Handout for the Course Hydrology (SWRM2021) 2017

Prepared by Sisay M. M.Sc

Unit conversion factors

Chapter one: Definitions and Basic Concepts of Hydrology

Objectives: at the end of this chapter learners will be able to

– Elaborate and Define hydrology

– Describe the branch and history of hydrology

– Explain hydrologic cycle

– Understand the components of hydrologic cycle

– Introduce with the concept of water balance

– Know the importance of hydrologic knowledge

1.1. Concept and definition of Hydrology

The word hydrology combines the Greek and word huddr, which means "water," and the term
-logy, which designates "a study of." It also has origins in the New Latin word hydrologia. More
specifically, the general word hydrology refers to the scientific study of water and its properties,
distribution, and effects on Earth's surface, soil, and atmosphere.

The study of water can mean different things to different professions. To a chemist, a water
molecule is a stable chemical bond of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; the
chemist will be interested in the properties of water and its role in chemical reactions. The
climatologist will be interested in the effect of the water stored in the soil and lakes on climatic
processes. To those involved in the design of hydraulic machinery, the study of the properties of
water will concentrate on the forces exerted by water in a dynamic state. To the mechanical

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engineer, the properties of water in the form of steam can be important. The ground water
hydrologist will be interested in the movement of water in transporting pollutants. Even
geographers and historians may be interested in water, at least in terms of how its availability
and accessibility has shaped development and culture.

Therefore, hydrology is one of the earth sciences such as climatology which is the study of
climate, meteorology which is a weather science dealing with the atmospheric phenomenon,
geology, geomorphology, sedimentology, geography and oceanography broadly defined as a
science that describes and predicts the occurrences, circulation and distribution of the water of
the earth. There are two principal focuses of study in hydrology.

1. The global hydrologic cycle; - which is the spatial distribution and temporal variations of
water in the terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric components the global water system.

2. The land phase of the hydrologic cycle: - which is the movement of water on and under
the earth’s land surface; the physical and chemical interactions with earth materials
accompany that movement as well as the biological process which affect this movement.

To further describe hydrology, we must introduce the concept of the hydrologic cycle which is a
continuous (perpetual) recirculatory path involving the water of the earth between precipitation
generally called rainfall and the entry into the oceans. The process involves water in the
atmosphere usually as water vapor, water beneath the surface of the earth referred as ground
water and percolating water primarily also referred as subsurface water and water on the surface
of the earth. Hydrology includes the study of the waters of the earth often referred as the
terrestrial phases of water by addressing the occurrence, circulation, and distribution both
spatially and temporally, physical and chemical properties, interactions and effects of these on
man and other living species both at local and global environment. For example, hydrology often
deals with runoff which is the excess water resulted from precipitation and its quantity(volume),
flux rate, where it occurs and when, how the water could be used to maintain adequate supplies,
and how runoff can controlled to minimize flooding problems.

In general, hydrology is subdivided into two major parts referred as surface hydrology mainly
concerned with the study of water on its terrestrial phases and ground water hydrology which
study about water beneath the surface of the earth or underground water. Therefore, this course is
basically deals about some basic aspects of both surface and subsurface water.

The Hydrologic System concept

Hydrologic phenomenons are extremely complex and may never be understood. However, in the
absence of perfect knowledge, they may be represented in a simplified way by means of a system
concept. A system is a set of group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements

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forming a complex whole. Accordingly, hydrologic system is defined as a structure or volume in
the space, surrounded by a boundary that accepts water and other inputs, operates internally and
produce outputs. The advantage of system concept is to produce models for a hydrologic system.

Historical development of hydrologic science

The history of the evolution of hydrology as a multi-disciplinary subject, dealing with the
occurrence, circulation and distribution of the waters of the Earth, has been presented by Biswas
(1970). Man’s need for water to sustain life and grow food crops was well appreciated
throughout the world wherever early civilization developed. Detailed knowledge of water
management practices of the Sumerians and Egyptians in the Middle East, of the Chinese along
the banks of the Hwang-Ho and of the Aztecs in South America continues to grow as
archaeologists uncover and interpret the artifacts of such centers of cultural development. It was
the Greek philosophers who were the first serious students of hydrology, and thereafter, scholars
continued to advance the understanding of the separate phases of water in the natural
environment. However, it was not until the 17th century that the work of the Frenchman,
Perrault, provided convincing evidence of the form of the hydrological cycle which is currently
accepted; measurements of rainfall and stream flow in the catchment of the upper Seine
published in 1694 proved that quantities of rainfall were sufficient to sustain river flow.

In the present century, hydrology as an academic subject became established in institutions of

higher education in the 1940s. Valuable research contributions to the subject had been reported
earlier but the expansion in the more widespread applications of hydrology resulted in at least
five textbooks being published in that decade in the United States. Most of these stemmed from
the work and teaching of engineers but a notable exception set the subject as a science in the
realms of geophysics. The more recent advances in technology coupled with the development of
mathematical models representing hydrological processes have led to a reappraisal of the content
and definition of hydrology.

The slow growth of hydrology as a geophysical science is due in part to the training of
hydrologists as technologists rather than as pure scientists. The Panel Report laid down
suggestions for the education of hydrologists in basic sciences at the undergraduate level, and in
graduate education, for a continuation of the sciences related to the in-depth study, including
field experience, of a chosen aspect of hydrology. Following these recommendations,
advancement of the subject as a science could be assured. Professional training for the applied
hydrologist should give greater emphasis to the basic sciences and include experimental and field
studies with a reduction in the reliance on empirical analyses and mathematical modeling.
Nevertheless, the quantitative aspects of the subject in finding answers to engineering problems
with limited data remain the prime interest of the practicing hydrologist. For the beginner, the
concept of the hydrological cycle still forms a basis upon which the budding hydrologist can
build a necessary reservoir of scientific knowledge.

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1.2 Hydrologic Process as a Cycle

Definitions of terms
 Cycle:- A system consisting of two or more connected reservoir, where a large part of the
material (energy) is transferred through the system in a cyclic fashion
Example:- Carbon, Rock, Water Cycles
 Reservoir:- (box, compartment: M in mass units or moles) An amount of material
defined by certain physical, chemical, or biological characteristics that can be considered
homogeneous
– O2 in the atmosphere
– Carbon in living organic matter in the Ocean
– Water in the Ocean
 Flux:- (F) The amount of material transferred from one reservoir to
another per unit time (M/s)
– The rate of evaporation of water from the surface Ocean
– The rate of deposition of inorganic carbon (carbonates on marine sediments
 Source:- (I or Q) A flux of material into a reservoir
 Sink:- (O or S) A flux of material out of a reservoir
 Budget:- A balance sheet of all sources and sinks of a reservoir. If sources and sinks
balance each other and do not change with time, the reservoir is in steady-state (M does
not change with time)
 If steady-state prevails, then a flux that is unknown can be estimated by its difference
from the other fluxes.
For a control volume this means: dM/dt = I'-O'
 Turnover time:- The ratio of the content (M) of the reservoir to the sum of its sinks (O)
or sources (I). The time it will take to empty the reservoir if there aren’t any sources. It is
also a measure of the average time an atom/molecule spends in the reservoir. Or:
t0 = M/O (or M/I)

Water on the earth exists on the space called the hydrosphere which extends about 15km into the
atmosphere and about 1km down into the lithosphere which is the crust of the earth. Water
circulates in the hydrosphere through the maze of paths constituting the hydrologic cycle.
Therefore, the hydrologic cycle is the central focus of hydrology. The physical processes
controlling the distribution and movement of water are best understood in terms of the
hydrologic cycle.

Although there is no real beginning or ending point of the hydrologic cycle, some scholars
suggest as the driving force of the circulation is derived from the radiant energy received from

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the Sun, it is logical to consider the hydrological cycle as beginning with the direct effect of the
Sun’s radiation on the largest water reservoir of the earth called oceans. Some other scholars
differently suggested that it begins with precipitation in any combination of its many forms and
the rainfall can take any of several paths back to the atmosphere as water vapor.

Figure 1.1 schematic representation of the global hydrologic cycle

The path can include any of the processes such as evaporation, infiltration, percolation,
interflow, ground water recharge, stream flow and return to the ocean as it returns to the
atmosphere. Heating of the sea surface causes evaporation, the transfer of water from the liquid
to the gaseous state, to form part of the atmosphere. It remains mainly unseen in atmospheric
storage for an average of 10 days. Through a combination of circumstances, the water vapour
changes back to the liquid state again through the process of condensation to form clouds and,
with favorable atmospheric conditions, precipitation (rain or snow) is produced either to return
directly to the ocean storage or to embark on a more devious route to the oceans via the land
surface. Snow may accumulate in Polar Regions or on high mountains and consolidate into ice,
in which state water may be stored naturally for very long periods.

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Scales for study of hydrologic cycle

From the point of view of hydrologic studies, two scales are readily distinct. These are the global
scale and the catchment scale.
1. Global scale

From a global perspective, the hydrologic cycle can be considered to be comprised of three
major systems; the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land sphere. Precipitation, runoff and
evaporation are the principal processes that transmit water from one system to the other. This
illustration depicts a global geophysical view of the hydrologic cycle and shows the interactions
between the earth (lithosphere), the oceans (hydrosphere), and the atmosphere. The study at the
global scale is necessary to understand the global fluxes and global circulation patterns. The
results of these studies form important inputs to water resources planning for a national, regional
water resources assessment, weather forecasting, and study of climate changes. These results
may also form the boundary conditions of small-scale models/applications.

Fig. 1.2 A global schematic of the hydrologic cycle

2. Catchment Scale

While studying the hydrologic cycle on a catchment scale, the spatial coverage can range from a
few square km to thousands of square km. The time scale could be a storm lasting for a few
hours to a study spanning many years. When the water movement of the earth system is
considered, three systems can be recognized: the land (surface) system, the subsurface system,
and the aquifer (or geologic) system. When the attention is focused on the hydrologic cycle of
the land system, the dominant processes are precipitation, Evapotranspiration, infiltration, and
surface runoff. The land system itself comprises of three subsystems: vegetation subsystem,
structural subsystem and soil subsystem. These subsystems subtract water from precipitation

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through interception, depression and detention storage. This water is either lost to the
atmospheric system or enters subsurface system. The exchange of water among these subsystems
takes place through the processes of infiltration, exfiltration, percolation, and capillary rise.

Fig. 1.3 A schematic of the hydrologic cycle of the earth system.

Fig. 1.4 A detailed schematic of the hydrologic cycle in the land system.

Time scales in hydrologic cycle

The time required for the movement of water through various components of the hydrologic
cycle varies considerably. The velocity of stream flow is much higher compared to the velocity
of ground water. The time-step size for an analysis depends upon the purpose of study, the
availability of data, and how detailed the study is. The estimated periods of renewal of water
resources in water bodies on the earth is given in Table 1.1. The time step should be sufficiently

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small so that the variations in the processes can be captured in sufficient detail but at the same
time, it should not put undue burden on data collection and computational efforts.

The concept of residence time in the hydrologic cycle

Residence Time (Tr) is the average duration of a water molecule to pass through a subsystem of
the hydrologic cycle. On the other hand, it is the average length of time that water spends in a
particular system. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Tr = S/Q
Where, S is storage volume (km3)
Q is the flow rate (km3/time)
• Long residence times are the consequences of :-
– long time for rock dissolution reactions
– high contaminant accumulation
– slow turnover rate
Table 1.1:- Typical residence times for natural waters

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1.3 Components of the hydrologic cycle

Generally, the global hydrologic cycle is represented as a system composed of three subsystems
or themes:-
i. The atmospheric water system which comprises

 Precipitation
 Evaporation
 Interception
 Transpirations
ii. Surface water system containing

 Overland flow
 Surface runoff
 Runoff to oceans and streams
iii. Subsurface water system such as

 Infiltration
 Ground water recharge
 Subsurface flow and
 Ground water flow

1.4 The Global Water Balance(Budget) Concept

Water balance is also referred as the hydrologic equation or water balance equation that provides
a quantitative means of evaluating the hydrologic cycle. This fundamental equation is simple
statement of the law of mass conservation. An explanation of the continuity of mass is an
appropriate way to introduce the concept of an energy balance. In the systems theory
representation of the continuity of mass, we assume that the time rate of change of storage
(dS/dt) equals the difference between the inflow (Z) and outflow (0):

Therefore, the water balance is a physical analysis of the water body based on the conservation
of mass. Water input to the water body may be from rainfall (P), stream flow into the water body
(Q), surface runoff (Qr), and subsurface runoff (Qs). Outflow from the water body could be
evaporation (E), stream flow discharge from the water body (Q o), and subsurface seepage losses
(Qd). Thus, the above equation becomes:-

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Rainfall can be measured using rain gages. Stream flow and overland runoff into and out of the
water body can be measured using weirs. The time rate of change of storage can be measured
using a stage recorder for the water surface elevation along with the necessary tope graphic data
of the site. Subsurface runoff in to (Qin) and out of (Qot) the water body are the most difficult
elements of the water balance to measure; these can sometimes be estimated using elevation
measurements of observation wells placed about the perimeter of the water body; however, this
requires a number of measurements and an assumption of homogeneity of subsurface runoff
characteristics in the area allocated to each observation well. To use the above equation, it is
necessary to specify a time increment dt for which each of the elements is measured. The
accuracy of estimates of E made with Equation will increase as dt increases, but the time
increment selected must depend on the engineering design problem. Given the significant effort
required to make the necessary measurements, water budgets, like energy budgets, are only used
where the effort is warranted, such as major water resource projects.

If we consider the hydrologic system for instance, a lake it has a certain volume of water at a
given time. Several inflows add to this water volume. Precipitation that falls on the lake surface,
streams that flow in to the lake, ground water that seeps into the lake and over land flow from
near by land surfaces. Water also leaves the lake through evaporation, transpiration, by emergent
aquatic vegetations, outlet streams and ground water seepage from the lake bottom. If over a
given time period, the total inflow are greater than the total outflows, the volume of the lake
water will increases and the lake level w8ill rises on the other hand, if the outflow exceeds the
inflow over a certain period of time, the volume of the lake water will decline and any
differences between rates of inflow and outflow in the hydrologic system will result in a change
in the volume of water stored in the system.

The hydrologic equation can be applied to the systems of any size is useful for a small reservoir
as it is for an entire continent. The equation is time dependent. The elements of inflow must be
measured over the same time periods as the outflows. The basic unit of surface water hydrology
is the drainage basin or catchment which consists of all the land area slopping towards a
particular discharge point. It is outlined surface water boundaries or topographic divides. In
ground water hydrology, we utilize the concept of a ground water basin, which is the subsurface
volume through which ground water divides surround it. The boundaries of a surface water basin
and the underlying ground water basin do not necessarily coincide although the water budget of
the area must account for both ground and surface water. Many times hydrologic budgets are
made for areas surrounded by political boundaries, however, one still must now the location of
the hydrologic boundaries, both surface and subsurface to perform a water-budget analysis.

Water will flow from the hydrologic boundary towards the point of discharge and hence may
flow into the study area if the boundary of the study area dose not coincides with the hydrologic
boundary. The hydrologic inputs to an area of concern may include:-
 Precipitation
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 Surface water inflow into the area including runoff and overland flow
 Ground water inflow from outside the area
 Artificial import into the through pipes and canals
The hydrologic outputs from an area may include:-
 Evapotranspiration from the land area
 Evaporation of surface water
 Surface water runoff
 Ground water outflow
 Artificial export of water through pipes and canals
Therefore, the changes in storage necessary to balance the hydrologic equation include changes
in the volume of:-
 Surface water in streams, lakes and ponds
 Soil moisture in the void zone
 Ice and snow at the surface
 Temporary depression storage
 Interception of water on plant surface and
 Ground water below the water table
There are three most important assumptions in the development of the water balance equation.
These are:-
i. The substance is conservative which means substance neither created nor destroyed at
that time
ii. There should be a definite control volume to mean there should be a boundary for the
given amount.
iii. Definite time period is required since it takes time for a certain change to take place.

Example 2.2: Assume that Assosa Town Water supply and sanitation enterprise wants to
construct a dam that receives water from 600ha watershed. The total precipitation over a period
of 60 days was measured to be 208mm. During the same period inflow into and outflow out of
the dam was 2.05m3/sec and 1.8605m3/sec, respectively. The seepage loss was 60mm and the
loss to evaporation was 50mm including transpiration from the vegetation. Having this
information about the project do the following questions.
i. Determine the change in storage and give your answers in
a. m3 b. m3/sec
ii. If the per capita daily water consumption is 150Liters, how many peoples will be served by
an increase in storage of 4mm/day?
Solution:-
Area = 600ha = 600ha x 10 000m2/ha = 6 x 106m2
Time period = 60 days = 60 x 24 x 60 x 60sec = 5 184 00sec
Inflow (Qi) = 2.05 m3/sec = 2.05m3/sec x 5 184 000sec = 10 627 200m3
Outflow (Qo) = 1.85m3/sec = 1.85m3/sec x 5 184 000sec = 9 590 400m3

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Precipitation (P) = 208mm = 0.208mm
Precipitation volume = depth x area = 0.208m x 6 x 106m2 = 1 248 000m3
Evapotranspiration (ET) = 50mm = 0.05m
Evapotranspiration volume = area x depth = 0.05m x 6 x 106m2 = 300 000m3
Seepage loss (I) = 60mm = 0.06m
Seepage volume = depth x area = 0.06m x 6 x 106m2 = 360 000m3
Change in storage (∆S) = P – (ET + Q + I) but Q = Qo – Qi
Therefore, ∆S = P – (ET - Qo – Qi + I)
1. Change in storage,
a. In m3
∆S = 1 248 000 – (300 000 + 9 590 400 – 10 627 200 + 360 000)
= 1 248 000 – (- 377 200) = 1 625 200m3, thus, the change in storage is positive which means
more water.
b. To find the change in storage volumetric rate, in this case m 3/sec, divide the
change by the time over which the change was occurred.
∆S (m /sec) = 1 625 200m3/5 184 000sec = 0.313 m3/sec
3

2. Peoples to be served by the increased water storage can be computed as

∆S = 4mm/day = 0.004m x area = 0.004m x 6 x 106m2
= 24 000 m3 = 24 000m3 x 1000L/m3 = 2.4 x 107L
The daily per capita usage is = 150L/person, therefore,
Number of people served = 2.4 x 107L/150L/person = 160 000peoples will be served.

Example 2.3: a small catchment of area 150ha received a rainfall of 10.5cm in 90minutes due to
the storage at the outlet of the catchment; the stream draining the catchment was dry before the
storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average discharge value 2.0 m 3/sec.
the stream was again dry after the runoff event.

a. What is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to the combined effect
of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration?

b. What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?

Solution: The water budget equation for the catchment in a time ∆t is:

P – R- G – E – T = ∆S

In this case take ∆t = duration of the runoff = 10hr. note that the rainfall occurred in the first 90
minuets and in the rest of 8.5hrs the precipitation was zero. ∆S which is change in the surface
storage is also zero (∆S = 0).

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(G + E + T) = Water not available due to infiltration but causing addition to the ground water
storage and evaporation and transpiration losses equal to L. It is reasonable to assume in this case
that there was no contribution by ground water storage to the runoff to the stream.

a. Hence, P – R = L where P is the input due to precipitation in 10hours

150 x 100 x 100 x 105m3 = 157 500m3
100
Runoff volume (R) = the outflow volume in the catchment in 10hrs.
= 2.0 x 10 x 60 x 60 = 72 000m3 hence, L = 157 500 – 72 000 = 85 000 m3
= Volume of water not available for runoff
Runoff /Rainfall = 72 000/157 500 = 0.457 this ratio is known as the runoff coefficient

1.5 The applications & purpose of Hydrologic knowledge

The practicing hydrologist’s task is to specify the inputs of water and constituents to water
resource systems such as a river, lake or aquifer system and to trace the motion of the water and
constituents as they pass through the system. Basically, hydrologists are concerned with three
major water related issues:-
 Water use issues,
 Water control issues and
 water pollution control issues

i. Water use issues:- This means the issues related with withdrawal of water from lakes, rivers
and aquifers for water supply to cities, industries and agricultural activities, the in stream
use of water for hydropower and recreation and the protection of wildlife, both plant and
animal life which inhabits these water systems. Therefore, hydrology is applied to specify
the inflows to these system for both normal and drought conditions and to predict how
different withdrawal rates or in stream flow policies would affect the flow through the
system. Water quality properties such as turbidity, temperature and minerals as well as the
bacteriological content may be important in such situations. In these tasks, hydrology is an
input into the broader field of water resources planning and management in which the

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validity of the various uses for water is balanced through technical, legal and political
mechanisms.

ii. Water control related issues:- is meant control of hydrologic extremes principally flood and
erosion and sediment transport which occur during floods. The age-old human concern to
be protected from the averages of floods is manifested in flood protection works such as
levees and dams; in management schemes such as floodplain delineation and policies to
regulate development within flood plains; in erosion sediment control works, in storm water
detention and diversion projects. Again the hydrologists task is to specify the inputs to the
system for a given design conditions and to trace the discharge of water and sediment trough
the system. Hydrology is especially dependent upon hydraulics in these tasks.

iii. Water pollution control issues: - Which means the prevention of pollutants or contaminants
in natural water bodies, and the cleanup of existing pollution. Here, the hydrologists must
determine:
 The sources and extent of pollution
 How quickly and how far the pollution will spread and
 Where the pollutants ultimately end up
Point sources of pollution such as landfills and chemical waste dumps must be located ; non
point sources of pollution such as drainage or runoff of pesticides and fertilizers from
agricultural lands must be identified; the various solutes and liquids such as gasoline which
might flow from these sights must be determined; the streams and aquifers through which the
contaminants will pass need to studded; and designs are prepared either to prevent the pollutants
from flowing into the natural water system at all or, if pollution occurs to ensure that it is
sufficiently limited so that the quality of the receiving water is not significantly damaged. In
some cases, attempt may be made to extract polluted waters from the natural environment such
as by pumping out polluted ground water so that the water can be treated and discharged again.
Hydrology relates closely to geology and environmental engineering in this type of work.

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Chapter Two: Precipitation

Objectives: - at the end of this chapter learners will be able to

– Explain the meaning of precipitation

– Know the forms and types of precipitation

– Understand the process of rain formation and its types

– Know the methods of rainfall measurement , analysis and ways of presenting it

2.1 Definition of Precipitation

The moisture in the atmosphere, although forming one of the smallest storages of the Earth’s
water, is the most vital source of fresh water for mankind. Water is present in the air in its
gaseous, liquid, and solid states as water vapor, cloud droplets and ice crystals, respectively.
Therefore, Precipitation is the general term for all forms of moisture emanating from the clouds
and falling to the ground. From time of its formation till it reaches the ground, precipitation is the
subject matter of meteorology. But the moment it reaches the ground, it becomes the basic
element of hydrology. Precipitation is the input to the hydrologic system. Any type of an input-
output analysis requires the interpretation of input data. The analysis of some type involves the
appraisal of long term records. Once precipitation strikes the ground, it may go in to storage on
the surface (e.g. channel storage) beneath the surface in the form of ground water reservoir large
water bodies; nearly one-fourth of the total precipitation that falls on the land reaches large water
bodies. The formation of precipitation from the water as it exists in the air is a complex and
delicately balanced process. If the air was pure, condensation of the water vapor to form liquid
water droplets would occur only when the air became greatly supersaturated. However, the
presence of small airborne particles called aerosols provides nuclei around which water vapor in
normal saturated air can condense.

2.2 Processes Leading to Precipitation Formation

Water vapor in the atmosphere is the source for precipitation. Four factors responsible to
generate precipitation:
1) Continuous influx of moisture
2) Lifting air mass
3) Condensation nuclei
4) Cloud droplet growth

Many experiments, both in the laboratory and in the open air, have been carried out to investigate
the requisite conditions for the change of state of water.

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Condensation:- is the process in w/c water vapor is converted into its liquid or solid state

Conditions for condensation

i. Presence of water vapor in the atmosphere

An adequate amount of water vapor is required to bring the saturation of air. Moisture is always
present in the atmosphere, even on cloudless days, However, factors capable of this cooling are
not present, precipitation cannot occur and; saturation, however, does not necessarily lead to
precipitation. There are many factors for precipitation to happen. There are four main ways to
which water vapor is added to the air:-
 Daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land
 Transpiration from plants
 Cool, dry air moving over warmer water
 Lifting air over mountains

ii. Presence of condensation nuclei

Dusts and particles in the atmosphere act as nuclei of condensation. Water vapor can only
deposit and condense on them as these are hydroscopic in nature. As these particles are
microscopic or sub microscopic in size they are called hygroscopic nuclei or Condensation
nuclei.

Two main types of condensation nuclei are distinguished. These are the hygroscopic particles
having an affinity for water vapor and non-hygroscopic particles needing some degree of super
saturation, depending on their size, before attracting condensation. This latter group derives from
natural dust and grit from land surfaces and from man-made smoke, soot and ash particles. These
nuclei are small particles of various substances (e.g. dust particles and smoke wastes) usually
ranging in size from about 0.1-micrometer in diameter. Generally there are two types of nuclei’s
in the atmosphere that are responsible for the formation of water droplets. These are:-

1. Condensation nuclei or aerosol particles

Condensation nuclei range in size from a radius 10−3μm for small ions to 10μm for large salt
particles. The concentration of aerosols in time and space varies considerably. A typical number
for the smallest particles is 40000 per cm3, whereas for giant nuclei of more than 1μm radius
there might be only 1 per cm3. Large hygroscopic salt nuclei are normally confined to maritime
regions, but the tiny particles called Aitken nuclei can travel across continents and even
circumnavigate the Earth. Although condensation nuclei are essential for widespread
condensation of water vapor, only a small fraction of the nuclei present in the air take part in
cloud droplet formation at any one time. Other conditions must be fulfilled before precipitation
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occurs. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei to form clouds.
Condensation nuclei usually consist of:
 products of combustion,( e.g., CO2)
 Oxides of Nitrogen, and
 Salt particles this one is most effective and may result in condensation with
relative humidity as low as 75%

2. Freezing nuclei
Freezing nuclei usually consists of clay minerals, (kaolin) being the most common. Freezing
nuclei serve only to:
 Nucleate the liquid phase and thus( because freezing happens in liquid phase)
 Initiate the growth of ice particles.
Assuming that the air is close to saturation, formation of fog or cloud droplets or ice crystals
generally requires the presence of condensation or freezing nuclei on which the droplets or
crystals formed ( i.e., when the air is close to saturation, it needs condensation or freezing nuclei
to form fogs, cloud droplets or ice crystals)

iii. Cooling of air

Cooling of air up to and below dew point is necessary for saturation of atmospheric air with
water vapor. Cooling is one way of saturating a parcel of air. There are four main mechanisms
for cooling the air to its dew point:
A. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands. The air can rise due to:
 Convection,
 large-scale atmospheric motions, or
 A physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift).
B. Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually
by;
 Being blown from one surface to another,
 For example from a liquid water surface to colder land.
C. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or
by the surface underneath. (Since infrared radiation is taking heat, it cools temp.)
D. Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which
forces the air temperature to cool.

The large scale cooling needed for significant amounts of precipitation is achieved by lifting the
air (adiabatic cooling) which is accomplished by convective system resulting from unequal

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radioactive heating or cooling of the earth’s surface and atmosphere or by convergence caused
by orographic barriers. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before
becoming saturated.

The general formation of Precipitation takes place when:-

 The vapor will be converted in to clouds through a process called condensation

 Eventually clouds with favorable atmospheric conditions changed in to precipitation

 Water bodies and land radiant energy water vapor condensation nuclei
clouds saturation precipitation

Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationery. When air
turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water
droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that; Drops become heavy enough to overcome air
resistance and falls as rain; Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water
droplets. Therefore, the essential requirements for precipitation to occur are:
 Moisture in the atmosphere
 Dynamic cooling responsible for condensation of water vapor
 Presence of nuclei around which condensation of vapor takes place
 Precipitation product must reach the ground in some forms(different forms of
precipitation e.g. rainfall, snow)
 Cloud elements must increase in size until their falling speed exceed the rate of the air

2.2. Clouds

Most clouds form when moist air is lifted and cooled. Lifting occurs when air rises over low
pressure areas, is carried up inclined frontal surfaces, is carried upward by convective currents
that originate at the heated ground, or flows over mountains. Once cloud droplets are formed,
their growth depends on hygroscopic and surface tension forces, the humidity of the air, rates of
transfer of vapor to the water droplets and the latent heat of condensation released. Clouds are
visual indicators of physical processes taking place in the atmosphere.

Clouds are classified according to their appearance and the approximate altitude of their bases
following a simple scheme that was developed in 1803 by an English druggist, Luke Howard.

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Why clouds float?
 Clouds are made of water.
 Even the smallest fluffy (feathery) cloud in the sky weighs many tones.
 How does all this water stay up there?
 The reason is that the water is in the form of tiny water droplets and ice crystals.
 Just like tiny dust particles suspended in air, these droplets and crystals are far too small
to feel the effects of gravity.
 Tiny droplets in clouds join together to form larger drops.
 Updrafts, which are winds that move upwards, help keep these drops from falling.
 Eventually, when thousands of droplets combine, the drops may become large enough to
fall to the ground … as rain.

2.2.1. 3 Forms of precipitation

Precipitation is any form of solid or liquid water that falls from the atmosphere to the earth’s
surface. There are various approaches of classifying precipitation. Some of the common
approaches for precipitation classification are:

A. According to its appearance

1. Liquid precipitation

 Rain: when precipitation reaches the surface of the earth , in the form of droplets of water
having a size varying from 0.5mm to 6mm and any drops larger than this size are found
to breakup during their fall in the air Based on its intensity, rainfall is classified as:

Types Intensity
Light rain Trace to 2.5mm/hr
Moderate rain 2.5mm/hr to 7.5mm/hr
Heavy rain Greater than 7.5mm/hr

 Drizzle: is the water droplet of size less than 0.5mm and it reaches the ground with
intensity less than 1mm/hr. These water droplets are so light that they appear to be
floating in air
 Fog: a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapour (interfering with visibility)
 Mist: a very thin fog

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 Dew: during nights when surface of the objects on earth cools by radiation, the moisture
present in atmosphere condenses on the surface of these objects forming water droplets
called dew.

2. Solid/Frozen precipitation

(a) Snow grain: it is precipitation in the form of ice crystals, normally hexagonal in shape

(b) Snowflakes: agglomeration of grains; solid equivalent of rain; ice crystals fused together

(c) Sleet: Sleet (freezing rain): when rain falls through air at sub-freezing temperature. Sleet is
frozen rain, formed when rain before falling on earth, passes through a cold layer of air
and freezes. The result is the creation of solid particles of clear ice. The droplet freezes to
form grains of ice, called sleet. Sometimes snow and rain precipitates
simultaneously. The rain drops under this circumstance are half-frozen

(d) Graupel: pellets of ice 2-5 mm formed by collusion of crystals and rain when cloud
temperature is near the freezing point

(e) Hoar frost: solid equivalent of dew; formed by sublimation of water vapor onto cold
surfaces as feature-like crystals. It is a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on
the surface of exposed objects by dew or water vapor that has frozen.

(f) Rime (occult precipitation): freezing of water droplets from fog onto cold surfaces. This
freezes immediately in contact with cold objects of the earth’s surface. Rain that
falls in liquid form but freezes up on impact to form a coating on the ground and exposed
objects While the temperature of the exposed objects initially must be near or below
freezing, it is also necessary that the water drops be super cooled before striking

(g) Hail: spherical lumps of ice composed of concentric layers. It is rain in the form of any
irregular form of ice with size ranging from 5.0mm to 50mm or above. It occurs in
violent thunder storms in which vertical currents are very strong

B. According to its place of origin

(a) Adjacent to cold ground: dew; fog-drip, frost

(b) Above condensation level in the atmosphere, where water vapor, in air below the dew point
temperature, condenses onto hygroscopic nuclei or sublimates to form ice
crystals

C. According to the mechanism of lifting air mass

1) Convective precipitation
2) Cyclonic/Frontal precipitation

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3) Orographic precipitation

1. Convective precipitation

In tropical countries in hot day the ground surface gets heated unequally. The warm air (lighter)
is lifted to high altitude and the colder air (heavier) takes its place with high velocity thus, the
warm moist air mass is condensed at the high altitude (freezing temperature) causing heavy
rainfall. (Since when the humid air mass goes up, temperature and pressure decreases).This is
known as convective precipitation. Unequal heating at the surface of the earth is the main reason
for this type of precipitation.

Convective precipitation
In summer days air in contact with the surface of the earth gets ;
 Heated up
 Expands and
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 Rises due to lesser density

Surrounding air rushes to replace it and in turn gets heated up and rises. In the process,
increasing quantities of water vapor are taken up by the air (that is why the air is said moist air
mass). When the air mass reaches to a great height, temperature falls below the dew point. At
this stage condensation releases latent heat of 539cal/g of water. This heat is added to the air at
the height of condensation causing further heating to its upper air this forces the air mass to
move up. Such type of precipitation covers limited aerial extent and is normally found near
equatorial zone.

Basic principles for formation of convectional precipitation

 Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the earth's surface.

 The warm ground heats the air over it.

 As the air warms, the air molecules begin to move further apart.

 With increased distance between molecules, the molecules are less densely packed.

 Thus, the air becomes “lighter” and rises rapidly into the atmosphere.

 As the air rises, it cools.

 The peak with a cauliflower shape represents the upper part of the warm air column,
which penetrates to higher layers of the atmosphere.

 If this convective column continues to develop, the cloud can become a cumulonimbus
mass that is a storm, capable of producing a pouring rain.

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2. Cyclonic precipitation

Cyclonic or Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge of a warm moist air mass (warm
front) meets a cool dry air mass (cold front). The molecules in the cold air are more tightly
packed together (i.e., more dense), and thus, the cold air is heavier than the warm air. The
warmer air mass is forced up over the cool air. As it rises, the warm air cools, the water vapor in
the air condenses, and clouds and precipitation result. This type of system is called Frontal
Precipitation because the moisture tends to occur along the front of the air mass

3. Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation results when warm moist air moving across the ocean is forced to rise
by large mountains. As the air rises, it cools. Why? A higher elevation results in cooler
temperatures. Orographic or mountain range barriers cause lifting of air masses. Dynamic
cooling takes place, causing precipitation on the side of the blowing wind (windward side).
Clouds forms and precipitation (rain or snow) occurs on the windward side of the mountain (see
diagram). Hence, precipitation is normally, heavier on the windward side and lighter on lee ward
side.

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2.4 Measurement of Rainfall

Rainfall measurement is useful to know the amount of water in a given area. Since rainfall is the
major sources of water used for various purposes, knowledge about the amount of rainfall, the
intensity and distribution of rainfall is extremely useful.

Point Vs Areal rainfall

Rainfall is expressed in terms of depth to which rainfall water would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it. i.e. Precipitation is measured as depth of water equivalent from that
would accumulate on a horizontal surface if there are no losses. It is measured as the vertical
depth of water expressed in millimeters. Rainfall at a place can be collected and measured in
instruments called rain gauges. Point measurement is a measure of rainfall at a given point of
area. Examples take the rainfall amount measured by meteorological stations. Three types of
instruments generally used for measurement of rainfall are:-
i. Non-recording rain gauge
ii. Recording rain gauge
iii. Weather radars

i. Non-recording gauge

The non-recording type rain gauges are used for the measurement of the amount of rainfall by
collecting rain water over a period of time. The most common is the non recording gauge called
a Standard Rain Gauge (SRG).

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Standard rain gauge

The standard rain gauge consists of a collector with a gun metal rim. The exposed surface area of
the collector is either 100cm2 or 200 cm2.The collector is fitted over a base which is fixed to a
masonry or concrete foundation. Both the collector and the base are made of fiber glass
reinforced polyester. The collector can be locked to the base by locking rings. The collector has a
deepest funnel which discharges into a polyethylene bottle kept inside the base. The capacity of
the bottle can be 2, 4 or 10 liters. The rain collected in the bottle is measured with a graduated
cylinder which directly gives the rainfall in mm or cm. The nominal capacity of the rain gauge
can be 100, 200, 400, 500 or 1000 mm, depending upon the area of the collector and the capacity
of the bottle used in the measurement. The 200 mm nominal capacity rain gauge has 200 cm2
collector and 4 liter capacity bottle and is the most commonly used gauge. On-recording type
rain gauge gives the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24 hours but does not give the
duration and intensity of the rainfall. The rim should is always set at a standard height of 30 cm
above the ground surface irrespective of the nominal capacity.

ii. Recording gauge

Recording gauges produce a continuous plot of rainfall against time to provide valuable data of:
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 Intensity

 Duration,

 Onset

 Cessation and

 Cumulative of rainfall for hydrological analysis

The following are some of the commonly used recording rain gauges.

1. Tipping bucket type

2. Weighing bucket type

3. Syphon type gauge/float type

1. Tipping bucket rain gauge

The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of two small buckets placed below the funnel fitted in a
30 cm diameter receiver. The buckets are balanced in an unstable equilibrium about a horizontal
axis such that at one time only one bucket remains below the funnel.

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One bucket is always higher than the other. As the rainfall is collected by the receiver, it passes
through the funnel to the higher bucket. After a certain small amount of rainfall (usually 0.25
mm) is received by the higher bucket, it becomes unstable and tips to empty itself into a
measuring tube placed below it. At the same time, the other bucket comes to the higher position
and starts colleting the rainfall. The tipping of the bucket actuates an electric circuit, which
causes a pen to make a mark on a chart wrapped around a drum revolved by a clock-driven
mechanism. Thus each mark on the chart corresponds to a rainfall of 0.25 mm. By counting the
number of marks and noting the time, the intensity and amount of the rainfall can be determined.
The amount of rainfall determined from the record at the end of the day may also be verified
independently by measuring the total water collected in the measuring tube. The record obtained
from the rain gauge consists of discontinuous steps; the distance between two consecutive steps
is equal to the time taken by the bucket to empty once. The gauge is ideally suited for
digitalizing the output signals and transmitting them electronically. Such gauges are useful in
hilly and inaccessible areas. The recorder consists of a pen mounted on an arm attached to a
geared wheel that moves once with each signal sent from the collector. When the wheel turns the
pen arm moves either up or down leaving a trace on the graph and at the same time making a
loud click.

2. Weighing bucket type

This has a bucket supported by a spring or lever balance. Movement of the bucket is transmitted
to a pen that traces a record of the increasing weight of the bucket and its contents on a clock
driven chart. Gauge sits on a spring balance, which operates a pen on a graph or Precipitation is
weighed and electronically reports an amount.

3. Syphon type gauge/float type

Float-type rain gauge: A class of rain gauge in which the level of the collected rainwater is
measured by the position of a float resting on the surface of the water. This instrument is
frequently used as a recording rain gauge by connecting the float through a linkage to a pen that
records on a clock-driven chart. In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float
moves up which makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.6).
When the float chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically through a siphon tube kept
in an interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the drum once in 24 hours. The
clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a week when the chart wrapped round the drum is
also replaced. In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float moves up which
makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.6). When the float
chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically through a siphon tube kept in an
interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the drum once in 24 hours. The clock
mechanism needs rewinding once in a week when the chart wrapped round the drum is also
replaced.

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iii. Weather radars

Radar images are useful for locating precipitation. As a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
scan examines the inside of a human body, radar examines the inside of a cloud. Radar sends a
pulse of energy into the atmosphere and if any precipitation is intercepted by the energy, part of
the energy is scattered back to the radar. These returned signals, called "radar echoes", are
assembled to produce radar images. The location of the colored radar echoes indicate where
precipitation is falling and the various colors indicate the intensity of the precipitation through
the color code in the lower left corner of the image. The example radar image below shows
several strong thunderstorms. Regions of light and dark blue indicate regions of lighter
precipitation while areas of red and pink indicate strong, to occasionally severe thunderstorms.
The radar creates an electromagnetic energy pulse which is focused by an antenna and
transmitted through the atmosphere. Objects in the path of this electromagnetic pulse, called
targets, scatter the electromagnetic energy. Some of that energy is scattered back toward the
radar. The receiving antenna (which is normally also the transmitting antenna) gathers this back-
scattered radiation and feeds it to a device called a receiver.

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2.5 Site for a Rain Gauge Station

While selecting a site for the rain gauge station and installing the rain gauge, the following points
should be kept in mind.
1. The site should be in an open space having an area of at least 5.5 m x 5.5 m.
2. The distance of the instrument from the nearest obstruction should not be less than 30 m or
twice the height of the obstruction.
3. A site that is sheltered from high winds should be chosen.
4. The rain gauge, as far as possible, should not be installed on the top or the side of the hill. If
unavoidable, the site which is best protected from high winds should be chosen.
5. A fence should be erected around the rain gauge station to protect the gauge from cattle, dogs,
etc. However, the distance of the fence should not be less than twice its height.
6. The gauge must always be mounted firmly so that it cannot be disturbed even by the strongest
wind in that region.
7. The gauge should be set as near the ground surface as possible to reduce wind effects. But at
the same time, it should be sufficiently high to prevent splashing of surface water into it. The
standard gauge is fixed such that the height of the rim above the ground is always 30 cm.
8. The gauge should have a level horizontal catch surface.

2.6 Optimum Rain-gauge Network Design

Since the catching area of a rain gauge is very small compared to the areal extent of a storm it is
obvious that to get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment the number of rain
gauges should be as large as possible. That means the catchment area per gauge should be small.
On the other hand, economic consideration to large extent and other considerations such as
topography, accessibility etc to some extent restricts number of gauges to be maintained. Hence
one aims at an optimum density of gauges from which reasonably accurate information about the
storms can be obtained. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommends the
following gauge densities.
1. In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones
a. Ideal if one station represents for 600 – 900km2
b. Acceptable if one station represents for 900 – 3000km2
2. In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones
a. Ideal if one station represents for 100 – 250km2
b. Acceptable if one station represents for 250 – 1000km2
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3. In arid and polar zones one station should stand only for 1500 – 10 000km 2 depending up
on the feasibility.
Ten percent of rain gauge stations should be equipped with self recording gauges to know the
intensities of the rainfall.If there are already some rain gauge stations in a catchment, the optimal
number of stations that should exist to have an assigned percentage of error in the estimation of
mean rainfall is obtained by statistical analysis as:

N = (Cv/ε) 2

Where N is optimal number of stations

ε is allowable degree of error in the estimate of the mean rainfall

Cv is coefficient of variation of the rainfall values at the existing m stations in %

If there are m stations in the catchment and each recording rainfall values P1, P2…Pm is at a
known time, the coefficient of variability Cv is calculated as:

C v  100   m 1
P

 P 
m
2
P
Where i which is the standard deviation(S)
 m1  i 1

m 1

 m 
  Pi 
Pi is the precipitation amount in the ith stations and P   i 1  which is the mean
 m 

 

precipitation. In computing N from the above equation it is usual to take the allowable degree of
error (ε) as 10%. It is seen that if the value of ε is small, the number of rain gauge stations will be
more.

Example 2.4: a number of existing rain gauge stations in a certain area are equal to eight and the
mean annual rainfall at each station is 1000, 950, 900, 850, 800, 700, 600 and 400mm. the
permissible error is given as 6%. Depending on this data estimate the gauge density.

100  950  900  850  800  700  600  400mm

Solution:- P   775mm
8

 
1000  775 2   950  775 2   900  775 2  ....   400  775 2  200mm
8 1

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2
  200mm C
   25.8  2

C v   P   100  775mm  100  25.8 While m    v    6   19 is the total number

   
of rain gauge which is required for the area but the area has only 8 existing gauges. To bring this
number into the required optimum number 19 – 8 = 11 additional gauges are required.

2.7 Determination of Areal Rainfall

In describing the measurement of precipitation, emphasis has been made that at present it is
essentially a point-sampling procedure; rainfall over an area has to be estimated from these point
measurements (in the future direct areal rainfall measurements by radar may be more widely
available). The depths of rainfall and water equivalent of snowfall correspond to the volume of
precipitation falling on the area of a gauge orifice. Several such measurements are made over a
catchment area or drainage basin and the total quantity of water falling on the catchment is
evaluated. Sometimes this is expressed as a volume (m3) for a specified time period, but more
usually as a mean depth (mm) over the catchment area. This value is sometimes called the
general or average rainfall over an area, but it is now increasingly referred to as the areal rainfall
or areal precipitation and the term ‘average rainfall’ is restricted to long-term average values.

The areal rainfall is required for many hydrological studies, and it is most important to have the
limits of the catchment carefully defined. For the drainage area down to the river gauging station
the ‘water parting’ (watershed) or boundary of the catchment must be known and plotted on a
topographical map as accurately as possible. This may require investigations in the field when
the maps are inadequate, and due regard must be paid to man-made water-courses, such as
drainage ditches and leats that may cross a natural watershed boundary. Problems with
catchment boundary definition arise in marshy areas with indeterminate drainage and there may
be seasonal differences for such areas in some climates. Knowledge of the geology of the
catchment is also necessary since the topographical divide may not be the true water parting. It
must always be remembered that the determination of the catchment area may be a possible
source of error in assessing water resources. There are many ways of deriving the areal
precipitation over a catchment from rain gauge measurements. The standard methods and their
simpler modifications will be outlined first and a selection of the more sophisticated techniques
will follow.

1 The Arithmetic Mean

This is the simplest objective method of calculating the average rainfall over an area. The
simultaneous measurements for a selected duration at all gauges are summed and the total
divided by the number of gauges. The rainfall stations used in the calculation are usually those
inside the catchment area, but neighboring gauges outside the boundary may be included if it is
considered that the measurements are representative of the nearby parts of the catchment. The

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arithmetic mean gives a very satisfactory measure of the areal rainfall under the following
conditions:

(a) The catchment area is sampled by many uniformly spaced rain gauges.
(b) The area has no marked diversity in topography, so that the range in altitude is small and
hence variation in rainfall amounts is minimal.

The arithmetic mean is readily used when short-duration rainfall events spread over the whole
area under study and for monthly and annual rainfall totals. If a long-term average for the
catchment area is available, then the method can be improved by using the arithmetic mean of
the station values expressed as percentages of their annual average for the same long period, and
applying the resultant mean percentage to the areal average rainfall (mm). If accurate values of
the areal rainfall are obtained first from a large number of rainfall gauge stations, then it may be
found that measurements from a smaller number of selected stations may give equal satisfaction.
In the Thames Basin of 9981 km2, it was found that the annual areal rainfall could be determined
by taking the arithmetic mean of 24 well distributed and representative gauges, to within ±2% of
the value determined by a more elaborate method using 225 stations (IWE, 1937).

2 The Thiessen Polygon

Devised by an American engineer (Thiessen, 1911), this is also an objective method. The rainfall
measurements at individual gauges are first weighted by the fractions of the catchment area
represented by the gauges, and then summed. On a map of the catchment with the rain gauge
stations plotted, the catchment area is divided into polygons by lines that are equidistant between
pairs of adjacent stations. A typical configuration for well distributed gauges is shown in Fig.
10.1. The polygon areas, ai, corresponding to the rain gauge stations are measured by planimeter
and the areal rainfall is given by:

Where Ri are the rainfall measurements at n rain gauges and A is the total area of the catchment.
In the illustrated example, there are nine measurements contributing to the calculation even
though gauge 1 is outside the catchment boundary. The area a1 within the catchment is however
nearer to gauge 1 than to the neighbouring gauges 2, 3 and 8,
and is therefore better represented by measurements at gauge 1.

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Fig. 1 Thiessen method.

The area fractions ai/A are called the Thiessen coefficients and once they have been determined
for a stable rain gauge network, the areal rainfall is very quickly computed for any set of rainfall
measurements. Thus the Thiessen method lends itself readily to computer processing. However,
if there are data missing for one rain gauge station, it is simpler to estimate the missing values
and retain the original coefficients rather than to redraw the polygons and evaluate fresh
Thiessen coefficients. If however a rain gauge network is altered radically, then the Thiessen
polygons has to be redrawn, the new areas measured and a new set of coefficients evaluated.

The Thiessen method for determining areal rainfall is sound and objective, but it is dependent on
a good network of representative rain gauges. It is not particularly good for mountainous areas,
since altitudinal effects are not allowed for by the areal coefficients, nor is it useful for deriving
areal rainfall from intense local storms. To overcome some of the shortcomings, investigations
into the use of height-weighted polygons combining altitudinal and areal effects on the rainfall
measurements have been made, but the supposed small improvements in results do not generally
justify the extra work and complexities involved.

3 The Isohyetal Method

This is considered one of the most accurate methods, but it is subjective and dependent on
skilled, experienced analysts having a good knowledge of the rainfall characteristics of the
region containing the catchment area. The method is demonstrated in Fig. 10.2. At the nine rain
gauge stations, measurements of a rainfall event ranging from 26 to 57 units are given. Four
isohyets (lines of equal rainfall), are drawn at 10-unit intervals across the catchment interpolated
between the gauge measurements. Areas between the isohyets and the watershed (catchment
boundary) are measured with a planimeter. The areal rainfall is calculated from the product of
the interisohyetal areas (ai) and the corresponding mean rainfall between the isohyets (ri)
divided by the total catchment area (A).

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In the illustration, there are five subareas and the areal rainfall is given by:

In drawing the isohyets for monthly or annual rainfall over a catchment, topographical effects on
the rainfall distribution are incorporated. The isohyets are drawn between the gauges over a
contour base map taking into account exposure and orientation of both gauges and the catchment
surface. It is in this subjective drawing of the isohyets that experience and knowledge of the area
are essential for good results. The isohyetal method is generally used for analyzing storm
rainfalls, since these are usually localized over small areas with a large range of rainfall amounts
being recorded over short distances.

In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable base map and the lines of equal
rainfall (isohyets) are drawn giving consideration to orographic effects and storm morphology,
Fig. 2.11. The average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the average of the two
isohyetal values are weighted with the area between the isohyets, added up and divided by the
total area which gives the average depth of rainfall over the entire basin, i.e.

Where A1–2 = area between the two successive isohyets P1 and P2

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Where ΣA1–2 = A = total area of the basin. This method if analyzed properly gives the best
results.
Examples 2.7: Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain-gauge stations in a basin are shown
in Fig. 2.10. Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin by the three methods.

Solution (i) Arithmetic average method

ΣP1 = sum of the 15 station rainfalls.

(ii) Thiessen polygon method: The Thiessen polygons are constructed as shown in Fig. 2.10 and
the polygonal areas are planimetered and the mean areal depth of rainfall is worked out
below:

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(iii) Isohyetal method: the isohyets are drawn as shown in Fig. 2.11 and the mean areal depth of
rainfall is worked out below:

Example 2.8 The area shown in below is composed of a square plus an equilateral triangular plot
of side 10 km. The annual precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at the four corners and
centre of the square plot and apex of the triangular plot are indicated in figure. Find the mean
precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon method, and compare with the arithmetic mean.
Solution The Thiessen polygon is constructed by drawing perpendicular bisectors to the lines
joining the rain-gauge stations as shown in Figure below.

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The weighted mean precipitation is computed in the following table:

Area of square plot = 10 × 10 = 100 km2

Difference = 50 km2
Area of each corner triangle in the square plot = = 12.5 km2

Arithmetic mean = which compares fairly with the weighted mean.

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2.3.4 Rainfall data analysis

Before using the rainfall record of a station, it is necessary to first check the data for continuity
and consistency.

2.3.4.1 Estimating Missing Rainfall Data

The continuity of the data may be broken with missing data due to many reasons such as damage
or fault in a rain gauge during a period. The missing data can be estimated by using the data of
the neighboring stations. In these calculations the normal rainfall which is the average value of
rainfall at a particular date, month or year over a specified 30 years period is used as a standard
of the comparison. This 30 years normal rainfall is recomputed in every decade. Thus, the term
normal annual precipitation at a station A means the average annual precipitation at A based on
specified 30 years of record. The stations that are used to estimate the missing data are called
index stations. There are three methods of estimating missing data.

i. Comparison method

ii. Normal ratio method and

iii. Isohyetal map method

i. Comparison method: - if the area is a flat area, we can compare the stations mean annual rainfall
for two near by stations.

P N
X X

P NA A

Where PX, PA are precipitation of a station X and A. NX and NA are mean annual rainfall of X and
A. This method works only when the two stations have similar meteorological conditions.

P N
Then, P  A X
X
N X

ii. Normal Ratio Method: - in this method of estimating missing rainfall data the normal rainfall is
used as a standard of comparison. Given the annual precipitation values P1, P2, P3… Pn at the
neighboring M stations 1, 2, 3…M respectively. It is required to find the missing annual
precipitation PX at a station X not included in the above M stations. Further, the normal annual
precipitation N1, N2, N3…Ni at each of the above (M + 1) stations including station X are
known. If the normal annual precipitation at various stations are within about 10% of the normal

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annual precipitation at station X, then a simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to

estimate PX. Thus, P X 

1
   ..... P M  . If the normal precipitation varies
M P1 P2
considerably, then PX is estimated by using weighining the precipitation at the various stations
by the ratio of the normal annual precipitations. This, method is known as the normal ratio

N P P 
method, given by:-
P  M   X 1 2
 ... P m

N N N
X
1 2 m 

Where P is annual precipitation

N is normal annual precipitation

m is number of nearby stations

Example 2.5: The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59,
76.28 and 92.01cm, respectively. In the year 1975 station D was inoperative and the stations A,
B, and C recorded annual precipitation of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89cm respectively. Estimate the
rainfall at station D in that year.

Solution: average normal precipitation at D =92.01 therefore, 10% of ND = 9.20 which is 92.01 x
0.1= 9.2. The maximum permissible annual precipitation= 92.01 – 9.20 = 82.81 which is greater
than 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 at all other three stations. As the normal value varies more than 10%,
92.01  91.11 72.23 79.89 
the normal ratio method is adopted. Thus, P D
  
3  80.97 67.59 76.28 
 99.41cm

Activity 2.4: Precipitation X was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred.
The respective storm totals at the three surrounding stations A, B, and C were 107, 89 and
122mm. the normal annual precipitation amounts of the station X, A, B and C are respectively
978, 1120, 935 and 1200mm. estimate the storm precipitation for the station X.

iii. Isohyetal Method

The isohyetal method is another alternative for estimating missing rainfall data. The procedure is
essentially the same as that used for the isohyetal method when it is applied to the problem of
estimating mean areal rainfall. The location and catch for each gage are located on a map and
used to draw lines of equal catch (that is, isohyets) for the storm duration of interest. The
location of the gage for which data are missing is then plotted on the map and the catch estimated
by interpolation within the isohyets. Of course, the accuracy of the estimate will depend on the
number of gages used to draw the isohyets, the homogeneity of the meteorological conditions
that generated the storm, and, if they exist, orographic effects.

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2.3.4.2 Test for the consistency of record

Some times a significant change may occur in and around a particular rain gauge station. Such a
change occurring in a particular year will affect the rain gauge data being reported from that
particular station. After a number of years, it may be felt that the data for that station is not
giving consistent rainfall values. In order to detect any such inconsistency and to correct and
adjust the reported rainfall values, a technique called double mass curve method is generally
adopted. Adjusting for gage consistency involves the estimation of an effect rather than a
missing value. An inconsistent record may result from any one of a number of events;
specifically, adjustment may be necessary due to changes in observation procedures, changes in
exposure of the gage, changes in land use that make it impractical to maintain the gage at the old
location, and where vandalism frequently occurs.

Double-mass-curve analysis is the method that is used to check for an inconsistency in a gauged
record. A double-mass curve is a graph of the cumulative catch at the rain gage of interest versus
the cumulative catch of one or more gages in the region that has been subjected to similar
hydrometeorological occurrences and is known to be consistent. If a rainfall record is a
consistent estimator of the hydro meteorological occurrences over the period of record, the
double-mass curve will have a constant slope. A change in the slope of the double mass curve
would suggest that an external factor has caused changes in the character of the measured values.
If a change in slope is evident, then the record needs to be adjusted, with either the early or later
period of record adjusted. Conceptually, adjustment is nothing more than changing the values so
that the slope of the resulting double-mass curve is a straight line.

Procedures for double mass curve construction

 The data of annual or monthly rainfall of the station X and also the average rainfall of a
group of base station or a single station covering for a long period is arranged in the
reverse chronological order i. e. the latest record as the first entry and the oldest one as
the last entry.

 The accumulated rainfall of the station X (i.e. ΣP X ) and the accumulated values of the
average of the group of base stations (i.e. ΣPav) are computed starting from the latest
record.

 Then values of ΣPX will be plotted against ΣPav for various consecutive time periods. This
plot gives the double mass curve for those gauge records.

A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot indicates a change in the rainfall regime of
station X. The method of adjustment is easily understood with the schematic of Figure 4-9. The
double-mass curve between the cumulative regional catch X and the cumulative catch at the gage
Y where a check for consistency is needed is characterized by two sections, which are denoted in
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Figure 4-9 by the subscripts 1 and 2. The slopes of the two sections, S 1, and S2, can be computed
from the cumulative catches:

In which Si is the slope of section i, ∆Yi, is the change in the cumulative catch for gage Y
between the endpoints of the section i, and ∆Xi is the change in the cumulative catch for the sum
of the regional gages between the endpoints of section i. Either section of the double-mass curve
can be adjusted for consistency. If the gage has been permanently relocated, it would be of
interest to adjust the initial part of the record (that is, part 1 of the figure below) so that it is
consistent with the latter part of the record (that is, part 2 of the figure below) and the data that
will be collected in the future. If the gage has been relocated only temporarily or if the exposure
at the gage adversely affected the catch for a brief period, it would be of interest to adjust the
latter part of the record so that it would be consistent with the initial part of the record; this
adjustment will make the latter part of the record consistent with both the initial part of the
record and the data that will be collected in the future. If it is of interest to adjust the initial part
of the record of

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Station Y, then S2, which is based on Y2, and X2, is correct, and it is necessary to adjust the Y 1,
values. The adjustment will provide an adjusted series of data, which will be denoted as y i. If S2,
is correct, the slope S1, should be removed from Y1, and replaced with slope S2; this adjustment is
made by

In which the ratio S2/S1, is the adjustment factor. The adjustment is shown in Figure 4-9b. By
multiplying each value in the Y1, series by the adjustment factor of Equation 4-17, a series y 1,
that has the same slope as the upper section, Y 2, will be produced. The procedure for adjusting
the upper section of the double-mass curve is similar to the adjustment of the lower section.
The intent is to replace the slope of the upper section with the slope of the lower section (see
Figure 4-9c). The adjusted values are computed by

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Dividing by S2 removes the effect of the existing slope and replaces it with S1, through
multiplication by S1. The series y2 will have slope S1.

Example 2.6: The data of Table 4-6 can be used to illustrate the use of Equation 4-17 to adjust
the lower section of a double-mass curve. Gage H was permanently relocated after a period of 3
yr (at the end of 198 1); thus it is necessary to adjust the recorded values from 1979 through
1981. The double mass curve is shown in Figure 4-10, with the cumulative catch at three gages
in the region plotted against the cumulative catch at the gage of interest, gage H. The slope for
the 1979-1981 periods is

The slope from 1982 to 1986 is

Using Equation 4-17, the adjusted values from 1979 through 1981 can be computed using

Thus the measured data will be reduced by about 12%. The adjusted slope for the lower portion of
the double-mass curve is shown in Figure 4-10, and the adjusted catches are given in Table below.

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Example 2.6: The data of Table 4-7 can be used to illustrate the use of Equation 4-18 to adjust the
upper portion of a double-mass curve. Figure 4-1 1 shows the double-mass curve of the cumulative
catch at gages A, B, and C versus the cumulative catch at gage D. The slopes for the two sections of
the curve were computed using 1983 as the midsection point; the slope of the upper portion of the
double-mass curve is different for the period from 1984 to 1986. The slope for the 1977-1983 periods
is

The slope for the 1984-1986 periods is

Based on Equation 4-1 8, the equation for adjusting the upper section of the curve is

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The adjusted values for 1984 to 1986 are given in Table 4-7, and the adjusted double-mass curve for
this period is shown as a dashed line in Figure 4-1 1. The adjusted portion of the curve has the same
slope as the lower section of the curve.

2.3.4.4 Depth-Area Analysis

In designing hydraulic structures for controlling river flow, an engineer needs to know the areal
rainfall of the area draining to the control point. Sometimes it is only the average river flow
being considered, but more often the works are intended to control flood flows and then
knowledge of heavy rainfalls is required. The technique of relating areal rainfall depths to area
by analyzing several storms gives depth-area relationships for different specific durations. Hence
in a region where particular types of storms are experienced, the areal rainfall expected from a
given catchment area for a duration to suit the catchment response can be taken from those
depth-area relationships for that region.

Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over a large area; variations in intensity and total depth of fall
occur from the centers to the peripheries of storms. From Fig. 2.13 it can be seen that the average
depth of rainfall decreases from the maximum as the area considered increases. The average
depths of rainfall are plotted against the areas up to the encompassing isohyets. It may be
necessary in some cases to study alternative isohyetal maps to establish maximum 1- day, 2-day,
3 day (even up to 5-day) rainfall for various sizes of areas. If there are adequate self-recording

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stations, the incremental isohyetal maps can be prepared for the selected (or standard) durations
of storms, i.e., 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 42, 48 hours etc.

Step-by-step procedure for drawing DAD curves:

(i) Determine the day of greatest average rainfall, consecutive two days of greatest average
rainfall, and like that, up to consecutive five days.
(ii) Plot a map of maximum 1-day rainfall and construct isohyets; similarly prepare isohyetal
maps for each of 2, 3, 4 and 5-day rainfall separately.
(iii) The isohyetal map, say, for maximum 1-day rainfall, is divided into zones to represent the
principal storm (rainfall) centers.
(iv)Starting with the storm centre in each zone, the area enclosed by each isohyets is
planimetered.
(v) The area between the two isohyets multiplied by the average of the two isohyetal values gives
the incremental volume of rainfall.
(vi) The incremental volume added with the previous accumulated volume gives the total volume
of rainfall.
(vii) The total volume of rainfall divided by the total area up to the encompassing isohyet gives
the average depth of rainfall over that area.
(viii) The computations are made for each zone and the zonal values are then combined for areas
enclosed by the common (or extending) isohyets.
(ix) The highest average depths for various areas are plotted and a smooth curve is drawn. This is
DAD curve for maximum 1-day rainfall.
(x) Similarly, DAD curves for other standard durations (of maximum 2, 3, 4 day etc. or 6, 12, 18,
24 hours etc.) of rainfall are prepared.

Example 2.5 An isohyetal pattern of critical consecutive 4-day storm is shown in Fig. 2.13.
Prepare the DAD curve.

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2.3.4.4 Volume-Duration-Frequency

What are the characteristics that must be identified in either assessing an actual storm or
developing a design storm? The following three characteristics are very important in hydrologic
analysis and design:
1. Duration: the length of time over which a precipitation event occurs
2. Volume: the amount of precipitation occurring over the storm duration
3. Frequency: the frequency of occurrence of events having the same volume and duration
closely related to these definitions is the concept of intensity, which equals the volume divided
by the duration. For example, a storm having a duration of 2 hr and a volume of 24 acre-in.
would have an intensity of 12 acre-in./hour.

Volume and depth. The volume of a storm is most often reported as a depth, with units of
length such as inches or centimeters; in such cases, the depth is assumed to occur uniformly over
the watershed. Thus the volume equals the depth times the watershed area. For example, if the 2-
hr storm with a volume of 24 acre-in. occurred on a 6-acre watershed, the depth of rainfall would
be 4 in. and the intensity would be 2 in/hr. This interchanging use of units for storm volume
often leads to confusion because the terms depth and volume are applied to a quantity having
units of length. One might speak of the rainfall volume, but express it in inches. Such statements
imply that the depth occurred uniformly over the entire watershed and the units are "area-
inches," with the area of the watershed used to compute a volume in acre-inches or some similar
set of units.

Just as each concept is important by itself, it is also important to recognize the interdependence
of these terms. A specified depth of rainfall may occur from many different combinations of
intensities and durations, and these different combinations of intensities and durations will have a
significant effect on both runoff volumes and rates, as well as on engineering designs that require
rainfall characteristics as input. For example, 3 in. of precipitation may result from any of the
following combinations of intensity and duration:

Because the rainfall intensity is an important determinant of the hydrologic response, it is

important to specify both the depth and duration (or intensity and duration) and not just the total
volume (i.e., depth).

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Frequency. Just as intensity, duration, and volume are interdependent, the fourth concept,
frequency, is also a necessary determinant. Frequency can be discussed in terms of either the
exceedence probability or the return period, which are defined as follows:

Exceedence probability: the probability that an event having a specified depth and duration will
be exceeded in one time period, which is most often assumed to be one year.

Return period: the average length of time between events having the same depth and duration.
The exceedence probability (p) and return period (T) are related by:

For example, if a storm of a specified duration and depth has a 1% chance of occurring in any
one year, it has an exceedence probability of 0.01 and a return period of 100 years. The argument
for not using the term return period to interpret the concept of frequency is that it is sometimes
improperly interpreted. Specifically, some individuals believe that if a 100-yr rain (Or flood)
occurs in any one year, it cannot occur for another 100 years; this belief is false because it
implies that storm events occur deterministically rather than randomly. Because storm events
occur randomly, there is a finite probability that the 100-yr event could occur in two consecutive
years, or not at all in a period of 500 years. Thus the exceedence probability concept is preferred
by many. However, engineers commonly use the term return period, and its meaning should be
properly understood.

VDF interdependence. Events having similar intensities may differ significantly in depth and
duration when a difference in frequency occurs. For example, the three storms have similar
intensities, but differ significantly in depth, duration, and frequency:

The table illustrates the need to consider the frequency of the event, as well as the depth,
intensity, and duration. It is also important to recognize that the relationship between volume,
duration, and frequency (VDF) is location dependent; that is, a 3-in. storm for duration of 3 hr in
Miami will occur at a different frequency than the same storm in St. Louis. This implies that,
since design storms depend on the VDF characteristics, design storms will vary from one

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location to another. The following tabulation gives the approximate depth of rainfall for the 2-
year, 2-hr storm event:

Thus a storm of 3 in. over a period of 2 hr can be expected once every 2 yr in Miami, but a lot
less frequently in the other cities, especially Tucson. The values above indicate that the volume
of a 2-yr, 2-hr design storm will vary with location. One more tabulation can be used to illustrate
further the location dependency of the VDF relationship; the following return periods are for a 4-
in. storm event with duration of 24 hr:

Relationships between rainfall depth, duration, and frequency can be displayed graphically. The
relationship is shown with the depth as the ordinate and the duration on the abscissa, with
separate curves given for selected exceedence frequencies. Frequencies of 0.5, 0.2,O.
1,0.04,0.02, and 0.01, which correspond to return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25,50, and 100 years,
respectively, are the ones most commonly used. VDF curves are developed using a statistical
method called frequency analysis, which is the subject of another chapter.

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