MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills

The Language of Persuasion

The goal of most media messages is to persuade the audience to believe or do something.
Hollywood movies use expensive special effects to make us believe that what we’re seeing is
real. News stories use several techniques – such as direct quotation of identified sources – to
make us believe that the story is accurate.
The media messages most concerned with persuading us are found in advertising, public
relations and advocacy. Commercial advertising tries to persuade us to buy a product or
service. Public relations (PR) "sells" us a positive image of a corporation, government or
organization. Politicians and advocacy groups (groups that support a particular belief, point of
view, policy, or action) try to persuade us to vote for or support them, using ads, speeches,
newsletters, websites, and other means.
These "persuaders" use a variety of techniques to grab our attention, to establish credibility and
trust, to stimulate desire for the product or policy, and to motivate us to act (buy, vote, give
money, etc.)
We call these techniques the "language of persuasion.” They’re not new; Aristotle wrote about
persuasion techniques more than 2000 years ago, and they’ve been used by speakers, writers,
and media makers for even longer than that.
Learning the language of persuasion is an important media literacy skill. Once you know how
media messages try to persuade you to believe or do something, you’ll be better able to make
your own decisions.
Advertising is the easiest starting point: most ads are relatively simple in structure, easily
available, and in their original format. Media literacy beginners are encouraged to learn the
language of persuasion by examining ads. Keep in mind that many media messages, such as
television commercials, use several techniques simultaneously. Others selectively employ one
or two.
Political rhetoric – whether used by politicians, government officials, lobbyists, or activists - is
more difficult to analyze, not only because it involves more emotional issues, but also because
it is more likely to be seen in bits and fragments, often filtered or edited by others. Identifying
the persuasion techniques in public discourse is important because the consequences of that
discourse are so significant – war and peace, justice and injustice, freedom and oppression,
and the future of our planet. Learning the language of persuasion can help us sort out complex
emotional arguments, define the key issues, and make up our own minds about the problems
facing us.
Check out the media examples we have found for most of these techniques or find examples of
your own.
NOTE: We’ve divided our list of persuasion techniques into three levels: Basic, Intermediate
and Advanced. Basic techniques are easily identified in many media examples, and they are a
good starting point for all learners. Identifying many intermediate techniques may require
more critical distance, and they should usually be investigated after learners have mastered the
basics. More abstraction and judgment may be required to identify the advanced techniques,
and some learners may find them difficult to understand. However, even media literacy
beginners may be able to spot some of the intermediate or advanced techniques, so feel free to
examine any of the persuasion techniques with your group.

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
The Language of Persuasion – p. 2

Basic
1. Association. This persuasion technique tries to link a product, service, or idea with
something already liked or desired by the target audience, such as fun, pleasure, beauty,
security, intimacy, success, wealth, etc. The media message doesn’t make explicit claims that
you’ll get these things; the association is implied. Association can be a very powerful technique.
A good ad can create a strong emotional response and then associate that feeling with a brand
(family = Coke, victory = Nike). This process is known as emotional transfer. Several of the
persuasion techniques below, like Beautiful people, Warm & fuzzy, Symbols and Nostalgia, are
specific types of association.
Disney Affordable - Happiness and magic is connected with Disney’s brand.
Heineken Hip Hop - If you like hip hop, Heineken is the beer for you.

2. Bandwagon. Many ads show lots of people using the product, implying that "everyone is
doing it" (or at least, "all the cool people are doing it"). No one likes to be left out or left behind,
and these ads urge us to "jump on the bandwagon.” Politicians use the same technique when
they say, "The American people want..." How do they know?
Hot Pockets - Everyone is coming to this house for hot pockets.

3. Beautiful people. Beautiful people uses good-looking models (who may also be celebrities)
to attract our attention. This technique is extremely common in ads, which may also imply (but
never promise!) that we’ll look like the models if we use the product.
Kool Be Expressive - This model is portrayed as hip and urban.
Kool Musician - This model is a cool musician who smokes.

4. Bribery. This technique tries to persuade us to buy a product by promising to give us

something else, like a discount, a rebate, a coupon, or a "free gift.” Sales, special offers, contests,
and sweepstakes are all forms of bribery. Unfortunately, we don’t really get something for free
-- part of the sales price covers the cost of the bribe.
EZ Loan Polar Bear - This print ad bribes readers with an interest free loan and reminds us we
will need cash for the holidays and don’t have to wait until payday for it.

5. Celebrities. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Plain folks.) We tend to pay attention
to famous people. That’s why they’re famous! Ads often use celebrities to grab our attention. By
appearing in an ad, celebrities implicitly endorse a product; sometimes the endorsement is
explicit. Many people know that companies pay celebrities a lot of money to appear in their
ads (Nike’s huge contracts with leading athletes, for example, are well known) but this type of
testimonial still seems to be effective.
Maxim Team EAS - A professional basketball player is used to promote this energy drink.

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
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6. Experts. (A type of Testimonial.) We rely on experts to advise us about things that we

don’t know ourselves. Scientists, doctors, professors and other professionals often appear in ads
and advocacy messages, lending their credibility to the product, service, or idea being sold.
Sometimes, Plain folks can also be experts, as when a mother endorses a brand of baby powder
or a construction worker endorses a treatment for sore muscles.
Heather Wilson - “Nationally known independent thinkers…think highly of Heather.”
“Nationally known” people are experts who supposedly know which candidates are right for
us.

7. Explicit claims. Something is "explicit" if it is directly, fully, and/or clearly expressed or

demonstrated. For example, some ads state the price of a product, the main ingredients, where
it was made, or the number of items in the package – these are explicit claims. So are specific,
measurable promises about quality, effectiveness, or reliability, like “Works in only five
minutes!” Explicit claims can be proven true or false through close examination or testing, and
if they’re false, the advertiser can get in trouble. It can be surprising to learn how few ads
make explicit claims. Most of them try to persuade us in ways that cannot be proved or
disproved.
Disney Affordable - The price of $1,600 is given. See “Deconstructing Media Messages” for
more on this commercial and what is in the fine print.
EZ Loan Polar Bear - This ad gives us a lot of information, including hours, locations, what you
will need to bring in for the loan and states: “Get up to $500 interest free.”

8. Fear. This is the opposite of the Association technique. It uses something disliked or feared
by the intended audience (like bad breath, failure, high taxes or terrorism) to promote a
"solution.” Ads use fear to sell us products that claim to prevent or fix the problem. Politicians
and advocacy groups stoke our fears to get elected or to gain support.
L’Oreal Anti-aging 2 - Fear the signs of aging.

9. Humor. Many ads use humor because it grabs our attention and it’s a powerful persuasion
technique. When we laugh, we feel good. Advertisers make us laugh and then show us their
product or logo because they’re trying to connect that good feeling to their product. They hope
that when we see their product in a store, we’ll subtly re-experience that good feeling and
select their product. Advocacy messages (and news) rarely use humor because it can
undermine their credibility; an exception is political satire.
Fed Ex Map - If Fed Ex makes us laugh, we might remember them when it comes time to ship
something.

10. Intensity. The language of ads is full of intensifiers, including superlatives (greatest, best,
most, fastest, lowest prices), comparatives (more, better than, improved, increased, fewer
calories), hyperbole (amazing, incredible, forever), exaggeration, and many other ways to hype
the product.
Elizabeth Golden Age - Critics say this film is “powerful,” “brilliant,” “extraordinary” and
“Best film of the year.”

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The Language of Persuasion – p. 4

11. Maybe. Unproven, exaggerated or outrageous claims are commonly preceded by "weasel
words" such as may, might, can, could, some, many, often, virtually, as many as, or up to.
Watch for these words if an offer seems too good to be true. Commonly, the Intensity and
Maybe techniques are used together, making the whole thing meaningless.
Buy Nothing Day - “We are the most voracious consumers in the world, a world that could die,
because of the way we North Americans live.”

12. Plain folks. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Celebrities.) This technique works
because we may believe a "regular person" more than an intellectual or a highly-paid celebrity.
It’s often used to sell everyday products like laundry detergent because we can more easily see
ourselves using the product, too. The plain folks technique strengthens the down-home,
"authentic" image of products like pickup trucks and politicians. Unfortunately, most of the
"plain folks" in ads are actually paid actors carefully selected because they look like "regular
people.”
Disney Affordable - This commercial shows an “ordinary” family, rather than a celebrity
family.
Dove Pro Age 1 - These Dove Real Beauty ads still use models, but they are models that look
more like “plain folks” compared to women in most beauty ads.
Ford Edge - A testimonial is given by this “average” customer.

13. Repetition. Advertisers use repetition in two ways: Within an ad or advocacy message,
words, sounds or images may be repeated to reinforce the main point. And the message itself (a
TV commercial, a billboard, a website banner ad) may be displayed many times. Even
unpleasant ads and political slogans work if they are repeated enough to pound their message
into our minds.
Clutter - This movie clip from Frontline’s The Persuaders discusses the repetition of advertising
in general and discusses advertising in new spaces. Notice the wall of iPod ads in this video,
another example of repetition.

14. Testimonials. Media messages often show people testifying about the value or quality of
a product, or endorsing an idea. They can be experts, celebrities, or plain folks. We tend to
believe them because they appear to be a neutral third party (a pop star, for example, not the
lipstick maker, or a community member instead of the politician running for office.) This
technique works best when it seems like the person “testifying” is doing so because they
genuinely like the product or agree with the idea. Some testimonials may be less effective
when we recognize that the person is getting paid to endorse the product.
Ford Edge - This entire commercial is a testimonial by an “average” test driver.

15. Warm & fuzzy. This technique uses sentimental images (especially of families, kids and
animals) to stimulate feelings of pleasure, comfort, and delight. It may also include the use of
soothing music, pleasant voices, and evocative words like "cozy" or "cuddly.” The Warm &

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
The Language of Persuasion – p. 5

fuzzy technique is another form of Association. It works well with some audiences, but not
with others, who may find it too corny.
Disney Affordable - This commercial is meant to make you feel good and uses magic
(animation), animals (horses), happy children, music and more to make us feel this way.

MasterCard Elephant - This commercial also uses animals (who help the man when he is sick)
and music to make us feel good about the product.

Intermediate
16. The Big Lie. According to Adolf Hitler, one of the 20th century’s most dangerous
propagandists, people are more suspicious of a small lie than a big one. The Big Lie is more
than exaggeration or hype; it’s telling a complete falsehood with such confidence and charisma
that people believe it. Recognizing The Big Lie requires "thinking outside the box" of
conventional wisdom and asking the questions other people don’t ask.
Energizer Lithium - This battery cannot re-power an entire city.

17. Charisma. Sometimes, persuaders can be effective simply by appearing firm, bold, strong,
and confident. This is particularly true in political and advocacy messages. People often follow
charismatic leaders even when they disagree with their positions on issues that affect them.
Nike King James - LeBron James appears strong and confident in this Nike ad, due to his
expression and the symbols of royalty, wealth and status that surround him.

18. Euphemism. While the Glittering generalities and Name-calling techniques arouse
audiences with vivid, emotionally suggestive words, Euphemism tries to pacify audiences in
order to make an unpleasant reality more palatable. Bland or abstract terms are used instead of
clearer, more graphic words. Thus, we hear about corporate "downsizing" instead of "layoffs,"
or "intensive interrogation techniques" instead of "torture.”
Nip Tuck Botox - The euphemism exists in the title of this show about plastic surgery. The
words “nip” and “tuck” don’t sound as harsh as “plastic surgery” and they may not evoke the
images of how difficult and painful plastic surgery, recovery and societal pressure to look a
certain way can be. Botox injections are a milder example of this.

19. Extrapolation. Persuaders sometimes draw huge conclusions on the basis of a few small
facts. Extrapolation works by ignoring complexity. It’s most persuasive when it predicts
something we hope can or will be true.
Jim Beam Constitution - If the U.S. constitution was revised this many times since 1787, yet the
recipe for Jim Beam hasn’t changed since 1795, then Jim Beam must be perfect. Other subtext
includes: Jim Beam stands the test of time. Jim Beam has always been there. Jim Beam is true
and important.

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
The Language of Persuasion – p. 6

20. Flattery. Persuaders love to flatter us. Politicians and advertisers sometimes speak directly
to us: "You know a good deal when you see one." "You expect quality." "You work hard for a
living." "You deserve it." Sometimes ads flatter us by showing people doing stupid things, so
that we’ll feel smarter or superior. Flattery works because we like to be praised and we tend to
believe people we like. (We’re sure that someone as brilliant as you will easily understand this
technique!)
Pantene - You are one in a million if you use Pantene. You are special, unique and you are
worth it.

21. Glittering generalities. This is the use of so-called "virtue words" such as civilization,
democracy, freedom, patriotism, motherhood, fatherhood, science, health, beauty, and love.
Persuaders use these words in the hope that we will approve and accept their statements
without examining the evidence. They hope that few people will ask whether it’s appropriate
to invoke these concepts, while even fewer will ask what these concepts really mean.
Soft & Dry - This deodorant is strong and beautiful.

22. Name-calling. This technique links a person or idea to a negative symbol (liar, creep,
gossip, etc.). It’s the opposite of Glittering generalities. Persuaders use Name-calling to make us
reject the person or the idea on the basis of the negative symbol, instead of looking at the
available evidence. A subtler version of this technique is to use adjectives with negative
connotations (extreme, passive, lazy, pushy, etc.) Ask yourself: Leaving out the name-calling,
what are the merits of the idea itself?
Altoids Chicken - You are chicken if you don’t try this product.

23. New. We love new things and new ideas, because we tend to believe they’re better than
old things and old ideas. That’s because the dominant culture in the United States (and many
other countries) places great faith in technology and progress. But sometimes, new products
and new ideas lead to new and more difficult problems.
Soft & Dry - “Introducing New Soft & Dri Dermastripe.” It must be better than the old
deodorant.

24. Nostalgia. This is the opposite of the New technique. Many advertisers invoke a time
when life was simpler and quality was supposedly better ("like Mom used to make"). Politicians
promise to bring back the "good old days" and restore "tradition." But whose traditions are
being restored? Who did they benefit, and who did they harm? This technique works because
people tend to forget the bad parts of the past, and remember the good.
Disney Affordable - The music in this commercial could invoke a nostalgic feeling and for
many people, the Disney brand conjures up nostalgic feelings of seeing their animated films
when they were young or possibly visiting one of their resorts.

25. Rhetorical questions. These are questions designed to get us to agree with the speaker.
They are set up so that the “correct” answer is obvious. ("Do you want to get out of debt?" "Do

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
The Language of Persuasion – p. 7

you want quick relief from headache pain?" and "Should we leave our nation vulnerable to
terrorist attacks?" are all rhetorical questions.) Rhetorical questions are used to build trust and
alignment before the sales pitch.
Monster.com - “What are you working for?” This is the first rhetorical question in a series of
questions we hear in this commercial. Monster.com is the answer.

26. Scientific evidence. This is a particular application of the Expert technique. It uses the
paraphernalia of science (charts, graphs, statistics, lab coats, etc.) to "prove" something. It often
works because many people trust science and scientists. It’s important to look closely at the
"evidence," however, because it can be misleading.
L’Oreal Anti-aging 2 - The text in this print ad states that this product “tightens sagging skin
with Dermo Peptides 67% saw improvement” and it “visibly minimizes age spots with BHA
Complex 68% saw more even skin tone.”

27. Simple solution. Life is complicated. People are complex. Problems often have many
causes, and they’re not easy to solve. These realities create anxiety for many of us. Persuaders
offer relief by ignoring complexity and proposing a Simple solution. Politicians claim one
policy change (lower taxes, a new law, a government program) will solve big social problems.
Advertisers take this strategy even further, suggesting that a deodorant, a car, or a brand of
beer will make you beautiful, popular and successful.
Buy Nothing Day - Not shopping on “Black Friday,” the day after Thanksgiving, will solve all
the environmental problems due to over-consumption and save the world.
Chevron Oil - Oil remains the solution (“so for today the world needs oil”) to the complex
environmental, economic, political and justice issues occurring around the world in relation to
oil.

28. Slippery slope. This technique combines Extrapolation and Fear. Instead of predicting a
positive future, it warns against a negative outcome. It argues against an idea by claiming it’s
just the first step down a “slippery slope” toward something the target audience opposes. ("If
we let them ban smoking in restaurants because it’s unhealthy, eventually they’ll ban fast food,
too." This argument ignores the merits of banning smoking in restaurants.) The Slippery slope
technique is commonly used in political debate, because it’s easy to claim that a small step will
lead to a result most people won’t like, even though small steps can lead in many directions.
Giuliani Slippery Slope - If we stop doing business with the rest of the world (and erect high
tariffs) we could have another Great Depression in the United States.

29. Symbols. Symbols are words or images that bring to mind some larger concept, usually
one with strong emotional content, such as home, family, nation, religion, gender, or lifestyle.
Persuaders use the power and intensity of symbols to make their case. But symbols can have
different meanings for different people. Hummer SUVs are status symbols for some people,
while to others they are symbols of environmental irresponsibility.
Buy Nothing Day - The pig, garbage, highway traffic and deforestation are symbols of over-
consumption in this commercial.

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Disney Affordable - The shooting star is a wish symbol and the twinkling light that moves, the
carriage and castle are symbols of Disney.
Fergie Glamorous - Diamonds, champagne, private jets, limousines and elegant dresses are
symbols of wealth used in this music video.

Advanced
30. Ad hominem. Latin for "against the man," the ad hominem technique responds to an
argument by attacking the opponent instead of addressing the argument itself. It’s also called
"attacking the messenger.” It works on the belief that if there’s something wrong or
objectionable about the messenger, the message must also be wrong.
See this website to find an example of ad hominem in these campaign ads:
www.livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us/index.php

31. Analogy. An analogy compares one situation with another. A good analogy, where the
situations are reasonably similar, can aid decision-making. A weak analogy may not be
persuasive, unless it uses emotionally-charged images that obscure the illogical or unfair
comparison.
Saturn Hybrid - Rethinking ideas around strength and beauty is the same as rethinking new
models of Saturn and Saturn Hybrids. Saturn is therefore compared to strength and beauty in
human relationships.

32. Card stacking. No one can tell the whole story; we all tell part of the story. Card
stacking, however, deliberately provides a false context to give a misleading impression. It
"stacks the deck," selecting only favorable evidence to lead the audience to the desired
conclusion.
Chevron Oil - Mostly favorable images, words, and sounds are presented here. A clean
environment, renewable energy, healthy-looking people, people with their children and pets,
ocean waves, cities, moving traffic and public transportation (modern life getting by), people
working and playing sports, piano music, a waterfall, etc. We do not see much environmental
damage, images of war in oil rich nations, etc.
Disney Affordable - This vacation is presented as magical, fun and for only $1,600. The stress
of traveling and other fees such as taxes, food and transportation is not mentioned.

33. Cause vs. Correlation. While understanding true causes and true effects is important,
persuaders can fool us by intentionally confusing correlation with cause. For example: Babies
drink milk. Babies cry. Therefore, drinking milk makes babies cry.
Honey Maid Twins - “Twice the whole grain” means that you will have twice the happiness.
Twins are correlated with whole grain in this print ad, two things that have nothing to do with
each other.

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 MEDIA LITERACY TOOLBOX Media Literacy Concepts & Skills
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34. Denial. This technique is used to escape responsibility for something that is unpopular or
controversial. It can be either direct or indirect. A politician who says, "I won’t bring up my
opponent’s marital problems," has just brought up the issue without sounding mean.
Chevron Oil - This ad relays favorable messages regarding the oil industry and states that
people in the industry are not “corporate titans, but people who daily try to find newer ways,
cleaner ways to power the world.” This ad is a response to controversy concerning the oil
industry, rather than a message about responsibility. Instead, the message is that we all need oil,
we are finding alternative energy methods, and we are here for you and the planet.

35. Diversion. This technique diverts our attention from a problem or issue by raising a
separate issue, usually one where the persuader has a better chance of convincing us.
Diversion is often used to hide the part of the story not being told. It is also known as a “red
herring.”
Chevron Oil - This commercial focuses more on renewable energy and the need for oil, rather
than problems regarding oil.

36. Group dynamics. We are greatly influenced by what other people think and do. We can
get carried away by the potent atmosphere of live audiences, rallies, or other gatherings. Group
dynamics is a more intense version of the Majority belief and Bandwagon techniques.
Altoids Chicken - The term “chicken” and the image of the teenage boys in this print ad
challenging another hesitant boy use group dynamics to persuade the viewer.

37. Majority belief. This technique is similar to the Bandwagon technique. It works on the
assumption that if most people believe something, it must be true. That’s why polls and survey
results are so often used to back up an argument, even though pollsters will admit that
responses vary widely depending on how one asks the question.
John Kerry - If most of the men John Kerry served with think he is unfit for command, then it
must be true.

38. Scapegoating. Extremely powerful and very common in political speech, Scapegoating
blames a problem on one person, group, race, religion, etc. Some people, for example, claim
that undocumented (“illegal”) immigrants are the main cause of unemployment in the United
States, even though unemployment is a complex problem with many causes. Scapegoating is a
particularly dangerous form of the Simple solution technique.
Jim Baca - Many education problems are to be blamed on political candidate Jim Baca.

39. Straw man. This technique builds up an illogical or deliberately damaged idea and
presents it as something that one’s opponent supports or represents. Knocking down the "straw
man" is easier than confronting the opponent directly.
Giuliani Straw Man - Democrats overspend, overtax, overregulate and oversue. Democrats
therefore represent this, while Giuliani, a Republican candidate does not.

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40. Timing. Sometimes a media message is persuasive not because of what it says, but
because of when it’s delivered. This can be as simple as placing ads for flowers and candy just
before Valentine’s Day, or delivering a political speech right after a major news event.
Sophisticated ad campaigns commonly roll out carefully-timed phases to grab our attention,
stimulate desire, and generate a response.
Disney Affordable - This ad aired in the fall when the summer traveling season slows down. It
attempts to get people to visit Disney World during a slower time of year.
EZ Loan Polar Bear - This ad came out around the holidays. It features Christmas and
Hanukkah symbols and encourages people to take out an interest free payday loan so they will
have cash for the holidays without having to wait until their payday.

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