EGAST

Component of ESSI

European General Aviation Safety Team

IN FLIGHT ICING
FOR GENERAL AVIATION PILOTS SAFETY PROMOTION LEAFLET

GA 10
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CONTENT

Introduction  4

In-flight icing  5

Effects of icing  7

Aircraft in icing conditions  10

Aeroplane ice protection certification  13

Preflight planning  14

Ground de-icing  18

Aircraft icing scenarios  20

SUMMARY  24

USEFUL LINKS  26

IMPRINT  28
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Introduction

This leaflet has been produced by the European General Aviation

Safety Team EGAST. It is intended to provide guidance to pilots
of Non-Complex Aeroplanes without modern Ice Protection
systems who may encounter in-flight airframe icing.

In-flight icing after landing

 In Flight Icing >> 5

Icing conditions

Ice will form on an aircraft if liquid water hits a part of the

airframe which has a temperature below freezing. At very low
temperatures, ice tends to form close to leading edges and is
generally easy to see. At temperatures just below zero, the ice
spreads back, is less visible, and affects more of the airframe.

Water droplets in cloud with a temperature below freezing do

not always turn into ice. If there are no particles around which
they can form ice, water droplets can remain supercooled in
liquid form down to –40°C. These supercooled droplets are most
commonly found in convective cloud with temperatures just
below freezing down to approximately -10°. Although cumulus
clouds with strong vertical motion usually contain the largest
proportion of supercooled droplets, it is also common to find
high concentrations of supercooled liquid water at the top of
stratocumulus cloud.

The severity of icing conditions varies enormously, and depends

on the concentration of supercooled liquid water and the droplet
size. Where the cloud at a particular level is composed mainly
of ice particles, it may be possible to fly through it without
encountering supercooled liquid water. The top of a shower
cloud which has glaciated (turned to ice crystals, which appear
wispy) is likely to provide less severe icing than the ‘cauliflower’
or ‘bubbling’ top of a growing towering cumulus.
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Growing cumulus top

Dry snow in flight represents a less significant hazard for

airframe icing as it usually does not stick. However, impact icing
is likely to form on air intakes and leading edges.

Typically, precipitation starts as ice and, as it falls, either reaches

lower levels as snow or hail, or melts into rain as it passes into
above-freezing temperatures at the lower levels. However, if rain
falls through an inversion into sub-freezing temperatures again,
it produces the most severe icing conditions if it contacts an
airframe. This “rain ice”, also known as “freezing rain”, is a clear
ice type and difficult to see and builds up very quickly.
 In Flight Icing >> 7

Effects of icing

Ice on an aerofoil changes its properties, reducing lift and

increasing drag for a given angle of attack. Ice on a propeller
blade reduces the efficiency of the propeller and reduces thrust.
In addition, the weight of the ice increases the aircraft weight and
therefore the lift required. Because for a given airspeed the angle
of attack must be increased to provide the necessary lift, the
critical (stalling) angle is reached at a higher airspeed than when
ice is not present. The Stall speed increases.

Pilots should also be aware that icing on a tailplane has been

known to cause uncontrollable pitch forces as flaps have been
lowered. Always be prepared to reverse any flap selection to
regain control.

The effect of airframe ice on aircraft performance

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Stall warning
Since ice buildup on the wing lowers the stall angle of attack,
the stall warning sensor might not provide warning in icing
conditions. Pilots therefore should:

• Know the manufacturer’s published minimum icing airspeeds

and treat them as limitations, even if they are not in the
Limitations section. If your Flight Manual or Pilots Operating
Handbook does not have minimum icing airspeeds, add
15-20 KIAS to your normal operating airspeed. This goes for
all phases of flight, including approach and landing where
most small airplane icing accidents occur, but be mindful of
the effect on landing distance required.

• Treat any buffet or vibration as an impending wing stall.

• Restrict manoeuvres in icing conditions.

Temperature
The effects of adiabatic compression due to compressibility and
the kinetic heating due to friction are negligible at air speeds up
to Mach 0.2. Therefore the Temperature measured by a simple
external temperature probe (typical in GA aircraft) is close to the
Total Air Temperature (TAT), which is at low speeds slightly above
the Static Air Temperature (SAT).
 In Flight Icing >> 9

The order of magnitude of difference between TAT and SAT

at higher speeds is 1°C at 100 knots and 4°C at 200 knots. The
airframe may therefore be a few degrees above the temperature
of the air outside, which may offer a small but helpful reduction
in the risk of icing.

Propeller icing
If ice builds on an unprotected propeller, thrust reduces and you
might not be able to climb out of the icing conditions or maintain
the altitude.

Ice on propeller blade

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Aircraft in icing conditions

The rate at which ice builds up depends on the atmospheric

conditions, but the shape of the object on which it builds affects
both the rate and the severity of the ice buildup. Ice tends to
build first on parts of the airframe with a low radius of curvature,
so it will for example tend to form on the tailplane before the

Ice on low radius of curvature aerofoils

wing, and small protuberances like a temperature probe or door

stop may well see the first indication of icing.

Early signs may also be noticed at the propeller spinner or the

windshield frame. Pilots should learn where icing starts to
 In Flight Icing >> 11

form on their particular airframe, and look out for visual signs
of ice, because performance can be degraded with quite small
accumulations of icing. A millimeter of ice is sufficient to affect
some modern aerofoils.

The rates of icing accretion can be difficult to predict and

can vary substantially, because of differences in liquid water
concentration. Conditions that look the same can bring ice
accumulation rates that vary by an order of magnitude or more.

Flight in visible moisture

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This means that one flight in cloud below freezing may not
accumulate much ice, but on another occasion in apparently
similar conditions a pilot may encounter a significant icing
problem.

In severe icing conditions, the ice accretion can become critical

within a few minutes.
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Aeroplane ice protection

certification

Modern aeroplane ice protection systems can be certified in

accordance with regulations such as CS 23.1419 or FAA AC
23.1419-2D. The Flight Manual will contain a statement to the
effect “This airplane is approved for flight in icing conditions as
defined in part 25, Appendix C.” Such certification was introduced
by the FAA in 1973 and evidences the aircraft’s capability to fly
in a wide range of icing conditions for significant periods. While
some accidents (such as the loss of American Eagle Flight 4184
near Chicago in 1994, an ATR that encountered freezing rain)
indicate that nature is capable of generating even more extreme
conditions, such certification effectively entitles a crew to rely
on the anti-icing or de-icing systems to cope with any “normal”
icing conditions likely to be encountered.

By contrast, aircraft without ice protection, and those certified

to early standards for flight in e.g. “light icing conditions” or
“moderate icing conditions” offer no such guarantee to the crew.
It is vital for crews of such aircraft to create a contingency plan
that guarantees they can take the aircraft out of icing conditions
if icing is encountered during flight. The rest of this guidance is
aimed at pilots of these aircraft.
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Preflight planning

It is often impractical to plan a flight in a way that leaves no

possibility for icing conditions to be encountered, in the same
way that it is impractical to plan a flight on a convective day
in a way that leaves no possibility for an encounter with
cumulonimbus, because it is never possible to be certain
exactly where such a cloud would form. But, just as a crew
must always have a plan which allows them to avoid flying into
a thunderstorm that appears on their intended route, so they
must have a plan to avoid icing conditions more severe than the
aircraft’s systems, if any, can cope with, and to escape from any
such icing that is actually encountered.

Usually this means a plan to descend into warmer air, but in

some circumstances it may be possible to climb above the icing
layer. However, an aircraft which has already accumulated ice
has a significantly poorer performance than a clean airframe, so
it may not always be possible to climb above an icing layer. An
underused but effective manoeuvre when icing is encountered is
simply to reverse course back to conditions that were ice-free.

Thus a key pre-flight planning check is to compare the freezing

level with minimum practicable IFR altitudes. As with other
sorts of hazardous weather, some co-operation from ATC may
be assumed, but terrain-safe lower levels may not always be
available, for example around busy TMAs.
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Compared to even a decade ago, aviation forecasts can predict

temperatures and winds aloft much more accurately. Note
the relative humidity at planned cruising altitudes; that can
offer some guidance on the presence of cloud. However, in an
unstable airmass, cumuliform clouds can and do rise into layers
of the atmosphere with lower humidity.

Met Significant weather chart

Some web sites provide unofficial but useful cross-section

weather information for positions or routes, including freezing
levels.
16 >> In Flight Icing

Courtesy of the Ogimet site

Preflight aircraft checks when sub-freezing

temperatures aloft are forecast
The pitot-static system should be checked for water which can
freeze and block the system. If pitot and static drains are fitted,
know where they are and how to use them.

Check that all the airframe, propeller and windscreen systems are
operating correctly. De- icing systems suffer from neglect and
may prove faulty when required. Leaks may have developed in
inflatable boots especially on the tailplane (due to stones thrown
up by the landing gear/propellers), so check that they all inflate
properly.
 In Flight Icing >> 17

Check any other parts of the airframe where water can

accumulate, paying particular attention that controls are free.

Check that the pitot heater really is warming the pitot head – but
don't burn your hand (use the back of it) or flatten the battery.

De-Icing Boot with Patch Repairs

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Ground de-icing

While this guidance is not intended to address ground de-icing

procedures, it is of course essential that the aircraft is and remains
free of all ice before flight. Ice on an aerofoil will significantly
reduce your take-off performance. Snow will not blow off, and
neither will frost. Maintain the “Clean Wing” concept.

Icing Contamination on aircraft surfaces must be removed

before takeoff to prevent any handling and control difficulties,
performance loss or mechanical damage.

De-icing is a procedure that removes snow, frost and slush from

the aircraft while anti icing prevents contamination by frost/ice/
snow for a limited period (Hold Over time).

Various types of fluids are available :

• Type I (de-icing only),

• Type II/III/IV (anti icing fluids), containing a pseudo-plastic

thickening agent, which enables the fluid to form a thicker
liquid wetting film on external aircraft surfaces.

• Type III fluid is intended for aircraft with slow rotation speed.
 In Flight Icing >> 19

When fluids are used, increase rotation speed and anticipate

increased take-off distance and/or greater stick forces.

Frosted Wing
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Aircraft icing scenarios

Icing is often encountered in convective cloud which rises up

through the freezing level on an unstable day. If your cruising
level is above the freezing level but below the tops, you face
the potential for icing. Where the convective clouds are well
scattered and it is possible to see them it may be possible to
avoid them and the associated icing conditions. Remember
however that this requires visual conditions and any ice on the
windshield is likely to restrict the view.

Convective clouds may be avoided visually

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The tops of stratocumulus clouds, especially just below an

inversion, often contain high concentrations of supercooled
liquid water. Their significant horizontal extent means that icing
is continuous, and only a level change can provide relief from the
icing conditions.

Stratocumulus clouds ahead

Flight in cold air below precipitating cloud in warmer air above,

as for example under a warm front or occlusion, is likely to
expose an aircraft to the hazard of rain ice, which can build up
very rapidly and be difficult to see. Monitor the temperature
gauge, and if rain is experienced in sub-zero temperatures, leave
the conditions immediately.
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Rain in freezing conditions should be avoided

Climbing through a thin layer of icing conditions is generally

more problematic than descending through one. In the climb,
speed is usually lower so the airframe is cooler and the angle of
attack exposes more of the wing to potential ice accumulation.
Vertical speed is limited by the aircraft’s performance and rate
of climb progressively reduces as ice forms, increasing the time
spent in the icing layer. Information on cloudbase is usually more
accurate than on the level of cloud tops, so the depth of the icing
layer is more predictable when descending.
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Although, in principle, accumulated icing can be removed by

sublimation in clear air even in temperatures below freezing,
such a process is generally slow. Even small amounts of icing
encountered on a climb to clear air above reduce performance
and increase fuel consumption, which should be carefully
considered in pre-flight planning.
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SUMMARY

Actions on encountering icing

• Consider the available options to reduce the risk immediately.

While a little ice may not be an emergency, it does require
immediate attention, and you must be ready to act if the
icing conditions persist or worsen.
• Perform any actions required by the Flight Manual, which
may include for example the selection of alternate air. Pitot
heat should, of course, already be on. Usually, use of the
autopilot is discouraged or prohibited in icing.
• If you have it, use de-icing equipment as directed by
the Flight Manual, but do not rely on such equipment to
allow continuous flight in icing conditions. In particular,
propeller anti-/de-ice may help to avoid some performance
deterioration.
 In Flight Icing >> 25

• Monitor any accumulation carefully, remembering that ice is

likely to build more rapidly on parts of the airframe that are
not easily visible.
• Liaise with ATC to understand the available alternative levels
or routes
• Leave the icing conditions before you lose aircraft
performance or controllability.
• Expect a higher stall speed, and higher fuel consumption, if
icing has accumulated.
• Consider higher approach speeds, and keep power on during
the landing.
• Anticipate possible pitch forces during flap movement – be
ready to reverse the selection
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USEFUL LINKS

The AOPA Air Safety Foundation has written several ‘Safety

Advisors’ on icing that pilots will find useful. You can find these at:

http://www.aopa.org/asf/publications/advisors.html.

There are also numerous icing training products produced by

NASA, in cooperation with the FAA. These are listed at:

http://icebox-esn.grc.nasa.gov/education/products.html
http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/courses.html
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IMPRINT

Disclaimer:
The views expressed in this leaflet are the exclusive responsibility of EGAST.

All information provided is of a general nature only and is not intended to address the specific
circumstances of any particular individual or entity. Its only purpose is to provide guidance
without affecting in any way the status of officially adopted legislative and regulatory
provisions, including Acceptable Means of Compliance or Guidance Materials. It is not
intended and should not be relied upon, as any form of warranty, representation, undertaking,
contractual, or other commitment binding in law upon EGAST its participants or affiliate
organisations. The adoption of such recommendations is subject to voluntary commitment and
engages only the responsibility of those who endorse these actions.

Consequently, EGAST and its participants or affiliate organisations do not express or imply any
warranty or assume any liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness
of any information or recommendation included in this leaflet. To the extent permitted by Law,
EGAST and its participants or affiliate organisations shall not be liable for any kind of damages
or other claims or demands arising out of or in connection with the use, copying, or display of
this leaflet.

Picture credits:
Cover picture: Diamond Aircraft Industries

Document pictures: Transportation Safety Bureau of Hungary (KBSZ), UK

Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), David Cockburn, UK Met Office, Diamond
Aircraft Industries

Contact details for enquiries:

European General Aviation Safety Team
Email: egast@easa.europa.eu
http://easa.europa.eu/essi/egast/
 EGAST
Component of ESSI

European General Aviation Safety Team

July 2015

EUROPEAN GENERAL
AVIATION SAFETY TEAM (EGAST)
Component of ESSI

EUROPEAN AVIATION SAFETY AGENCY (EASA)

Strategy and Programmes Department
Ottoplatz 1, 50679 Köln, Germany

Mail egast@easa.europa.eu
Web http://easa.europa.eu/essi/egast/