University of Alexandria Dept.

of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering

Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

A structure is a system of connected members used to support a load. When

designing a structure to serve a specified function, the engineer must account for its
safety, esthetics, and serviceability; while taking into consideration economic and
environmental constraints. A preliminary design of the structure is proposed, the
structure is then analyzed to ensure that it has the required strength and rigidity. The
results of this analysis can be used to re-design the structure. Structural design,
therefore, follows a series of approximations in which every cycle requires a
structural analysis.

Structural Analysis

It is the application of the principles of the theory of structures to determine the

behavior of the structure under the design conditions. It should yield the internal
forces and stresses in the structure and the magnitudes and directions of the
displacements occurring in the structure. We analyze structural models that are
idealizations of actual structures. The actual structure is continuous. The structural
model is made up of discrete points called nodes that connect structural elements.
Structural analysis should not be confused with stress analysis whose objective is
the determination of stresses at any point of the structure with the knowledge of the
stress resultants (internal forces) at the section passing through the point and normal
to the reference axis of the element.

Fundamental Concepts

• Force: axial force, bending moment, shear force and twisting moment.
• Displacement: finite deformation at a point in a structure. It includes
linear and rotational movements.
• Deflection: transverse displacement from undeformed structure.
• Strength: property of a structure indicating if structure is strong enough
to sustain applied loads without failing or becoming unsatisfactory.
• Stiffness: of a structural element is its ability to resist deformation under
applied load. Example: mass-spring system, where K is the force
causing unit deformation.

K
∆

P = mg = K ⋅ ∆

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

• Flexibility: is the opposite of stiffness. It is the ability of a structural

element to deform.
∆ = f.P where f = 1/K

Fundamental Laws

In structural analysis, there are three fundamental ‘laws’ that must be satisfied:
1) Equilibrium of forces: for each member and for structure.
2) Compatibility of displacements: within each member and between
members (structure), i.e. continue to fit together.
3) Law of material behavior: force-displacement relationships or stress-
strain relationships.

Load Effects or Response

A system of loads acting upon a structure, develops three types of effects: reactions,
stresses and deformations. These are functions of loads and of the structure
(geometry, ends conditions and material properties).

Structural Elements

Large and complex structures are divided into elements according to their form and
function. Elements can be either one-dimensional (bars or beams or columns), two
dimensional (plates and shells) or three dimensional (solids). Some of the more
common elements are as follows:

1) Truss (bar) element is a linear structural member subjected to an axial

force. The force is represented as applied to the joints at the ends.

Tie (tensile force) Strut (compressive force)

2) Beam (frame) element is a member carrying transverse vertical loads

and frequently end bending moments. It may also carry axial tension or
compression.

3) Column element is usually a long vertical element carrying

compressive load and frequently bending caused by eccentricity or by
applied bending moments. It is called a beam-column element if it
arries bending or transverse loading. Instability (buckling) is an
important factor in column behavior.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Column element Beam-column element

4) Plate element is a thin structure that can carry tension or compression

in its plane (membrane). It is considered a bending plus shear carrying
element. Frequently, stiffeners are used to enhance its structural
performance.

Plate element
Nodes

When a structure is loaded, specified points called nodes will undergo

displacements. These displacements are referred to as degrees of freedom (d.o.f’s)
of the structure. We can visualize the structure to consist of a number of elements
connected to nodes, which are usually located at joints, supports, ends of an
element or where an element has a sudden change in cross section. In three
dimensions (3-D), each node can have at most three linear and three rotational
displacements; and in two dimensions (2-D), each node can have at most two linear
displacements and one rotational displacement.

Principle of Superposition

“ The total displacement or internal loads (stresses) at a point in a structure

subjected to several external loads can be determined by adding together the
displacements or internal loads (stresses) caused by each of the external loads
acting separately”.
For this principle to be valid, the structure must be a linear structure, i.e.
1- The material must be linear elastic so that Hooke’s law applies: σ = E.ε,
(load is proportional to displacement)
2- The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change
when the loads are applied; i.e. small displacement theory applies.

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 University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

Complete Analysis or Solution for a Structure

It will yield:
1) All loads and reactions (external forces).
2) All axial forces, shear forces and bending moments (internal forces).
3) All curvatures, axial extensions, etc. (internal deformations).
4) All translations and rotations (external displacements).

 1) and 2) are related by equilibrium (statics).

 2) and 3) are related by load-displacement relationships
(material properties).
 3) and 4) are related by compatibility (kinematics).

Differential Equations Relating Load, Shear Force and Bending Moment

y w(x) w(x).∆x
V
M M+∆M
i j x

x ∆x V+∆V
∆x
dV dM
w( x) = V ( x) =
dx dx

If w and V are continuous functions on the interval [xi , xj ] where xi and xj are two
points on the beam, then:
xj

V j − Vi = ∫ w( x).dx
xi
xj

M j − M i = ∫ V ( X ).dx
xi

1.2 Coordinate systems

We will use two basic coordinate systems, a local or element right-handed,

orthogonal reference system x,y,z and a global or structure right-handed orthogonal
reference system X,Y,Z.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

x
y

MY

X
MZ
MX
z
Z

1.3 Mathematical Modeling

The real structure must be idealized or modeled to enable us to solve it. There are
two types of mathematical models :
(a) Discrete: suitable for practical analysis using numerical
analysis methods. The structure is modeled as elements.
(b) Continuum: continuum mechanics is used to analyze
structure.

1.4 Stuctural Design Procedure

Structural Design is carried out in accordance to what is shown in the following

figure.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

1.5 Causes of Deformation

1- Bending moment (flexural) ψ

M M

dθ M dθ
ψ = =
EI dx

dx EI = flexural rigidity, ψ = curvature

θ = slope

2- Axial force (extension or contraction) ε

P
P P ε= , EA = axial rigidity
EA

dx

PL
Extension = ; if P, E and A are constant
EA

L
P
= ∫ EA dx , if not
0

3- Shear force (shear deformation) γ

γ
d∆
V
d∆
γ =
dx
V
V
γ =
GA'
dx

G = shear modulus or modulus of rigidity

A’ = effective shear area (due to non-uniformity of shear stress).
5A/6, for rectangular section
=
d.tw, for I-beam

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: Prof. H. W. Leheta

4- Temperature change (thermal deformation) ψ∆T

∆ T1

d ∆ TC

∆T2

dx

α (∆T2 − ∆T1 )
ε ∆T = α ⋅ ∆TC ψ ∆T =
d
α = coefficient of thermal expansion

5- Torque (torsional deformation) θ

τ c ⋅ dθ T ⋅c
γ = = where τ=
G dx J
L
T
θ =∫ dx where GJ = torsional rigidity
0 GJ
J = St Venant’s torsional constant (from mechanics of materials)
= polar moment of inertia for circular sections

1.6 Objectives

The main objectives of this course are:

• To present modern computer-oriented ship structural analysis
methods, such as the matrix stiffness (displacement) method and
hence the Finite Element Method (FEM), for the purpose of evaluating
ship structural designs.
• To present fundamental aspects of ship structural design using the
principles of mechanics and strength of materials.
• To study plates (unstiffened and stiffened), which constitute a major
part of the ship structure.
• To introduce the concept of limit state design and discuss ship
structural failure.
• To demonstrate the use of a modern FEM computer package (ANSYS)
to analyze simple structures.

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