescents’ involvement roles
in extracurricular activities influenced their self-perception of their leadership
skills. The objectives of the study were to:

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• Determine the influences of parental school support and adult support for
school on the development of adolescent’s leadership skills.

• Examine gender differences in adolescent leadership skill development.

• Examine the effects of male and female adolescents’ involvement role

(non participant verses participant; participant verses leader/captain) in
various (sports, community, and school) extracurricular activities on
adolescent’s perceptions of their leadership skills.

Based upon the objectives of the research study and past literature, several
hypotheses have been developed. We hypothesized that adult support would
positively influence how adolescent’s viewed their leadership skills. Secondly, we
hypothesized that the gender differences would be associated with differences in
how youth viewed their leadership skills in various types of extracurricular
activities while serving in different roles.

Although researchers have examined how the role of participation in different

types of extracurricular activities influences adolescent development (Fredricks,
et al., 2006; Eccles & Barber, 1999), this study was conducted to contribute to
existing literature by exploring influences of adult support and extracurricular
activity participation on adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills.
Findings from this study would inform the practice of leadership education by
identifying the effects of different types of adult support on adolescent leadership
skills development. Additionally, the effects of adolescent’s involvement in
extracurricular activities need to be examined so that leadership educators can be
better equipped to more effectively implement leadership skill development
programs for youth. This would aim to better serve those youth who are actively
involved in structured out of school time, as well as those who are less engaged.

Method
At the request of a Superintendent interested in further developing the leadership
capacity of the broad spectrum of high school students in his district, baseline data
were collected from youth in each of his three public high schools. Students who
participated in the survey resided in a suburban area located in northern
Kentucky. Adolescents surveyed ranged from the ages of 13 through 19 in grades
9 through 12. Since every student was enrolled in an English class, two classes
per grade at the general and advanced level were randomly selected. Every effort
was made to provide each student the same opportunity for selection while
stratifying by grade. The sample included 217, 212, and 218 youth from each high
school within the district. This yielded a sample population of 720 in 26 classes,

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of which 697 had parental consent. There was a response rate of 93% since 647
youth assented to participate in this study. Due to stratified sampling strategy,
respondents represented a fairly equal distribution across all grade levels: 149
freshman, 158 sophomores, 181 juniors, and 159 seniors. In the sample, 358 were
female and 289 were males. The sample was predominantly white (92%), which
was representative of the overall student body population. Only about 1.2 % of
the students classified themselves as African-American, 1.4% were Asian, and 5.4
% reported having another racial identity.

Procedure

Although one survey was used to assess students’ perceptions, the items used
were adapted from multiple research instruments, which included the Youth-
Adult Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale survey (Jones & Perkins, 2005),
Search Institute’s Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors survey (1996)
and the 4-H Essential Elements (Kress, 2004). The seventy-four question survey
(Hancock, 2008) was pilot-tested on 60 high-school students in another school
district before being administered at the test site. After the pilot test, reliabilities
for survey constructs were examined in order to assure that measurements were
valid and reliable. Reliabilities from the pilot test include the following: parental
support for school (males α=.644; females α=.732), adult support within schools
(males α=.810; females α=.811), and adolescent’s perception of leadership skills
(males α=.878; females α=.897).

The school superintendent and school board approved the study before
researchers entered into the high schools. Administration of the survey was
conducted over a four-day time period during a 25-minute period in the selected
high-school English classes. Adolescents signed an assent form before taking the
survey. No identifying information was obtained from the students who
completed the survey. For the current study, the following constructs will be
considered: parental support for school, school-based adult support, leadership
skills, and extracurricular activity engagement.

Measures

Questions for the adult support constructs were adapted from the Youth-Adult
Involvement and Interaction Rating Scale survey developed by Jones and Perkins
(2005). Items measuring adolescents’ perceptions of adult support were divided
into two categories which included parental support for school (males α=.657;
females α=.741) and school-based adult support (males α=.820; females α=.822).
The three-item parental support for school subscale included: “My parents always
encourage me to do well in school,” “My parents are interested in my
involvement in school activities” and “My parents participate in activities at my

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school.” The four-item subscale for school adult support included “There are
many caring adults involved in school activities,” “There are many positive adult
role models in my school,” “The adults in my school are good examples of
positive leaders” and “Adults in my school have the ability to motivate youth to
become leaders.” In the analysis, parental support for school and school-based
adult support were measured on an interval scale (1 strongly disagree to 5
strongly agree).

To measure adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills, we asked

adolescents to rank themselves using 13 self-assessment statements; items were
adapted from Search Institute’s Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors
survey (Scales et al., 1999) and 4-H essential elements (Kress, 2004). The mean
score for this construct was 3.86 for females and 3.72 for males. Adolescents’
responses could vary from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These items
included “I can organize a group activity,” “I can identify community resources,”
“I can get others in my school to volunteer,” and “I can work as a team member.”
Reliability and internal consistency of the index was measured using Cronbach’s
Alpha (males α=.889; females α=.915).

Several demographic indicators were used in the study for the purpose of
statistical control and to conduct the analyses based on gender and grade level.
These variables include family structure, grade level, and gender. For the purpose
of this study, family structure was examined by collapsing categories into a
dichotomous variable that included adolescents living with two parents or living
in other living situations (i.e., single parent, grandparents). A binary classification
was used for grade level to compare 9th and 10th grade levels (lower) to 11th and
12th grade levels (upper). A comparison of upper and lower grade levels was
examined because within the high schools, there was an emphasis to encourage
older adolescents to serve in a leadership capacity; however, only six students
from each school in the 11th and 12th grades participated in the school advisory
team and were trained under a core leadership curriculum. After the training
session of the core leadership team, the 11th and 12th grade adolescents held
school-wide workshops to teach students in upper and lower grade levels
leadership principles, so no control groups were examined in this study.

Fourteen items were included in the survey to examine adolescents’ participation

in sport, school, and community extracurricular activities. Sport extracurricular
activities included team sports, individual sports, and other sports. School
extracurricular activities included band, art, vocational, student government
academic team, and other activities. The community extracurricular activity
category included activities such as environmental clubs, 4-H, boy/girl scouts, and
religious groups. The activity-type classification was modeled after past research
studies (Eccles et al., 1999).

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Adolescents’ roles in extracurricular activities were examined by classifying

adolescents as non participants, participants, or a leader/captain for each of the
listed activities. Adolescents’ involvement role in extracurricular activities was
examined in two separate phases. First, these high school students were classified
as non-participants if they did not participate in any extracurricular activities, as
participants if they participated or served as a leader/captain in extracurricular
activities. In the second analysis adolescents who participated in at least one
extracurricular activity in each context (sports, school-related and community-
based) were classified as participants and those who served as a leader/captain in
at least one activity in each context were classified as a leader/captain.

Regression analyses were performed to determine how parental support for

school, school adult support, family structure, grade level, and the role (non-
participant verses participant; participant verses a leader/captain) and type (sport,
school and community) of activities influenced adolescents’ perception of their
leadership skills. A series of models for males and females were examined using
regression analysis.

Results
Correlations for all study variables are presented along with mean scores for
males and females in Table 1. Adolescents’ role in extracurricular activities was
examined in two different ways. First, regression equations (Table 2 & 3) were
run to compare adolescents who were non-participants (those who did not
participate in any extracurricular activities) to those who served as participants
(those who participated or served as a leader/captain in extracurricular activities).
Secondly, regression analyses (Table 4 & 5) were also utilized to compare those
males and females who were only participants within extracurricular activities to
those who served as a leader or captain in one or more extracurricular activities.
Independent variables included parental support, school adult support, family
structure, grade level, type of activity (sport, school and community), and role in
activity (non-participant verses participant; participant verses leader/captain).

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 Table 1
Correlation Matrix for Study Variables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Mean SD Mean SD
Female Males

1. Parental Support - .34† .16† -.02 .28† .14* .39† .46† 3.7 .88 3.68 .78

2. School Adult Support .45† - .09 .00 .08 .18† .13† .34† 3.7 .71 3.56 .76
Journal of Leadership Education

3. Family Structure .14* .17† - .07 .05 .02 .04 .07 .75 .43 .69 .46

4. Grade Level - .10* -.04 - .22† .12 -.01 .13† 2.5 1.09 2.56 1.10
.18†

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5. School Extracurricular .17† .09 -.11 .17† - .45† .41† .42† 2.2 .26 2.13 .17
Activities
6. Community .09 .17* .04 -.03 .26† - .14† .22† .08 .27 .03 .18

7. Sport Extracurricular .26† .12* .02 -.10 .11 .14† - .31† 2.4 .46 2.35 .40
Activities
8. Leadership Stills .40† .41† -.03 .15† .26† .18† .24† - 51.61 8.51 50.51 7.87

NOTE: Correlation coefficients for Females above diagonal; Correlation coefficients for Males below diagonal
Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012
Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

This series of analyses examined sport, school, and community extracurricular

activities. Tables 2 and 3 below describe the regression equation that shows the
significant predictors of adolescents’ perceptions towards their leadership skills
for males and females who were involved in sport, school, and community
extracurricular activities. The equation also included a comparative analysis
between participants and non participants in these extracurricular activities.

As indicated in Tables 2 and 3, parental support for school and school adult
support were significantly associated with male and female adolescents’
perceptions toward their leadership skills in sport, school, and community
activities. Analysis of grade level indicated that males and females in upper grade
levels had more positive perceptions of their leadership skills than did younger
adolescents. Participation in school and community extracurricular activities
significantly predicted the outcomes of adolescents’ perception towards their
leadership skills for both males and females. However, female participants in
sports significantly viewed their leadership skills more positively than did non
participants.

Next, the models from the previous regressions were replicated focusing on
similar comparisons as in Tables 2 and 3, but also investigating the influence of
participant and leader/captain involvement roles. Significant predictors of
adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills that are based upon different
types of extracurricular activities are reported in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 2
Standardized Regression Coefficients for Adolescents’ Perceptions of Leadership
Skills by Type of Extracurricular Activity Comparing Participants and Non
Participants for Males
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Sport School Community
β (SE) β (SE) β (SE)
Independent Variables
Parental Support .305*** (.636) .305*** (.591) .300*** (.593)
School Adult Support .271*** (.617) .272*** (.592) .271*** (.592)
Family Structure -.102 (.920) -.085 (.054) -.124 (.873)
Grade Level .131** (.867) .108** (.889) .112** (.820)
Participant .055 (.552) .154*** (.829) .175** (.672)
Constant 29.61** 2.408 29.29** 2.299 29.84** 2.303
2 .255 .274 .281
Adjusted R
N 289
Note: * p< .05; **p<.01; *** p< .001

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Table 3
Standardized Regression Coefficients for Adolescents’ Perceptions of Leadership
Skills by Type of Extracurricular Activity Comparing Participants and Non
Participants for Females

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Sport School Community
β (SE) β (SE) β (SE)
Independent Variables
Parental Support .359 *** (.532) .308 *** (.503) .380 *** (.494)
School Adult Support .210 *** (.608) .217 *** (.583) .198 *** (.595)
Family Structure -.007 (.928) -.019 (.890) -.028 (.909)
Grade Level .130 ** (.817) .070 (.782) .106 ** (.795)
Participant .125 * (.455) .270*** (.306) .137*** (.584)
Constant 27.160 2.423 28.065 2.316 27.474 2.369
Adjusted R2 .28 .32 .29
N 358
Note: * p< .05; **p<.01; *** p< .001

Table 4
Standardized Regression Coefficients for Adolescents’ Perceptions of Leadership
Skills by Type of Extracurricular Activity Comparing Leaders and Participants for
Males

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Sport School Community
β (SE) β (SE) β (SE)
Independent Variables
Parental Support .308 *** (.613) .315*** (.590) .326 *** (.589)
School Adult Support .268 *** (.608) .270 *** (.595) .279 *** (.596)
Family Structure -.103 (.915) -.090 (.891) -.116 (.879)
Grade Level .130 ** (.860) .121* (.827) .101 ** (.827)
Leader .104 * (.870) .131* (.408) .147*** (.584)
Constant 29.64 2.394 27.566 2.375 29.186 2.315
Adjusted R2 .25 .29 .27
N 147
Note: * p< .05; **p<.01; *** p< .001

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Table 5
Standardized Regression Coefficients for Adolescents’ Perceptions of Leadership
Skills by Type of Extracurricular Activity Comparing Leaders and Participants for
Females

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Sport School Community
β (SE) β (SE) β (SE)
Independent Variables
Parental Support .375 *** (.532) .353 *** (.506) .398 *** (.488)
School Adult Support .219 *** (.608) .206 *** (.598) .198 *** (.597)
Family Structure -.011 (.928) -.021 (.916) -.022 (.912)
Grade Level .098 (.817) .117* (.791) .108 ** (.798)
Leader .108 * (.455) .169*** (.373) .117** (.584)
Constant 27.22 2.434 27.566 2.376 27.373 2.375
Adjusted R2 .28 .29 .29
N 187
Note: * p< .05; **p<.01; *** p< .001

In the regression equations in Tables 4 and 5, we found that parental support and
school adult support was a significant predictor of adolescents’ perception of their
leadership skills for males and females. Grade level of adolescents was a
significant predictor of adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills for those
in upper-grade levels except for males who were leaders in sports. Regression
analyses of extracurricular sport activities indicated that those who were serving
as a leader/captain in more than one sport activity significantly reported having
more positive perceptions of their leadership skills. Interestingly, when
participants were compared to leaders, males and females who reported
themselves as leaders had more positive perceptions towards their leadership
skills than participants regardless of what type of activity they were involved in.

Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to extend the literature by examining the influence
of school based adult support, parental school support, and involvement roles on
adolescents’ perceptions of their leadership skills. Findings from this study extend
prior research by examining the differences in adolescents’ perceptions toward
their leadership skills based upon their involvement level in sport, school, and
community extracurricular activities. Consistent with the social learning theory,
our findings suggest that adults in the home and school environment can
significantly influence how adolescents’ view their leadership skills. Similar to
past research, our study findings indicated that parental support was a significant
predictor of adolescents’ perception toward their leadership skills in sport, school,

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

and community extracurricular activities for those who were participants or

served as a leader/captain in these activities.

Recent studies have shown that adolescents who participate in extracurricular

activities have greater opportunities to build their leadership skills through
positive, active, and constant support from adults in a mentoring culture (Van
Linden & Fertman, 1998). Further, researchers suggest that mentoring should be
formalized, using best practices, while supporting informal mentoring through
education and training (Inzer & Crawford, 2005). Our research findings indicate
that extracurricular activity involvement roles influence adolescents’ perceptions
of their leadership skills. These findings suggest that youth may benefit from
more involved leadership roles, such as an official position.

Leadership educators should consider the effects of adolescents’ embeddedness

within their family, school, and community on perceptions toward their leadership
skills when developing leadership opportunities for youth. For instance,
leadership development efforts in extracurricular activities should encourage
youth-adult partnerships across multiple contexts to facilitate leadership skill
development among adolescents. Leadership educators should also incorporate
youth-driven activities within student organizations and community projects,
offering students an active role in developing their own leadership capacity.

This study examined adolescents’ perception of their leadership skills based on

gender differences since previous findings from research that examine sport
involvement of males and females were mixed. Gender differences in social
competencies and positive values are common among youth (Leffert et al., 1998).
Interestingly, the current research findings suggest that females in sport activities
had significantly more positive perceptions of their leadership skills than males.
Further, our research findings suggest that participation in sport extracurricular
activities is more likely to influence the perception of leadership skills among
female adolescents who serve in leadership roles than males. Further research is
needed to examine gender differences in the influence of particular extracurricular
activities on adolescent leadership skills. Adults working with youth in sports
should especially focus on providing males with leadership development
opportunities. This could be achieved by creating more leadership roles on
athletic teams in addition to team captain.

Although the current study extends past research, there were several limitations in
the current study. Adolescents’ participation roles in extracurricular activity were
reported for the current school year only and were not assessed over time.
Although adolescents were told to report their involvement in extracurricular
activities for the current school year, some students may have overestimated or
underestimated their participation levels. Future studies should use aggregate

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indices to measure and analyze activity involvement and roles instead of focusing
on individual activity. Further, this study did not examine the frequency of
activity involvement, the length of time spent in the participation role, the tasks
adolescents completed in their participation role, and adolescents’ motivations for
participating or not participating in extracurricular activities. Future research
should consider collecting data to capture these dimensions of extracurricular
activity involvement. In this cross sectional study, self-reported data was collected
from adolescents on how they perceive their leadership skills. Future research
should collect longitudinal and multi-informant data from adults and parents
instead of relying on adolescents’ reports to determine levels of school support
among adults. Collecting data from parents and teachers would provide
researchers with an enhanced idea of adult levels of support. Future studies should
also collect data from other school districts with more diverse student populations.
The same findings may vary if the sample included ethnically diverse adolescents
from urban areas.

Implications
Based upon findings from this study, adolescents should be encouraged to become
involved in extracurricular activities and explore their individual potential as
leaders. This study revealed that youth perceptions of their leadership skills are
influenced by parents and other adults; therefore, leadership educators need to
find ways, such as youth-adult partnerships, to involve parents and other adults in
extracurricular activities. Our findings indicate that youth at higher grade levels
reported higher perceived leadership skills than lower grade levels; therefore,
recommendations include more involvement in youth/adult mentoring
opportunities for younger students that focus on building leadership skills.
Moreover, it is important that leadership educators can facilitate leadership skill
development by providing youth with opportunities to practice their leadership
skills in a safe environment with supportive adults. Giving adolescents a voice in
decision making processes is one way that leadership educators can facilitate the
development of adolescent leadership skills. Adults who interact with adolescents
should continue to support and encourage them to become engaged in school and
community contexts and remain active throughout their adolescent years and in to
adulthood. Based upon these conclusions, further research is warranted to
examine the continuing influence of adult support on adolescents’ perceptions of
their leadership skills.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

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Kress, C. (2004). Essential elements of 4-H youth development.

Available online: http://www.national4-H
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Larson, R. W., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend time
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Leffert, N., Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Sharma, A. R., Drake. D. R., & Blyth, D.
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Linver, M. R., Roth, J. L., & Brooks, G. J. (1999). Patterns of adolescents’

participation in organized activities: Are sports best when combined with
other activities? Developmental Psychology, 45, 354-367.

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Ludden, A. B. (2011). Engagement in school and community civic activities

among rural adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1254-
1270.

Luthar, S. S., & Shoum, K. A., (2006). Extracurricular involvement among

affluent youth: A scapegoat for “ubiquitous achievement pressures?”
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Mahoney, J. L, Harris, A. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Organized activity

participation, positive youth development, and the over-scheduling
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Author Biographies
Donna Hancock is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Child and Family
Development at the University of Georgia. Her research interests include
examining the predictors and consequences of parenting behaviors and
adolescent/emerging adult outcomes. In addition, she also examines the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors among adolescents and
emerging adults. Currently, Donna is a Research Assistant at the University of
Georgia.

Dr. Patricia Dyk is an Associate Professor in the Department of Community and

Leadership Development at the University of Kentucky. She is also the Director
of the Center for Leadership Development. Her research work focuses on the
social and economic well-being of families and children in the community and
policy contexts, with particular interest in low-income rural families.

Dr. Kenneth Jones is an associate professor in the Department of Community and

Leadership Development at the University of Kentucky. His research interests
include assessing youth-adult relationships within community contexts,
understanding the role of youth-adult partnerships in nurturing youth leadership,
positive youth development, and theoretical approaches to community
development initiatives. Kenneth has worked in various areas from program
development at the community level to research and evaluation of youth civic
engagement, youth-adult relationships and other issues affecting community-
based programs. Dr. Jones is also the Director of the Program and Staff
Development unit for the University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service.
In this role his duties include providing statewide direction for program
development and evaluation and training of county-based and state-level
Cooperative Extension staff and faculty.

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What Managerial Leadership Behaviors do Student

Managerial Leaders Need? An Empirical Study of
Student Organizational Members

Tim O. Peterson, Ph.D.

Associate Dean and Professor
College of Business
North Dakota State University
P. O. Box 6050
Fargo, ND 58108-6050
Tim.O.Peterson@ndsu.edu

Claudette M. Peterson, Ed.D.

Assistant Professor
School of Education
North Dakota State University
P. O. Box 6050
Fargo, ND 58108-6050
Claudette.Peterson@ndsu.edu

Abstract
Student leadership is a buzzword on most university campuses. However, recent
research indicates that the leadership learning assumed to be taking place may not
have happened at the depth currently believed. One explanation is that, as
management education and development scholars, we are not clear on what
leadership skills these student leaders require. This manuscript identifies the
critical managerial leadership behaviors these student leaders need to successfully
move their student organizations forward. It is based on empirical data from
student members of the very organizations the student leader is trying to
influence.

Introduction and Background

Student leadership is a buzzword on most university campuses in both curricular
and co-curricular settings. Many business schools declare in their mission
statements that they are developing leaders, ethical leaders, or business leaders
(Texas A&M University, 2010; Rutgers University, 2010; Pepperdine University,
2010). Leadership scholars have published journal articles (Eich, 2008) and books
claiming that leadership can be taught (Northouse, 2010; Parks, 2005). Several
books have recently been published that focus specifically on student leadership

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(Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007; Kouzes & Posner, 2008; Roberts, 2007;
Shankman & Allen, 2008).

Student affairs offices declare that students who participate in student

organizations are developing leadership abilities – or at least getting leadership
experience. There is a whole industry that caters to student leadership
development programs such as Leadershape (2010), LeadAmerica (2010), and
Dance Floor Theory (Swift Kick, 2010). However, a tendency to slap the label
leadership on programs not grounded in leadership theory or leadership
development exists (Boyd, 2011).

Kelling and Hoover (2005) posit that students can develop leadership capacity
within student-based clubs and organizations. However, Roberts (2007) indicates
that recent research demonstrates that the leadership learning that was assumed to
be taking place in student organizations may not have been happening at the level
believed. The real question is: What do these student leaders really need to learn
so that they can lead while in college and also lead in the future when they enter
the workforce?

This paper will first develop the literature around the topic of managerial
leadership, describe the methodology used to conduct this empirical study, then
present the results followed by a discussion of the findings. This paper will
conclude with limitations and future research on this topic.

Literature Review
It is important to differentiate between a leader and a manager. A manager has an
official position within an organization while a leader does not necessarily hold an
official position (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). A manager, by holding an official
position within the organization, becomes accountable to achieve the
organization’s objectives; that individual also receives from the organization
specific capacities to influence that are reserved for managers (Peterson & Van
Fleet, 2008). On the other hand, a person who does not hold an official position
within the organization can still influence members of the organization and by so
doing influence the direction of the organization. In order to do this, the person
must use personal capacities to influence, since that individual does not have
organizational capacities. This is leadership in its purest sense. In summary, a
person can be a manager without being a leader. Conversely, a person who is not
a manager and has no official power can exhibit leadership. It is also possible to
be a manager and exhibit both managerial behavior and leadership behavior; an
individual who does this is called a managerial leader.

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When students who hold an official role in a student organization are discussed on
a university campus they are almost always referred to as student leaders rather
than student managers. However, they must both manage and lead to be
successful in advancing their student organizations toward their objectives. If the
only thing they are taught is leadership they are sure to fail, just as they would fail
if the only thing they were taught was management. It would be more accurate to
describe these students as student managerial leaders. That is, students who hold
official positions within the organization, have decision making authority over
resources, and are held accountable for the organization’s objectives must
function as managers but still attempt to influence the behaviors of the members
through establishing a compelling purpose, being credible, exhibiting expertise,
and holding the members and themselves accountable to the values and guiding
principles of the organization (Peterson & Van Fleet, 2008). This led to the
research question that drove this research: What managerial leadership behaviors
are essential for student managerial leaders?

All student leaders are assigned responsibility for achievement of the student
organization’s objectives through the ethical, effective, and efficient use of the
organization’s resources. This cannot be done with only leadership abilities. It
also requires managerial abilities. In this study, student managerial leaders are
students who (a) hold official positions in a student organization, (b) have
legitimate authority such that they have decision-making power over student
organizational resources, (c) are held accountable for achieving the student
organization’s objectives by student organizational advisors or at least the
university, and (d) they attempt to influence others through leadership behaviors.
Therefore, these individuals are both managers and leaders. While Katz (1955)
argued that different levels of managerial leaders need different amounts of three
broad skills (i.e., technical, human, and conceptual), in this study we do not make
this distinction. Future research might examine this issue once we have identified
the critical managerial leader behaviors desired in student organizations.

Leadership research has been conducted in a variety of contexts. “Military and

civil organizations alike have long realized the importance of leadership
development in achieving greater overall organizational productivity” (Fine,
2007, p. 66). Boyd (2011) states “there is a need for leadership
education/development programs at every level of society, from youth to business
executives” (¶ 9). However, often what is defined as leadership development is
really managerial development. It is important that leadership educators are clear
about the managerial leadership development taking place since managerial
behaviors only work in specific situations and other situations require leadership
behaviors.

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Yukl and Van Fleet (1982) conducted the seminal piece of research that focused
specifically on managerial leadership behaviors. They collected their data from
the perspective of the subordinates serving in the military. The findings
determined that, no matter what the situation, subordinates reported that they
wanted their managerial leaders to exhibit the following behaviors: performance
emphasis, inspiration, and role clarification (Van Fleet & Yukl, 1986). In specific
situations such as a crisis or day-to-day operations the subordinates want their
managerial leaders to exhibit additional context-specific behaviors but that is in
addition to the three behaviors listed above. These findings, while valuable, also
have some significant limitations. As Baruch (1998) points out, it is a limitation
that these findings were collected in a military environment. Since this earlier
study, Peterson and Van Fleet have extended this work to for-profit organizations
(2003), to not-for-profit organizations (2008), and to information technology
professionals (Peterson, Brewster, Beard, & Van Fleet, 2005). In every study
there is a critical set of managerial leadership behaviors that is identified
regardless of the situational factors. This study extends the research stream by
surveying members of student organizations to identify which behaviors are
desired in student managerial leaders.

Methodology
Participants

The participants were 720 student constituents from 41 different student

organizations on a large southwest university campus. They were recruited by
convenience sampling (Creswell, 2005; Gay & Airasian, 2000). In this case, the
surveys were distributed by students in an undergraduate leadership class.
Students enrolled in the leadership class were each asked to distribute 25 copies
of the survey to members of the student organization(s) in which they
participated. Students who were members of the leadership class did not complete
a survey themselves but rather had other members of the student organization
complete the surveys. None of the participants who responded to the survey were
officers in the student organization nor did they hold any other formal position
within the organization. Each participants was asked to complete a one-page
questionnaire on the topic of managerial leadership and then to answer a few
demographic questions. No extra credit was extended to these participants for
their involvement in the study. The completed surveys were returned to the
instructor and the data was used in class to inform the students within the class on
the critical managerial leadership behaviors desired by organizational student
constituents.

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Instrument

This study used the Managerial Leadership Instrument (MLI) was based on an
earlier instrument, the Management Practices Survey (MPS). The MPS was
developed by Yukl and Nemeroff (1979) and Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990). It
used a Likert scale to identify important managerial leadership behaviors. A
thorough review of the literature since that time uncovered four additional
managerial leadership behaviors that had not been included in the MPS. These
four behaviors were included in the MLI and tested by Peterson and Van Fleet
(2005). In that study all four behaviors were identified by subjects as being
important behaviors for MLI. The MLI includes a total of 25 managerial
behaviors. Validity and reliability for the MLI were reported in an earlier work
(Peterson & Van Fleet, 2003). The MLI has been used in several studies in
various organizational contexts: for-profit (Peterson, Brewster, Beard & Van
Fleet, 2005; Peterson & Van Fleet, 2003), not-for-profit (Peterson & Van Fleet,
2008), and military (Yukl & Van Fleet, 1982) studies.

The paper-based MLI used in this study was printed on both sides of a single
page. The front of the page listed the 25 managerial leadership behaviors. It did
not use a Likert scale. The instructions at the top of the page acknowledged that
all of the behaviors listed here were important in some way to achieve the
organization’s purpose. The participants were then instructed to mark 10 of the 25
behaviors (40%) that they believed to be critical for the student organization to
achieve its purpose. They were not asked to rank order the behaviors by perceived
importance. This is consistent with Kouzes and Posner’s (2010) method of
collecting data for their three-decade study on credibility. The back of the
document asked for demographic information such as age, gender, class year,
academic major, and the student organization in which they were a member. A
copy of the instrument can be obtained from the first author.

Data Analysis

The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS. After the data set was created,
it was checked for errors. Next, consistent with Tukey’s (1977) advice to get to
know your data, we produced a series of descriptive and exploratory data analyses
to examine the data. We used SPSS’s Explore function to determine outliers,
unusual values, and peculiarities in the data set. Each finding was traced back to
the original questionnaire and was corrected before any further analysis was done.

After the exploratory examination, we used the SPSS Frequencies tool under
Descriptive Statistics to first examine the frequency of selection for each of the
managerial leadership behaviors. Next, we used the inference about a proportion
as presented in Ott (1984) to identify the critical managerial leadership behaviors.

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Results
The mean age of the participants was 20 years with a range from 17 to 29 years of
age. Thirty-three percent of the sample was male and 67% female. This is
consistent with the current enrollment pattern at this specific university. Twenty-
four percent of the subjects were freshmen, 29% were sophomores, 28% were
juniors, 18% seniors, and 1% fifth-year seniors. Students representing 91 different
majors and 41 different student organizations took part in the study.

Frequency scores for each managerial leadership behavior are reported in Table 1.
The table contains only abbreviated descriptions of the behavioral statements
which are depicted in bold type within the instrument itself. For example, the first
entry in Table 1 names builds trust (is credible) as the managerial leadership
behavior; the entire phrase is “Student leader has a presence about him or her that
builds trust, commands attention, is authentic, and credible.” The behaviors are
listed in the order of descending frequency. The table shows that there are positive
values in all cells. This result supports the contention that all of the managerial
leadership behaviors are important to at least some of the participants. If the
subjects felt all of the behaviors were equally important, we would have found the
same number of marks by each behavior [(720 subjects X 10 marks per
subject)/25 behaviors=288 marks by each behavior]. Examination of Table 1
shows that this is not true. Therefore, some managerial leadership behaviors are
believed to be critical by more participants than are others.

The next step was to identify the critical few from the important many managerial
leadership behaviors. We did this by calculating an upper confidence coefficient
equal to three standard deviations using Ott’s (1984) formula for determining
confidence coefficients for proportions. All subjects were asked to select (but not
rank order) 10 of the 25 behaviors on the MLI (40%). We then calculated the upper
confidence coefficient representing the 95% confidence area. The test value (.40 + (3
x .018)) was calculated at 45.5%. In the Kouzes and Posner (1993) original credibility
study, they focused on the personal traits and characteristics that were identified as
crucial by more than 50% of the responding managers. To ensure that we were
conservative in our identification of critical behaviors, we rounded the calculated
percentage of 45.5% value to 50%. Therefore, all frequency percent values that are
equal to or exceed 50% are considered critical. Those critical managerial leadership
behaviors that meet this criterion are highlighted in Table 1.

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Table 1: Prevalence of Managerial Leadership Behaviors (N = 720)

Behavior n %
Builds trust (is credible) 545 75.7
Takes the initiative (solves problems) 455 63.2
Is friendly and considerate 452 62.8
Builds team 447 62.1
Stimulates enthusiasm (inspires) 423 58.8
Delegates authority 383 53.2
Informs about responsibilities 376 52.2
Keeps employees informed 362 50.3
Creates a clear and compelling direction 348 48.3
Provides praise and recognition 328 45.6
Emphasizes performance 309 42.9
Gets employees to be friendly with each other 279 38.8
Emphasizes goals 266 36.9
Plans 256 35.6
Coordinates the work 247 34.3
Establishes contacts 243 33.8
Consults employees 232 32.2
Disciplines 224 31.1
Measures progress 223 31.0
Rewards performance (motivates) 210 29.2
Restrains employees from arguing 151 21.0
Obtains resources 138 19.2
Determines training needs 122 16.9
Eliminates obstacles 106 14.7
Identifies and enforces the norms 72 10.0
Note. The bolded entries identify behaviors that were judged to be critical managerial leadership
behaviors. The word(s) in parentheses is the more common way of expressing this behavior.

Discussion
Eight of the 25 managerial leadership behaviors in the instrument were identified
as critical by participants in this study. The behavior identified most often as
critical by study participants (75.7%) is shown in the tables as builds trust, is
credible. The extended behavioral statement is “Student leader has a presence
about him or her that builds trust, commands attention, is authentic, and credible.”
This is supported by the extensive leadership research done by Kouzes and Posner
who claim that “credibility is the foundation of leadership” (2002, p. 32). Being
credible makes the student managerial leader a believable source of information.

One characteristic that Kouzes and Posner’s research (2002) identifies as

necessary to establish credibility is honesty. This is consistent with Martin’s

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(2010) interviews with top executives and Kelling and Hoover (2005) findings
from student collegiate clubs and organizations in the Ukraine. When they were
asked what makes a leader credible, heading the list was honesty and integrity.
Keyton and Smith (2009) cite several sources identifying trust as a necessary
characteristic of managers in order for an organization to be effective. Scandura
and Pellegrini (2008) agree that trust is necessary in a supervisor-subordinate
relationship in order to have high quality work outcomes.

The managerial leadership behavior labeled in the tables as stimulates enthusiasm,

inspires was identified as critical by 58.8% of study participants. The extended
behavioral statement is “Student leader stimulates enthusiasm among
organizational members for the work and builds members confidence in their
ability to perform assignments successfully.” The behavior definition stimulates
enthusiasm is related to the abstract concept of inspiration. This supports the
findings of Kouzes and Posner (1993) who also found that inspiration is what
constituents want from their leaders. It was not surprising that these two sets of
behaviors related to credibility and inspiration were identified as critical. After
surveying 25,000 people on three different occasions Kouzes and Posner (2002)
found that 64% of respondents identified inspiration as one of the critical
characteristics that established a leader’s credibility. While inspiration
consistently appears as a critical aspect of managerial leadership, very little
empirical research has been done on this topic.

Another managerial leadership behavior identified as critical by 62.8% of

participants in the current study is shown in the tables as is friendly and
considerate. The extended behavioral statement is “Student leader is friendly,
supportive, and considerate in his or her behavior toward organizational members
and tried to be fair and objective.” This is consistent with the findings of Yukl,
Gordon, and Taber (2002) which again confirm the importance of consideration.
It is interesting to note that consideration is one of the first two leadership
behaviors identified as far back as the 1950s in the Ohio State Studies. Halpin
(1957) identified this as a primary behavior of Air Force officers, and Fleishman
(1957) identified it as a primary behavior of supervisors in for-profit
organizations. The implication for the student managerial leader is that student
members of their organization want to be treated supportively and fairly. They
want a managerial leader who is friendly and is concerned about them. If student
managerial leaders exhibit this type of behavior they build up an emotional bank
account for the crisis moments when they may not have as much time to focus on
relationships with the student members.

The managerial leadership behavior identified as critical by 63.2% of participants

was takes initiative (solves problems). The extended behavioral statement is
“Student leader takes the initiative in proposing solutions to serious work-related

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problems and acts decisively to deal with such problems when a prompt solution
is needed.”

This may seem contradictory since 53.2% of participants identified delegates

authority as a critical behavior of student managerial leaders. The extended
behavioral statement for this behavior is “Student leader delegates authority and
responsibility to organizational members and allows them to determine how to do
their work.”

This is not necessarily contradictory, because it appears that the type of problems
they want their student managerial leaders to solve are usually the complex,
ambiguous, unstructured, and knotty problems that are unexpected and require
quick resolution (Weick, 2002). When these types of problems arise a crisis can
occur. Crises call for both strong cognitive ability and a strong will to act since
there are irreversible losses on the line. Under these circumstances, student
constituents are anxious and want their managerial leaders to take initiative and
act decisively. Weiss (2002) reports that the most important behavior in regulating
this anxiety is a clear-thinking leader.

Mitroff (1998) and Heifetz (1994) have both found that those managerial leaders
who can challenge us to face problems, formulate solutions, and inspire us to
learn new ways are what people are looking for in a crisis situation. However, in a
non-crisis situation, organizational members want to have the opportunity to do
the work and learn to solve more routine problems. The implication for the
student managerial leader is that the ability to solve problems needs to be
developed in themselves and in subordinate organizational members.

As part of learning how to solve problems, student managerial leaders need to

also learn how to inform organizational members about their responsibilities in
implementing the solution to the problem and how to keep organizational
members informed about progress toward completion. These are two additional
managerial leadership behaviors identified as critical by the subjects in this study.
Both these behaviors relate to communication; the first (informs about
responsibilities) focuses on communication within the student organization while
the second (keeps organizational members informed) requires effective
communication between the managerial leader, the organization members, other
organizations, and school administration.

The behavior listed in the tables as informs about responsibilities was identified
by 52.2% of study participants as a critical behavior. The extended behavioral
statement is “Student leader informs organizational members about their duties
and responsibilities, specifies the rules and policies that must be observed, and
lets members know what is expected of them.” As Bennis and Goldsmith (1994)

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posit, informing organizational members about their responsibilities is how

leaders translate their purpose into actions. Yukl and Van Fleet (1982) call it role
clarification. Kouzes and Posner (2008) argue that it is the first step in helping
others to act.

The behavior listed as keeps organizational members informed was identified by

50.3% of participants as a critical behavior. The extended behavioral statement is
“Student leader keeps organizational members informed about developments that
affect their work, including events in other student organizations or outside the
organization, and decisions made by higher administration.” Just as people need
to know what is expected of them as described above, they also need feedback on
the organizational objectives and the progress being made. Organizational
member also need to be kept informed on external forces that could affect their
efforts. The leader so often acts as a liaison to the external stakeholders of the
organization while organization members focus on the immediate tasks at hand.
Therefore, it is important for the leader to remember to share this information
with the members of the organization.

The managerial leadership behavior identified as critical by study participants

(62.1%) is shown in the tables as builds team. The extended behavioral statement
is “Student leader builds and maintains a strong effective team that recognizes the
importance of shared purpose and mutual accountability.” In classroom settings
and student organizations, the word team is often used indiscriminately when
perhaps the word group would be more accurate. The definition of team used in
this situation is that of Katzenbach and Smith (1993) that for a group of people to
come together and form a team they had to have a clear performance challenge
that was translated into a shared purpose.

Without the other critical behaviors, effective teamwork will not occur. For
example the student managerial leader must be credible in order to bring a
compelling purpose to the members and to inspire them to coalesce into an
effective team. The ability to translate the shared purpose into individual team
member responsibilities and the ability to provide feedback and information to the
team members assists in holding the team together. It is not surprising that
Katzenbach and Smith (1993) found that interpersonal skill is one of the key
competencies required in a team. Anderson (2002) argues that managerial leaders
must be proactive and build their team before a crisis occurs. The team cannot be
built during a crisis; it must be built during the stable times and then maintained
during the crisis.

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Implications
There is a clear implication in this study for management and leadership
educators. Table 2 shows the eight managerial leadership behaviors identified by
student constituents as critical from the 25 behaviors listed in the study. Columns
two, three, and four show whether these same managerial leadership behaviors
were identified in the for-profit (Peterson, Brewster, Beard, & Van Fleet, 2005;
Peterson & Van Fleet, 2003), the not-for-profit (Peterson & Van Fleet, 2008), and
the military (Yukl & Van Fleet, 1982) studies.

Table 2
Managerial Behaviors of Critical Importance - Comparison of Results of Four
Studies

Managerial Leadership Behavior Current For-Profit Not-For- Military

Study Study Profit Study
Study

Builds trust (is credible) X X X N/A

Takes initiative (solves X X X X
problems)
Is friendly and considerate X X X X
Builds team X X X N/A
Stimulates enthusiasm (inspires) X X X X
Delegates authority X X - -
Informs about responsibilities X X X X
Keeps employees informed X X X -

Note. N/A notation indicates that managerial behaviors Builds teams and Builds
trust (Is credible) were only identified after the military study was conducted.

It may seem strange to readers that building teams and is credible are not listed as
managerial leadership behaviors identified by subordinates in the military setting.
In fact, those are new managerial leadership behaviors that have been identified
since the military study was conducted and included in the later research. If this
study were repeated today with those two behaviors included as options, it is
difficult to imagine that military members would not want their leaders to exhibit
both team-building behavior and credibility, but that is a topic for future research.
Vogelaar (2007) notes that since the Cold War changes in the military
environment have led to the need for changes in leadership styles. Since it has
been almost three decades since the original research by Yukl and Van Fleet

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(1982), perhaps it is time to replicate the original study with the additional
managerial leadership behaviors included in the instrument.

However, the implication in the present study for management and leadership
educators is very real. If we teach the eight managerial leader behaviors identified
in Table 2 to our student managerial leaders in the classroom and allow them to
practice these behaviors in their student organizations, it would pay dividends for
these students when they enter the workforce, whether that is in the for-profit,
not-for-profit, or military sector. This is an important implication of this study.

A variety of leadership development courses could be developed around these

eight behaviors. For example a freshmen/sophomore course for aspiring student
managerial leaders could be developed to introduce and practice the eight critical
behaviors identified in Table 2. The topic of credibility could be introduced and
practiced using the book Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why People
Demand It (Kouzes & Posner, 2011). Problem solving could be introduced using
an instrument such as the Creative Problem Solving Profile (Basadur, Graen, &
Wakabayashi, 1990). This instrument allows individuals to identify their own
problem solving preference, but also has implications for formation of effective
teams (Basadur & Head, 2001). Although these are just two of the critical
behaviors identified, the rest could also be incorporated in a class like this.

A follow-up course for students who actually assume a managerial leadership role
could be offered in which the students would apply and reflect upon their
experience while serving in an official position in a student organization. This
course would allow students to share their experiences while at the same time
continuing to develop their managerial leadership behaviors. These types of
classes might help us realize Robert’s (2007) desire for a more purposeful and
useful leadership development program for students.

Limitations
All studies have limitations; this study is no exception. While the sample is an
adequate size, all of the subjects were drawn from one southwest university.
While all of the subjects were members of student organizations, additional
subjects from other universities would help to make this more generalizable.

In addition, an early reviewer suggested that it would be an improvement to have

respondents actually rank order the 10 managerial leadership behaviors that they
select as critical. In order to be consisted with data collected in previous studies
using this instrument, rank order was not used in this study. However, in another

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study currently underway, the participants have been asked to rank order their
choices by importance in order to better clarify this stream of research.

Finally, empirical research focused on inspiration would significantly advance the

field of leadership. It is interesting to note that most management textbooks today
have at least one chapter on motivation and no chapters on inspiration. We need
to develop this critical research stream so future managerial leaders can be trained
to both motivate and inspire

Future Research
This research extends the seminal work of Yukl and Van Fleet (1982) as well as
the work of Peterson and Van Fleet (2003, 2008). The present research is only a
first step to examine the critical managerial leadership behaviors required by
student managerial leaders. An additional step might be to replicate the process
that Yukl and Van Fleet (1982) used in their military study. They collected critical
incidents from military members and used content analysis to identify managerial
leadership behaviors exhibited by military leaders. Collecting critical incidents
from managerial leaders and members in student organization and then
conducting a content analysis of these incidents would further triangulate on the
critical managerial leadership behaviors. In addition, an analysis of different types
of student organizations (e.g., student government, sororities and fraternities, and
service organizations) might shed different light on the critical managerial
leadership behaviors.

In summary, this research has begun the process of identifying the critical
managerial leadership behaviors desired by student constituents. The results show
that there are new managerial leadership behaviors such as builds the team and is
credible that are critical. This is consistent with the earlier research in the for-
profit and not-for-profit fields. But it is only the beginning. Further research will
inform those who facilitate student learning in both classroom and co-curricular
settings to address issues of managerial leadership that will empower students to
lead while they are in college and when they enter the workforce.

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Author Biographies
Tim O. Peterson, Ph.D., is an associate dean and professor of Management in the
College of Business at North Dakota State University. He received his doctoral
degree in Management from Texas A&M University in 1988. In addition to his
administrative duties, he teaches leadership courses. His primary research
interests are leadership and management education.

Claudette M. Peterson, Ed.D., is an assistant professor in the School of Education

at North Dakota State University. She received her doctoral degree in Adult
Education from Oklahoma State University in 2006. She has previously taught
courses in Information Systems and Management departments, but currently
teaches in an education doctoral program. Her primary research interests are
postsecondary business education and survey research.

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What’s Context Got To Do With It? An Exploration of

Leadership Development Programs for the Agricultural
Community
Eric K. Kaufman, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural and Extension Education
Virginia Tech
2270 Litton Reaves Hall (0343)
Blacksburg, VA 24061
ekaufman@vt.edu

Richard J. Rateau, Ph.D.

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education
Virginia Tech
2270 Litton Reaves (0343)
Blacksburg VA 24061
rrateau@vt.edu

Hannah S. Carter, Ph.D.

Director,
Wedgworth Leadership Institute for Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Florida
121B Bryant Hall
PO Box 112060
Gainesville, FL 32611
hscarter@ufl.edu

L. Rochelle Strickland, Ph.D.

LEAD21 Program Manager
University of Georgia
Agricultural Leadership – Athens
133 Four Towers Building
Athens, GA 30602
rstrick@uga.edu

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Abstract
One method to develop leaders is through leadership development programs
designed specifically for an intended context. The International Leadership
Association (ILA) provides questions for designing programs such programs. This
article reflects data collected during the process of developing a leadership
program serving the broader agricultural community in Virginia. The
International Association of Programs for Agricultural Leadership (IAPAL)
reports that programs for leadership development in agricultural contexts typically
include 12 seminars over two years, with less than one-third of the seminars
agriculturally related. The profile includes sources of financial support and
allocation of administrative duties. A survey of agricultural leaders reveals a
strong desire for such programming. The stakeholders sought a program including
emerging and experienced leaders with travel for on-site experiential learning.
The findings have implications for the state and broad leadership development.
Those who develop leadership programs for other contexts may benefit from the
guiding questions and data.

Introduction
“Our nation is in a leadership crisis, one that requires more and better leadership
in all areas of our society” (Eich, 2008, p. 176). This is especially true for the
complex world of agriculture, as agricultural professionals face daily challenges.
The future success of the agricultural industry depends on strong leaders who can
effectively address these challenges (Bradshaw & Rudd, 2009; Diem & Nikola,
2005; Kaufman & Carter, 2005; Kaufman, Rateau, Ellis, Kasperbauer, & Stacklin,
2010). Investment in leadership development is strong (Day, 2001), with a
growing number of leadership development programs offered, costing billions of
dollars annually (Riggio, 2008). However there is “little agreement about the best
strategies [for developing leadership]” (Hackman & Wageman, 2007, p. 43).
Designing a quality leadership development program is difficult and requires a
systematic approach that considers the unique contextual needs of the program
(Bryne & Rees, 2006).

Recognizing this need, the 2007-2010 national research agenda for agricultural
education and communication included a research priority to “develop and
disseminate effective leadership education programs,” with emphasis on
addressing the needs of current leaders, and strategies for “designing,
disseminating, and evaluating” such programs (Osborne, n.d., p. 12). An
additional research priority was to “engage citizens in community action through
leadership education and development” (p. 12). These national research priority

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areas clearly state the need for intentional reflection and planning with leadership
development programs.

Guiding Questions for Leadership Development Programs

Leadership development programs come in many forms, and there is no one set
model that will work for all (Byrne & Rees, 2006; Caffarella, 2002; Cacioppe,
1998). Generally, there is a lack of research detailing which program models are
most effective (Conger, 1992). Some scholars and practitioners have proposed
models for leadership program design, but they fail to agree on a unifying theory
of leadership development (Hackman & Wageman, 2007).

In response to these program development issues, the International Leadership

Association (ILA) developed Guiding Questions: Guidelines for Leadership
Education Programs. “More than 70 leadership educators contributed at one level
or another to this project” (Ritch & Mengel, 2009, p. 217). The guiding questions
“explore the content and context of leadership programs” (Ritch, 2010, p. 3) in an
effort to guide program design and assessment. The questions were designed to
“evoke answers that help leadership educators make important choices about the
quality, comprehensiveness and focus of their programs” (p. 2).

To effectively develop a program, practitioners must address questions in each of

five areas: (a) the context of the program, (b) a conceptual framework for the
program, (c) the required content, (d) appropriate teaching and learning strategies,
and (e) the desired learning outcomes and methods of assessing the program. The
starting point is program context, which can be framed in terms of various
“categories of identity, sector, academics, place, discipline, organization, field of
practice, and field of leadership” (Ritch, 2010, p. 9).

Agriculture as a Context for Leadership Development

Among the different contexts for leadership development, the field of agriculture
presents its own unique challenges (Bradshaw & Rudd, 2009; Kaufman, Rateau,
Ellis, Kasperbauer, & Stacklin, 2010). The agricultural community faces a wide
range of complex contextual challenges, including volatile commodity markets,
increased regulatory requirements, agricultural illiteracy, food security issues,
changing demographics, natural resource depletion, and economic survival. Not
only is agriculture complex and diverse, it is becoming more specialized and
facing greater confrontation from external groups. Leaders within this community
must be able to function amidst the turmoil and move the community forward.
The future of agriculture is dependent upon local leaders guiding advocacy efforts
related to change (Diem & Nikola, 2005).

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Agricultural leadership programs have been reported as having a history of more

than 75 years in the United States (Kelsey & Wall, 2003). However, the majority
of available literature on modern programs traces their roots to the Kellogg
Farmers Study Program (KFSP), which began at Michigan State University in
1965 (Carter, 1999; Case, I. H., 2005; Helstowski, 2001; Lindquist, n.d.). The
founders of the KFSP recognized that agriculture was growing more complex and
effective leadership was needed in order to protect and guide the future of the
industry (Miller, 1976). From the beginning, the KFSP consisted of “workshops
and travel seminars intended to provide participants with an understanding of the
social, economic, cultural, and political dimensions of public problems” (Howell,
Weir, & Cook, 1982, p. 2). “The goal of the program was to provide young
agricultural and rural leaders with a broader view of society, as well as a greater
sense of the world and how they fit into the bigger picture” (Helstowski, 2001, p.
1). Intended KFSP outcomes included both personal and professional growth,
ranging from expansion of personal perspectives and self-esteem to greater
decision-making and involvement in leadership positions.

During the 1980s, the International Association of Programs for Agricultural

Leadership (IAPAL) was formed as a consortium of leadership development
programs similar to the KFSP (Lindquist, n.d.). According to Pope (n.d.), the
purpose of IAPAL is to enhance leadership development and facilitate the
dissemination of valuable information to administrators who conduct their
individual programs. By the year 2000 agricultural leadership programs in the
United States had graduated over 7,200 participants and received over $15 million
in financial support (Case, I. H., 2005; Helstowski, 2001). IAPAL currently
includes 41 active programs – 36 in the United States, 2 in Canada, and 3 outside
North America (Waldrum, 2009).

Despite the success of the Kellogg Farmers Study Program (KFSP) and the
programs that spawned from that model, important questions remain for today’s
leadership development programs in agricultural contexts. After nearly half a
century, is the KFSP model still valid? What do the successful programs look like
today? How well do the IAPAL programs align with the programming needs of
the agricultural community in the 21st century?

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study was to describe agriculture community members’
desires for leadership development programming as represented by and compared
to programs associated with the International Association of Programs for
Agricultural Leadership (IAPAL). The specific research objectives include the
following:

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• Describe the profile of leadership development programs associated with

IAPAL.

• Describe the agricultural community’s interest in a new leadership

development program, as perceived in a state that does not have an IAPAL
program.

• Identify guiding parameters for an emerging leadership development

program, as perceived by key stakeholders within Virginia’s agricultural
community.

Procedures
Though the purpose and objectives frame this paper as a report on a formal
research project, it was not conceptualized as a research study until after plans for
an agricultural leadership program came to fruition in Virginia. Recognizing that
the data collected along the way would be valuable to others desiring to develop a
similar program, the authors of this paper embarked on a retrospective analysis of
the data that contributed to the new program plan. Accordingly, this study can be
thought of as a retrospective case study. As a case study, the findings are not
generalizable. However, the organization of the data into the identified research
objectives may allow for extrapolation of the findings for use in similar program
development efforts.

The study involved a mixed-methods approach, akin to the explanatory sequential

design, beginning with quantitative data collection and concluding with a
qualitative research phase to explain the quantitative results (Creswell, 2011).
This particular study had three distinct phases:

• Investigate profile of existing programs through face-to-face survey with

program directors.

• Explore program interest in Virginia through a mailed survey with key

leaders from the target community.

• Explain the program interest and expectations through focus group

sessions in the form of a face-to-face meeting with stakeholders.

The following paragraphs describe in more detail the process and participation in
each phase of the research. Each phase is associated with a specific research
objective.

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For objective one, the researchers developed a questionnaire for program directors
who were current members of the International Association of Programs for
Agricultural Leadership (IAPAL). This survey was conducted face-to-face during
the 2007 annual IAPAL meeting in Miami, FL. The questionnaire included
questions in the following areas – program structure and participant
demographics, program evaluation, program staffing and administration, board of
directors/advisory committees, alumni associations, and communications.
Questions were developed based on the researchers’ experience with IAPAL
programs. All of the questions focused on confirmable facts (i.e., participation
numbers), so social desirability bias and similar validity issues were not a serious
concern. Of the 21 program directors in attendance at the IAPAL meeting, 19
completed the questionnaire for a completion rate of 90.5%. The respondents
represented programs within university systems, foundations, independent
organizations, and partnerships. Although the majority of respondents represented
programs in the United States, two program directors were from Canada. Because
no effort was made to follow-up with non-respondents, the findings are limited to
those who completed the questionnaire.

In pursuit of objective two, the researchers developed a questionnaire for use with
stakeholders in a state without an IAPAL program. The questionnaire was
developed based on the leadership program development literature as well as
findings from objective one. The initial draft of the questionnaire was reviewed
by an expert panel, and the panelists offered suggestions for question content and
wording. The questionnaire was designed to be administered via United States
Mail to leaders identified in the Virginia Department of Agriculture and
Consumer Services’ Directory of Agricultural and Consumer Organizations. To
ensure geographic representation, researchers added county Farm Bureau
presidents to the study population. Efforts to obtain current contact information
for each organization and individual yielded a target population of 252
individuals. To promote a high response rate, the researchers applied Dillman’s
(2007) tailored design method for mail surveys. The contacts included a pre-
notice letter, the initial survey mailing, a reminder postcard, a replacement survey
mailing, and then phone calls to a random sample of non-respondents. However,
the phone calls failed to yield sufficient data for assessing non-response bias.
Accordingly, the findings are limited to those who responded.

Among those invited to participate, 153 submitted usable responses for a response
rate of 60.7%. Participants were 78% male, with an average age of 56 years, and
an average of 18 years in leadership roles with agricultural organizations.
Participants’ organizational affiliations reflect the following areas of agriculture –
aquaculture & marine, dairy, education, environment, equine, finance, food
industry, forestry, general farm organizations (i.e., Farm Bureau), grains,

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livestock (including poultry), marketing, nursery and horticulture, and specialty

crops.

For objective three, the researchers held a meeting with 24 key stakeholders for
the prospective program in Virginia, and focus group sessions were held as part of
that meeting. Participants were identified based on their ability to represent a
unique perspective of the agricultural community in Virginia. One-third of the
meeting participants had participated in the mailed survey (completed as part of
objective two). Similar to the mailed survey participants, the focus group
participants’ organizational affiliations reflected the following areas of
agriculture: aquaculture and marine, dairy, education, environment, equine,
finance, food industry, forestry, general farm organizations (i.e., Farm Bureau),
grains, livestock (including poultry), marketing, nursery and horticulture, and
specialty crops. In the recruitment efforts for the meeting, participants were told
that part of the purpose of the meeting was to validate findings of recent research
concerning the need for leadership development programming within Virginia’s
agricultural community. The meeting began with a review of the related research
and presentations by representatives from programs affiliated with IAPAL.
Participants then worked in small groups to discuss and identify preferences for
the following aspects of a new program:

• Program mission, vision, and objectives.

• Appropriate length and frequency of seminars and program.

• Prospects for travel (including in-state, national, and international).

• Criteria and characteristics of program participants.

• Topics, locations, and resources for seminars.

• Tuition and financial support.

Following the meeting, researchers emailed the meeting notes to the participants
and inviting them to reply with additions or corrections. This form of member
checks helps improve the trustworthiness of the findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Findings
The researchers investigated each study population and related objective
separately. The findings are organized accordingly.

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Objective 1: Describe Profile of IAPAL Programs

The survey of IAPAL programs revealed a profile of existing leadership

development programming in the context of agriculture (Table 1). The oldest
program was initiated in 1965; the most recent program was initiated in 2003. The
average lifetime of the programs surveyed was 24 years. The average length of a
program class was 21 months, with an average of 12 seminars held during that
time span. On average, 2 of the 12 seminars were held outside of the program’s
home state/province. Some program directors reported that 100% of seminars
were agriculturally related, whereas other program directors reported less than 5%
of seminars being agriculturally related. The average percent of agriculturally
related content was 31%. Program directors reported that 63% of participants in
their most recent class were male and the majority (53%) was from nonfarm
households. The average age of program participants was 38 years old.

Table 1
Profile of programs associated with the International Association of Programs for
Agricultural Leadership (n = 19).
M SD
Years in existence 24 8.8
Number of program alumni 370 267.2
Number of participants in most recent class 26 5.9
Program length in months 21 3.3
Number of class meetings during program 12 2.2
Number of class meetings held outside program 2 0.7
state/province
Tuition fee per class participant (U.S. $) $2,974 1,913.3
Total program cost per participant (U.S. $) $14,337 6,741.2

Among the IAPAL programs studied, the average tuition/participant fee per class
member was $2,974. In contrast, the average total program cost per class member
was $14,337. The gap between tuition and actual cost was bridged through a
variety of sources of financial support (Figure 1). All of the program directors
indicated that individual seminars are evaluated by current class members.
However, only 37% of programs have conducted a program evaluation with
stakeholders. The identified barriers to program evaluation included time, costs,
and methods.

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6%
11% Donations
32%
Participant Tuition
Foundation / Endowment
14%
Administrative Unit Support
Legislative Appropriation
Other
17% 20%
Figure 1. Sources of financial support for programs associated with the
International Association of Programs for Agricultural Leadership (n=19).

Most of the IAPAL programs were housed within a university system, with more
than half administered through their Land-Grant University’s Extension system.
Program seminars were being delivered through a variety of means, including
field experience, lectures/classroom activities, panel discussions, readings, and
technology. The administrative leaders for the IAPAL programs were dividing
their time among a variety of tasks, with 39% of time spent on program planning,
22% of time spent on fundraising, 21% of time spent on administrative tasks, and
16% of time spent on recruitment.

Objective 2: Describe Interest in a New Leadership Program

A majority of survey participants, 94% (n=144), indicated a desire for leadership

development programming beyond current opportunities for Virginia’s
agricultural community. Among a list of 25 potential leadership program
outcomes, those of greatest interest included:

• “Advocacy for the agricultural community.”

• “Access to new agricultural information and skills.”

• “New partnerships and collaboration across the agricultural community.”

• “Awareness of new technologies that support agricultural production and

services.”

• “Knowledge of best practices for a viable agricultural industry.”

One survey participant clarified expectations by adding the following comments:

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Now more than ever, agriculture needs leaders that are engaged,
trained, and competent in advocacy of agricultural issues.
Regulations stand as the single greatest threat to agriculture.
Knowing how to tell your story effectively, listen to other stories
and assimilating all of them into a plan for agriculture that allows
our industries to regain profitable and viable, yet in compliance
with the latest regulations and technologies, is critical. Agriculture
must be engaged with local, state, and national elected officials and
organizations if we are to survive long-term.

The agricultural leaders surveyed also provided input on a variety of questions

related to program design (Table 2). Most respondents (77%) believed that both
emerging and experienced leaders should be included together in an agricultural
leadership program. Regarding program length, 65% of survey respondents
expressed interest in a program that spans one year or more. With respect to
travel, 80% expressed a desire for inclusion of on-site experience in diverse areas
of Virginia, 35% expressed a desire for inclusion of on-site experience in another
region of the United States, and 12% expressed a desire for on-site experience
outside the United States.

With respect to program delivery mechanisms, “interactive workshops” was the

most desired format, followed by “experiential activities,” “conference
attendance,” and “classroom instruction.” The least desired format was “online
communities, lectures, and services.” One survey participant clarified the
expectations by offering the following comments:

The proper blend of instruction with experiential activities, social

gatherings and other mechanisms is sometimes tricky to achieve.
Too much of any one can render a program ineffective. For
example, class members love experiential activities, but you must
be careful to not become simply an ag tour group. Even when on
tour - the purpose is leadership development, and that can be found
in many places - not just ag - but certainly within ag as well.

Among preferred host organizations, 70% of Virginia’s agricultural leaders

identified their land-grant university’s college of agriculture as a preferred host
for the desired program. In the “check all that apply” list, the next most preferred
hosts included Virginia Cooperative Extension, the Virginia Farm Bureau
Federation, and the Virginia Agribusiness Council. Other listed organizations
were identified by less than one-third of respondents.

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Table 2
Virginia agriculture leaders’ design preferences for a leadership development
program (n=144)
Percent Agreement
Target Audience
Emerging leaders 5%
Experienced leaders 2%
Both emerging and experienced leaders together 77%
Both emerging and experienced leaders, in separate 16%
programs

Program Length
6-month program 30%
1-year program 41%
2-year program 17%
3-year program 7%
Other 5%

Meeting Frequency
1-2 day seminars every month 60%
3-4 day seminars every two months 14%
5-7 day seminars every three to four months 3%
Other 23%

Travel Expectations
Only local travel and experiences 17%
On-site experience in diverse areas of Virginia 80%
On-site experience in another region of the U.S. 35%
On-site experience outside the U.S. 12%
Other 8%

More than three-fourths of survey respondents indicated that their professional

organization would likely be willing to sponsor potential participants (Figure 2).
Most indicated likely sponsorship levels of less than $1,000; one individual
indicated likely sponsorship of $3,500 or more. Collectively, survey responses
suggest that organizations would be willing to contribute about $75,000.
According to one participant, “organizational sponsorship for cost share may be
limited due to tightening budgets and available funds.”

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$1000 or more Not Willing to

13% Sponsor
23%

Less than $500

$500-$999 31%
33%

Figure 2. Virginia agricultural organizations’ likely sponsorship of program

participants in a comprehensive leadership development program (n=144).

Objective 3: Identify Parameters for an Emerging Program

With respect to objective three, stakeholder meeting participants reinforced the

findings from prior research. Regarding a program mission, some consensus was
obtained on the following statement: “Develop leaders who can effectively
engage all sectors of Virginia Ag to create collaborative solutions and promote
agriculture inside and outside of the industry.” A similar statement was generated
for the program vision: “Virginia agriculture will provide a sustainable future for
our industry by maximizing our potential for successful growth through a system
of networking, collaborative decision making, and development of strong Ag
leaders.”

In the discussion of program structure, participants expressed a desire for a two-

year program with seminars two to three days in length on alternating months.
They also emphasized the need for travel as a way of getting program participants
out of their comfort zone and exposing them to the state’s diversity. As for travel
outside the state, the stakeholders highlighted the value of international
experience. They acknowledged concerns about the added expense of
international travel, but prioritized it over domestic travel outside the state.

As for a target population, stakeholders emphasized the need for diversity within
each program class. Specifically, they discussed the need for diversity in age,
gender, culture, geographic representation, sector of industry, education, and
leadership experience. The stakeholders were hesitant to identify age restrictions
but suggested the minimum preferred age may be 25 years old. They recognized
the need to serve individuals who have a “vested interest in agriculture,” but they
defined that interest broadly. The stakeholders suggested that an ideal class might
be composed 50% of agricultural producers and 50% of individuals with

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supporting interests. The preferred class size was 20-25 participants, with a
maximum of 30 participants per class.

Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

As highlighted in the ILA’s Guiding Questions (Ritch, 2010), the context of the
program is an important consideration when assessing and preparing for quality
leadership education and development. All leadership education practitioners
need to begin their assessment and planning processes with a thorough
understanding of their individual program contexts. Those contexts can highlight
“important choices about the quality, comprehensiveness and focus of their
programs” (p. 2).

The issue of context can be framed and interpreted a wide variety of ways, but it
is helpful to start by considering what is known about programs that have been
designed to serve a similar audience. This multi-level study provided insight to
the current practices and desire for leadership development programming in the
context of agriculture. Leadership education practitioners who work within the
context of agriculture should consider the findings from this study and their
relevance for further application.

Based on the findings from this study, the goals and structure of the Kellogg
Farmers Study Program (KFSP) have lived on through programs affiliated with
the International Association of Programs for Agricultural Leadership (IAPAL).
The IAPAL programs are diverse, but they continue to reflect the broad goal of
the KFSP, “to provide young agricultural and rural leaders with a broader view of
society, as well as a greater sense of the world and how they fit into the bigger
picture” (Helstowski, 2001, p. 1). In addition, they continue the use of workshops
and travel seminars as the primary approach to leadership education and
development.

Agricultural leaders who are unfamiliar with the KFSP model still express
program preferences that align with the model. This can be seen within their
preferences for program outcomes, structure, and delivery mechanisms. When
Virginia agriculture leaders considered existing opportunities for leadership
development for the agricultural community they wanted something more, such as
a program like those currently in IAPAL which may be the answer.

The primary outcome of the stakeholder meeting was a request to build a program
similar to the IAPAL programs across the United States. Accordingly, a specific
program plan was created and a director was hired to launch the program. This
continued replication of the KFSP and the related IAPAL programs provides

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further validation of the model developed at Michigan State University in 1965.

Despite the fact that the model is nearly a half century old, key components of the
model remain relevant for leadership development in agriculture.

The findings reported in this paper are not generalizable to other states and
programs. However, experts in program development and evaluation are
increasingly promoting the value of extrapolation for guiding program
development. Without violating principles of generalizability, Gargani and
Donaldson (2011) point out that information on past programs can be used to
predict future results of other programs. It is in this spirit that practitioners can use
the findings presented here to develop and improve their own programs.

Program context is not the end for assessing and planning for leadership education
and development. Practitioners need to continue through the remaining aspects of
the Guiding Questions document, including conceptual framework for the
program, required content, teaching and learning strategies, and desired outcomes.
The fact that less than half of the IAPAL programs have conducted program
evaluations with stakeholders is disturbing, particularly considering the amount of
stakeholder support that is required to sustain the programs. As an association
designed to support program administrators, IAPAL should seek out ways to
promote and support more comprehensive program evaluation.

Acknowledgement

Portions of this research were funded by the Virginia Agricultural Council.

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Author Biographies
Eric K. Kaufman is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and
Extension Education at Virginia Tech, where he teaches leadership courses for
student in all disciplines at the graduate and undergraduate levels. He coordinates
Virginia Tech’s graduate certificate program in Collaborative Community
Leadership and assists in coordination of the undergraduate Leadership and Social
Change minor. Eric holds a Bachelor of Science degree from Ohio State
University; both his Master’s and Doctorate of Philosophy degrees are from the
University of Florida. Eric’s research interests include collegiate leadership
education and leadership development with adults in community and volunteer
settings.

Richard J. Rateau is a recent Ph.D. graduate from Virginia Tech where he

completed his doctoral program in the Department of Agricultural and Extension
Education. At Virginia Tech he has taught undergraduate courses in
communications and leadership. He recently completed a rewarding 30-year
career in the poultry and red meat industries, working in various leadership,
strategic planning, and management capacities. He earned an M.B.A. at Queens
University and has a B.S. in Agricultural Sciences from Auburn University. His
research interests include leadership development and employability skills of
college graduates leading to success in the workplace.

Hannah S. Carter is assistant professor in leadership development at the

University of Florida in the Department of Agricultural Education and
Communication. Within this appointment she directs a leadership development
program for adults within private industry throughout Florida. In addition, she
teaches courses in both the undergraduate and graduate level in organizational
leadership and team leadership. She obtained her B.S. in environmental science
with a concentration in biology at the University of Maine at Presque Isle. Her
M.S. and Ph.D. are both in agricultural education and communication from the
University of Florida. Her current research interests are in adult leadership
programming including both program development and determining impacts of
leadership programming.

L. Rochelle Strickland is a Public Service Assistant within the department of

Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication and is the Program
Manager for LEAD21, a national leadership development program for faculty,
specialists, program and team leaders, research station and center directors,
district and regional directors, department heads and chairs, and others in land
grant universities’ colleges of agricultural, environmental, and human sciences
and USDA/NIFA. She plays a key role in the coordination of the development

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and implementation of LEAD21. Dr. Strickland is currently developing an adult

leadership development program for individuals involved in Virginia’s
agricultural and natural resources industries. Her research focuses on evaluating
the outcomes and impacts of adult leadership development programs, specifically
within the agricultural context to understand best practices for adult education and
leadership development.

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First-Year Student Perceptions Related to Leadership

Awareness and Influences
Melissa R. Shehane
Department of Student Activities
Texas A&M University
125 Koldus Student Services Building
1236 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-1236
979-845-4878
mshehane@stuact.tamu.edu

Kathryn A. Sturtevant
Department of Student Activities
Texas A&M University
125 Koldus Student Services Building
1236 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-1236
979-845-4878
ksturtevant@stuact.tamu.edu

Lori L. Moore, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Room 224
College Station, TX 88845-2116
979-845-1295
llmoore@tamu.edu

Kim E. Dooley, Ph.D.

Professor and Associate Dean for Academic Operations
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
Texas A&M University
600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Ste 515
College Station, TX 77843-2402
979-845-3712
k-dooley@tamu.edu

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Abstract
This study sought to explore first-year college student perceptions related to when
they first became aware of leadership and perceived influences on leadership. The
study was rooted in the Leadership Identity Development Model (Komives,
Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005). Five purposively selected
individuals completing the first semester of a formal leadership program for first-
year students participated in this study. Content analysis of qualitative interviews
revealed two themes related to leadership awareness: pre-college and positional
versus non-positional roles; four themes related to perceived leadership
influences: external role models, internal beliefs, previous experience, and types
of leadership/leadership philosophy. This research supports the importance of
both internal and external factors in developing an understanding of what
leadership is by first-year college students.

Introduction
Institutional mission statements in higher education often state that developing
leaders is a primary outcome of the college experience. Scholars believe that
institutional missions will continue to highlight leadership as a key goal or
outcome of the college experience (Astin & Astin, 2000; Boatman, 1999;
McIntire, 1989). Therefore, student affairs administrators and leadership
educators must continue to take this subject seriously and continue to research
efforts that develop college student leadership capacities.

Identifying the most successful ways to develop leadership capacities in college

students is an ever evolving discussion among leadership educators. Roberts
(2007) shared that multiple purposes, strategies, and populations need to be
considered when developing leadership programs in order to create dynamic
opportunities that meet the needs of a wide array of students. Various
developmental techniques can enhance the student leadership experience. For
example, create meaningful participatory experiences, examine current programs
in light of multiple theories, and create opportunities for students to observe
leaders as potential role models (Wagner, 2011). Knowing that leadership is
interpreted differently from varying lenses and there is no overarching definition
of leadership, one can see that leadership programs look different depending on
numerous factors (Bass, 1990; Brungardt, 1996; Dugan, 2011). Thus, they are
difficult to compare and measure against one another. However, through student
leadership research, scholars have identified factors that have a high impact on
student learning; for example, faculty mentoring, sociocultural discussions,
community service, involvement, and formal leadership programs can typically
promote the achievement of outcomes in leadership education (Dugan, 2011).

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According to Dugan (2011), “formal leadership programs are intentionally

designed learning opportunities focused on increasing college students’ leadership
knowledge, skills, and values through an overarching set of experiences spanning
multiple platforms of delivery” (p. 75). According to this broad definition,
researchers typically report positive outcomes from participating in formal
leadership programs (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman, & Burkhardt, 2001; Dugan,
2006; Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, & Osteen, 2006). Results are not
as straight forward in complex formal leadership programs, due to the difficulty in
comparing programs that have inconsistent means of delivery (Dugan, 2011).

Additional research highlights how formal leadership programs assist students in

their development as leaders. In the study by Kezar and Moriarty (2000),
Caucasian and African American women shared that they believed participation
in formal leadership programs assisted in their leadership development. In another
study (Cress et al., 2001), three characteristics of quality leadership programs
emerged as directly impacting student development: opportunities for service,
experiential activities (internships), and active learning through collaboration
(group projects in class). Students involved in these programs were more likely to
develop a sense of civic responsibility, meaning they learned the importance of
participating in their community and helping others. Dugan (2006) shared that
leadership programs may have a broader impact if the learning outcomes are
focused on areas in which students need to improve upon rather than focused on
too many variables. Considering the diversity of research on leadership
development, Dugan’s broad definition of formal leadership programs was used
to inform the study.

Theoretical Framework
Over the years, numerous scholars have designed leadership theories and models
that have been applied in the context of formal leadership programs (Bass, 1990;
Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007; Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2009;
Northouse, 2007; Roberts, 2007). The theoretical framework for this study was
grounded in the Leadership Identity Development (LID) Model, which was
nonexistent until 2005. Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen
(2005) developed the LID Model to help understand stages of leadership
development which students experience throughout their life. The LID is based on
relational leadership as depicted by the Relational Leadership Model (RLM).

According to the LID model, when a student progresses through stages of

development the individual cultivates a deeper understanding of leadership,
community, and self in relation to the world. A grounded theory approach

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revealed a six stage process through which includes the following: awareness,
exploration/engagement, leader identified, leadership differentiated, generativity,
and internalization/synthesis. The awareness stage recognizes that leaders exist
and students are inactive followers. Exploration and engagement result in students
becoming involved and active followers. Students in the leader identified stage
understand that leadership is positional. The generativity stage results in an active
commitment to a larger purpose. Students in this stage began to invest in others
and focus on sustaining their organization. The internalization and synthesis stage
meant vigorous commitment and involvement with leadership as a daily course of
action (Komives et al., 2005). The model explores how students visualize
leadership identity as it relates to the relational leadership model. In addition to
the stages mentioned above, group and developmental influences were essential in
understanding how the individual changes across the stages of a central category.
These influences included adult influences, peer influences, meaningful
involvement, and reflective learning (Komives et al., 2007).

The LID model helps one to identify stages of development and see his or her
leadership growth over time (Komives et al., 2005, Komives et al., 2006). The
model does have limitations. Students in the grounded theory held extensive
organizational involvements on their campuses; thus, the data may appear
differently with other types of students. Even though there are limitations, this
model can serve as a beneficial aid in understanding the leadership development
of students.

Student development theory confirms that programs whose audience is in the

same developmental stage are successful in the fact that they provide
opportunities for community building, individual, and shared growth (Evans,
Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Day, Harrison, and Haplin (2009) believe that
there are numerous reasons why identity development should be incorporated in
leader development. As the authors noted, “identity is important typically because
it grounds individuals in understanding who they are, what are their major goals
and aspirations, and what are their personal strengths and challenges” (Day et al.,
2009, p. 64).

Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this study, conducted as part of a larger study, was to explore
perceptions of first-year college students related to their awareness of leadership
and perceived leadership influences. More specifically, this study sought to create
meaning and understanding of the perceptions of participants in the inaugural
cohort of a leadership development program for first-year students about the
awareness stage of the LID model in order to glean insight into how practitioners

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may structure formal leadership programs. Understanding a student’s pre-college

experiences prior to entering college will assist leadership educators when
designing formal leadership programs in order to meet the students where they are
at in their own development. This study was guided by the following research
questions:

• How do students describe the first time they became aware of being
involved in leadership?

• What factors do students believe influenced their leadership?

Methodology
The formal leadership program included in the present study was intended for
first-year, traditional aged, undergraduate students who are interested in
enhancing their understanding of leadership and expanding their experiences. The
purpose of the program was to provide undergraduate students at a Research I
land-grant university the opportunity to engage in conversations and activities that
will introduce them to leadership essentials, assist them in articulating their
personal philosophy of leadership, and empower them to be aware, mindful and
active leaders. This leadership development program was designed to address and
support the needs of students as they grow throughout their career at the
university and become more involved in local, national and global communities.
With those concepts in mind, the guiding principles of the program were as
follows: everyone has the capacity to lead, leadership is multifaceted, leadership
is collaborative, leadership is a process, leadership strives to create positive
change, and leadership strives to reach shared goals. The root of these guiding
principles is for participants to focus on their own personal identity development.

This study utilized a basic qualitative research approach (Merriam, 2009). Five
participants in the previously described leadership program participated in this
study. Participants were purposively selected by a member of the research team
based on varying levels of leadership identity development. Specifically, two men
and three women participated in face-to-face semi-structured interviews (Kvale,
1996) conducted to gain an understanding of the perceptions of program
participants related to leadership identity development. Komives, Longerbeam,
Mainella, Osteen, Owen and Wagner (2009) noted that “student interviews are
exceptionally useful sources of data” (p. 28) when conducting qualitative
leadership identity development studies.

Each semi-structured interview lasted one hour. An interview guide was used
during the interviews to help facilitate the sequence of topics addressed during the

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interview (Kvale, 1996). The guide was adapted from interview questions
developed and used by Komives et al. (2005). To ensure confidentiality, each
participant was randomly assigned a pseudonym. The interviews were recorded
on audio tapes. Following the completion of all interviews, the audio tapes were
transcribed by a professional transcriptionist. Member checking was
accomplished by requesting that participants review the interview transcripts and
respond with any changes or additions. A peer debriefing was held with the entire
research team prior to data analysis (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993).

Data were analyzed using inductive content analysis. “Content analysis is a

technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an inductive way
through an analysis of their communications” (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009, p. 472).
According to Patton (2002), “content analysis, then, involves identifying, coding,
categorizing, classifying, and labeling the primary patterns in the data” (p. 463).
Data were coded using the three-phase coding process outlined by Glaser and
Strauss (1967). In the first phase, the data were read and open codes were created.
In the second phase, axial codes were assigned. Connections were made between
the open codes to create categories. The units of data were reviewed again during
this phase to ensure that the connections made with category codes still accurately
represented the data. In the third phase, selective coding, categories were
identified as those that repeated frequently and accounted for most of the data.
These codes emerged as the major themes gleaned from the interviews.

Trustworthiness was established in this study through, member checks, peer

debriefings, and triangulation. Archival data, including applications completed by
students to be selected for the program, and answers to reflection questions
collected from weekly program sessions were used to triangulate the data
collected in the interviews.

Findings
Research question one examined how students described the first time they
became aware of being involved in leadership. Content analysis of the interview
transcripts revealed two themes that emerged from this question: pre-college and
positional versus non-positional roles.

Pre-College

Pre-college experiences that influenced awareness of leadership were evident in

the statements shared by the students. Students referenced elementary (Sarah,
John), middle (Molly), and high school (Kate, Ben) experiences that were
influential in their leadership awareness. Sarah reported first being aware of

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leadership in the fourth grade while John remembers it from as far back as when
he was “about to get promoted to be a Webelo” in Boy Scouts.

Other students did not describe becoming aware of leadership until high school.
Kate referred to her actually being in a leadership position within an organization
in high school as the first time she really became aware of leadership. Similarly,
another student said:

I guess the first time that I actually put label leadership on it was probably
in high school, when my school started the Leadership program that they
have…And they have a class, and you learn about leadership, and they
were in groups, and we do leadership service projects and stuff like that.
So that’s probably the first time that I ever associated leadership with
anything that I did. (Ben)

Positional versus Non-Positional

Positional versus non-positional leadership roles were also identified in the

statements that the students shared. Again, some students clearly associated
leadership with positions within organizations. For example, one student stated:

I was first involved in Student Council and that was like my first taste of
leadership, and it was like the whole process of running and getting
elected by peers and that was like… I was elected and that made me a
leader to them. (Molly)

Similarly, as noted in the pre-college section, Kate described becoming aware of

leadership when she was actually in a leadership position within the DECA
organization. John was also able to recognize non-positional leadership roles:

I had no idea what to do but on television that night there was a movie
called Gandhi on. I saw that and I was all pumped up and inspired by this
guy who like made social change and what not and my dad explained just
how much that meant to our culture and our background, so I'm like okay
I've got to do something with Gandhi in it and I didn't know where to start
but what ended up happening I saw just a small thing where I did a
fundraiser and I funded for to sell books to go to India less fortunate
schools and it worked out pretty well. We continued to it until out of the
area but you know the leadership portion was that my dad refused to do
anything with it. (John)

Within the quote above, John clearly articulated a component of the Awareness
stage of the LID model by describing when he first recognized the ability of

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others to lead and influence those around them. Another student was also able to
describe being a leader as more relational, rather than positional manner from an
early age as she described an experience from when she was in the fourth grade.
According to her:

We, as a class, we went to a first grade classroom and helped, we were

each paired up with a first grade student and we would help them with
their reading and writing and spelling stuff like that, for like a half hour
each week, I think it was. I think that was the first time that I really felt
like I was a leader just working one on one with the student, helping them
to learn. (Sarah)

Findings showed that first-year students in this program came into the program
with at least an understanding of leadership from a positional perspective. In other
words, they were perhaps most aware of leadership because they had served in
what they defined as a leadership position.

While two themes emerged from the research question related to when
participants first became aware of leadership, it is evident the two are interrelated.
While all participants were aware of leadership prior to coming to college, when
they first recall being aware of leadership was different for each participant. It
appeared as though school and outside activities at various times in their lives
played a role in triggering their awareness of leadership. Furthermore, it was
because of some of these activities and experiences that participants became
aware of leadership as being either positional or non-positional.

The second research question explored factors influencing the leadership of

participants. Four themes emerged from the content analysis of the interview
transcripts: external role models, previous experience, internal beliefs, and types
of leadership/leadership philosophy.

External Role Models

Students noted the impact of external role models, such as teachers and other
family members, on their conceptualization of leadership. Many of the
participants shared something related to the influence an older adult. John
referenced the presence of an adult family friend as an influence by stating, “I
would see my dad's best friend was a lawyer and I would really looked up to
him.” Other students described the influence of an older adult more in depth. One
student noted the influence of her parents and teachers as an influence to how she
first started to think about leadership. She commented:
I think that came from watching my teachers in the classroom, as well as
my parents just doing their job….They worked at [University] and so I

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would often be with them at night programs or on the weekends when they
were here, and I would watch them lead students and other faculty. (Sarah)

The external roles models identified were not always significantly older. One
student noted the influence of a sibling. She shared:

I have a brother like he has really been an influence because he’s like the
first person that like I really looked up to and saw him develop as a leader
because we were both in the same [organization]. He was in it a couple of
years before me of course, and I was able to see him grow and I was able
to like kind of look at that and see how to better develop my leadership
skills. (Molly)

It was evident that students were able to identify role models who had either
directly or indirectly influenced their leadership.

Previous Experience

When discussing their previous experiences, students stated experiences involving

coordinating events and holding a position. For example:

I definitely learned more about taking action and like actually being
responsible for myself and my own actions and kind of like organize my
own program, and get it set up and completed. Like I set up my own
[event]. (Molly)

In addition, Ben stated:

Because I was a senior, I got to lead over all the freshmen, sophomore and
juniors who were in the class with me. And then also my basketball coach
is kind like, or was for a while, like the chaplain of our school. So he takes
all the grads or at least the middle school grads on little retreats and he
asked me to be a senior leader of the eighth grade retreat. I got to do that
and that was I guess that was one of the first times that I was actually like
put in charge of a little group, so I had like thirteen eighth graders that I
was in charge of and there's like five other senior leaders with me so it was
cool. It was like the first time I was actually like a counselor of students
and stuff like that, like by myself and not with another adult. (Ben)

Students who shared the most about previous experience tied such experiences to
positional views of leadership. In essence, these students needed the opportunity
to be directly involved with leadership as they considered what had the most
influence over their leadership.

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Internal Beliefs

Students shared work ethic, morals and values, ethics and religion as factors that
influenced their leadership. Participants described how these factors act as a guide
for how they make decisions. Molly focused on work ethic being a driving
influence and stated, “I like to get things done and I will not rest until like things
are done and so that like affects my leadership, because I'm just like very
proactive.” Another student focused on how morals and values influenced her
leadership:

I guess my morals and my values… really influence my leadership. Like

I'm not going to do anything or I'm not going to tell people to do anything
that goes against them. That's just something like I'm so like strict in those,
like I won't change anything and so then like I don't know, I just have like
this desire to make sure that everything goes like we said. (Kate)

One student connected morals and values to religion. Specifically, Ben shared the
he “definitely have those morals and standards and there's a lot of leadership
example in Christianity.” He went on to describe the influence of his religion and
shared:

I think it helps me in the long run make better decisions about what I want
to do and about how I want to treat situations that I guess I could possible
get into, so it gives me a basis for making decisions, stuff like that. So it
helps in that area. I guess I mean it gives me an overall reason to be a
leader, because I don't know, if I didn't have my faith and my religion to
believe in. I don't think I would necessarily have as much of a purpose to
be an active leader in life so to put it generally like that. (Ben)

Another student also focused heavily on how religion had been a major influence
on leadership. She noted:

My faith, my religion, I'm Catholic and like mostly it's based on my

Catholic principles and stuff. I mean and just kind of like life, and what
my mom has taught me, my conscience, you know… sometimes
something will happen and I'll be like oh, I don't like that, we're not going
to do that again. (Kate)

Overall, the students’ belief systems played a critical role in how they viewed not
only themselves, but leadership as well.

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Types of Leadership/Leadership Philosophy

How participants viewed, and in essence framed their view of leadership, also
influenced their personal leadership. Three types of leadership emerged from the
conversations with students. Some participants clearly identified leadership as
being positionally focused, servant minded, or management-oriented. Sarah
shared quotes related to two differing paradigms. First, Sarah found that
leadership was positional and stated:

I think everybody has to work together, but I do believe that there has to
be somebody up at the top, and then there down, and then each person is
like of a head of their own thing and they all have to work together.
(Sarah)

While Sarah shared a positional stance initially, she also found that leadership can
be servant minded as well:

Another thing about me is that I love to watch other people be successful,

and so I've found that in leadership I make sure that what I'm doing helps
them be successful because then I get satisfaction out of that. (Sarah)

Kate saw leadership as management-oriented and highlighted how she took the
lead on a group project, assigned tasks based on skill sets, and gathered all the
materials prior to the due date. Kate found satisfaction from this management
approach and shared, “That was actually a really good group.”

Overall, students seemed to have varying, if not multiple, leadership philosophies.

In different situations, these students may view leadership and what has
influenced their leadership differently.

When examining the four themes related factors influencing the leadership of
participants, it appears as two were internal factors and two were external factors.
The beliefs participants had about such factors as work ethic, morals and values,
and religion and the views they held related to types of leadership and leadership
philosophies were internal factors influencing their leadership. The influence of
other individuals and what they learned from previous experiences were external
factors influencing their leadership.

Conclusions and Implications

It is clear that the leadership awareness and perceptions of first-year college
students is complex. Students in this study identified internal and external factors

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that helped shape their views. Additional research is needed to dissect how these
pre-college involvements and realities impact students’ experience in a formal
leadership program. Such research will help practitioners as they develop
leadership programs that challenge students to reflect on their past experiences
and help them make connections as to how those experiences have the potential to
shape their future.

Our primary focus in this study was to investigate the initial stage of the
Leadership Identity Development Model. Focusing on the Awareness stage
provided insight and several implications for student affairs and leadership
education research and practice. First, as researchers and practitioners, it is
essential that we facilitate conversations with students about their experiences
before college. It is evident that students bring to college their previous
experiences that helped shape their current worldview, including views and
awareness of leadership (Dugan, 2011). When students enter a formal leadership
program, encouraging reflection of their pre-college experiences of leadership can
be beneficial. Kolb (1984) discussed reflection of concrete experiences and how
that process impacts the learning experience. Knowledge of the four types of
experiences and learning styles will not only help students in their leadership
development, but in other academic settings. As educators, it is our role to provide
a venue for students to explore connections between their leadership experiences
within a formal leadership program and their academic experiences in the
classroom. For instance, if an overwhelming amount of students identify their
early views of leadership as having to hold a position, it would be a pivotal
learning moment to challenge students as to why they believe this to be true. This
can foster rich discussion that could prompt future conversations as well as
encourage students to think critically.

Formal leadership programs should have a solidified curriculum with student

learning and development outcomes (Council for the Advancement of Standards
in Higher Education [CAS], 2009). While reflection of pre-college experiences is
not an articulated outcome, reflection aids in a student’s “understanding of self”
and can help identify why they wanted to be a part of a formal leadership
program. Understanding the reasons behind active student participation can
impact investment and retention.

Just as Dugan (2011) stated, “educators should first begin with critical self-
reflection regarding their developmental preparedness” (p. 78), educators also
need to challenge students to self-reflect on their experiences prior to entering the
leadership program as to gauge their preparedness of actively contributing to the
program. Self-reflection of pre-college experiences can be a powerful tool in
helping students and educators gain momentum in creating healthy discourse
around leadership.

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Second, students’ discussion of internal beliefs as depicted in Question 2 indicates

the need for continued integration of personal development within formal
leadership programs. Some elements of personal development represented in
Question 2, such as morals, values, spiritual development and ethics, are
foundational components reflected in vital student affairs literature, such as
Learning Reconsidered (NASPA/ACPA, 2004) and CAS (2009), as well as
significant leadership models, such as the Social Change Model and the
Relational Leadership Model (Komives et al., 2007; Komives, Wagner, et al.,
2009). Student’s awareness and growth in these areas are connected to their
awareness and growth in leadership, and some might say development in one area
is essential for development in the other. Komives et al. (2011) shared several
examples of activities, discussion topics, course material, and suggested readings
that centers around personal development of students within a leadership
program, thus reinforcing the concept that personal and leadership development
are integrated.

Finally, further discussion of the role others play in student’s leadership journey is
also needed. Komives et. al. (2005) stated “adults were very important in building
confidence and being an early building block of support” (p. 596). Students in this
study indicate family members, family friends, and a coach as individuals who
have influenced their awareness of leadership. Encouraging students to continue
to reflect on external relationships that have an influence on their views of
leadership can be valuable, specifically in creating supportive mentoring
relationships throughout their academic career. These discussions could foster
their view of self with others from dependent to interdependent.

It is recommended that research efforts continue to explore first-year college

students’ awareness of leadership and perceived leadership influences. In order to
more fully understand the leadership identity development of a diverse student
population, future studies should include a larger number of students with more
diverse backgrounds and experiences. Through this study, it is evident that some
college students’ perceptions of leadership are shaped from their experiences with
individuals affiliated with their high school education. It is a recommendation that
leadership educators form stronger relationships with high school personnel who
have direct, co-curricular relationships with students in an effort to better
understand the high school experience. Gaining a better perspective of the pre-
college experiences of first year students from an administrator point of view
could strengthen the design, structure and success of formal leadership programs.
Finally, while focusing on just one stage of the LID model provided the
opportunity to explore student’s perceptions at a deeper level, it is recommended
that future research incorporate all stages.

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Author Biographies
Melissa Shehane serves as Senior Advisor in the Leadership and Service Center at
Texas A&M University. Melissa coordinates community engagement and service-
learning efforts with faculty and other stakeholders. Her primary focus is
developing civically minded leaders. She is pursuing a doctorate. in Agricultural
Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University.

Kathryn Sturtevant serves as an Advisor in the Leadership and Service Center at

Texas A&M University. Kathryn coordinates leadership programming, advises
two student organizations, and is involved with committees that support and
implement assessment and social justice initiatives.

Lori L. Moore is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural

Leadership, Education and Communications at Texas A&M University.
She received her bachelor and master’s from Texas A&M University and
her doctorate from the University of Florida. From 2003 to 2008, Dr.
Moore was on the faculty at the University of Idaho. At Texas A&M she
teaches courses in introductory leadership, leadership theory, adult
education, and is the co-coordinator of the Freshman Leadership Living-
Learning Community. Dr. Moore’s research focuses on leadership
pedagogy and assessing the impact of leadership learning communities.

Dr. Kim E. Dooley is the Associate Dean for Academic Operations for the College
of Agriculture and Life Science and Professor in the Department of Agricultural
Leadership, Education and Communications at Texas A&M University. She
received her doctorate in 1995, masters in education in 1987, and bachelor of
science in 1984 from Texas A&M University. She has conducted professional
presentations and training programs around the globe. Her publications include over
50 refereed journal articles and a book titled, Advanced Methods in Distance
Education: Applications and Practices for Educators, Administrators, and
Learners. Her research interests include faculty professional development and
course conversion into eLearning formats, educational technology as a tool to
improve teaching and learning, program development and evaluation, inquiry-based
learning and assessment, and qualitative research methodology.

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Professor as Facilitator: Shaping an Emerging, Living

System of Shared Leadership in the Classroom

David S. Bright, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Wright State University
Department of Management
3640 Colonel Glenn Highway
Dayton, OH 45435
(937) 619-9005
david.bright@wright.edu

Elizabeth Fisher Turesky, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Leadership and Organizational Studies
University of Southern Maine
Lewiston-Auburn College
51 Westminster Street
Lewiston, ME 04240
(207) 753-6066
eturesky@usm.maine.edu

Roger Putzel, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Business Administration
St. Michael’s College
Colchester, VT 05439-0211
(802) 654-2458
rputzel@smcvt.edu

Thomas Stang
Wright State University
Department of Management
3640 Colonel Glenn Highway
Dayton, OH 45435
(937) 776-2880
thomas.stang5@gmail.com

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Abstract
From the perspective of emergence, professors can facilitate and shape a class as a
complex, adaptive, and living system. A case study illustrates phases of
emergence in the classroom by tracing how a professor may use this perspective
to empower students to share in the leadership of the classroom. Instead of
presenting lessons, the professor facilitates emergent activity, creating a
classroom structure where students practice leadership behaviors. In this
classroom structure, the professor assumes the leadership roles of coach and
facilitator. As a result students building the classroom culture together they
connect with each other: they develop strong relationships, take initiative, and
learn important lessons about leadership. This article concludes with design
principles for establishing a classroom of shared leadership in any teaching
environment in any subject.

Introduction
In recent decades several critics (Wisnewski, 2010; Aram & Noble, 1999; McAndrew,
1997; Rifkin, 1980) of traditional classroom pedagogy have urged educators to
embrace learner-centric teaching, where the professor shifts from a top-down,
hierarchical command-and-control instructor to a facilitator, acting as coach,
consultant, and gardener. Does allowing a class culture to emerge engage the
students? How might a professor facilitate this emergence during different phases of
the class? Axley and McMahon (2006) describe the classroom as a system; we focus
on three of their systemic elements emergence, connections, and feedback loops.

Emergence in the Classroom

“Emergence” refers to novelty in a system’s form or function (Bunge, 2003;

Goldstein, 1999). For Bunge (2003) “self-arranging” or organizing among students
manifests such novelty. From the “bottom-up,” individuals reacting to local stimuli
assemble an elegant, system-level pattern (Bunge, 2003; Bedau, 1997).

Several literatures explore people’s capacity for emergent organizing. In organization

development (OD) bottom-up processes generate informal order in organizational life
(Burnes, 2005; Weick, 2000) and are found in T-groups, gestalt theory and emergent
leadership (Highhouse, 2002; Martinez, 2010). In addition, several applied OD
practices assume that people will generate order (e.g., Olson & Eoyang, 2001; Owen,
2008). For many years OD has viewed organizations as complex and adaptive rather
than mechanistic and linear systems (Bushe & Marshak, 2009).

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Emergence is a common theme in several strands of complexity science. Axley and

McMahon (2006) refer to complex adaptive systems models, network organizations,
non-equilibrium and chaos theory, as do many others (Anderson, 1999; Black &
Edwards, 2000; Goldstein, 1999; Kauffman, 1995; Mathews, White, & Long, 1999;
Waldrop, 1992). Emergence always refers to a new state of an individual, group,
organization - or classroom.

Yet ideas about emergence have barely influenced pedagogy. In our experience most
professors still operate hierarchically, expecting students to follow instructions. For
Robinson (2010) our educational system is implicitly designed to suppress creativity
in the service of a linear, industrialist paradigm for the convenience and control of the
professor.

Professors may help a more complex and fulfilling system emerge in the classroom. In
such an environment, in classes characterized by connectedness and feedback
loops, students may develop greater awareness about themselves and about
complex organizations (Axley & McMahon, 2006). Connectedness is the
configuration of relationships between agents in a system. Highly functioning
organizations require a high level of connectedness (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). People
may form connections when confronted with chaos or ambiguity (Blatt, 2006).
Students connect when assignments require self-organization.

According to systems theorists (e.g., Katz & Kahn, 1978; Burke, 2002; Axley &
McMahon, 2006) positive or amplifying feedback loops provide energy and direction
to the activities of interacting agents. For instance, students who experiment inspire
their peers and set patterns for classroom interaction. Conversely, negative feedback
loops (e.g., “damping feedback,” Axley & McMahon, 2006, 305) restrict
experimentation. Adaptive organizations flirt with chaos (Pascale, Milleman, & Gioja,
2001), but negative feedback keeps them from going too far.

When connectedness and feedback loops emerge, a system becomes adaptive and can
reshape itself indefinitely and perhaps independently (Livne-Tarandach & Bartunek,
2009). Just as fireflies begin flashing in harmony (Radio Lab, 2003); students may
synchronize their behaviors and interests. Rather than looking to the professor for
leadership and direction, students have their own ideas and take initiative; they gain
understanding of themselves and their systems environment; they learn to lead
(Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005).

Facilitation and Emergence

How can the professor facilitate the emergence of student organizing? Let us compare
the facilitator to a gardener. A gardener sets artificial structures that affect plants: soil
condition, seed selection, watering patterns, and so forth. Only the plants, however,

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can grow. Foliage emerges under the right conditions; the gardener shapes emergence
toward a desired outcome. For instance, with some crops (e.g., peas or grapes), the
gardener installs a trellis that shapes but does not determine the pattern of growth. On
one trellis leaves form unique patterns each year.

Similarly, the professor can set formal conditions for learning: the arrangement of the
physical space, the enactment of class routines, and opportunities for student initiative.
Students enact a classroom reality in response to these conditions. The professor
provides a framework but cannot force students to learn. An initial class template
becomes the trellis upon which learning grows.

Teachers interested in creating an emergent learning system may give up some control
over the behavior and activities of students – admittedly a terrifying prospect for many
professors; hence questions arise.

Question 1: How do connectedness and feedback loops develop in a

classroom?

Question 2: How can a facilitator foster connectedness and feedback loops in

a classroom?

Methodology
We used a qualitative case study approach in the action research tradition, where
colleagues systematically examine their own experiences (Reason & Bradbury, 2001).
As professors we examine materials, experiences, and outputs from emergent classes.

Case Selection

We studied classrooms where students and the professor share leadership in the
context of studying organizational behavior and management, though our conclusions
may well apply to classes on other topics. The organizational behavior courses taught
by the authors of this paper depart from the hierarchical classroom approach.

The shared leadership approach includes several common elements. For example,
the professor eliminates rows of tables and chairs before the first class. As the
course begins, the professor tells the students that they “will learn by doing,
reflecting, analyzing and experimenting with new behaviors in a safe environment
that is a departure from the traditional and familiar classroom experience.” Short
lectures, students are told, will either be given in class or posted online, with the
professor acting as a guide and facilitator. Students receive a syllabus detailing
assignments and required reading that provide structure and organization to the

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course, but students and the professor must work out how the classroom will
function. Course, group and individual expectations, goals and outcomes are
shared and clarified, and many questions are answered by the professor during
classes the first week, as students grapple with their learner-centered role in this
non-traditional classroom. After grasping this role, students share information,
distribute responsibility, motivate each other, and take part in leading the class.

Organizational behavior as a course topic provides an appropriate context for the study
of facilitation for several reasons. First, the course covers topics that apply to
emergence: leadership, organizational dynamics, conflict management,
communicating effectively, power, influence and team development. In teams students
practice skills, observe, analyze, and experiment with behavior, give and receive
constructive feedback from their peers, and present a project. The structure of the
classroom requires students to engage in self-organizing; students assume
differentiated roles and responsibilities within their teams. Students choose to present
on the topics covered and evaluate one another at the beginning, in the middle and at
the end of the course. The class experience generates data that the students may gather,
compile, and interpret in a final paper.

Data Collection

Our data collection strategy provided a diversity of perspectives to ensure a

credible and dependable representation of professor and student experiences (Yin,
2009). Three sources were examined. First, the course syllabus and manual for a
particular collaborative class design provided background on the expectations for
students, and assumptions about the role of the professor.

Second, ten hours of interviews with an exemplar instructor for this course
explored perspectives about facilitation at different points of the class. Questions
included: “What patterns do you observe in this phase of the class?” “What are
the students’ reactions?” “What developments do you expect?” and “What do you
do to facilitate the emergence of these developments?” The responses were
transcribed in detail.

Third, to represent the students’ perspectives, we drew a sample of 60 from 160

student memos written in two sections of this exemplary teacher’s class. In these
memos, students wrote their goals, observations, and insights about class events
the preceding week, personal lessons learned, and their goals for the next week,
thus proving, a snapshot into the student experience at a particular moment. These
required weekly memos were written for and judged by peers. The partially
randomized selection provided a representative sample on student experiences.

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Data Analysis

The analysis followed several steps to ensure confirmability of our data

interpretation. First, the authors organized their observations to correspond with
the early, middle, and late phases of the class. The data were entered into Atlas-ti,
used to manage all analysis and results. Second, following Boyatzis (1998), the
student author read and conducted open-coding (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) on the
data to generate an initial list of themes. In particular, we were looking for (a) the
conditions for emergence (e.g., the appearance of connectedness and feedback
loops), (b) the student experience as emergence occurred, and (c) the facilitator’s
role and actions during each phase. Third, the remaining authors discussed and
sorted the open codes into thematic clusters (Boyatzis, 1998) that describe system
developments in all our similarly framed classrooms when we function as
facilitators. Each coded quotation was reviewed until the author team reached
consensus on each theme and its interpretation. Fourth, these themes were
arranged on a timeline, as indicated in Table 1, with the essential activities and
indicators shown. Finally, we used the themes to again interpret original data to
verify that the results were replicable.

Results
Early Phase

Students’ reactions to the prospect of a non-traditional, learner-centered course

range from disbelief to fear to positive anticipation. The early phase is
characterized by stuctural divergence, an anxious emotional climate, and
underdeveloped patterns of feedback. The prfessor focuses on shaping emergent
structures, nurturing a supportive emotional climate and building students’ self-
confidence.

Table 1 illustrates the emerging states in a classroom and how the professors
facilitate the classroom through each stage. The table depicts themes at each
phase. The professors’ comments come from our discussions; student papers are
cited directly (albeit anonymously).

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Table 1
Emergent Developments and Facilitation Activities in the Shared Leadership
Designed Classroom
Phase Emergent Developments Facilitation Activities
Early Structural divergence: Shape Emergent Structures:
• Initiation of connections; students become • Signal that class will operate under
acquainted. different assumptions from what
• Structures and assignments presented for students are used to (e.g., change
students to practice and share leadership. physical arrangement of classroom).
Emergence of initial informal structure as • Lay out a formal structure, with
they do. differentiated roles, for students to
• Experimentation to accomplish goals. Lots build their emergent system on.
of questions and trial and error. • Clarify assignments, expectations and
goals as soon as possible.
Anxious Emotional Climate:
• Many students express discomfort with Nurture a Supportive Emotional Climate:
ambiguity and expectation for students • Create conditions for student-to-
sharing responsibility for the learning in student coaching and peer feedback.
the classroom. • Express confidence that they will
• Testing of instructor expectations. To achieve their goals.
resolve ambiguity students ask for • Show students that you care about
direction. them.
• Demonstration of relief and excitement at • Be patient. Emergence takes time.
initial successes.
Build Confidence:
Underdeveloped Patterns of Feedback: • Be generous with constructive and
• Hesitance to talk authentically about supportive feedback to students.
feelings and perceptions; peer-to-peer • Model active listening and effective
feedback is almost all positive but pro feedback.
forma. • Honor expression of all feelings,
• Students concerned about how peers positive and negative.
perceive them, don’t want “to look stupid.” • Honor mistakes. Be unflappable when
things go awry.
• Help students to identify, express, and
develop their leadership strengths.
• Have fun.

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Middle Structural Stability Reinforce the New Formal Structure

• Emergence of leadership behaviors among • Hold students accountable for the their
students. own learning and collective learning in
• The system matures; routines taken for the class.
granted. • Facilitate team and leadership
• Anxiety and confusion gives way to positive development and model the leadership to
engagement. do so.

Deepened Capacity for Feedback Foster Authenticity

• Constructive feedback becomes a valuable • Encourage students to say what they
asset. think/feel. Facilitate trust building.
• Students apply leadership concepts when • Use student-to-student feedback to open
providing feedback to their teammates. up discussions about meeting
expectations of self and others.
Growing Awareness of Self Within a System of • Encourage students to support each other
Relationships to take risks to try new leadership
• Deepening knowledge of how the system behaviors.
works.
• Norms emerge norms named earlier phase Facilitate Self-discovery
acknowledged and reinforced. • Keep appropriate levels of tension in
• Startling discovery: when initiating the class to allow students to stretch
leadership behaviors, I can influence others themselves.
and the system. • Continue to coach and give feedback to
students.
Reinforce and celebrate self-discovery.

Late Convergence in Task, Process and relationship Encourage Reflection and Perspective-taking
• Convergence in the use of leadership • Debrief classroom experience. How
jargon to explain theory to practice in the did individually and collectively did
classroom and in connection with one’s students achieve goals? What was your
work and life experiences. experience over the semester?
• Concepts used to describe events and • Students interview one another.
developments in the classroom as a • Students pushed to become self-
laboratory for learning about leadership. reflective. How far have I come? Have
my goals and attitudes changed? What
High Quality Relationships do I learn next? How have I and do I
• Peer pressure and support for one another apply what I learned in this course to
brings out the best in everyone. the organization where I work now or
• Asking one another for significant personal will work in the future?
feedback.
• Peer coaching. Allow the Momentum to Reach Its Natural End
• Success = enthusiastic engagement in
Awareness of Transcendent Impacts learning activities.
• Papers that are peer reviewed describe • Professor steps forward to coach
learning beyond the course. students in reflecting deeply to find the
• Recognition of how I react to others. personal meaning in their experiences
• Deepened but detached appreciation of over the course of the semester.
own strengths, weaknesses.

At first, students frequently use terms such as “confusion” and “anxiety,”

indicating an anxious emotional climate. They are uncomfortable with the
ambiguity of the class and apprehensive at taking responsibility for activities in
class, such as in student-led discussions, leading their team in an experiential

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exercise, giving each other feedback, and presenting course content to the entire
class or to their team. In the face of this initial anxiety, the professor works to
establish a supportive climate by demonstrating passion for students’ learning and
by expressing confidence that the students will find their way. As in any normal
class, students turn to the instructor for direction. Like coaches, a professor
responds to anxiety by expressing confidence in students’ abilities. The professor
shares resources and helps to clarify students’ understanding of how they will
learn (by doing). The professor does not provide too much direction, which at this
stage would undermine the class as it (unconsciously) seeks leadership within
itself. The professor allows students to work their way through anxiety and
confusion, noting that students learn at the edge of their comfort zone. In the
vocabulary of complexity, we expect a novel, informal organization to emerge.

The professor thus shapes emergent structures by setting the initial conditions
and encouraging students to develop their own patterns of activity. Key
facilitative actions include telling students that the class will be a new kind of
experience, clarifying expectations, assignments, course and individual goals, and
coaching students as they engage in the work of the classroom—learning about
organizational behavior and leadership. For instance, the professor rearranges the
physical space of the classroom. “The physical message right away is that this is
not going to look like another classroom.” The professor does other things to
signal that this course will be different. They devote class time for students to
discuss and share their expectations and learning needs in small groups and then
with all present. To reduce dependence and to release emergent energy, they
encourage their students to take initiative, to take risks.

When students think and act beyond assignments and grades for the class, the
authors believe that they have developed commitment to the their own learning
and to that of their peers. As students show evidence of awareness, responsibility,
and commitment, they go beyond their original assumptions about what can be
learned in the classroom about themselves and others. Students have new, hence
emergent, experiences in relationships with peers and their professor.

Structural divergence occurs at the next stage, as students engage in new

classroom activities. Students demonstrate new classroom behavior as they join
with their peers to complete team projects and engage in activities, simulations
and assignments. Early on they make mistakes. Students must feel free to
experiment with new ideas and ways of leading in order to learn to identify and
correct mistakes as well as to overcome their fear of making them. A new
classroom organizational structure emerges when students learn from experience
which actions succeed, which fail, and which can be improved upon. Evidence of
divergence is also found in the students’ stated desire to connect with their peers,
to learn who they are and what they do. Students express interest in learning not

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only more about one another as individuals, but also in the benefit of learning
from one another. In so doing atudents link theory with the practice of leadership
and organizational behavior.

During this early phase an underdeveloped pattern of feedback prevails in the

class. Students feel frustrated, embarrassed, inadequate, or insecure; they struggle
to fulfill responsibilities and achieve their goals. They have difficulty sharing
authentic information. So the professors reinforce students’ self-confidence by
expressing confidence that the students will succeed and by instituting procedures
that give students experience and, thereby, an increased sense of certainty. After
presentations, discussions or experiential activities, peer reviews and other
constructive feedback help shift the students’ mindset towards self-efficacy,
confidence and autonomy.

By the end of the early phase, students have presented to the class, led a
discussion, facilitated a team exercise, given and received specific, constructive
feedback, and reflected upon and discussed perceived successes and failures.
They have some experience. Now they express relief and excitement about the
classroom undertaking. The professors celebrate these moments as success but
more importantly as appreciation and validation of where students are at that
moment. Whether feeling fear, stress, or excitement, students are engaged with
the enterprise. The professor’s actions plant the seeds of psychological safety
(Edmondson, 1999), important classroom leadership by students, and a culture
where people venture out of their comfort zone.

Middle Phase

Table 1 depicts three developments in the middle stage: structural stability,

enhanced feedback and security within a system of relationships. As these
features emerge, the professor reinforces emergent classroom structures. The
professor promotes innovation, authenticity, and self-discovery. In one instance,
students insincerely praised a seriously flawed presentation. The professor, after
referring to an obviously substandard presentation, strongly challenged the critics
to be honest. Students report that the next round of feedback is sharper, more
specific and effective.

Such facilitation generates structural stability, as new classroom norms develop.

Informal leadership emerges as class members routinely play more active roles
than in traditionally taught courses. Students look to one another for significant
feedback within the safe structure of their classroom. Leadership is not only
informal but also shared. Despite formal team boundaries, people communicate
across the class, solving problems and making decisions. Now familiar with peers,

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professor, roles, and classroom procedures, students come to class expecting

interaction that matters.

As students grasp key concepts and become comfortable working in a

nontraditional and highly interactive classroom, a positive, supportive
environment forms. Psychological safety matures, as evidenced by the frequency
and candor of peer feedback. Students understand why they are evaluated and
participate in the process. Students report that the polite and positive feedback of
the early phase has been supplanted by feedback that hits hard, but does not
threaten.

Watching the class structure stabilize, students see how a system works, how the
environment shifts, how they fit in, and how the patterns reflect theory. From their
observation emerges an awareness of self within a system of relationships and
how people – they - influence the organization.

Opportunities arise for professors to facilitate self-discovery. Organization

emerges at the edge of chaos (Axley & McMahon, 2006; Pascale, Milleman, &
Gioja, 2001). Self-discovery occurs as students give and receive feedback and
understand their own feelings and those of others. For students to learn important
lessons about themselves, the classroom needs “safe tension” – an environment
where people share candid information, fearing neither failure nor retribution. At
this stage the professor redirects attention away from procedural issues towards
students’ personal development and leadership agendas.

Late Phase

As the last row of Table 1 shows, the late stage of system development features
convergence of task processes, high quality relationships, and awareness of
transcendent effects. Student behaviors, interactions, and outcomes are consistent
and self-sustaining. For example, students come to class ready to conduct an
entire session of class with apparent ease. Students interact with consistency: they
make requests of one another, report to one another, and provide one another with
constructive feedback. In short, the class exhibits a stable organizational form.

Relationships have reached a highly developed state. Students rely upon their
peers and influence each other with little hesitation. Rather than disappoint their
peers, many students exceed their own expectations. Norms about honesty and
self-improvement govern student behaviors. At this stage, students accept and
encourage peer-to-peer coaching. They see each other’s strengths and weaknesses
and encourage one another to improve.

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Finally, an awareness of transcendent impacts emerges as students discern and

understand processes of an organization. Students develop a deeper understanding
about how organizational systems actually operate, including how the parts and the
whole work together. They see themselves in a different light, having exerted
influence within the system. With this new self-awareness comes greater confidence in
exercising leadership. Note for instance, this student’s statement: “I had never
thought in a million years that I would be so passionate about a class and have
confidence in myself to stand up and address a full class of students … This
experience is one that will stay with me forever… I still reminisce in awe that I
was so self-assured.”

As the class reaches its conclusion, students also report that discoveries and
lessons learned have created changes beyond the classroom. One student wrote
the following: “Being able to present myself in a positive and professional manner
on a more consistent basis is going to have to be a personal goal of mine for years
to come. Furthermore, I am glad that I was able to have this experience because
… it was extremely rewarding for me personally in ways that will carry far
beyond this course.”

The data also demonstrate learning about the interaction between the individual
and the whole. Students learn that every person in a system is connected to every
other person. Furthermore, they realize that they can change the system. They
have seen small conversations cascade through the classroom and generate
systemic change. They have seen change in one team affect the entire class. As
one student wrote:
“I have a completely different outlook on the classroom setting. I have become
more active … and have been participating more…We couldn't just sit back and
get by with the bare minimum because our peers were depending on us. We didn't
want to let each other down.”

Discussion
We emphasize two points of contribution: First, we have extended Axley and
McMahon’s (2006) seminal review of complex systems in the classroom, which
included three key elements: emergence, connectedness, and feedback loops. We
have shown how these elements contribute to a class and develop over its life
cycle. Secondly, we have linked the literature on complexity to a student-centered
pedagogy that gives students the experience of a complex system. Examples from
the authors’ classroom experiences have demonstrated how the concept of
emergence facilitates a classroom organization.

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Connectedness and feedback loops contribute to self-organized learning. To use

the gardening metaphor, connectedness buds in the early phase but does not
bloom until the middle phase. As Blatt (2006) observed, people connect to
confront structural divergence, ambiguity, or uncertainty, as in the early phase.
While most professors want students to develop relationships broadly, students in
traditional classes connect with others and feel psychological safety only in a
small circle of acquaintances. In contrast, our classroom structures foster and
capitalize on connectedness: students participate with confidence and develop
strong relationships widely.

Feedback loops apparently take longer to emerge, perhaps requiring

connectedness. Students critiqued their peers’ efforts with platitudes and polite
commentary in the early phases. As they connected in the middle phase, students
critiqued more authentically, sharing both positive and negative perceptions. This
more potent feedback eventually taught students important lessons about sharing
leadership. Apparently, transcendent lessons require feedback.

Thus, connectedness and feedback loops, essential elements of a complex,

adaptive system, require time and cultivation to develop and to produce
transcendent learning. Accordingly, the second research question focused on a
professor’s facilitation of emergence in the classroom. Like gardeners preparing
the soil and planting seeds, early in the class the professors create the conditions
for student leadership to take root. In a classroom arranged and managed in a new
way, students develop ambitious goals and strict norms and confront each other
on achievement of and deviance from them. The professors encourage students to
take ownership of the classroom by participating in forming the agenda,
conducting team presentations, facilitating team learning, and developing
leadership activities. In the middle phase, students establish their own formal
processes and routines, and the professor helps them learn to observe
dispassionately and give constructive feedback. As the class matures, the
professor coaches students to harvest their learning through self-discovery,
reflection and perspective-taking. Students help one another achieve personal
learning objectives and the learning outcomes of the course. Emerging from a
template, student organization acquires a life of its own and produces intricate
human activity. The system unfolds as students interact and develop relationships
with each other and with the professor. By making observations in vivo, the
professor helps the class become a living laboratory for testing concepts and
practices of leadership and organizational behavior. The class becomes its own
case study for students, who write about it in their journals and final papers.

Throughout the experience, the professor must not instruct too much, even when
confronted with students’ initial insecurity. Typically a professor would answer
all questions and give clear directions to ease tension. In the shared leadership

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approach to the classroom, the professor allows students to be anxious, knowing

that innovation and change occur at the edge of chaos (Pascale, Milleman, &
Gioja, 2001). The professor should not resolve ambiguity for students, but should
coach them to resolve it for themselves. The professor instills confidence and a
supportive emotional climate to empower students and then gets out of their way.

The analysis suggests the following design principles for transferring the lessons
of this paper to create a classroom where students become more empowered,
responsible, self-directed, and aware of systems dynamics:

• A bottom-up organization emerges from a formal organizational

template that functions as a seed. The instructor provides a template for
activity but then allows the organization to evolve. To recall the gardening
metaphor, students first see the garden trellis, but then their activities fill
in the spaces. Figuratively, the students’ emergent activity covers the
trellis and becomes the class’s novel structure, usually as a unique
interpretation of the original, formal organizational template.

• Give students significant autonomy and responsibility for the class as

a system. Sharing leadership in the classroom enhances student
achievement. Students are given assignments of significant responsibility:
they plan and lead interactive workshops on key topics, they develop and
deliver peer-to-peer teaching; their evaluations of their peers count as part
of the grade. Students respond tentatively at first, but ultimately report
unmatched learning through such experiences.

• Create opportunities for students to connect. Our experience adds

evidence to what the literature says: the emergence of an exceptionally
effective system requires connectedness (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). Yet,
connectedness does not just happen; it needs attention and nurturing – it
needs cultivation. Students more readily step up to classroom leadership
after activities where they become acquainted, forge psychological
contracts with one another, and develop mutual support.

• Teach students how to observe and how to share high quality

feedback. Students need to see the professor model good feedback. The
professor first demonstrates effective feedback when making observations
of students presenting or facilitating. Frank, constructive, and supportive,
the professor gently pushes students to be so with one another. We teach
students to (a) identify others’ effective actions, (b) set measurable self-
improvement objectives, and (c) plan suggested changes in detail.

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In recent years, the professor’s role in higher education has been called into
question (Weimer, 2002; Ramsey & Fitzgibbons, 2005). Jarvik (2009) has even
called traditional university education obsolete. This study provides a viable
alternative: sharing leadership in the classroom. High student engagement results.
As their personal and organizational efforts bear fruit, students bear witness to a
system emerging inside and outside themselves. They notice new behavior and
attitudes in themselves and in others. This experience gives them the courage to
engage in active experimentation in the classroom (Kolb, 1984) and to keep
growing (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005). Writers such
as Alderfer (1972) have called such awareness essential to personal well-being.

A key limitation of this study, of course, is its focus on a specific set of courses.
Future work should validate the patterns we have discerned. However, our
conclusions fit previous findings and perspectives. For instance, Weimer (2003)
and Doyle (2008) have both noted student’s initially tentative reaction to learner-
centric teaching. In general, our work contributes to the paradigm of the
university classroom as a venue for significant, constructivist learning.

Finally, this study may benefit professors who want to incorporate shared
leadership in their teaching. The systems perspective informs every classroom
setting. No matter what design a professor uses, students align themselves to a
template of organization, as did the students in this study. Students are more
likely to take initiative and exercise positive peer influence if the curriculum
includes time for connecting with one another and for sharing high quality
feedback, information, perspectives, and energy. In our view, facilitation from the
perspective of emergence, because it creates a memorable experience, generates
“sticky” learning. Knowledge sharing and feedback in an emergent organization
provide deep, applied learning. The classroom structured as an emergent, living
system offers opportunities for students to organize, innovate, and flourish as
learners and leaders.

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Author Biographies
David Bright is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management and
International Business, Raj Soin College of Business at Wright State University in
Dayton, OH. David teaches leadership, organization development, and
organizational behavior. His research focuses on the enablers of excellence in
organizational life.

Elizabeth Fisher Turesky is an Assistant Professor in the undergraduate and

graduate Programs of Leadership and Organizational Studies at the University of
Southern Maine, Lewiston-Auburn College. Elizabeth teaches leadership,
organizational change and development, and organizational behavior. Her
research focuses on the nexus of experiential learning and leadership
development.

In his retirement from St. Michael’s College, Roger Putzel is working on reducing
his carbon footprint and applying the concept of distributed responsibility in new
venues, especially high schools.

Thomas Stang is a recent graduate of the Raj Soin College of Business at Wright
State University in Dayton, OH. Thomas intends to continue his research and
studies in Organizational Development, potentially culminating in an advanced
degree.

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Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: An Integrative,

Process-Oriented Theory of Student Leadership

Scott J. Allen, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Management
Department of Management, Marketing and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
sallen@jcu.edu

Marcy Levy Shankman, Ph.D.

Principal
MLS Consulting, LLC
Shaker Heights, OH
shankman@mlsconsulting.net

Rosanna F. Miguel, Ph.D.

Visiting Assistant Professor of Management
Department of Management, Marketing and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
rmiguel@jcu.edu

Abstract
Emotionally intelligent leadership (EIL) theory combines relevant models,
theories, and research in the areas of emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership.
With an intentional focus on context, self and others, emotionally intelligent
leaders facilitate the attainment of desired outcomes. The 21 capacities described
by the theory equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
characteristics to achieve desired results. The purpose of this article is to propose
an integrative, process-oriented EIL theory to provide a framework for
conceptualizing and integrating future research and practice. The authors review
and organize research and theory in emotional intelligence and leadership within
the context of higher education, introduce the EIL model, and provide suggestions
for future research. The article concludes with practical implications for
leadership development in the context of higher education.

Introduction

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The emotional intelligence, leadership, and higher education literatures have

progressed fairly independently of one another. However, they are
complementary and together can provide a useful framework for researchers and
practitioners in these fields. This paper brings together these respective literatures
to gain a more complete conceptualization of leadership in the context of higher
education to present a new integrative (Boyer, 1990) and process-oriented theory
of emotionally intelligent leadership (EIL). This theory blends two constructs,
emotional intelligence and leadership, to form a new construct, EIL. Specifically,
in this paper the authors (a) review and organize research and theory in emotional
intelligence and leadership within the context of higher education, (b) propose an
integrative, process-oriented EIL theory to provide a framework for
conceptualizing and integrating future research and practice, (c) offer suggestions
for future research, and (d) provide practical implications for leadership
development in the context of higher education.

Overview
While EIL theory can be usefully applied in various contexts (e.g., executive
education in the workplace), higher education has been selected as the starting
point for two primary reasons. First, the study of leadership development in
higher education is an emerging area of study; therefore, theoretical frameworks
for conceptualizing and integrating future research and practice will add
substantial value to the growth of the field. Second, the authors believe higher
education is an ideal practice field for leadership development and these programs
should be designed to equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and
other characteristics to achieve desired results.

Research and Theory

Higher Education

Leadership development is consistently mentioned as a core focus and desired

outcome for U.S. colleges and universities (Astin, 1997; Johnson, 2000; Shertzer
& Shuh, 2004). Cress, Astin, Zimerman-Oster, and Burkhardt (2001) found that
leadership development programs positively impact educational and personal
development in addition to leadership skills. More recently, Dugan and Komives
(2007) note that student leadership development programs have grown
exponentially over the last 15 years, with one study estimating more than 1000
programs on college campuses in the United States alone.

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Because involvement on campus is one important avenue for developing

leadership, the authors situate EIL theory squarely in this important
developmental period for youth (DiPaolo, 2009). However, research linking
emotional intelligence, leadership and collegians are limited. The research that
does exist investigates emotional intelligence (EI) as a predictor of variables such
as workplace success (Liptak, 2005), social network size (Austin et al., 2005; Van
der Zee, Thijs, & Schakel, 2002), mental health (Gupta & Kumar, 2010), and
academic success and achievement (Jacques, 2009; Parker et al., 2004). While a
few assessments are designed with youth in mind (e.g., The Hay Group’s ESCI-U
& Bar-On & Parker’s EQ-i:YV), the authors found only one completed
dissertation addressing the intersections mentioned above (Bissessar, 2009).
Therefore, EIL theory offers a new approach to understanding leadership
development in the context of higher education. It opens the door for future
research studies to more closely examine the linkages between the components of
the theory to increase our understanding of individual differences in leadership
development. From this knowledge, leadership educators, scholars, and
practitioners can determine which approaches to development and which
capacities are most effective in various situations.

It is important to reiterate that while the authors are placing the theory in the
context of the undergraduate collegiate environment in this paper, EIL theory has
applicability in many other environments. The collegiate environment, because of
its inherent qualities and the aforementioned reasons, was deemed a natural
starting point to begin to explore the merits of the theory.

Emotional Intelligence

Emotions and emotionality are “perceived to be central to experiences at work

and are studied as relevant predictors of performance” (Rajah, Song, & Arvey,
2011, p. 1107). Currently, there are two popular construct models of EI – an
ability model (e.g., Mayer & Salovey, 1997) and a mixed model (e.g., Bar-On,
2006; Goleman, 1995). The former proposes that EI overlaps with cognitive
ability because EI itself is a type of intelligence (Joseph & Newman, 2010). The
EIL theory as proposed in this paper aligns more closely to a mixed model,
particularly because it combines two constructs, EI and leadership. Mixed models
of EI consist of a wide variety of components, such as personality traits,
individual capabilities, and personal characteristics (Day & Carroll, 2008).

The Ability Model of EI proposed by Salovey and Mayer (1990) asserts that EI
consists of four hierarchical branches which demonstrate that some of the EI
abilities are more psychologically complex than others. This ability model
describes emotions and thoughts as intertwined (Caruso, 2003). Mayer and
Salovey (1997) assert that emotional intelligence is comprised of four branches.

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These are the “ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the
ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability
to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate
emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (p. 10).

The mixed model approach to EI is less favored by some in the academic

community (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009), but is wide spread in
its appeal to industry, training, education, and leadership development. These
approaches conceptualize EI as a wide variety of personality traits, individual
capabilities, and personal characteristics (Day & Carroll, 2008). These models
highlight personality traits, characteristics, competencies, skills, and other
attributes not associated with Mayer and Salovey’s (1990) model of EI. For
instance, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) include organizational
awareness as a part of their model; however, Mayer and Salovey (1997) would
not consider a component of EI.

These models seem to be responding to one critique of the ability model, which is
that it describes only one aspect of ability. According to Caruso (2003), “the
ability model [is] focused and narrow in scope. This leaves a lot of room for other
approaches – whether trait or competency based – to better understand and
develop people” (p. 7). Accordingly, other approaches may better understand and
develop people because they recognize the multi-faceted nature of human beings.
This critique suggests the need for an array of approaches to better understand the
complexities and full scope of EI. The following sections highlight three of the
more prominent approaches to the mixed models of trait emotional intelligence
(Petrides et al., 2010), performance model (Goleman et al., 2002), and personality
model (Bar-On, 2006). In part, EIL theory represents an integration of these
mixed models.

Trait Emotional Intelligence suggests that self-perceptions and dispositions play a

major role in determining one’s EI (Mavroveli, Petrides, Rieffe, & Bakker, 2007).
Trait EI aims to comprehensively cover personality dimensions that relate to
affect (Mavroveli et al., 2007). As such, trait EI focuses on an individual’s
perception of his or her emotional abilities (Petrides, Vernon, Schermer, Ligthart,
Boomsma, & Veselka, 2010). Drawing heavily on personality variables such as
adaptability, assertiveness, emotional perception (self/others), optimism, self-
esteem, and trait empathy, trait EI focuses on behavioral dispositions and self-
perceived abilities (Mavroveli et al., 2007) as opposed to information processing
(Zhou & George, 2003), which is the hallmark of Mayer and Salovey’s (1990)
work.

The Performance Model of EI, first introduced by Goleman (1995) brought EI to

mainstream society in his best-selling book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can

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Matter More Than IQ. Goleman et al. (2002) refer to this model of EI as a
competency or performance model and assert that individual differences in
competency levels are primarily responsible for differences in performance.
Research shows a number of results associated with the performance model of EI
that suggest that those higher in EI are better performers at work (Cherniss, 1999;
Goleman, 2001). As such, the performance model has received a great deal of
attention in the corporate, education, and non-profit communities, the popular
press, and from many in the academic and professional community (Ashkanasy &
Daus, 2005).

The final model included in the formulation of EIL theory is the personality
model. According to Bar-On (2010), “emotional-social intelligence is a cross-
section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators
that determine how well we understand and express ourselves, understand others
and relate with them, and cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures”
(para. 1). Like other mixed models of EI, Bar-On (2006) integrates a combination
of mental abilities (e.g., emotional self-awareness) with other attributes like
independence, self-regard, and mood. Bar-On’s approach to EI includes five
factors (intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, general
mood) along with 15 overlapping competencies, skills, and other characteristics
(Bar-On, 2010).

Leadership

Historically, the literature on leadership has focused primarily on the leader as the
focal point. However, in recent years followers and the context have become more
prominent in the work of scholars who understand that focusing on only the
leader can be limiting and an over-simplification of the complexity of leadership
(Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Kellerman, 2004; Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey,
2007). This heuristic of leader-follower-context (Fiedler, 1972) provides a basis
from which to begin our exploration of leadership. This structure of leadership
(leader-follower-context) provides the framework for EIL theory.

An essential factor of EIL theory that is not present in many models of leadership
is the inclusion of context as a focal element. Although several scholars have
mentioned context in their work on leadership (Allen & Mease, 2001; Avolio &
Gardner, 2005; Day & Lance, 2004; Fiedler, 1995; Hartley & Hinksman, 2003;
Heifetz, 1994; Hickman, 2010; House & Mitchell, 1974; Liden & Antonakis,
2009; London, 2002; Zenger, Ulrich, & Smallwood, 2000), the topic has largely
been neglected in the intersection of the leadership and EI literature (Goleman, et
al., 2002) and college student leadership development (Dugan & Komives, 2011;
HERI, 1996).

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The classic work of Fiedler (1972) has been refreshed with more recent work that
recognizes the importance of context or the larger system in which a leader and
followers work (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; Uhl-Bien,
Marion, & McKelvey, 2007). Avolio and Gardner (2005) underscore the
importance of context when they emphasize the reality that leadership occurs in a
dynamic context. Given that the context is the environment in which leaders and
followers work, the ability to accurately diagnose both the internal group
dynamics and external environmental forces or factors will contribute to success
or failure (Day & Lance, 2004; Goleman et al., 2002; Hartley & Hinksman, 2003;
Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; London, 2002; Zenger, Ulrich, & Smallwood, 2000).
For these reasons, the importance of considering the setting and situation in which
leadership occurs is an essential component to understanding and demonstrating
effective leadership (Hickman, 2010; Wren, 1995). Leadership is not a formulaic
or textbook process, especially because the external forces in an environment are
fluid and dynamic.

The majority of the research on leadership focuses on the individual leader’s

behaviors or actions (Bass, 1985; Kouzes & Posner, 2007), personality traits and
individual characteristics (Bass, 2008; Blanchard, Zigarmi & Nelson, 1993;
Goleman, 2000), and so forth. The behaviors, practices or actions of leaders are
the central focus of models by Kouzes and Posner (2007) and Bass (1985) who
describe how leaders accomplish great results. For instance, according to Bass
(1985), transformational leadership is defined by individualized consideration
(IC), intellectual stimulation (IS), inspirational motivation (IM), and idealized
influence (II). Likewise, Kouzes and Posner (2007) suggest that their five
exemplary practices of leaders include modeling the way, challenging the process,
inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, and encouraging the heart.
Ultimately, these are actions or behaviors that leaders do to achieve results.

From a personality perspective, many scholars emphasize concepts such as

optimism and self-efficacy or self-esteem, which are heralded by Avolio and
Luthans (2006) and Goleman et al. (2002) as crucial ingredients for effective
leadership. Self-awareness requires knowing oneself and one’s values as well as
how one’s actions affect others. A focus on self suggests that self-awareness is an
important attribute of effective leaders (Avolio, 2005; Avolio & Gardner, 2005;
Ciarrochi & Godsell, 2006; Conger, 1992; Gardner, 1983; Goleman et al., 2002;
HERI, 1996; Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007; London, 2002; McCauley &
Van Velsor, 2005; Rath & Conchie, 2008). Since this is a lifelong endeavor, the
process of growth and development represents a long-term commitment to
development rather than a one-time event (Avolio & Gibbons, 1989).

Like the topic of context, historically followers and the concept of followership
has received minimal attention as a fundamental area of focus in the leadership

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literature (Bennis, 2000). In recent years followers and followership have received
greater attention in the literature (Carsten, Uhl-Bien, West, Patera, & McGregor,
2010; Meindl, 1995). However, a challenge is that with the term follower there
comes a level of preconceived notions of obedience and meekness (Yukl, 2010).
Gardner (1990) asserts that the term suggests passivity and dependence.
Interestingly, followers themselves construct the role in various ways from
passive or obedient to proactive (Carsten et al., 2010; Kelley, 1988). Perhaps as a
result of these perceptions a specific focus on followers is a relatively new realm
in leadership theory.

Some scholars and researchers take a more proactive view on the role of followers
and suggest that to be successful socially, group effort is required; as a result, both
leadership and followership are important (Chaleff, 2003). Others have focused
on the concept itself and even presented a model for effective and less effective
followership (Kelley, 1988; Kellerman, 2008). In one of the first major articles to
focus on followers, Kelley (1988) suggests that the success of organizations is a
result, at least in part, of how effectively followers follow. In essence, leaders and
followers work together to facilitate results. Hence, it is important to underscore
the role that followers play in leadership. After all, as Kellerman (2008) suggests,
individuals are first followers.

EIL Theory
The foundation for EIL theory is based on the blending of two critical constructs,
EI and leadership. These two constructs form a new construct termed EIL.
Integrative (Boyer, 1990) and process-oriented, the theory views leadership as
dynamic and contingent upon three primary factors which interact in meaningful
ways: context, self, and others (Fiedler, 1972). The three factors are comprised of
21 sub-factors, termed capacities (see Table 1). These factors and capacities stem
from both the EI and leadership literatures discussed previously. EIL theory
conceptualizes the construct of EIL as a combination of cognitive processes,
personality traits, behaviors, and competencies that interact with one another and
predict critical outcomes in leadership situations. The authors believe that to
isolate any one of these would be limiting; demonstrating one’s EIL may include
any of the capacities, or even all of them, depending upon the situation. After all,
individuals bring a baseline level of cognition about emotions (Mayer & Salovey,
1997), inherent personality traits (Bar-On, 2010; Petrides & Furnham, 2000), and
performance levels/competencies (Goleman et al., 2002) to any leadership
situation. To negate one is to diminish the complexities of identity, human
performance potential, leadership, and EI. EIL theory asserts that these capacities
influence an individual’s ability to diagnose leadership challenges, identify an
appropriate course of action and to intervene as necessary to facilitate desired

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outcomes.

Table 1 provides the categorization of the three factors (context, self, and others)
and 21 sub-factors or capacities. The 21 capacities were chosen based on a
qualitative review of the literature on leadership and emotional intelligence. It is
important to note that at least five of the capacities in Table 1 are proposed to be
aspects of EI while the other 16 are considered to be aspects of leadership. The
five proposed EI capacities are emotional self-control, emotional self-perception,
flexibility, optimism, and empathy.

Table 1
Three Factors and 21 Capacities of EIL

Context
Being aware of the environment in which leaders and followers work
• Environmental awareness: Thinking intentionally about the environment of a
leadership situation (Bass, 2008; Burns, 1978; Heifetz, Grashow & Linsky, 2009;
Tichy & Bennis, 2008; Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007; Yukl, 2010)
• Group savvy: Interpreting the situation and/or networks of an organization
(Bass, 2008; Cragan & Wright, 1999; Schein, 1988; Tuckman, 1965)
Self
Being aware of yourself in terms of your abilities and emotions
• Emotional self-perception: Identifying your emotions and reactions and
their impact on you (Bar-On, 2007; Goleman, 2000; Goleman et al., 2002;
Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham, & Frederickson, 2006; Mayer & Salovey,
1997)
• Honest self-understanding: Being aware of your own strengths and
limitations (Avolio, 2005; Bass, 2008; Bennis & Nanus, 1997; Goleman,
2000; HERI, 1996; Komives & Wagner, 2009; McCauley & VanVelsor,
2004; Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Taylor, 2010; Yukl, 2010)
• Healthy self-esteem: Having a balanced sense of self (Avolio & Luthans,
2006; Bass, 1960; Bass, 2008; Baumeister et al., 2003; Buckingham &
Clifton, 2001; Cowley, 1931; McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004; Pascarella
& Terenzini, 1991)
• Emotional self-control: Consciously moderating your emotions and
reactions (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Bass, 2008; George, 2007; Goleman, et
al., 2002; Kellerman, 2004; Lord & Hall, 2005; Mayer & Salovey, 1997;
McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004; Petrides et al., 2006; Yukl, 2010)
• Authenticity: Being transparent and trustworthy (Avolio & Gardner,
2005; Bass, 2008; George, 2007; Kouzes & Posner, 2010; Yukl, 2010)
• Flexibility: Being open and adaptive to changing situations (Avolio,
2005; Bar-On, 2007; Bass, 1990; Bass, 2008; Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Nelson,

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1993; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Kaplan & Kaiser, 2006; Goleman et al.,
2002; Petrides, et al., 2006)
• Achievement: Being driven to improve according to personal standards
(Bar-On, 2007; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Bass, 1990; Bass, 2008;
Cleveland, 1985; Czikszentmihalyi, 1990; Fisher & Sharp, 1998; Stringer,
2001)
• Optimism: Being positive (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Bar-On, 2007; Bass,
2008; Boyatzis & McKee, 2005; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Goleman et
al., 2002; Johnson, 2009; Petrides et al., 2006; Seligman, 1998)
• Initiative: Wanting and seeking opportunities (Bass, 2008; Buckingham &
Clifton, 2001; Fischer & Sharp, 1998; Nash & Stevenson, 2004; Petrides et
al., 2006; Zander & Zander, 2000)
Others
Being aware of your relationship with others and the role they play in the
leadership process
• Empathy: Understanding others from their perspective (Bar-On, 2007;
Bass, 2008; Boyatzis & McKee, 2005; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001;
Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983; Lawrence, Shaw, Baker, Baron-Cohen & David,
2004; McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004; Petrides et al., 2006)
• Citizenship: Recognizing and fulfilling your responsibility for others or
the group (Bass, 2008; Ciulla, 1998; HERI, 1996; Johnson, 2009; Komives
& Wagner, 2009; Northouse, 2010).
• Inspiration: Motivating and moving others toward a shared vision (Bass,
1985; Bass, 2008; Kouzes & Posner, 2008; Roberts, 2007)
• Influence: Demonstrating skills of persuasion (Bass, 1990; Bass, 2008;
Burns, 1978; Chaleff, 2003; Cialdini, 1988; Rost, 1991; Whetten &
Cameron, 2007; Yukl, 2010)
• Coaching: Helping others enhance their skills and abilities (Avolio, 2005;
Bass, 1985; Bass, 2008; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Day, 2001; Kilburg,
1996a; Kilburg, 1996b; London, 2002; Wasylyshyn, 2003)
• Change agent: Seeking out and working with others toward new
directions (Bass, 1990; Bass, 2008; Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; Hickman,
2010; Kotter & Cohen, 2002)
• Conflict management: Identifying and resolving problems and issues
with others (Bass, 2008; HERI, 1996; Lang, 2009; Thomas-Kilmann
Conflict Mode Instrument, 2010; Tjosvold & Su Fang, 2004; McCauley &
Van Velsor, 2004; Whetten & Cameron, 2007)
• Developing relationships: Creating connections between, among, and
with people (Bar-On, 2007; Bass, 1990; Bass, 2008; Blake & Mouton, 1964;
Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Chaleff, 2002; Couto & Eken, 2002; George,
2007; Heaphy & Dutton, 2008; HERI, 1996; Komives & Wagner, 2009;
Petrides et al., 2006)

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• Teamwork: Working effectively with others in a group (Avolio, 1999;

Bass, 2008; HERI, 1996; Katzenbach & Smith, 2003; Kogler Hill, 2010;
LaFasto & Larson, 2001; Lencioni, 2002; Lipman-Blumen & Leavit, 1999;
Wagman, Nunes, Burruss, & Hackman, 2008; Yukl, 2010)
• Capitalizing on differences: Building on assets that come from
differences with others (Bass, 2008; Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Elron,
1997; Mai-Dalton, 1993; McRae & Short, 2010; Offerman & Phan, 2002;
Yukl, 2010)

Figure 1 below illustrates the proposed EIL model. As this model indicates, the
three factors (termed “facets”) of EIL are viewed as interrelated. The 21 proposed
capacities fall within these three factors. Measurement of these 21 capacities, and
thus the three factors, will provide an assessment of an individual’s EIL.

EIL Self
E
I
L
Student Individual, Group and
EIL EIL Self
Leader
S Organizational
Others Behaviors
e Outcomes
l
f

Figure 1. The EIL Model.

According to the model, EIL is predictive of student leader behaviors (e.g.,

participation, engagement). These behaviors are then predictive of individual,
group, and organizational outcomes (e.g., group success in attaining goals). This
model has not been empirically tested at this time. We propose that researchers
should begin examining these relationships and clarify what behaviors and
outcomes can be predicted by EIL.

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The Working Definition

Based on EIL theory, the current working definition of the proposed construct of
emotionally intelligent leadership is:

With an intentional focus on context, self and others, emotionally

intelligent leaders facilitate the attainment of desired outcomes. The 21
capacities equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
characteristics to achieve desired results.

Assumptions of EIL Theory

The purpose of this section is to make explicit the foundational assumptions of
EIL theory. The authors’ understanding and development of the theory is evolving
and the following assumptions highlight some of the considerations and
perspectives that have guided the process to date.

Leader, Followers, Context

At its core EIL theory asserts that leadership is a relationship between the leader,
followers, and the context. For an individual to successfully approach the
complexities of leadership, the authors assert that EIL will serve the individual
well in working with others and adapting to the challenges and opportunities as
needed. With attributes of EI as a foundation, EIL incorporates the idea that
emotions influence thoughts, decisions, and behaviors. This continuum provides
insight and awareness to the individual engaged in leadership. The ability, then, to
monitor one’s own emotions while being aware of the emotional reactions and
dynamics in others is a core element of EI and EIL theory.

Intentionality & Sense Making

Intentionality and deliberate choice of action is a key element of EIL theory.

Likewise, EIL theory advocates for what Weick (1995) calls sense making in the
process of demonstrating leadership. Sense making describes the process by
which people seek to understand and clarify ambiguous or ill-defined situations or
environments, including organizational contexts, crisis situations (Boin & Hart,
2003), and unstructured environments. Intentionality and sense making move
individuals out of the domain of relying on their defaults. According to Meissen
(2010), defaults are “the behaviors in which we naturally engage in many
different situations that have worked for us so often in the past” (p. 79). The
degree to which an individual possesses each of the 21 capacities influence an
individual’s ability to choose intentionally an approach appropriate for the

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context. Returning to Meissen (2010), skillful intervention involves choosing to

respond in a carefully designed manner to positively impact a situation. By doing
so, EIL theory proposes that an individual will be more likely to intervene in an
intentional manner yielding a better chance for successful outcomes.

EIL Can Be Developed

EIL can be developed. Like many other scholars (Avolio & Gibbons, 1989;
Conger, 1992), the authors assert that this developmental process is a long-term
and intentional endeavor. Ensuring that students actually use and internalize the
information is a challenging endeavor (Posner, 2009; Williams, Townsend, &
Linder, 2004). As for developing EI, opinions differ based on a scholar’s chosen
theoretical model and perspective. The authors subscribe to the viewpoint that
EIL can be developed with a long-term focus on deliberate practice (Ericsson,
Krampe & Clemens, 1993), coaching, reflection, and intentionality.

The EI in EIL

As mentioned previously, EIL theory is a mixed model theory. Not all of the
capacities included would be considered pure EI. EIL theory asserts that EI is a
core foundation for effective leadership. To integrate the proposed EIL theory
within the existing EI literature, the authors have identified the EIL capacities that
most closely resemble components of the four primary models of EI (see Table 2).
However, future research investigating the distinctions among the capacities is
needed. The capacities listed are represented in three or more of the four models
of EI so the authors have chosen to explore them first as a cluster of EI capacities.

Table 2
Themes in Four Primary Models of Emotional Intelligence

EIL Capacity Petrides Goleman Mayer & Bar-On

et al. et al. Salovey
Emotional Self-Control X X X
Emotional Self- X X X X
Perception
Flexibility X X X
Optimism X X X
Empathy X X X X

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Research Implications
EIL theory integrates two constructs, and encourages researchers to hypothesize
links and interactions between EIL capacities as well as the three primary factors
of context, self, and others. Preliminary factor analyses using an EIL Inventory
developed by the authors have supported the distinction between the three
primary factors of context, self, and others. The authors call for specifications
among antecedents, mediators, moderators, and outcomes of EIL, and the study of
interactions among the various factors and sub-factors of EIL theory. In addition,
future research will need to empirically examine these capacities to test our
propositions that there is a distinction between EI and leadership and a distinction
among each of the 21 capacities. While the theory proposes 21 capacities,
research may show that some of these capacities overlap significantly enough to
be merged together.

Further, there is a need to better understand the perceived outcomes of EIL as it

relates to student leadership. For instance, which EIL factors best align with
student perceptions of effective leaders and what are the results of said
interventions? Little has been written on the topic of outcomes of effective student
leadership. The field would benefit from a better understanding how students
perceive and experience leadership.

In addition, how do students experience an under- or over-use of the EIL

capacities? For instance, how is an over-achiever perceived by others? How does
the over-use of various capacities impact a student’s ability to lead others? One
hypothesis, for example, may be that individuals with a low capacity to
demonstrate optimism and inspiration may have a difficult time engaging and
motivating others to work above and beyond the minimum levels of participation.
Further investigation is needed to understand how students perceive and
experience the demonstration of EIL capacities.

Given the integrative nature of the EIL theory, and more specifically its
integration of EI with leadership, do the individual factors (context, self, and
others) or a specific combination of them predict effectiveness more so than
others? Likewise, are some factors more aligned with certain types of results? For
instance, consciousness of others may align better with the outcome of positive
relationships while consciousness of self may be aligned with the outcome of goal
attainment and producing measurable results. This research may be conducted via
a multi-rater assessment that specifically addresses perceptions of an individual’s
mastery of the facets with a number of leadership outcomes.

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A final area for future research focuses on the developmental level of students.
Are some capacities or factors more readily available depending on a person’s
development level versus others? For instance, an individual at Kegan’s (1994)
“imperial stage” may be more focused on self than others or context. As a result,
there may be a hierarchy to EIL factors (context, self, and others) resulting in
certain capacities or groups of capacities requiring higher order development. In
fact, the constructive/developmental view of leadership has a number of
implications for the study of leadership and student leadership development. Day
and Lance (2004) suggest that individuals at lower levels of development will
likely construct leadership out of a place of dominance: a transactional place. A
more sophisticated level of leadership requires interpersonal influence which may
be more inclusive and allow the leader more flexibility. Helping leaders
understand and examine where they work from develops self-awareness and
provides additional tools for success. This same line of inquiry could apply to the
leadership identity development (LID) model as well (Komives et al., 2005).

Practical Implications
The practical implications of EIL primarily revolve around the training,
education, and development of leadership. Conger (1992) suggests four primary
objectives for leadership development which include conceptual understanding,
skill building, feedback, and personal growth. The authors assert that EIL theory
can be used to develop leadership in all four areas depending on the objective of
the practitioner.

EIL theory has already been applied in the classroom and as the organizing
structure for a semester long academic course. Like many other formal courses,
the primary focus of a classroom-based learning experience is conceptual
understanding. These courses have been housed most often in student affairs,
leadership studies, or first year experience-type courses. EIL theory has also been
incorporated into leadership courses as another theory for consideration alongside
models like the five practices set forth by Kouzes and Posner (2007) or the social
change model of leadership (HERI, 1996).

Along with formal coursework, EIL theory has been applied in training and
development workshops in the United States and abroad. The length of these
workshops varies between one hour and three days. The audiences vary as well.
Workshop participants are often formal and informal leaders on college/university
campuses and are members of organizations such as residence life, Greek life,
student government, programming board, athletics, and other organizations
traditionally housed in student affairs. Similar to formal coursework, EIL theory
often serves as the framework for the retreat or workshop content. To be more

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specific, the content may focus on EIL comprehensively as an approach to

leadership or simply one or two of the EIL capacities. The focus of these
interventions is personal growth, conceptual understanding, feedback, and skill
building.

A final practical use of EIL theory is its use with leadership educators. Train-the-
trainer programs have been delivered to camp counselors, resident advisors, and
secondary educators in Singapore and the United States along with leadership
educators and student affairs professionals whose primary work occurs on the
college campus. The focus of these interventions revolves around the appropriate
use of the theory, resources available to educators, and various activities and tools
for development. Naturally, the primary focus of these interventions is how to set
up a learning environment and learning opportunities to foster personal growth,
conceptual understanding, feedback, and skill development in others (Conger,
1992).

Conclusion
From the outset, one of the goals for the authors and this work was to provide
undergraduate students and those who work with students a user-friendly and
straightforward framework that incorporates the best of EI and leadership theory
and practice. What resulted was a unique, integrative, and process-oriented theory
that blends emotional intelligence with leadership. This theory consists of a multi-
faceted and dynamic construct – emotionally intelligent leadership. With an
intentional focus on context, self, and others, emotionally intelligent leaders
facilitate the attainment of desired outcomes. The 21 capacities equip individuals
with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics to achieve desired
results. Future research is needed to clarify the relationships, interactions,
mediators, moderators, and outcomes of these variables to further our
understanding of the theory. This will allow practitioners to construct and
implement useful tools and approaches to developing leaders in a wide variety of
contexts.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for the careful feedback
and comments on earlier drafts of this work – Richard Couto, Don DiPaolo, Susan
Komives, Paige Haber, Michael Hackman, Beth Martin, Tony Middlebrooks

191
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Evaluating Innovative Leadership Preparation:

How What You Want Drives What
(and How) You Evaluate

Frederick C. Buskey
Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership
250 Killian Building
Western Carolina University
Cullowhee, NC 28723
fbuskey@email.wcu.edu

Meagan Karvonen, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Educational Research
239 Killian Building
Western Carolina University
Cullowhee, NC 28723
karvonen@email.wcu.edu

Abstract
Educational leadership preparation programs are expected to train graduates who
change their practice and produce outcomes for teachers and students. However,
programs are challenged to produce evidence of their impact while also
evaluating for formative purposes. This paper describes collaboration between an
educational leadership program director and a program evaluator to construct an
evaluation system that incorporated program theory, processes, and outcomes.
The leadership preparation program, grounded in ethical leadership practices, had
a unique design with core tenets that informed choices about the evaluation
design. Decisions about data sources were informed by evaluation foci, the
availability of existing data sources, and resource constraints. The complexity of
the evaluation design paralleled the complexity of the program itself. Leadership
content expertise, evaluation design expertise, and genuine collaboration were all
essential to the successful design of this evaluation plan. Several
recommendations are offered for others collaborating to design evaluations of
their programs.

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Introduction
Building bridges is the work of education. In graduate education we often speak
of the bridge from theory to practice (Hoy & Miskel, 2008; Starratt, 1991;
Walker, 1993). However, if the theory rests in the university and the practice
resides in K-12 schools, there is no guarantee that the bridge will be built. At our
regional comprehensive university, we recently redesigned our principal licensure
programs to blend practice in K-12 schools with learning in our graduate courses.
Assessing whether or not we are successful in creating the theory-to-practice
bridge presents complex challenges. Orr (2009) described the pressures and
pitfalls of linking program preparation to leadership practice, yet called on
programs to “build measures into our assessment systems that look beyond
standardized test data to measure student and program accomplishment” (p. 448).
Beyond outcome measures, stakeholders need additional types of information for
both formative and summative evaluation purposes. While some researchers have
described how individual assignments link theory to practice (Smith & Roebuck,
2010) or how a program affects adaptive skills in particular (Blackwell,
Cummins, Christine, Townsend, & Cummings, 2007), this paper explores the
challenges of evaluating the holistic theory-to-practice effects of a complete
program aligned to the program’s intentional ethical design.

This paper describes the process of developing an evaluation system for our
newly designed leadership programs. We begin with some background, including
the programmatic context and the evaluation theories that guided the work. We
then describe how the evaluation was conceived, including an overview of the
evaluation design process, some factors that influenced the design choices, and
the design elements themselves. We conclude with recommendations for a step-
by-step process for constructing an evaluation system. As others grapple with the
changing landscape of program evaluation and the increasing pressures to link
leadership preparation with results in the schools (Duncan, 2010; Fry, O’Neil, &
Bottoms, 2006; Orr & Orphanos, 2011), we hope to provide a framework for
evaluating principal licensure programs. We address multiple evaluation
questions, including the relationship between preparation, practice, and impact in
schools, and how to tailor evaluation to the program’s intended design. The
purpose of this paper is not to describe evaluation findings, but to outline an
evaluation design process. By detailing our processes, we hope to help others
involved in leadership education develop their own program evaluation capacity.

Background
The foundation for this exploration includes the contextual elements of the
specific program being evaluated and the theoretical frameworks of several

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different, yet complimentary, approaches to program evaluation. The unique

program model drove many of the decisions about the evaluation design.

Context of the Programs

In the fall of 2007, seven faculty members began redesigning two programs for
preparing school leaders: the Master’s of School Administration (MSA) and what
came to be known as the Post-Master’s Certificate in Public School Leadership
(PMC). The programs now consist of a common core of 24 credits including an
assessment course; four integrated, consecutive leadership courses; three
consecutive internships; and, three specialized administrative topics courses. The
MSA includes 15 additional credits. The programs admit two cohorts of up to 22
students each fall and spring. Cohorts are integrated. PMC and MSA students
work together in online learning communities. Buskey & Jacobs (2009) and
Buskey & Topolka-Jorissen (2010) previously described the programs’ redesign
processes and features. Five aspects of the programs’ innovations are of particular
relevance to program evaluation. The program is based on developing ethical
leadership as a foundation for decision-making and action. Since a significant
number of participants do not intend to become line administrators, the program
features an approach to developing leaders as change agents regardless of
hierarchical positioning. Every course contains continuous practice in the field.
The program design reflects the complexity of school leadership through a
correspondingly complex curricular design. The core courses build upon each
other, revisiting common themes in increasing layers of complexity. Finally,
program participants are expected to develop into leaders who take action by
engaging in multiple and complex tasks in their schools.

Experimental implementation of the program began in the fall of 2008. In fall

2009, the faculty determined that the old program evaluation system was
inadequate for evaluating the new program because the old assessment system
was designed to ensure that completers provided evidence covering minimal
program competencies and was used to gather evidence for accreditation reviews.
The old assessment system did not provide feedback on where the curriculum was
strong or weak, nor was there any way to measure how participation in the
program impacted participants’ actions in their schools. The old system did not
capture any of the unique features of the new program. In the fall of 2009, the
authors, one the MSA and PMC program director and re-design leader and the
other a program evaluator, began designing a comprehensive evaluation system.

Evaluation Theory

The new program evaluation plan is grounded in a combination of program

evaluation theory and models. Drawing on Rossi, Lipsey, and Freeman’s (2004)

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framework, we targeted three levels for this evaluation: program theory,

processes, and outcomes. Program theory is often overlooked in program
evaluation but is essential to interpret evaluation findings and guide future
modifications to the program’s implementation (Weiss, 1998). A program’s
theory articulates what theoretically happens to the targets of an intervention as a
result of program implementation.

Evaluation of program processes is important for several reasons. For instance,

the results may be used to help monitor and adjust program delivery and improve
efficiency. Findings from process evaluation may also be used to interpret
program outcomes; it is important to know the nature of the “program” that
created the outcomes (Rossi et al., 2004). In the context of the MSA and PMC
programs, processes include everything from resources, to scheduling, to
curriculum, to admissions and advising.

Because documentation of outcomes is necessary in today’s educational climate,

we gave careful consideration to the structure of this part of the evaluation plan.
Several authors in education and organizational development (e.g., Guskey, 2000;
Kirkpatrick, 1998) have provided similar models for measuring training outcomes
based on stages or levels of outcome. For example, Kirkpatrick’s model includes
four levels of outcome: participant reactions, learning, behavior (changed actions
on the part of the trainee), and results (the intended impact of training on the
problem, setting, etc.). Kirkpatrick’s model is not linear or purely sequential, and
others have questioned whether each step depends on previous steps (cf.,
Schneier, Beatty, & Russell, 1994). We conceptualized these steps as sequential
yet interdependent; the sequence occurs repeatedly during the program because of
expectations for immediate and ongoing application of learning to the K-12
school environment. As described later, data sources are linked to these four
steps.

The decision to focus on program theory, processes, and outcomes was driven by
program maturity and faculty information needs. The faculty wanted to design an
evaluation that examined graduates’ outcomes, consistent with the national policy
emphasis on outcomes. However, without articulating the program theory or
understanding its processes, interpretation of outcome data would be very limited.
Patton’s (2008) principles of utilization-focused evaluation also guided our work.
Focusing on the intended uses of the evaluation data and identifying the intended
users of the findings helped us prioritize the evaluation purposes, sift through
potential data sources, and develop a plan that fit our situation and resources.

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Evaluation Design
The authors’ areas of expertise were in different fields, one in educational
leadership and the other in program evaluation and research methods. This section
describes the necessity and process of sharing knowledge in order to develop a
collective understanding of need and a sound working relationship. We also
discuss the involvement of program faculty and the clarification of the purposes
of the evaluation.

The Design Process and Evaluation Purposes

The first concrete step to developing the evaluation system required clearly
identifying the reasons for evaluation. However, there were other important,
preliminary steps. Although the two authors were (and remain) close colleagues,
each spoke a different language when it came to evaluation. The program director
had conducted an extensive qualitative study of the impacts of individual courses
on professional self-image and action (Buskey, 2010) and had grandiose ideas
about what program evaluation should be able to tell the faculty. He also had
multiple motivations for pursuing program evaluation such as curriculum
improvement, teaching feedback, support for external awards, research interest,
and knowledge of impact on schools, but lacked clear priorities and a deep
understanding of evaluation theory. The evaluator was experienced in designing
and conducting program evaluations for a variety of purposes and settings, but
lacked knowledge of educational leadership as a content area and the unique
curriculum and context of the MSA and PMC programs.

The initial foundation for this work emerged from conversations that featured
give and take based on what we both brought to the project. Because the evaluator
did not know educational leadership literature in great depth, she asked extensive
questions that required the program director to explain topics such as various
leadership theories and the logic underlying the MSA/PMC course sequence. The
program director’s lack of background in evaluation and his expansive ideas
about what he wanted to know required the evaluator to help define and reinforce
limits in the scope of the evaluation.

As we worked through many discussions and consulted MSA faculty, potential

intended evaluation purposes emerged. Was the work of developing and teaching
the new program worth the effort? Would the future program completers be
ethical change agents in their schools? What elements of the program were
working and which were not? In turn, these generalized questions led to more
specific questions, such as how do program participants’ roles change within their
social networks during the program? In addition to questions about linking unique

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aspects of the program to impact on participants and their schools, we also

retained the more common concerns about institutional, state, and national
accreditation and review (Orr, 2009). Eventually the scope of the program was
narrowed down to evaluation of three distinct purposes:

1. Document the implementation of the revised MSA/PMC programs,

including elements that were implemented as intended and those that
evolved or changed to meet unforeseen needs.

2. Evaluate the growth of students as leaders while in the program.

3. Evaluate the growth of students after successful completion of the

program.

For clarity, the program evaluation is described as a linear process. In reality, the
process was less linear and more iterative.

Program Theory and Logic Model

A firm understanding of program theory was an essential foundation for the

evaluation. The MSA and PMC programs drew from two different theoretical
models. One mirrored the new state standards for school administrators and
included traditional theories of hierarchical leadership and management, such as
standards on human resource leadership and managerial leadership (North
Carolina Department of Public Instruction [NCDPI], 2006). The program faculty
also created a set of standards (Buskey & Topolka-Jorissen, 2010) inspired by
theories in ethical leadership, professional learning communities, and
organizational change. These program standards included a focus on K-12
students; servant leadership, regardless of hierarchical position; change as a
complex and ongoing opportunity; ethics as a foundation for action; and,
continuous self-improvement. Elements of the theory had been articulated during
the program redesign, and the program theory was thoroughly reflected in the
design of courses. However, the theory was not yet reflected in the evaluation.

Multiple conversations were held about the program during which the evaluator
asked the program director questions to elicit information about how the faculty
theorized the program would operate. We were able to articulate what was
intended during the program and what was hypothesized to happen to students
during and after the program. With the program’s focus on enacting ethical
leadership (Gross, 2006; Hurley, 2009; Starratt, 1991; Starratt, 2004), the program
theory incorporated elements of the reciprocal interactions between candidates
and their environments (Orr, 2009). Based on the way leadership was
conceptualized in the program, we also captured the idea that various leadership

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traits and behaviors would grow at different times. Through those conversations,
we created a logic model (Knowlton & Phillips, 2009) (see Figure 1) to illustrate
the program theory. We validated the model with the rest of the program faculty.
The model then served as the foundation for developing process and outcome
evaluation questions and methods.

Figure 1. Logic Model for the MSA/PMC Programs.

Program Processes

Evaluation of program processes allows us to monitor several aspects of program

design and delivery. For example, this component of the evaluation plan helps us
evaluate curriculum alignment, monitor and adjust admission standards, meet
documentation needs for accreditation purposes, and track resource use and needs.
This information is used formatively, for continuous program improvement.
Process evaluation data are also used to support interpretation of program
outcome data. For example, if students demonstrate strong leadership outcomes in
some areas but weaknesses in others, we can re-evaluate how certain aspects of
leadership are taught in the program and redesign instruction accordingly. There
are currently three key sources of process evaluation data:

1. Program documents. These include but are not limited to: program
meeting minutes, curriculum charts, syllabi, and the program’s

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document submitted to NCDPI and the UNC System General

Administration for approval. These documents are not formally
evaluated in isolation; they are used primarily to help interpret
outcome data and document the new program as it inevitably evolves
over time.

2. A comprehensive database that combines student admission and

academic records maintained by the university and a local database
that contains information on changes in enrollment, life events
reported by program participants, and cohort membership. This
database allows faculty to track student trends across cohorts or by
program (MSA and PMC). Much of the information will also be useful
for future accreditation purposes. Elements of this database will
eventually be linked to student outcome data through unique
identifiers to examine outcomes by subgroup, student background
variables, and measures of program exposure or progress.

3. A program readiness survey designed to be administered to applicants

prior to program admission. Because the MSA/PMC programs are
unique in their content, structure, and delivery model, the faculty noted
that some students entered the program unprepared for the workload
and faculty expectations and quickly dropped out of the program. The
program readiness survey helps faculty determine whether applicants
understand the program’s expectations and requirements. In
conjunction with the comprehensive database, the results will be used
to evaluate patterns and causes of program attrition.

Outcome Evaluation

With our own questions about the program mirroring the national focus on
demonstrated program outcomes, the outcome evaluation component was one of
the richest and potentially most rewarding parts of the plan. However, it also had
the greatest potential to be unwieldy.

We had two strategies for making the outcome evaluation plan more manageable.
First, we identified two sampling strategies. Some data sources would be
collected from all students and graduates, while more intensive data collection
methods would be used with a small subset purposefully recruited for case
studies. Second, although we initially developed a broad outcome evaluation plan,
the detailed instrument development and data collection processes were separated
into two phases. The first phase focused on gathering data from the larger sample
during their enrollment in the program. In phase one, data sources being collected
for course requirements were reviewed. Gaps were identified, new instruments

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were developed to fill those gaps, and a schedule for data collection was
developed.

Data sources. Program faculty recommended that the evaluation use as many
existing sources as possible and avoid putting undue burden on faculty or
participants. We aligned evidence to specific evaluation purposes. We made
critical decisions about what to use, what not to use, and what might be usable if
the format was modified. As illustrated in Figure 2, we looked for potential areas
of overlap between existing course assessments, data already collected for
accreditation purposes, and data sources that would answer our evaluation
questions. Using the program theory, we conceptualized leadership outcomes in
several ways:

• Changes in both formal and informal leadership positions and

roles.

• Changes in self-described leadership characteristics aligned to state

and program standards.

• Changes in specific leadership actions.

• Changes in the reciprocal relationship between leaders and their

environments.

Based on the program theory, some changes were anticipated during the program,
while others were expected to occur after students completed the program.
Instruments were identified, adapted, or designed to meet each of these
definitions. Figure 3 summarizes the instruments and timeline for both phases of
outcome data collection.

212
 Point in program (or years post program)

Pre Semesters In Years Post

Data Source Purpose 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1 3 5 10
Demographic Survey Description of current employment and X X X X X X
responsibilities; background variables
to interpret outcomes

Comprehensive Leadership behaviors aligned to program X X X X X X

Leadership Survey standards
Leader influences on environment
Environment influences on leader
21st Century Standards Leadership behaviors aligned with state Self Self Self, Self Self Self Self
Journal of Leadership Education

of School Executives leadership standards Prin,

Rubrica Fac

End-of-course Optional data for triangulation and case X X X X

reflections in four core studies
courses

213
Action Research Project Optional data for triangulation and case X X X X
Impacting Student studies
Learning

360˚ Feedback Document strengths and areas of X X X CSS CSS CSS CS

growth, including characteristics not S
captured in program or state standards

Social Network Analysis Determine how participants’ influence CSS CS CSS CSS CSS CSS CS
changes S S

Interviews of Corroborate quantitative data; explain CSS CSS CSS CS

completers, supervisors, why certain data patters emerge; obtain S
and colleagues richer explanations of long-term
program outcomes
Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Note. Shaded cells represent phase two of evaluation (beginning spring 2011). CSS = Case Study Sample. a Includes CSS.

Figure 3. Outcome Evaluation Data Sources and Timeline

Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

Item construction. Within the first phase of data collection, we developed a

demographic questionnaire and a leadership survey. The demographic survey
served several purposes, two of which were relevant for the outcome evaluation.
First, it included items about current job title and leadership responsibilities
outside of what might be reflected in the job title. Second, it incorporated
background characteristics (e.g., career goals, reasons for pursuing degree, first
generation college student status) that might be used to analyze subgroup
differences in outcomes.

Because we wanted to measure outcomes of a leadership program, one central

question we addressed was how to operationally define leadership. Although a
number of published leadership measures exist, such as the School Leadership
Preparation and Practice Survey (SLPPS), the NASSP Assessment Center, and
VAL-Ed (Orr, Young, & Rorrer, 2010), instruments for our evaluation were
locally developed for several reasons. First, most published instruments measure
only a limited range of the leadership skills we expect of our graduates (e.g.,
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium [ISLLC] standards; Council of
Chief State School Officers, 2008) and assume leaders are in specific hierarchical
roles (i.e., principalship). In contrast, our program emphasizes the application of
ethics and caring to a broad range of leadership practices regardless of position. A
secondary concern was the cost of published instruments.

We decided to use the two sets of standards that underlie the program’s definition
of leadership for reference points in defining leadership characteristics we wished
to measure. North Carolina’s 21st Century Standards for School Executives
(NCDPI, 2006) consists of seven standards which are typically assessed on a four-
point rubric. NCDPI’s standards are aligned to ISLLC standards. To overcome
social desirability problems with self-ratings on the existing rubric, we converted
the anchors within each domain to checklists and removed information that would
cue the reviewer to choose certain response options.

We also have a set of program-specific standards that are less defined but that
form the basis for many aspects of the program structure and instructional
practices. Features of the program theory specific to ethical leadership largely
drove items construction. For example, the program emphasizes an action
orientation and a student focus. Thus, several items ask respondents to report the
frequency and conditions in which they have advocated for students within the
past year.

The first full draft of the leadership survey incorporates items related to formal
leadership roles, specific leadership behaviors, roles played in situations that
required leadership, and factors that facilitate or inhibit respondents’ abilities to
enact ethical leadership in their schools. Specific items are from a combination of

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program curricular elements, faculty input on likely response options, and current
student feedback, with items designed using principles described by Dillman,
Smythe, & Christian, (2008). Analysis methods are planned to investigate the
quality of these measures, and revisions may be made depending on the outcomes
of those analyses. Samples of the various items are provided in Table 1.

Table 1
Sample Outcome Assessment Items
Type of Outcome Sample Item
Formal leadership What is your current position (or, your most recent position if you are
role not currently employed)?
• Classroom teacher
• Assistant principal
• Other school staff (guidance counselor, school psychologist, etc.)
• Central office staff
• NC principal fellow
• Other (describe):
Informal leadership Which of the following leadership responsibilities/roles fall within
responsibility your current job responsibilities, even if you don’t hold the formal
title? Select all that apply.
• School Improvement Team leader
• Grade level coordinator / Department head
• Teaching team leader
• Student services / student support team leader
• Member of ad-hoc committee (e.g., curriculum or textbook review,
policy review)
• PLC group leader
• Other committee leader
• Formal (assigned) mentor
• Informal mentor
• Head athletic coach
• Other (describe):
Self-rated leadership Please select from the list below all items that that reflect behaviors
traits – NC standards or characteristics the candidate currently possesses.
• Understands the attributes, characteristics, and importance of school
vision, mission, and strategic goals; and can apply this understanding
to the analysis and critique of existing school plans.
• Develops his/her own vision of the changing world in the 21st century
that schools are preparing children to enter.
• Works with others to develop a shared vision and strategic goals for
student achievement that reflect high expectations for students and
staff.
• Maintains a focus on the vision and strategic goals throughout the
school year.
• Designs and implements collaborative processes to collect and
analyze data, from the North Carolina Teacher Working Conditions
Survey and other data sources, about the school’s progress for the
periodic review and revision of the school’s vision, mission, and

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strategic goals.
Specific ethical In the past 12 months, I enacted ethical leadership in the following
leadership behaviors areas:
Response options: Not at all, once in the past year, quarterly, monthly, bi-
weekly, weekly, daily
• Advocated for a single student or small group of students
• Advocated for a large group of students
• Advocated for all students school-wide
• Worked with another individual on curricular or pedagogical
initiative to improve learning
Change in leader- Sometimes there are things in our work environments that facilitate
environment our leadership behavior. Other things may be barriers to our
interaction leadership. To what extent do each of the following represent
facilitators or barriers to your leadership actions?
Response scale: -5 (significant barrier) to +5 (significant facilitator)
• Holding a formal position with power
• Being recognized as a leader in the school (regardless of position)
• Having input during decision-making processes
• Working in a school where the culture promotes collaboration and
cooperation
• Not having to fear negative consequences for speaking my mind
• Having formal school leaders who are open to change

Implementation. We decided to phase in implementation of the evaluation over a

12-month period due to several factors. First, the pilot group (cohort 1) would
finish the program at the end of spring 2010, long before we could develop the
entire evaluation system. We wanted to capture completion data from each cohort,
but also wanted some basis for preliminary comparison of pre and post program
measures sooner than the two years it would take a cohort to begin and end the
program. Thus, we started with cross-sectional analyses based on data collected
from several cohorts in spring and summer 2010. Longitudinal analysis began
with cohort 6, admitted in summer 2010 and projected to graduate in spring 2012.

Recommendations and Conclusions

Designing a comprehensive program evaluation system is a complex process that
should engage a variety of experts and stakeholders. Steps within the process
must include identifying collaborators, determining specific purposes of
evaluation, examining existing data sources, determining gaps in evaluation
components, developing a plan to phase in a comprehensive system, and
constructing valid instruments.

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Through our experience in designing this system, we offer the following

recommendations for others who wish to design evaluations of leadership
preparation programs that are tailored to their unique program features:

1. Know the program. Program faculty may have long ago internalized their
understanding of how the program operates. Or, maybe the program
faculty never had conversations about how they believe the program
operates. In either case, the faculty will need to explicate the details of
how the program theoretically works, how the curriculum makes that
happen, and what the students look like during and after the program.

2. Understand the needs and concerns of the constituents. The program

director and faculty are not the sole consumers of the data from this
evaluation system. We made adjustments to the design based on input
from within the program. Further refinements may come from feedback
offered from outside the institution.

3. Define what you need and want to know. It is easy to jump ahead into
thinking about data sources or what is easy to collect without being careful
about establishing purposes. A clear sense of purpose guides the
remaining design and analysis steps. It prevents the data sources from
mismatching the purposes. It also prevents the misuse of unneeded
resources.

4. Give attention to the methodology – down to the details. Recognize that

you do not have to collect “everything” if your evaluation purposes are not
that broad. Capitalize on the data sources you already collect. Attend to
the balance between quality and feasibility. Identify sources of expertise
which can help you develop high-quality methods given your resource
constraints.

5. Look before you leap. Pilot your instruments. Roll out the data collection
process in phases. Ask for the perspectives of your current students.
Establish systems for managing the recruitment, consent, data collection,
and data analysis phases.

The unique collaboration between the co-authors was grounded in a friendship of

several years, which made the evaluation design process easier in some ways.
There was value in sharing the two perspectives, and we each initially
underestimated the contributions of our own expertise. If principal licensure
faculty who are in other programs do not have such existing relationships with
evaluators, they may wish to look to resources on working with external
evaluators (e.g., Kauffman, Guerra, & Platt, 2006). Evaluators have to feel

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comfortable asking a lot of questions to understand the program and the

evaluation needs. Program faculty need to be comfortable understanding why the
questions are being asked, answering those questions, and not worry about having
limited backgrounds in evaluation.

Although the evaluation system described here does provide for evaluation of
several levels of outcomes, it stops short of evaluating the link between leader
behaviors and K-12 student outcomes. Once phase two of data collection has
started, we likely will return to this student outcome question and see how it fits
within our evaluation framework. This link has several interim steps and it is
challenging to create strong causal links for such tertiary outcomes (Leithwood,
Patten, & Jantzi, 2010; Orr, 2009), especially with a relatively small data set and
limited resources for tracking graduates after degree completion.

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Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Walker, W. G. (1993). Theory and practice in educational administration. Journal

of Educational Administration, 3(1), 18-43.

Weiss, C. H. (1998). Evaluation (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 11, Issue 1 – Winter 2012

A Summer Leadership Development Program for

Chemical Engineering Students

Annie E. Simpson
Coordinator
Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Program
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
annie.simpson@utoronto.ca

Greg J. Evans, Ph.D.

The Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Program
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Doug Reeve, Ph.D.

The Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Program
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Abstract
The Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Program (LOT) is a comprehensive
curricular, co-curricular, extra-curricular leadership development initiative for
engineering students. LOT envisions: “an engineering education that is a life-long
foundation for transformational leaders and outstanding citizens.” Academic
courses, co-curricular certificate programs, departmental programs, and stand
alone workshops emphasize four domains of leadership: Self, Relational,
Organizational, and Societal Leadership. This article introduces the 14 week
summer leadership initiative for research students in the Department of Chemical
Engineering and Applied Chemistry. Students gather on Friday afternoons from
early May to late August to learn and practice leadership. Based on student
assessment data, the program is having positive impact.

Introduction
The Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Program (LOT) was born out of the belief
that the full potential of engineering graduates to contribute to society was not
being realized and that engineers with significant leadership skills contribute more

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societal value than those without (Florman, 1996). In the wake of global
challenges such as climate change, economic upheaval, energy issues, and food
security, engineers will need more than technical skill to generate solutions to
contemporary problems; they will need leadership ability (Douglas &
Papadopoulos, 2010). The LOT summer program in the Department of Chemical
Engineering and Applied Chemistry is one such opportunity for students to
develop their leadership. LOT envisions life-long engineering education that is
the foundation for transformational leaders and outstanding citizens.

Overview of the Leaders of Tomorrow Program

LOT began in 2002 in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied
Chemistry and became Faculty-wide in 2006. The program has expanded rapidly
since then. In the 2007-2008 academic year 142 leadership-related events took
place with 4064 student attendees. In the 2007-2008 academic year 199 events
occurred with 8383 student contacts. In 2009-2010, 255 events took place with
7646 student contacts and in 2010-2011 that number continued to grow to 288
events and 8286 student contacts.

Other components of the LOT program include three academic courses focusing
on leadership studies, three five-week, co-curricular certificate programs which
emphasize self-leadership, team leadership and organizational leadership,
Departmental programs, and numerous other leadership-related events and
workshops. This article discusses the Summer Leadership Program, a 14-week
leadership development series for undergraduate research students in the
Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry. An overview of the
program philosophy, structure, and pedagogy is provided along with a discussion
of the learning outcomes and student feedback.

Program Philosophy
The field of engineering leadership education is growing. The Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Pennsylvania State University, Tufts University, and
other prominent engineering schools in the United States have recognized the
need to augment engineering students’ technical skills with opportunities to
develop as leaders, innovators, and agents of change (Graham, Crawley, and
Mendelsohn, 2009). While more initiatives have begun to support the
development of professional skills and intensify team learning (Seat, Parsons, &
Poppen, 2001), LOT takes a humanistic approach and aims to foster the
development of self-aware, interpersonally skilled, and socially engaged
graduates equipped to succeed both as leaders in organizations and in society at
large.

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There are a number of core beliefs that shape LOT curriculum and programming.
The first is that leadership can be learned and can be taught. We believe that there
are skills and competencies that everyone can develop in the realms of self, team,
organizational, and societal leadership. Secondly, LOT is founded on the belief
that leadership starts with oneself and that emotional intelligence and self-
awareness are essential to effective leadership; it is essential to know one’s
strengths and also ones areas for growth (Jackson, 2011). Thirdly, self-reflection
is necessary to self-awareness so priority is given to creating opportunities for
meaningful, structured reflection. Fourthly, we believe that leadership is a shared
responsibility – each person will be called upon to lead, whether by supporting a
team to make its best decisions, having the courage to advocate in one’s
community, or collaborating with stakeholders to influence public policy. These
beliefs among others infuse LOT programming.

Teaching leadership to engineers is not without its challenges. Engineering is a

highly technical discipline and engineering students have highly demanding
schedules. In addition, the processes of the engineering discipline lead to an
emphasis on task-completion over the quality of relationships. As Thomas (2010)
states in his discussion of teaching leadership to students at the U.S. Naval
Academy, the rigor, demands on time, expectations of detached professionalism,
and technical competence produce a perverse effect by making our graduates
socially inept (Thomas, 2010). Much of our work aims to provide opportunities
for engineers to expand their emotional intelligence and self awareness. However,
these objectives need to be achieved in ways that appeal to engineering
sensibilities. Engineers like to be taught practical, tangible skills which can be
immediately applied. This impacts the way that curriculum is developed and
facilitated. Whereas with students studying social work for example, the emphasis
or motivation for students may be to develop strong relationships with clients, for
a professional faculty such as engineering, high value is placed on career success,
management skill and problem solving which may also come at the expense of
relationship building.

LOT Summer Program

Since 2002 more than 325 students have completed the summer program.
Sessions are held on Friday afternoons from May to August. Students who wish to
participate and who are working as summer research assistants get approval for
release time from their supervisors. Students who attend 80% of the program
receive a non-credit, Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Summer Program
Certificate.

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The program has been heavily influenced by the Social Change Model of
Leadership Development (Komives, 2011). Since 2007 it has been divided into
three sections: (a) Personal Leadership, which includes topics such as self-
awareness, emotional intelligence and personal vision, (b) Team Leadership,
which includes group dynamics, facilitation skills and conflict transformation, and
(c) Societal Leadership, which emphasizes engineering and public policy, current
issues, and active citizenship. Four weeks are dedicated to each of these three
overarching competencies. Table 1 presents a sampling of sessions which have
been delivered in the last three summers.

As well as attending seminars and workshops, students participate in research and

design team projects, tour local industry facilities and engage in community

Table 1: Examples of Sessions, Grouped by Program Segment

Personal Development Group Leadership Leadership in Society
Myers-Briggs Typology Leadership Styles and Myers- Engineering and Public
Briggs Policy
Leading Transformational
Change How to Build a Strong and Ethics and Leadership
Successful Team Atmosphere
Emotional Intelligence Debate Practice
Transforming Conflict: Skills
Who Could You Be in the for Resolving Conflict While Habitat for Humanity Build
World? (personal visioning Strengthening Relationships
workshop) Day of Community Service
How to Effectively Facilitate
Ethics and Leadership Groups and Meetings Networking lunch with
Alumni
Navigating Your Career Team Tune-Up (team project and Final Team
reflections, focusing on group Presentations
Leading with Integrity: processes)
Living Your Values History of Leadership
Debate Practice (topics
The Secret of Successful relating to current issues)
Failing
Giving Active Feedback
A Guide to Structured
Reflection

service activities. The rationale for group projects is to allow students to apply
their newly acquired knowledge, self-awareness, and team skills to an engineering
problem (Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000). While completing their project
students are encouraged to integrate their developing leadership skills into their
team process. Past group projects have included:

• designing a green roof.

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• designing green chemistry labs.

• designing a compost system for an apartment building.

• developing a website for recruiting future chemical engineering students.

• designing an energy efficient home insulation plan.

• designing a bio-engineering facility harnessing bio-methane.

• organizing student tours.

• designing and facilitating leadership workshops.

In summer 2010 the group projects changed from an engineering design project to
a curriculum design project. Students were placed in teams and tasked with
designing a 15-minute mini-leadership workshop which they facilitated for a
panel of alumni judges and their peers. By learning to design and teach a
leadership topic such as conflict resolution, public speaking, or diversity in teams,
students have to engage with the material more deeply, and embody their learning
as they teach others. By introducing a team project that involves teaching others,
organizers are better able to assess the level at which students have internalized
their leadership learning.

Program Pedagogy
LOT programming emphasizes experiential learning. Staff in the LOT Office
design curriculum that engages students in active skill development and
intentional reflection activities. Other facilitators of sessions include educators
from beyond the Faculty and University who have backgrounds in education and
in leadership development. As expressed by Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning
theory, learning should not only involve cognition, but also thinking, feeling,
perceiving and behaving. Efforts are made to engage students mentally,
emotionally and kinesthetically in their learning. For example, at a workshop on
facilitation skills students would first be introduced to the topic, discuss the role
of a facilitator, and brainstorm some responses to common interpersonal
challenges that occur in groups. They may then observe a scenario or engage with
a case study. Next, students practice a new skill-set in the context of a simulation
or group discussion and are given feedback on their facilitation skills. Finally,
they are guided to reflect on their learning and experience as a way of taking their
new knowledge into future situations.

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Another example of program pedagogy is a leadership styles workshop based on

the work of Bolton and Grover Bolton (1996). After learning about four styles and
identifying their own, students are placed in small teams and given 10 minutes to
build a tower which will suspend a raw egg. Their only tools are 10 straws and
some masking tape. The emphasis of the activity is not on the final product, but
on the process (although students do not know this until their structure is built). A
group discussion follows where students are led to reflect on questions such as:

• Was everyone’s voice heard?

• How did decisions get made?

• What did each team member contribute?

Experiential learning asks more from students. This kind of learning might require
them to step out of their comfort zone as they practice facilitating a simulated
team meeting while being observed by their peers, or receive feedback about the
impact of their leadership style. Due to the experiential nature of the program,
time is dedicated in the first sessions to support students in developing personal
relationships with each other. Group guidelines are established to encourage a
supportive and committed atmosphere. Students in the LOT program repeatedly
respond well to experiential opportunities. Many of the most favored sessions are
the ones which emphasize active learning. This kind of learning promotes
confidence in leadership practice and a deeper awareness of the challenges and
nuances involved in leading. In addition, engaging the same cohort of students in
active leadership learning over a 14-week period results in a comfort level, and
trust that allows for greater impact than individual workshops.

Student Feedback
Assessing learning outcomes has been a consistent feature of the program for the
last four summers. Since 2007 a pre-survey has been administered where students
are asked to rate their perceived skill level on a scale of one to five, one being
very low and five being very high, for a variety of skills that relate to the three
major competencies of the program (personal leadership, team leadership, and
societal leadership). Survey questions address skills such as interpersonal skills,
listening skills, offering feedback, resolving conflict, coaching and developing
others, delegating tasks, making ethical decisions and communicating advances in
technology to the public. The same survey is then given at the end of the summer
to track changes in students’ perceived ability. The expectation is that average

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values will change, up or down, after students have had opportunities to practice
their leadership.

There are limits to this kind of indirect assessment as Goertzen (2009) points out
in his article, Assessment in Academic based Leadership Education Programs.
However, when used in combination with the direct assessment of students final
workshop presentations it can be determined that leadership learning is
increasing.

Results for all cohorts, and for many of the specific competencies measured on
the pre- and post- surveys, indicate that there has been a tendency for increase in
perceived confidence. All three cohorts were asked the question: “On a scale of
one to five how strongly do you value self-awareness in your group interactions?”
For all groups there was an increased value. In 2007 the incoming average was
3.3 which rose to 4.3, in 2008 the average rose from 3.9 to 4.3, in 2009 there was
an increase from 4.0 to 4.3, and in 2010 responses rose from 3.9 to 4.5. This data,
however, was not tested for statistical significance. For other competencies such
as listening, resolving conflict, acknowledging the contributions of others in
group settings, making ethical decisions, delegating tasks, clearly articulating
views, and critical thinking, students were asked to rate their perceived ability
before the program and after the program. In almost all cases scores went up.

While the data is encouraging and useful, there is still work to be done in refining
the assessment strategy. A tension exists between keeping the survey the same to
gather consistent data year to year, while balancing the need to change the survey
to reflect specific sessions offered each summer. Moving forward, the program
assessment strategy is being enhanced to include more qualitative data such as the
following testimonials, as well as direct assessment of students’ final workshop
presentations.

Student Testimonials
The following testimonials were provided by students who participated in the
LOT summer program:

I had never noticed how often people try to solve other peoples' problems
instead of just listening to them. From this workshop I took away the fact
that to actually listen to the person you do not have to listen with your
ears, you also have to listen with your mind. You reserve all judgment and
advice and you let the person speak, while you Listen. As a person whose
passion is relational leadership, this skill really has helped me build my

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professional and personal relationships, as well as take learning to a new

level.(Saeed Kaddoura, Chemical Engineering Student)

As a result of LOT, I think I’ve learned more about myself as a person.

The experiences within LOT have caused me to reflect on my personal
beliefs and values. I’ve also learned how to work more effectively in teams
and communicate my ideas to others much more clearly and confidently. A
lot of these skills may fall under leadership, but I also think they are just
life stills everyone needs to learn. Technology is an increasingly pervasive
element of our society, yet engineers are by-in-large unrepresented
amongst key decision makers. Leadership education is required to
empower engineers to speak up and contribute to these key decision
making processes. Engineers must seek to develop themselves as leaders
to better understand and influence the effect that the technology they
develop has on society. (Shahed Al-Haque, Engineering Science Student)

After being involved in LOT, I find that I am more self-aware. I know what
my leadership type is and what my tendencies are when working in a
group setting. Becoming involved in this program has shown me that I can
take on many other extracurricular activities and enrich my academic
experience as an undergrad. LOT has given me the opportunity to learn
networking, organizational and event-planning skills that are invaluable
to the skill set that I have as an engineer. (Rosanna Kronfli, Chemical
Engineering Student)

Offering Feedback
Moving forward we seek more ways to offer students meaningful feedback on
their personal leadership practice. The Gordon Engineering Leadership program
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, among others, have inspired deeper
thought into the ways that individual feedback can accelerate student’s growth
(Graham, Crawley, & Mendelsohn, 2009). For a co-curricular program such as
the LOT summer program where experiential learning and leadership practice are
emphasized, there is a need for creative ways to deliver feedback. We are in the
process of translating our program philosophy into specific and measurable
learning outcomes which will support our growing team to offer personalized
feedback to students.

Conclusion
The Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow program promotes and facilitates the
development of engineering leaders. By incorporating leadership education into

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engineering curricula and the student experience, graduates will be positioned to

contribute more effectively to positive social change and innovation. Special
attention is paid to the importance of experiential leadership learning and to the
assessment and measurement of student learning outcomes. The summer program
in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry is one
component of the Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow Faculty-wide leadership
development initiative. The program offers a cohort of students the chance to
come together for 14 weeks to learn and practice their leadership in an informal
setting. Participant-completed surveys suggest that the program is producing
positive impact on students’ perceived leadership skill. The summer program is
one initiative within the Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow program that aims to
promote student leadership, enhance student experience, and empower graduating
engineers to be effective leaders and change-agents in the world.

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References
Bolton, R., & Grover-Bolton, D. (1996) People styles at work: Making bad
relationships good and good relationships better. Ridge Associates.

Colbeck, C. L., Campbell, S. E., & Bjorklund, S. A. (2000). Grouping in the

Dark: What College Students Learn from Group Projects. The Journal of
Higher Education, 7(1), 60-83.

Crawley, E., Graham, R., & Mendelsohn, B. (2009). MIT White Paper:
Engineering leadership education: A snapshot review of international
good practice.

Florman, S. (1996). The introspective engineer New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Goertzen, B. J. (2009). Assessment in academic based leadership education

programs. Journal of Leadership Education. 8(1), 148-162.

Haghighi, K., Smith, K., Karl, A., Olds, B., Fortenbery, N., & Bond, S. (2008).
The time is now: Are we ready for our role? Journal of Engineering
Education, 97(2), 119-121.

Jackson, D. (2011). Perception is Reality: Your Strengths Matter. Journal of

Leadership Education, 10(1), 115-122.

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and

development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Komives, S., Duggan, J., Owen, J., Slack, C., & Wagner, W. (2011) The
Handbook for student leadership development. National Clearinghouse of
Leadership Programs (NCLP).

Seat, E., Parsons, J. R., & Poppen, W. (2001) Enabling engineering performance
skills: A program to teach communication, leadership, and
teamwork. Journal of Engineering Education, 90(1), 7-12.

Thomas, J. (2010). Bet you never heard of this leadership trait. Journal of
Leadership Education. 9(2), 1-4.

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Author Biographies
Annie Simpson is a doctoral student in Curriculum, Teaching and Learning at
OISE/University of Toronto. She is also the Coordinator of the Engineering
Leaders of Tomorrow Program and the Assistant Director of the Institute for
Leadership Education in Engineering (ILead). She has taught in the community
college system and has also worked as a counselor, conflict mediator, restorative
justice facilitator, and trainer.

Greg Evans is a Professor of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry and

the Director of the Southern Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research at
the University of Toronto. He is co-leader of Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow
and the Associate Director of the Institute for Leadership Education in
Engineering (ILead). He is a licensed engineer (P. Eng.) and holds a bachelor of
science, master of science, and doctorate (Toronto).

Doug Reeve is Professor and former Chair (2001-2011) of Chemical Engineering

and Applied Chemistry at the University of Toronto. He is co-leader of
Engineering Leaders of Tomorrow and the Director of the Institute for Leadership
Education in Engineering (ILead). He is a licensed Engineer (P. Eng.), holds a
bachelor of science (UBC), a master of science, and doctorate (Toronto).

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Enhancing Leadership Skills in Volunteers

Landry L. Lockett, Ed.D.

Senior Lecturer
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
2116 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-2116
(979) 845-2250
l-lockett@tamu.edu

Barry Boyd, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications
Texas A&M University
2116 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-2116
(979) 845-6296
b-boyd@tamu.edu

Abstract
This article describes how professionals leading volunteers can purposefully work
toward developing the “leadership identity” of individual volunteers. These
concepts and the application of them are presented in the context of Cooperative
Extension volunteer groups. Specific methods of developing the leadership
identity and capacity of individual volunteers and for developing shared
leadership within volunteer groups are offered. This article contains many
implications and applications for all types of volunteers, including those outside
an Extension context.

Introduction
Leadership development has been a fundamental objective of Cooperative
Extension since its inception. Developing leaders on the local level to lead change
and solve local problems is an integral part of Extension’s program development
process, and is a unique attribute of Extension. Steady population growth,
combined with tightening budgets, underscores the need for Extension volunteers
with effective leadership skills to meet the ever increasing demand for quality,
relevant educational programming. Leadership competencies in volunteers are

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essential for volunteer administrators to enjoy a shared ownership and

responsibility of Extension volunteer programs with volunteers, and for
volunteers to reach their maximum potential.

This article focuses on one definition of leadership that is very fitting for
Extension work: “Leadership is a relational process of people together attempting
to accomplish change or make a difference to benefit the common good”
(Komives, Lucas & McMahon, 1998, p. 21). Extension volunteer administrators
and Extension volunteers are a team. Leadership is not simply about a position,
title, or specific function within a volunteer program. People display leadership
when they take action for the common good – internally within the volunteer
program, and externally interacting with the public through advocacy or
educational programming. Komives et al. (1998) notes that this kind of leadership
involves elements of inclusiveness, empowerment, ethics, purposefulness, and
process orientation. Extension educators should evaluate how well they are
addressing elements and how purposeful they are about developing leadership
characteristics in their volunteers. While volunteers will continue to develop
leadership skills on their own, purposefully nurturing these skills will increase the
rate at which they are developed and thus benefit Extension audiences.

The Importance of Leadership in Extension

Building leadership skills in volunteers, and having volunteers demonstrate
leadership ability is a component of all major volunteer administration models
(Boyce, 1971; Culp, Deppe, Castillo, & Wells, 1998; Penrod, 1991; Safrit &
Schmiesing, 2004). Research studies continue to emphasize the importance of
volunteer administrators developing leadership skills in volunteers as an essential
component for successful volunteer programs (Boyd, 2004; Lockett & Boleman,
2008; Safrit, Schmiesing, Gliem & Gliem, 2005).

Leadership is an important aspect of all Extension volunteer programs. Extension

programs are most impactful when Extension professionals and volunteers have a
partnership and a balance of program ownership and responsibility (King &
Safrit, 1998; Snider, 1985). Snider (1985) notes that there are opportunities for
volunteer administrators to give volunteers more program ownership when the
agent allows volunteers to perform specifically identified program management
tasks. Volunteer administrators that capitalize on skills of veteran volunteers
enhance the overall quality of volunteer programs while offering volunteers more
ownership in the program and providing options for continued involvement (Van
Der Zanden, 2001).

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Improving Leadership Skills in Volunteers

Extension volunteer programs are likely already improving the leadership skills of
volunteers simply by the interactions and functions that naturally take place. By
understanding how Extension volunteer administrators can add more purpose to
activities that are already taking place, Extension volunteers will be better
positioned for intentional leadership development.

Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, and Osteen (2005) examined the process
that people go through to obtain leadership attributes. They labeled the
compilation of these skills as the person’s leadership identity. Leadership identity
is a person’s leadership capacity or tendency to lead others over time. Komives et
al. outlined how leadership identity develops and changes over time, along with
how other people influence and form that identity. They noted that there are three
primary categories of influence and development which, interacting together,
contribute to the development of a person’s leadership identity. These categories
include Developing Self, Developmental Influences, and Group Influences. The
components of each category are outlined in Table 1 (Komives et al., 2005).

Table 1. Factors Contributing to the Development of Leadership Identity

Developing Self Developmental Group Influences
Influences
Deepening Self-Awareness Adult Influences Engaging in Groups
Building Self-Confidence Peer Influences Learning From Membership
Continually
Establishing Interpersonal Meaningful Involvement Changing Perceptions of
Efficacy Groups
Applying New Skills Reflective Learning
Expanding Motivations

Volunteer administrators and Extension volunteer programs can influence

individual leadership capacity in volunteers within the context of all three of the
categories of Developing Self, Developmental Influences, and Group Influences.
Understanding these categories will help volunteer administrators of Extension
volunteers focus their efforts for building the leadership identity of those
volunteers in both a positive and effective manner. Volunteer administrators can
have a direct impact on the Developmental Influences and Group Influences
categories; therefore, the primary focus of this manuscript is on these two
categories.

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Developing Self

An individual’s leadership identity develops as a result of personal growth.

Komives et al. (2005) listed five properties with dimensions of personal growth,
which change throughout the formation of leadership identity. These properties
include: deepening self-awareness, building self-confidence, establishing
interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills, and expanding motivations. Although
self-development occurs internally, all of the factors in the Developmental
Influences and Group Influences categories affect each individual’s self-
development and formation of a personal leadership identity.

Developmental Influences

Komives et al. (2005) noted four essential developmental influences that foster
the development of leadership identity. These include adult influences, peer
influences, meaningful involvement, and reflective learning. Every Extension
volunteer program offers all of these essential developmental influences for group
participants. Descriptions of these developmental influences based on the findings
of Komives et al. (2005) follow below.

• Adult Influences. Adults play different roles in influencing youth

movement through the leadership identity development stages. This
primarily takes place within Extension’s 4-H/Youth Development
program area. Adults are very important in building confidence and
serving as an early building block of support.

• Peer Involvement. The camaraderie and mutual learning that comes from
fellowship with like-minded volunteers keeps volunteers engaged in
Extension programs over time. Peer involvement from active volunteer
members is a great source of aid in learning and orientation of new
volunteers.

• Meaningful Involvement. Volunteer experiences often offer hands-on

experiential learning opportunities where leadership identities evolve.
These experiences enable volunteers to experience diverse peers and
program participants, learn about self, and develop new skills. Volunteers
develop an understanding that they are part of something bigger than
themselves and their individual achievement helps the whole volunteer
program.

• Reflective Learning. Structured opportunities for critical reflection can be

an important component of people developing their leadership identity.

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Processing experiences creates deeper learning, promotes self-assessment

and volunteer program improvement.

Group Influences

Group involvement, such as volunteering within an Extension program, builds

individual leadership competencies. Group influences include engaging in groups,
learning from membership connection, and changing perceptions of groups
(Komives et al., 2005). Cooperative Extension engages volunteers in group
settings through many different volunteer programs. These group settings afford
important opportunities for improvement of leadership skills. Descriptions of
these group influences based on the findings of Komives et al. follow below.

• Engaging in Groups. Research has shown that group involvement makes

a tremendous impact on the development of leadership skills in
individuals. A strong relationship exists between a group’s culture and the
individual’s view of themselves and how that culture influenced their
leadership identity. People naturally seek a sense of belonging in groups,
and will find in volunteer programs a sense of place as the program’s
mission and core values reflect their own.

• Learning From Membership Continuity. Membership continuity refers

to individuals being involved in Extension volunteer programs
consistently over time instead of volunteering sporadically or for only one
event. Volunteers committed to Extension groups are exposed to multiple
learning opportunities that add to their leadership competencies, such as
organizational and management skills. Seasoned volunteers become
increasingly aware of their responsibility for the development of newer
volunteers. They assume responsibility and take on positional leadership
and active member roles.

Group interaction influences volunteers’ self-awareness as well as shaping

how they view groups and their role with others in groups. Volunteers will
come to realize that they must depend on others in the group to
accomplish mutual goals. An important concept that is reinforced by
working in groups is that working along with others is more productive
than working alone. This is a foundational truth that is the basis for all of
Extension’s volunteer groups.

• Changing Perceptions of Groups. Being an active participant in

volunteer groups tends to change individual perceptions of our groups.
Volunteers sometimes begin their involvement viewing the volunteer

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program as just a collection of friends or like-minded people. As they

better understand the purposes of the program, this collection of people
begins to be seen and understood as an organization with structure and
roles. Eventually, volunteers will see the volunteer program as an entity to
develop and that they have a leadership responsibility within that group
development.

Implications and Discussion

Extension professionals serving as volunteer administrators should strive to
develop leadership skills in volunteers by purposefully implementing actions and
programs which will influence all three of the primary factors contributing to the
development of leadership identity. A discussion of specific steps which could be
taken by Extension personnel related to each of these factors follows below.

Developing Self

Extension professionals can seek to create an environment within volunteer

programs that is positive, encouraging, and favorable for volunteer self-
development. This can be accomplished by establishing a volunteer program
culture that promotes growth and personal capacity expansion by setting an
example of thoughtful, positive feedback to volunteer efforts, and sending the
clear message to all volunteers that a positive and supportive attitude is expected
for fellow volunteers. Extension professionals should seek to provide a
framework that allows for mistakes to be made by volunteers, creating learning
opportunities without any of those mistakes becoming catastrophic.

Developmental Influences

• Adult Influences. Extension professionals can increase a child’s

leadership ability by prompting them to serve on a county youth board,
task force, committee, or as a teen leader; and then offering them
encouragement and guidance in those roles. Verbal and written
communication during this time, affirming the child’s leadership aptitude,
makes a lasting impression and leads to the acceptance of more leadership
responsibility.

• Peer Involvement. Formally establishing mentor programs within adult

volunteer groups promotes leadership building with newer volunteers.
Observing seasoned volunteers fulfilling their roles, conducting Extension
educational programming, and answering questions gives newer
volunteers insight and knowledge to draw upon in similar situations. This

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is an empowering function of the group, and is a catalyst for individual

leadership development. As time goes by, mentor relationships transition
from new volunteers being followers to new volunteers being
collaborators and friends.

• Meaningful Involvement. Involving advisory groups such as Leadership

Advisory Boards or Program Area Committees in any aspect of issue
identification or the development and delivery of Extension educational
programming, exposes volunteers to information and experiences that
build on their leadership identity. This is the same result for all volunteers
when they are engaged in educational programs and worthwhile projects.
The key word here is “meaningful” involvement. It is important that
volunteers’ time is not wasted; which makes them feel that they do not
matter. When used to their capacity, volunteers benefit personally with
added skills and Extension benefits from their perspective, creativity,
knowledge, and hard work.

• Reflective Learning. Examples include meaningful conversations,

completing a survey, an outcome interpretation piece, or even journaling.
Having committee chairs or project leaders complete a summary form that
lists items such as: accomplishments, lessons learned, and ideas for future
projects, allows volunteer leaders a chance to realize that growth has
occurred and valuable insight was gained along the way.

Group Influences

• Engaging in Groups. Group interaction yields many fundamental

competencies that are essential for quality leadership such as: relationship
building, trust, valuing diversity, conflict resolution, and facilitation skills.
Group interaction is not limited to the effect of the entire volunteer
program on a volunteer; the same benefits are also derived from subgroups
like committees and projects. Serving within the context of a group is
often the security and empowerment that many volunteers need in order to
be fully engaged and productive, as opposed to timidly feeling like a “lone
ranger” afraid of messing up. A group will also act as a type of “checks
and balances” for volunteers who’s leadership style is too directive, which
is a problem that is not uncommon in Extension volunteer groups. Groups
have a way of pulling those volunteers back and supporting them in
practicing shared leadership. Therefore, volunteer administrators should
make it a priority to determine, at least annually, the projects and/or
committees in which every volunteer will serve. Every volunteer should

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know their role and understand who they will be working with, and for
what purpose.

Part of our job as volunteer administrators, as well as one function of the

volunteer group as a whole, is to gently remind individual volunteers that
they are here to serve the group and Extension’s mission, not stand out as
leaders themselves. This helps create a volunteer program culture that is
team-oriented, encouraging, accepting, and relaxed.

• Learning From Membership Continuity. One of a volunteer

administrator’s key objectives should be creating a volunteer experience
that encourages continued volunteering with Extension. Culp et al. (1998)
calls this engaging and sustaining volunteers. Volunteer administrators
should take the time necessary to familiarize themselves with a volunteer
administration model, in an effort to have a functional and effective
volunteer program. Strive to maintain a safe place for volunteers to try on
roles and practice processes. This will happen when there is continuity in
volunteer programs due to organized structure and policies, which
promote volunteer retention.

• Changing Perceptions of Groups. Extension volunteer administrators

should take an active role in facilitating the positive perception change
within volunteers. This will be accomplished through orientation
activities, trainings, strategic planning, and advocacy/interpretation events.
By gaining an insider’s systems-view of the volunteer program, volunteers
are prepared and motivated to serve in advocacy roles for the volunteer
program specifically and the Extension agency as a whole.

As with all developmental processes, the individual volunteers in a given program

will be at various points developmentally in the process of becoming leaders and
finding their leadership identity. This has the potential to cause conflict when
there is a lack of understanding and perspective regarding other people’s thoughts
and actions. Volunteer administrator’s words and actions will “set the pace” for
creating an environment of security, trust, and acceptance.

Summary
These concepts and the application of them in Extension volunteer groups offer a
purposeful way of developing the leadership capacity and identity of individual
volunteers and for developing volunteer groups to be supportive environments for
shared leadership. Volunteer administrators cannot make volunteers change;

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however, an environment can be created in which conditions exist which promote

learning, engagement, and trying new things in a supportive climate.

These concepts may also prove useful in helping understand why some
individuals are frustrated in particular volunteer group experiences. For example,
a specific volunteer may have progressed through many stages of developing
leadership skills, understands the value of shared leadership, and finds themselves
on a project committee where the committee chairperson leads with a very
directive, positional leadership style. Being aware of these potential frustrations
gives a volunteer administrator a better perspective on the source of some
conflicts and how to handle them.

This information is helpful for designing educational programs and a volunteer

program environment full of learning experiences to foster leadership identity. As
the confidence of individual volunteers builds over time, they will take risks and
become more involved. They will be empowered to take more active group roles.

Leadership development keeps experienced volunteers challenged, interested, and

committed to the organization’s future (Connors, 1995). These individuals will
benefit personally and professionally from a purposeful effort to enhance their
leadership skills, and Extension will benefit from the enhanced performance of
these individuals in planning and conducting educational programs.

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References
Boyce, M. V. (1971). A systematic approach to leadership development. Paper
presented at the County and Area 4-H Youth Agents Conference in
Pennsylvania and Missouri.

Boyd, B. L. (2004). Extension agents as administrators of volunteers:

Competencies needed for the future. Journal of Extension, [Online], 42(2),
Article 2FEA4. Available at http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/a4.php.

Culp, K., Deppe, C. A., Castillo, J. X., & Wells, B. J. (1998). The GEMS model
of volunteer administration. The Journal of Volunteer Administration,
16(4), 36-41.

King, J., & Safrit, R. D. (1998). Extension Agents' Perceptions of Volunteer

Management. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(3) Article 3FEA2.
Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/a2.php

Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (1998). Exploring leadership: For
college students who want to make a difference. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L.
(2005). Developing a Leadership Identity: A Grounded Theory. Journal
of College Student Development, 46(6), 593-611.

Lockett, L. L., & Boleman, C. T. (2008). Competencies, Benefits and

Limitations for Volunteer Resource Managers Utilizing Volunteers as
Middle-managers within a Volunteer Organization. The International
Journal of Volunteer Administration. Volume XXV, Number 2: p. 11-21.

Penrod, K. M. (1991). Leadership Involving Volunteers: The L-O-O-P Model.

Journal of Extension [On-line], 29(4) Article 4FEA2. Available at:
http://www.joe.org/joe/1991winter/a2.php

Safrit, R. D., & Schmiesing, R. J. (2004). A suggested model for contemporary

volunteer management: Qualitative research bridging the professional
literature with best practices. The Journal of Volunteer Administration,
22(4), 34–41.

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Safrit, R. D., Schmiesing, R. J., Gliem, J. A., & Gliem, R. R. (2005).

Competencies for contemporary volunteer administration: An empirical
model bridging theory with professional best practice. The Journal of
Volunteer Administration, 23(3), 5–15.

Snider, A. (1985). The Dynamic Tension: Professionals and Volunteers, The

balance of sharing leadership. Journal of Extension [On-line], 23(3)
Article 3FEA2. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1985fall/sa2.php

Van Der Zanden, A. M. (2001). Ripple Effect Training: Multiplying Extension's

Resources with Veteran Master Gardeners as MG Trainers. Journal of
Extension, [Online], 39(3), Article 3RIB1, Available at:
http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/rb1.php.

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Author Biographies
Landry L. Lockett is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural
Leadership, Education, & Communications (ALEC) at Texas A&M University.
He earned his doctorate in 2007 through a joint doctoral program offered by
Texas A&M University and Texas Tech University. Dr. Lockett joined the ALEC
faculty in 2007 as a Texas Extension Specialist in Organizational Development,
and became a Senior Lecturer within the ALEC Department in August of 2011.
Prior to joining the faculty at Texas A&M, Dr. Lockett served as an Extension
Horticulture educator with the Texas Extension Service in Collin County where
he developed and conducted educational programs while leading the Collin
County Master Gardener volunteers for six years. His research interests include
leading volunteers, the power of motivation, and improving teaching
effectiveness.

Barry L. Boyd is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural

Leadership, Education, & Communications (ALEC) at Texas A&M University.
He earned his doctorate from Texas A&M in 1991 with an emphasis in leadership
education and instructional design and joined the ALEC faculty in 1999. He
teaches courses in personal and organizational leadership development, as well as
leadership in volunteer programs. Dr. Boyd’s research interests include teaching
effectiveness in leadership education, assessment of student learning, and
teaching for transformation in the classroom. He is a member of the Association
of Leadership Educators, serving as President of the organization in 2008. Prior to
joining the faculty at Texas A&M, Dr. Boyd served as an Extension educator with
the Texas Cooperative Extension where he developed leadership programs for
volunteers and inner-city teens.

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Using the 5Ps Leadership Analysis to Examine the Battle

of Antietam: An Explanation and Case Study

Bradley Z. Hull, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Logistics
Department of Management, Marketing, and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
bzhull@jcu.edu

Scott J. Allen, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Management
Department of Management, Marketing, and Logistics
John Carroll University
University Heights, OH
sallen@jcu.edu

Abstract
The authors describe an exploratory analytical tool called The 5Ps Leadership
Analysis (Personal Attributes, Position, Purpose, Practices/Processes, and
Product) as a heuristic for better understanding the complexities of leadership.
Using The 5Ps Leadership Analysis, the authors explore the leadership of General
Robert E. Lee of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and General George
B. McClellan of the Union Army of the Potomac—more specifically, the
leadership of the two generals on September 17, 1862 during the Battle of
Antietam. The paper concludes with suggestions for application in the classroom.

Introduction
This case study examines how two organizations compete and how two leaders
can influence change and success given their resources. One organization is small
and underfinanced with antiquated equipment. The other is large, well financed,
and organized along traditional lines where each part of the organization operates
autonomously and is coordinated by top levels of management. This type of
confrontation between a small organization and a large competitor occurs often in
American business. Two relevant examples might be Dell (in its early days)
versus Compaq and Amazon.com (in its early days) versus Barnes and Noble or
the now bankrupt Borders. No doubt there is much to gain from an analysis
similar to the approach taken in Built to Last (Collins & Porras, 1997) or Good to

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Great (Collins, 2001). However, a more novel approach may be to examine an

extreme example where the competition is not two companies intensely
competing for market share, but two armies locked in a life or death struggle.
Military history provides examples where this type of competition is direct and a
leader’s actions are well documented.

For this paper, two armies have been chosen—the Confederate Army of Northern
Virginia under General Robert E. Lee and the Union Army of the Potomac under
General George B. McClellan as a case study for our analysis. The setting is the
American Civil War and the date is September 17, 1862 during the Battle of
Antietam. As we approach the 150th (September 17, 2012) anniversary of this
crucial event in American history, it is appropriate to reflect on the role leadership
played in the battle. By all accounts, the smaller Army of Northern Virginia was
out manned, out gunned, and out funded, yet they delivered a draw for the
Confederacy.

The purpose of this article is two-fold. First, the authors describe an exploratory
approach called The 5Ps Leadership Analysis (5PLA) as a heuristic for better
understanding the complexities of leadership. A second purpose is to apply the
approach to a case study that focuses on the leadership of two legendary generals,
Robert E. Lee and George B. McClellan. The authors provide a brief description
of the 5Ps model and continue with the case under review—the Battle of
Antietam. The paper concludes with suggestions for practice in the classroom.

The 5Ps Leadership Analysis

Dialogue about leadership can be difficult to navigate because participants enter
the conversation at different points. As DiPaolo (2009) suggests “Many of our
student leaders have been wearing the label of ‘leader’ without any real
understanding of what that means” (p. 13). Some describe leadership as position,
others examine behaviors, and many describe the personal traits or the results of
an individual’s efforts. Development level of the student impacts an individual’s
construction of leadership as well (Komives, Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, &
Owen, 2009). Unfortunately, viewing leadership through a narrow lens may limit
an individual’s ability to accurately pinpoint the sources of success or failure. As
Kellerman (2004) suggests, rarely does success or failure happen in a vacuum.
Variables include the leader, the followers, and the context and each of these
variables has several sub-factors as well. In fact, a major challenge to the study
and practice of leadership is the many traits, abilities, skills, competencies,
processes a leader must possess to be successful. One need not look any further
than Bass’ (2008) exhaustive account of the literature. One purpose of the present
article is to honor complexity while also placing a container around some of the

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major factors that lead to effective or ineffective leadership. The ability to discern
how to critically examine leadership is important for both scholars and educators
alike.

When analyzing leadership, and the attributes of effective leaders, we have found
it useful to view individuals through the lens of The 5Ps Leadership Analysis.
Burns (1978) suggested that leadership “is one of the most observed and least
understood concepts on earth” (p. 2) and by no means does this heuristic provide
an all-inclusive list of knowledge, skills, activities, abilities, and traits. However,
the 5PLA provides students with a comprehensive tool to gain perspective on
leadership through an organized, multi-faceted approach. The 5Ps —Personal
Attributes, Position, Purpose, Practices/Processes and Product—can help students
more critically examine effective and ineffective leadership and better defend why
they came to the conclusion they did.

Personal Attributes are the traits, knowledge, skills, and abilities that leaders
embody (Bass, 2008; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; McCrae & Costa,
1997; Stodgill, 1948). These traits vary from person to person, and must be
capitalized upon and managed depending on the context. Individuals bring natural
ability in some areas (e.g., cognitive ability) but this does not mean the individual
can influence, inspire, and energize a group of people. Countless combinations of
the attributes of the leader (and followers) will be needed for different contexts.
Leaders and followers with an intentional awareness of their positive and negative
attributes can better manage the personal dimension of leadership.

Position examines how the individual approaches the role of “leader” (Blanchard,
Zigarmi, & Nelson, 1993; Gardner, 1990; Goleman, 2004; Goleman, Boyatzis, &
McKee, 2002; Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; McCall, 2010). When others speak about
the leader, it is often done so in deference to the role the individual occupies.
Most often this person is in a position of authority over others. He or she is the
president, executive director, or branch manager. However, if leadership is in fact
a process of influence, then the Position need not be a formal one. In other words,
each person can step into and out of leadership—often in a moment’s notice.
Upon critical examination, a person with a position of authority or leadership
could not act as a leader and those without a title (e.g., Gandhi, Mother Theresa)
may in fact be exercising leadership. Regardless of how the individual obtained
the role, Position is about the style the leader uses to lead others (e.g., Blanchard,
Zigarmi, & Nelson, 1993; Goleman, 2004).

The leader’s Purpose answers the question, “Leadership for what?” Leaders are
clearly aligned around a cause or purpose (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985; Kouzes &
Posner, 2007). At times the Purpose could be deemed as noble and right. At other
times, an individual’s Purpose may be unethical and suspect. The Purpose may be

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set by the board to increase shareholder value or it could be mission driven, such
as eradicating cancer. A Purpose may be an individual’s vision, politically
motivated or community driven. Regardless, Purpose is essential. Without
Purpose, a leader will have a difficult time motivating others to work hard,
innovate, and in some cases, place themselves and their families in harm’s way.

The Practices/Processes of leadership describe how the leader achieves Purpose;

moving the group, organization or community from point A to point B (Heifetz &
Linsky, 2002; Northouse, 2010; Yukl, 2010). This movement may include any
number of Processes (timing, strategy, initiating structure, goal achievement) or
behaviors (Practices) associated with effective leadership (see Bass, 1985; Kouzes
& Posner, 2007). At times, the Practices/Processes are simple and straightforward
and at other times a complex maze of possibilities (e.g., U.S. debt ceiling crisis in
August 2011). Regardless, the Practices/Processes are crucial to the Purpose and
may mean the difference between success and failure. For example, the chosen
Practices/Processes can energize and engage followers, model desired behaviors,
and align resources and people in a common direction. In addition, there are a
number of explicit and implicit rules that will foster an environment of creativity
and innovation or stability and conservatism. Ultimately, the goal is for leaders to
intervene skillfully (Meissen, 2010) and act from a place of intentionality.

What is the end Product? Some wonder if the success or failure of the leader can
be determined prior to knowing the final results of the Purpose (Ulrich, Zenger, &
Smallwood, 1999). In other words, did the individual make a positive contribution
that did in fact lead the organization, country or cause to goal attainment? Did
they fulfill their Purpose? Or, is the institution worse because of the intervention?
In some cases it takes years, maybe decades to know the full effect of an
individual’s actions (or inactions) and in the end, some go down in history as
great leaders who fulfilled their Purpose and others do not.

By using the 5PLA as a lens to evaluate a leader, one can determine why some
men and women have achieved great success and others have not. For instance,
some individuals are adept at one or two of the 5Ps—a great man or woman may
have an incredible purpose or cause for example but fail to implement process to
produce results in a way that impacts the masses. Others can produce strong,
large-scale results but in a horrifying or unethical manner (e.g., Adolf Hitler,
Joseph Stalin). To apply the tool under discussion to a real case, we look to
American history and a conflict between two generals, both West Point graduates
who each graduated second in their class. Likewise, both were charismatic in their
own right and respected strategists. Their background was somewhat similar, but
the results of their leadership differed drastically.

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A Leadership Case Study: The Battle of Antietam

The Battle of Antietam pitted the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under
General Robert E. Lee against the Union Army of the Potomac under General
George B. McClellan. The date was September 17, 1862. The battle under
examination (Antietam) became known as the “The Bloodiest Day in American
History” due to the massive number of casualties on each side.

Setting the Stage: The Context

In the fall of 1862 the Civil War was nearly two years old and the Confederate
States of America (the South) was suffering initial defeats at the hands of the
Union (the North). The South had few arms or munitions factories to make
weapons, unlike the technologically advanced North. The industrial revolution
had made the North wealthy and the almost exclusively agrarian South was
virtually bankrupt and lacking the infrastructure to wage war (McPherson, 2002).

Upon assuming command of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, Lee

won two initial victories and Southern spirits soared. England and France took
interest in an independent South, which would give them access to its cotton crop.
If Lee could deliver a significant victory on Northern soil, England and France
were prepared to send warships to aid the South, which in the minds of many,
would bring the war to a speedy end (McPherson, 2002).

Achieving such a victory was a major reason for Lee’s decision to invade the
North, but there were others as well (Murfin, 1965). First, 1862 was a midterm
election year and there was a growing anti-war sentiment in the North. With
another Southern victory, Abraham Lincoln might lose control of Congress
(McPherson, 2002). Second, invasion might convince Maryland to secede from
the Union since it was a slave owning Northern state with many Southern
sympathizers (Gallagher, 1999). Third, Lee knew he could not compete with the
extensive resources of the North. With its large population and industrial might,
he knew that the North would ultimately overwhelm the South. For the South to
win, it needed to do so quickly.

Lee’s troops were tired from recent battles, underfed, and had antiquated firearms
(Child, 2006). In a September 3, 1862 letter to his immediate superior, Jefferson
Davis, President of the Confederate States of America, Lee wrote, “And though
weaker than our opponents in men and military equipment we must endeavor to
harass, if we cannot destroy them” (Thomas, 1995, p. 256). Lee knew he had little
alternative to invasion and now was the time to strike—on the heels of his recent
victories, when spirits ran high. Thus, his decision to invade with an inferior force

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was daring, but based on logic (McPherson, 2002). His decision to invade was
also supported by Jefferson Davis who supported Lee throughout the War
(Gallagher, 1996).

Lee took a daring risk and split his troops into five columns: three were
dispatched to capture Harper’s Ferry, one to investigate (unfounded) rumors of
Northern troop movements, and one marched to Frederick, Maryland where Lee
addressed the citizens in an attempt to influence them to join with the South.
Dividing forces in enemy territory invited destruction—especially in this case,
since Lee had only 38,000 invading against more than 95,000 Union troops
(Sears, 1999).

In one of the most famous security mishaps in military history, a copy of Lee’s
orders supposedly dropped on the ground when Major General D. H. Hill
mounted his horse was found by Union soldiers and swiftly turned over to
General McClellan. Upon receipt of Lee’s orders, McClellan stated, “This is a
paper with which, if I am not able to whip Bobbie Lee, I shall be willing to go
home” (Gibbon, 1928, p. 73). Finding the orders known as “Lee’s Lost Orders”
should have resulted in the swift destruction of Lee’s dispersed forces, but it did
not.

The Personal Attributes of Lee and McClellan

Much has been written about the personal attributes of the two military leaders.
History has viewed Robert E. Lee as a tenacious, inspirational, impatient, and
achievement oriented leader willing to take calculated risks even under the most
challenging circumstances. A graduate of West Point and the son of a military
hero in his own right, Lee “scored perfectly in artillery and in infantry and in
cavalry. His math scores were superb” (Zwonitzer, 2011, para. 16). Graduating
second in his class at West Point, Lee was a scholar who followed rules and was
respectful in his interactions (Sanborn, 1966). Douglass Southall Freeman
(Freeman, in Gallagher, 1996) perhaps Lee’s best known biographer, described
him as follows:

Lee was preeminently a strategist and a strategist because he was a sound

military logician. It is well enough to speak of his splendid presence on
the field of battle, his poise, his cheer, and his manner with his men, but
essentially he was an intellect with a developed aptitude for the difficult
synthesis of war. (p. 143)

Lee carefully handpicked leaders to manage his troops, and focused on

developing highly creative battlefield strategies. As one humble in spirit, amiable,
and respectful of others, Lee developed trusting relations with his boss, Jefferson

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Davis, and his officers. He was a risk taker who expected the highest performance
from his men, taking daring risks that were measured with cold probability based
on their chance of success (Freeman, in Gallagher, 1996).

George B. McClellan was an organizer and battlefield planner who excelled at

whipping troops into shape. Often in conflict with his superiors, some found him
arrogant, inflexible, and an individual apt to view himself as an agent of the
Lord—one who was called the role versus him seeking it out (Sears, 1999). He
had considerable charisma (Child, 2006) and was popular with his troops who
affectionately referred to him as “Little Mac.” He cared deeply for his troops and
did not want them to die needlessly. This sentiment is perhaps best captured in a
quote from his speech given on March 13, 1862, “I am to watch over you as a
parent over his children; and you know that your General loves you from the
depths of his heart” (Kearns Goodwin, 2005, p. 431).

Lee characterized McClellan as an “able but timid commander” (Sears, 1999, p.

273). Historian James M. McPherson takes Lee’s comment further, “The trouble
with McClellan was that he was psychologically unable to commit this
mechanism that he had created to battle. He was afraid that having created this
wonderful machine, if he started it up, he might destroy it” (Gruben, 2001, Part
Four, para. 15). In addition, he was slow to move, defensive in battle, and was
known to over-plan. It is well documented that Abraham Lincoln and George
McClellan had a tenuous relationship and the president once suggested that
“McClellan suffered from the ‘slows’ and was ‘good for nothing’ in an offensive
campaign” (Sears, 1988, p. 260).

How Lee and McClellan Used the Position of Leader

Just as their Personal Attributes differed, so did their approach to leading others.
Lee used his position to create an organization which encouraged individual
initiative and rewarded operational skills. Lee handpicked battle tested and proven
leaders he could trust and who could take initiative on their own. Lee and his
generals formed a mutually supportive, high performing team, where each had
absolute trust in the others. They easily interchanged duties, troops, and artillery
among each other. This team was responsible for survival at Antietam and major
Confederate victories both before and after Antietam (Manassas, Chancellorsville,
and Fredericksburg). Lee shared and discussed his strategy with his generals. He
made the final decisions and granted his generals autonomy in carrying them out
(Freeman, in Gallagher, 1996).

Lee assumed risks, such as invading with an inferior force, knowing that his
generals were capable of carrying out his plans. With extensive information about
the enemy’s size and whereabouts, he could accurately assess the risks. Likewise,

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Lee and his generals Stuart, Jackson, and Longstreet used their role to lead by
example. During the Battle of Antietam, Lee and his team of generals were
actively engaged in repositioning troops and artillery and encouraging their men.
For example, at one critical moment, Longstreet and his field officers patched a
Confederate line to keep it from breaking (McPherson, 2002).

Although Lee’s organization had few functional barriers, McClellan’s did. His
army was composed of six individual corps, each with its own separate command
structure, infantry, and artillery. Many of the corps had not worked together
before and some had no previous battle experience. Rivalries among the corps
commanders made management of his team challenging. To tighten his control of
the corps, Mac reassigned his commanders shortly before battle, promoting some
and demoting others, which exacerbated their rivalries (Sears, 1999). McClellan
further tightened his control by micromanaging by personally laying out explicit
battle plans for each corps commander to follow, with little input from most of the
commanders themselves (Sears, 1999).

In fact, prior to Antietam, McClellan convened no staff meeting to share plans

with his generals. During the battle, he personally directed their actions from his
headquarters, two and one-half miles from the front lines, visiting the field only
once (Sears, 1999). By some accounts, he was asleep when fighting began (Sears,
1999). He issued orders to his generals through couriers and flag signals, but there
were no written copies. In addition, he kept apprised of the action by telescope
(Sears, 1999) even though parts of the battle were not visible. This distancing
potentially clouded his judgment, reducing his ability to achieve success. Along
with his “hands off” and “slow” approach on the battlefield, Lincoln had
addressed his communication style with his team. Lincoln at one point wrote to
McClellan, “I am constantly told that you have no communication or consultation
with them [the three corps commanders]; that you consult and communicate with
no one but Gen. Fitz-John Porter and perhaps Franklin” (Rosebrock, 2010, Army
of the Potomac—George B. McClellan). Porter and Franklin were two of
McClellan’s generals during the battle.

The Purpose of McClellan and Lee

The explicit Purpose for each general would be to win the battle but it is apparent
that other motivations influenced the actions of each man. McClellan’s explicit
purpose was to defeat Lee, drive him out of Maryland, and defend Washington
(Sears, 1999). However, he seemed to fight the battle so as to avoid defeat
(Murfin & Sears, 1995). As noted in the Personal Attributes section, McClellan
was extremely cautious in his approach to battle. For instance, he was in
possession of Lee’s Lost Orders for more than 18 hours before he acted—critical
lost time that allowed Lee to regroup. Lee’s spies in the Union camp almost

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immediately communicated the mistake to him. Thus, a purpose that drove

McClellan was getting it right and ensuring the perfect plan—a difficult task in
war. McClellan was noted as saying, “Every poor fellow that is killed or wounded
almost haunts me” and “I am tired of the sickening sight of the battlefield with its
mangled corpses & poor suffering wounded…Victory has no charms for me when
purchased at such cost” (Sears, 1999, p. 196). He clearly valued getting it right—
and minimizing casualties—perhaps to his detriment.

By some accounts an opponent of slavery and the slave trade (Sanborn, 1966),
Lee’s primary allegiance was to his beloved Virginia. From the beginning of his
appointment Lee was viewed as a tower of strength (Zwonitzer, 2011). His
concern was about the sovereignty of Virginia, its rights as a state and when
Virginia seceded so did Robert E. Lee. Along with his devotion to his state and
his newfound role, Lee approached battle and the art of war in a different manner
than McClellan. Years after Antietam, Lee suggested, “I went into Maryland to
give battle…and could I have kept Gen. McClellan in ignorance of my positions
and plans…I would have fought and crushed him” (Sears, 1999, p. 273).
Expressing a warrior-like attitude, Lee passionately wanted to win on a number of
levels.

The Practices/Process of Lee and McClellan

Another difference in the way the two men approached leadership is revealed
through their Practices and Processes in getting the work done. Lee excelled at
choosing the site for battle and at effectively deploying his troops. Arriving at
Antietam first with a small force while his other troops were still dispersed, Lee
selected the most advantageous positions. He then defended his superior
positions, refusing to relinquish them, and the Union army arrived during the
course of the afternoon. In so doing, Lee risked annihilation by early attack.
Arriving second, the Union army was unable to survey the field now guarded by
Confederate skirmishers. Thus, when the battle began the next morning after the
arrival of the rest of Lee’s troops, the Union had imperfect knowledge of the
position of the Southern army (Chiles, 1998; Sears, 1999).

During battle, Lee arrayed his troops in a semicircular shape, with Lee defending
the perimeter and controlling the inside of the semicircle. Figure 1 depicts Lee’s
forces defending with Union forces attacking. Lee’s troops and the artillery
needed to move only short distances through the interior of the semicircle to be
repositioned to other points along the semicircle. In the center, Lee established a
supply hub at Sharpsburg, where powder, shot, and spare weapons were stored
and deployed (Chiles, 1998).

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This idea, of course, is the hub and spoke concept used by Federal Express today
to provide overnight delivery. Federal Express’s hub is the Memphis, TN airport
and it flies virtually all its packages through Memphis. During the Civil War,
though, the hub and spoke was a novel concept. It was pioneered and perfected by
Lee, and was responsible for much of his punch in battle (Chiles, 1998). During
the battle, the North mounted five major assaults and all were blocked. Each time,
Lee repositioned enough cannons via these interior routes so that his artillery
firepower was superior to that of McClellan’s cannons many of which were used
only once and not repositioned at all. During the final assault, Lee’s troops were
overwhelmed and retreating and it seemed as if the Southern army was ready to
collapse, but the concentrated firepower of 45 repositioned cannons slowed the
advancing Union troops until Lee’s reinforcements arrived toward the end of the
battle (Chiles, 1988).

On the eve of battle Lee was not the only one who was prepared. McClellan had
excellent plans as well. His modern, high-tech, long distance cannons would
occupy the center of the field where they would rake the Confederate lines from
far beyond the range of the antiquated Confederate cannons. Three of his corps
would attack Lee’s left, and simultaneously another of his corps would attack
Lee’s right. Two of McClellan’s corps, waiting in reserve, would then attack the
Confederate center on weakness in the Lee’s left or right (Ballard, 2007).

During the battle McClellan fully utilized his technological advantage. His
artillery barrage was highly effective at raking the Confederate lines with
impunity for most of the day (Chiles, 1998). However, his plan was poorly
executed and instead of simultaneous attacks, he inexplicably authorized a series
of five sequential attacks, each of which was repulsed. Had any two occurred
simultaneously, they would have likely overwhelmed the inferior Confederate
force. During the course of the day McClellan lost control of the action. One
Union attack occurred spontaneously, without his orders. At the end of the day his
two reserve corps (25,000 men) had not fought at all (King, 2001).

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Figure 1: Lee’s Forces Defending Supply Hub, McClellan’s Forces Attacking

from Three Directions

Prior to and throughout the battle McClellan was convinced that a well-armed
Confederate Army significantly outnumbered him. The documentary Abraham
and Mary Lincoln: A House Divided suggests, “Union forces twice seemed on the
brink of destroying the rebel army. Each time, McClellan refused to order a final
assault, persuaded that Lee had reserves hidden somewhere out of sight” (Grubin,
2001, part four, para. 82)

Several factors contributed to McClellan’s failure to ensure success. First, he did

not share his battle plans with his generals, and made all the decisions remote
from the battlefield action. Likewise, rivalries among his generals may have
impaired their performance and demoralized the corps. In addition, McClellan
was convinced that he was out-numbered by the South (Murfin & Sears, 1995).
This was based on his inaccurate information and the disastrous attack early in the
day known as the “West Woods Massacre” in which he lost 3000 men in 20
minutes. Finally, organizational boundaries did not permit artillery sharing. For
instance, at a critical point during the battle, the middle of the Southern line had
broken, and one additional thrust would have ended the battle. The Northern
general on the field requested artillery to provide cover for this last and final

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attack, and was told that no artillery could be spared. However, the North had 350
cannons on the field, many of which were used once and never repositioned.

The End Product for McClellan and Lee

The Battle of Antietam was officially a stalemate between the two opposing
armies at great cost to both. Upon examination, it is astonishing that Lee’s army
was not over-powered and the Confederacy defeated.

Throughout the day the Union raked Confederate lines with impunity because the
Confederates had no artillery with comparable range. The Union launched five
major assaults, each of which was repelled, and by evening, the Union had gained
no ground. During the day, Lee’s line wavered and broke at times but always
regrouped. Each time the Union attacked they encountered such ferocious
firepower that they were sure they were confronting a superior force. This
firepower was generated by Lee’s innovative hub and spoke system (Chiles,
1998).

The next day the two armies faced off against each other. The Union anticipated a
powerful counterattack. Lee concluded that counterattack was not feasible, so at
day’s end he withdrew, ending the battle as a stalemate. McClellan did not pursue
Lee. The battle was a tactical stalemate, but a strategic victory for the North. As a
result, England and France did not support the South, nor did Maryland secede.
Further, the battle provided Abraham Lincoln the opportunity to issue the
Emancipation Proclamation which announced the freedom of millions of slaves.
Further, Lincoln gained seats in both Houses of Congress. However, the results
confirmed Lincoln’s decision to replace McClellan. He was relieved of command
a month after the Battle of Antietam.

As for Lee, he won two major victories against the North shortly after Antietam
(Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville). However, the Civil War dragged on for
three more years, when it could have ended on September 17, 1862. Lee
eventually lost at the Battle of Gettysburg and surrendered at Appomattox.

Conclusion and Application to Leadership Education

In closing, we are left with a few questions: Can a small organization compete
successfully with a large well-financed organization many times its size? Can it
compete if the large organization also has a significant technological advantage?
Does leadership play a crucial role in determining results? Based on the 5PLA,
the answer to these questions is a resounding “yes.” Likewise, the analysis

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provides a description of why Lee’s tired, poorly equipped and provisioned army
stalemated the Union army (see Table 1).

Table 1.
5 Ps Leadership Analysis of Lee and McClellan

Lee McClellan
Personal Attributes Strong intellect, Organized, engaged in
emphasized conflict with authority
collecting/analyzing figures, arrogant, slow in
data, analytic risk taker, decision-making, risk
decisive, humble, averse, detail oriented
trusting
Position Selected generals with Micromanager who made
specific complementary decisions for his
strengths. Set the overall generals. Inherited his
strategy and trusted his command and
generals to implement it. reorganized his generals
(de-motivating some).
Purpose To achieve a high profile To avoid defeat (Murfin
strategic victory on & Sears, 1995).
enemy soil.
Practices/Process Innovative use of hub Hands-off/Distant.
and spoke concept. Communicated poorly
Innovative deployment and missed several
of artillery and use of opportunities for victory
limited resources. given his superior
resources.
Product Stalemate; strategic loss Stalemate; strategic
for Confederacy. victory for Union.

In short, Lee had high confidence and expectation for his underfed and
outnumbered army and pushed them to the brink. However, McClellan did not
aggressively utilize his numerical and technological advantages to soundly defeat
the South. This sentiment is perhaps best summed up in the following quotation:

The principle commanders offered a striking contrast in personality and

style—Lee pressing his worn army to the edge of ruin in pursuit of
beckoning opportunity; McClellan repeatedly shrinking from commitment
of his proud host in circumstances favorable beyond the imagining of most
generals. (Gallagher, in Perman, 1998, p. 112)

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As exemplified in the present case, the 5PLA is a useful heuristic for examining
leadership. Whether it is a supervisor, the university president, Representative
John Boehner, or Steve Jobs, the tool provides students with a method for
determining why a leader experienced success or failure. However, we would
suggest that leadership is socially constructed and some students and readers may
come to a different conclusion than the authors (See Table 1). That is good news
because the tool may spark spirited conversation in classrooms, workshops, and
retreats. Likewise, the questions posed at the beginning of this section are two of
many that may come to mind for both educators and participants alike. We
propose that a great benefit of the 5PLA is its flexibility of use. As one reviewer
of this article suggested, “the 5PLA should not always be the end product…it
should be a springboard for rich discussion and activities/role-play/scenarios
which can reinforce learning.” Thus, it is essential that leadership educators are
clear about learning objectives so the activity supports and reinforces desired
outcomes.

Along with the tool’s flexibility, we suggest that the activity and the process of
completing the table (see Table 1) provides students with an opportunity to more
critically examine the complexities of leadership. Rather than leadership being
“one of the most observed and least understood concepts on earth” (Burns, 1978,
p. 2), perhaps the goal of any leadership educator should be to make leadership
one of the most critically observed and best-understood concepts on earth. The
authors believe we can get there.

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Author Biographies
Dr. Bradley Hull is an Associate Professor at John Carroll University. Prior to
John Carroll, Brad had an extensive career in the oil and chemicals industries with
British Petroleum. His research interests are in the areas of purchasing and supply
chain management, operations management, transportation management, and
enterprise software. He has published articles in the International Journal of
Logistics Management, Journal of Macromarketing, International Journal of
Production Economics, Journal of the Transportation Research Forum, Journal
of Information Systems Education, and Logistics Information Management.

Dr. Scott J. Allen is an assistant professor of management at John Carroll

University. Scott is the coauthor of the Little Book of Leadership Development
(AMACOM) and Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: A Guide for College
Students (Jossey-Bass). Along with writing and speaking, Scott blogs
(www.centerforleaderdevelopment.net), consults, facilitates workshops, and leads
retreats across industries.

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Personal, Professional Coaching: Transforming

Professional Development for Teacher and
Administrative Leaders
Janet Patti, Ed.D.
Professor of Administration and Supervision
Department of Curriculum and Teaching
Hunter College
New York, NY
jpatti@hunter.cuny.edu

Allison A. Holzer, M.A.T.

Senior Consultant, Training and Coaching
Ruler Group
New Haven, CT
allisonaboud@gmail.com

Robin Stern, Ph.D.

Adjunct Assistant Professor of Education
Teacher’s College
New York, NY
rs601@columbia.edu

Marc A. Brackett, Ph.D.

Director, Health, Emotion, and Behavior Laboratory
Yale University
New Haven, CT
marc.brackett@yale.edu

Abstract
This article makes the case for a different approach to the professional
development of teachers and school leaders called personal, professional coaching
(PPC). Personal, professional coaching is grounded in reflective practices that
cultivate self-awareness, emotion management, social awareness, and relationship
management. Findings from two case studies support the benefits perceived by
teachers and administrative leaders who participated in coaching to enhance their
leadership potential and performance. A description of the content and process of
coaching is provided.

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Introduction
Amidst many reform strategies in education, few would argue that a key
ingredient for improving student achievement is high quality leadership. While
leadership skills may come naturally to some, most educators need some form of
practice, coaching, or mentoring to become high quality leaders. Yet, professional
development opportunities for teachers and administrators who function in a
leadership capacity are often too scarce or narrow in focus to cultivate lasting and
effective improvement (NSDC 2001). Most school systems regularly provide
teacher educators with just two or three days per year of professional
development, typically aimed at improving literacy and mathematics scores. For
principals mentoring support is often provided during the first year of
employment, but most learn their skills through trial and error. Education, the
most humanitarian of all professions, falls short in developing its own human
capital – its most valuable asset in addressing student achievement (Rotherham,
2008).
This article makes the case that effective professional development happens when
the adult learner connects personally to the new learning. When educators
participate in reflective practices that cultivate self-awareness, emotion
management, social awareness, and relationship management, they are in a better
position to deliver high quality instruction and leadership. This article addresses
findings from teacher and administrative leaders who have participated in
coaching to enhance leadership potential and performance.

Coaching in Education and Business

“We cannot teach people anything; we can only help them discover it
within themselves.” Galileo

In a coaching relationship, individuals reflect on their own strengths, challenges,

and experiences to develop insights and to experiment with new ideas and
behaviors. For decades, coaching has been used in the public and private sectors
to develop employees’ skills and performance and to meet organizational goals.
In education, coaching has traditionally supported teachers in the acquisition of
knowledge, skills and abilities that target student achievement. Many are familiar
with one of the earliest, formal uses of coaching that began in the 1980s through
the work of Bruce Joyce and Beverly Showers. In their peer-coaching model,
teachers observe one another, provide feedback, and engage in collaborative
planning for upcoming lessons. This process promotes collaboration and
communication among teachers, increasing the likelihood that they will use new
instructional practices and curricula (Showers, 1982). Literacy or Mathematics

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Coaching, widely utilized today, focuses on instructional practices of literacy and

math (Toll, 2005). This Instructional Coaching targets the craft of teaching by
focusing on knowledge transfer, modeling, skill practice, and feedback (Knight,
2007). Finally, Cognitive Coaching asserts that instructional behavior is a
reflection of beliefs; teachers must analyze and change their beliefs in order to
change their behaviors. Coaches ask teachers to reflect on their beliefs about the
classroom to facilitate making changes or improvements (Costa & Garmaston,
2002).

Unlike education coaching, the focus of business and life coaching tends to be on
personal growth and performance enhancement through self-awareness, goal
setting, and leveraging of strengths. Different styles of business and life coaching,
such as Goal-Focused/Solution-Focused, Co-Active and Positive Psychology,
emphasize behavioral change that results from personal growth (Biswas-Diener &
Dean, 2007; Stober & Grant, 2006; Whitworth, Kimsey-House, & Kimsey-House,
2007). Corporations, non-profits, universities, and individuals enlist coaching to
promote professional and personal growth in tandem, in order to yield desired
performance results. A handful of empirical studies have begun to show the
impact coaching has at the business and personal level, including increases in
hope, well-being, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and improved interpersonal
relationships (Grant, 2003; Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006; Kohler, McCullough-
Crilley, Shearer, & Good, 1997; Ross, 1992; Spence & Grant, 2007).
Furthermore, coaching anchored in compassion versus compliance has a greater
probability of promoting desired, sustainable change in attitudes and behaviors
(Smith, Van Osten, & Boyatzis, 2008).

As these examples illuminate, coaching is used in different ways within

education, business, and personal growth industries. The coaching approach we
have been employing in pre-service and in-service of teacher and administrative
leaders draws from the best practices across these myriad industries. We refer to
this type of coaching as personal, professional coaching (PPC).

Personal, Professional Coaching

PPC is grounded in theories of adult learning, motivation, intentional change,

emotional intelligence and self-psychology (Patti, Stern, Martin, & Brackett,
2005). This type of coaching creates a safe place for teacher and administrative
leaders to strengthen their leadership skills through self-reflection, collaboration,
feedback, and enhanced emotional awareness (Carver & Scheier,1998, Cherniss
& Goleman, 1998; Datnow & Castellano, 2001; Grant, 2003; Joyce & Showers,
1982; Spence & Grant, 2007; Slater & Simmons, 2001).

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The leadership skills that PPC develops, like emotional self-awareness, are
holistic and transferrable across various personal and professional domains. It is
common knowledge among educators, business leaders, and mental health
professionals that the boundary between personal lives and professional roles is
permeable. We come to work after leaving the pleasant or the unpleasant morning
at home. By the same token, we go home every day filled with a variety of
different emotions after a day at school or the office. The development of key
skills that permeate personal and professional landscapes leads to lasting changes
that promote quality teaching and leadership.

PPC has been influenced by recent developments in the fields of social and
emotional learning (http://casel.org/) and emotional intelligence (Brackett, Rivers,
& Salovey, 2011). In schools dedicated to the teaching of academic, social and
emotional skills, it is ever more critical that the modeling of adults mirrors the
teaching that children receive. PPC helps educators to work with their own
emotions to acquire new skills, receive feedback about their practice, and apply
the new learning to their classroom or school. By developing emotion skills,
teachers and administrative leaders become more self-aware, self-regulated and
socially aware-resulting in a more positive, student-centered learning
environment.

Description of the Practice

Implementing PPC requires a forward thinking leader with a vision that
encourages adults and children to take responsibility for their affective
development as well as their cognitive learning. Teacher and administrative
leaders participate in at least six one-on-one coaching sessions, one session every
two weeks, over a six-month period of time. Coaching sessions are guided by a
variety of assessment results, such as the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) that measures emotional abilities and the Emotional
Competency Inventory, 2.0 (ECI) that measures social and emotional
competencies. Each coaching session begins with a reflection to bridge the
learning that has occurred since the lesson prior. Each session ends with a
reflection and a journaling assignment for homework. A detailed description of
the process for the first six coaching sessions is provided in Table 1.

Establishing trust is the first step in the coaching process. Once trust is
established, the coach helps the leader explore and expand a personal vision as
well as a vision for the school or classroom. This visioning work serves as the
heart and mind of the motivational process. It provides ownership, directionality
and commitment to achieve desired change.

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Armed with a vision, the leader explores the gaps between behaviors that actually
exist and ideal behaviors. The leader then experiments with this new awareness to
leverage current skills and reach desired results during daily routines. Where
emotional shortcomings present themselves or where recognition of skill deficits
exist, coach and leader strategize ways to improve. They begin by taking small
steps to meet short-term goals rather than lofty, long-term goals that seem
unreachable. The leader brings any obstacles into the coaching sessions where the
event or emotional struggle is deconstructed and new goals are established.
One six-month series of coaching does not make a seasoned, socially and
emotionally intelligent leader. However, the awareness gained from the process
becomes part of the leader’s daily tools that can be used to deconstruct similar
situations. The emotionally and socially aware leader now becomes more mindful
of his behaviors. He continually revisits the vision and fine tunes his skill sets. He
accomplishes this by reconvening with his coach or by establishing a reflective
process with trusted colleagues. This commitment holds the leader to the integrity
of this personal, professional internal work.

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Table 1
Description of Personal, Professional Coaching Sessions
1 Establish Trust & After introductions, a conversation takes place about trust. The client
Encourage Vision talks about what trusting relationships look like and the coach practices
active listening and asks open-ended questions.
The coach introduces the concept of Emotional Intelligence.
The coach and client work together to create a personal vision about
where the client sees him or herself in two to three years; the client
continues this activity for homework.

2 Expand Vision & The coach begins by bridging the learning from the previous session.
Explore Actual Coach and client review, discuss, and expand the client’s vision.
and Ideal Self Client writes down characteristics of his/her “actual” versus “ideal” self
as a leader. Coach and client discuss gaps between the two.
Coach and client have a conversation about personal values and how
they are expressed (or not) in current leadership style and professional
life.
For homework, client journals about the gap between “actual” and
“ideal” self and how this interacts with his/her vision.

3 Interpret The coach begins by bridging the learning from the previous session.
Assessments Coach interprets MSCEIT and ECI results for the client.
For homework, client reflects on the assessment results and how to
manage self-talk in challenged areas.
4 Explore Strengths The coach begins by bridging the learning from the previous session.
and Challenges Coach and client discuss EI and leadership strengths that can be utilized
as tools for development; they also identify and embrace challenges that
might present obstacles to achieving the vision.
5 Develop a Short- The coach begins by bridging the learning from the previous session.
Term Plan Coach and client discuss and create a short-term plan for the client to
develop one EI related skill or competency.
For homework, the client answers a series of reflection questions about
strengths, challenges, and values that may impact their success.
6 Develop a Long- The coach begins by bridging the learning from the previous session.
Term Sustainable The client writes a New Story about him/herself that incorporates the
Plan values, vision, and “ideal self” discussed throughout the coaching
process.
Coach and client discuss and create a long-term plan for the client to
achieve his or her vision.
Coach and client take a moment to acknowledge their work together and
bring closure to the coaching relationship.

Research Findings
We have gathered data on the effects of PPC on teacher leaders, assistant
principals, and principals in school. What follows is a summary of our findings

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from two cases – a large school district in New York City in the United States and
a small federation in northern England.

Two Case Studies

Our findings come from two similar yet distinct school systems and samples. In
England, at the request of the Chief Executive, we trained 12 internal coaches,
teachers and administrators to provide coaching to newly hired teachers in two
secondary schools. We studied the impact of this year long development process
on the educators as they became coaches and on the educators whom they
coached (Patti, J., Stern, R., Brackett, M., Rivers, S., & Holzer, A., 2011).
Coaches in training participated in an intensive process in which they received six
coaching sessions, attended two week-long trainings, coached two other educators
for five sessions and received supervision from a head coach psychoanalyst.
We provided coaching to school administrators, school principals and assistant
principals in 25 New York City public schools, over four years. The
superintendent was committed to developing the emotional literacy skills of her
special education students and believed that all adults had to develop and model
the same. Each school administrator met individually with a coach over a four to
five-month time period. Most of the school leaders also participated in a team
coaching process to strengthen their collaboration and communication skills.
Together, they created common goals to improve the schools’ climate and
students’ academic, social and emotional success. Through facilitated dialogue
led by the coach these school leaders talked about behaviors that were inhibiting
and enhancing their common vision.

Using a series of interviews, we asked participants to reflect on the intrapersonal

and interpersonal aspects of their leadership; they shared their goals and process
for changing the undesirable behaviors that impeded school progress.

Key Insights

Our findings provide evidence that PPC supports the development of and
refocusing on several important teacher and administrative leadership behaviors.
Attention to enhancing these skills changes desired behaviors and improves
performance. Coaching engages all leaders in a process of self-reflection about
their professional roles and practices, leadership strengths and challenges, and
emotional and social skill development. With greater self and social awareness
they manage conflict better and factor others’ perspectives into their decision-
making processes. Self-aware and empathic administrative leaders tend to have
better relationships with colleagues. They use more collaborative leadership
strategies. As the coaching process develops, the changes demonstrate a shift

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from the individual leader to the whole organization. Furthermore, their vision for
the organization is anchored in a positive school climate and culture.

Teacher leaders, who engage in a coaching process, more willingly explore self-
behaviors that may challenge the teaching and learning process. They learn about
the important role emotions play in the classroom and in the quality of their
instruction. Teachers’ relationships with students become more transparent as
their newly founded self-awareness increases their empathy and self-management.

Conclusion
In this article we posited that personal and professional development must take
place in tandem. As the individual learns and experiments with new emotional
and social skills, the student demonstrates new behaviors inside and outside the
school walls. We discussed how reflecting on one’s purpose and professional
vision lays the foundation for the transformational process. We noted that the
coaching relationship provides a safe haven for mindful attention to self-change in
the areas of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship
management. It is through this individual process that the teacher and
administrative leader positively impact the culture and climate of the classroom
and school. When schools commit to developing the social and emotional skills of
adults and children we see many positive improvements such as increased
attendance, decreases in suspensions, better student engagement and increased
academic achievement (Weissberg & Durlak, 2005).

As one leader participating in PPC said: “As adults and educational leaders, we
realize that no person working with children could effect change without a self-
realization of who they are. The work we have done this year, especially the team
building, helped me to work with staff, whom I thought didn’t have the capacity
or ability to rise to the occasion. It goes to show that everyone has the ability and
capacity to grow.” Perhaps we should have more faith in the ability of the
dedicated professional to willingly become part of the solution of education
reform. Such an investment would far outweigh any possible benefits reaped by
current top-down and often fear-based models of individual and organizational
change.

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References
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Stober, D. R., & Grant, A. M. (2006). Evidence based coaching handbook:

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Author Biographies
Janet Patti is Professor of Administration and Supervision, Department of Curriculum
and Teaching, Hunter College, CUNY. In 2004 she co-created and published The
Star Factor Coaching Model for leadership development of educators. The model,
derived from the work of Dan Goleman and Richard Boyatzis (2001) encourages
intentional change and self-directed learning. She is the co-author of Smart School
Leaders: Leading with Emotional Intelligence and Waging Peace in Our Schools.
Currently, she is co-authoring a book for Teachers College Press titled, Leadership
for Tomorrow’s Children.

As an educator, coach, and educational consultant, Allison provides trainers,

administrators, and teachers professional development support on emotional literacy
skills, self-awareness, instructional skills, and leadership development. In her current
role as Director of Coaching at RULER Group, she manages a team of trainers and
coaches that work with over 60 schools that use a Social and Emotional Learning
program called The RULER Approach. Her consulting work includes the
development of an online learning platform and a variety of implementation support
materials for trainers, administrators, and school-based implementation teams. She is
currently co-authoring a book called, Leadership for Tomorrow’s Children with Janet
Patti and Robin Stern.

Robin Stern is a licensed psychoanalyst, educator, and author, with over 25 years of
experience treating individuals, couples, and groups. She has developed and
implemented training programs focusing on personal and professional growth,
emphasizing the importance of self-awareness, emotional competencies, and ethical
leadership. She is on the faculty of Summer Principals Academy at Teachers College,
Columbia University, the Training Institute for Mental Health in New York City, and
is a senior consultant and lead trainer for the K-12 program The Ruler
Approach developed by Yale University researchers.

Marc Brackett is a Research Scientist in the Department of Psychology at Yale

University; Deputy Director of Yale’s Health, Emotion, and Behavior Laboratory;
and Head of the Emotional Intelligence Unit in the Edward Zigler Center in Child
Development and Social Policy. Dr. Brackett is the Founder of Ruler Group, where
he works with school systems in the areas of assessment, training, and leadership
development. He is the lead developer of The RULER Approach to Social and
Emotional Learning, which posits that teaching children and adults the skills
associated with Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, and Regulating
emotions is the foundation to personal, social, and academic success. Over the last
decade Dr. Brackett has delivered keynote addresses to dozens of school districts and
organizations, and has trained over 50,000 educators in the United States and abroad
on The RULER Approach.

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JOLE Submission Guidelines

Appropriateness of Topic for JOLE

Articles should relate to both leadership and education, but need not be balanced
in their focus and may emphasize either leadership or education. If you are
uncertain about the appropriateness of your topic please review previous papers
and, if needed, contact the editor. JOLE does not accept submittals published
previously or under review by another journal.

Submitting an Article to JOLE

Papers are received by email only, sent to: jole@aged.tamu.edu. All submittals
must be sent as a Word file with a cover memo indicating authors, affiliation,
contact, and proposed category. The journal solicits articles in four categories:

• Research Feature
• Theoretical Feature
• Application Brief
• Idea Brief or Commentary

Please focus your article on a specific category and indicate with your cover
email. Complete information about the categories is provided at Categories of
Articles.

Review Process

Upon receipt of your paper the editor will send notice of receipt to the contact
author. The editor will review the submittal for suitability for the journal and
specific category. If not suitable the editor will provide guidance for the author. If
suitable, members of the editorial board, or selected guest referees, will review
the submittal.

How to Prepare to Write an Article for JOLE

A proven strategy is to review past issues of JOLE and read articles in the same
category. As JOLE is a new journal and the number of past issues is developing,
authors are encouraged to look at the Journal of Extension www.joe.org which
has similar categories. First time authors are encouraged to closely review, even

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outline, other papers to understand the logic and flow of an acceptable paper in
each category.

Write for a Professional and Academic Audience

JOLE articles are intended to demonstrate scholarship but are also expected to be
readable and useful to a wide audience, including people who speak English as a
second language. Hence, they must be written clearly without losing their
scholarly value.

For more information visit the JOLE website at:

http://www.leadershipeducators.org/JOLE

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Le Culminant

The Editor wants to remind any interested authors to submit articles to

jole@aged.tamu.edu as soon as possible for review in the Summer 2012 issue.

Note that the style guidelines for JOLE have undergone revision recently. As
always…suggestions to the Editor are welcomed and they are often
implemented!

"Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge;

it is thinking makes what we read ours ."
- John Locke

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