UNIVERSAL COLLEGE OF PARAÑAQUE

Structural Steel Design:

Design Philosophy of
Steel Design
ENGR. JOEVANNIE EMMANUEL C. LUMAGAS
Civil/Structural
Instructor

Civil Engineering Department Universal College – LMS Online Portal AY 2020-2021 / 2nd Semester
WELCOME, UCPIANS!
WELCOME TO YOUR ONLINE EDUCATION!
WELCOME, FUTURE ENGINEERS!
MODULES 1.2 CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section
that will safely and economically resist the applied loads. Economy usually means
minimum weight—that is, the minimum amount of steel. This amount corresponds
to the cross section with the smallest weight per foot, which is the one with the
smallest cross-sectional area. The fundamental requirement of structural design is
that the required strength not exceed the available strength; that is,
Required strength ≤ available strength
 In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has cross-
sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that are large enough to
prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear, or bending moment from exceeding
an allowable, or permissible, value. This allowable value is obtained by dividing the
nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. This can be expressed as
Required strength ≤ allowable strength (2.1)
where
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Allowable strength = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Strength can be an axial force strength (as in tension or compression members), a

flexural strength (moment strength), or a shear strength.
If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the relationship of
Equation 2.1 becomes
Maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress (2.2)
 This approach is called allowable stress design. The allowable stress will be in
the elastic range of the material (see Figure 1.3). This approach to design is also called
elastic design or working stress design. Working stresses are those resulting from the
working loads, which are the applied loads. Working loads are also known as service
loads.
Plastic design is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than
working load conditions. When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough
locations, “plastic hinges” will form at those locations, creating a collapse mechanism.
This design procedure is roughly as follows.
1. Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure
loads.
2. Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these
loads. (A member with these properties is said to have sufficient strength and
would be at the verge of failure when subjected to the factored loads.)
3. Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.
 Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is similar to plastic design in that
strength, or the failure condition, is considered. Load factors are applied to the
service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the
factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by
the application of a resistance factor. The criterion that must be satisfied in the
selection of a member is
Factored load ≤ factored strength (2.3)
In this expression, the factored load is actually the sum of all service loads to be
resisted by the member, each multiplied by its own load factor. For example, dead
loads will have load factors that are different from those for live loads. The factored
strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance factor. Equation 2.3
can therefore be written as
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ≤ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∙ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
(2.4)
The factored load is a failure load greater than the total actual service load, so the
load factors are usually greater than unity.
2.2 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATION
Because the emphasis of this book is on the design of structural steel building
members and their connections, the Specification of the American Institute of
Steel Construction is the design specification of most importance here.
The AISC Specification is published as a stand-alone document, but it is
also part of the Steel Construction Manual, which we discuss in the next section.
Except for such specialized steel products as cold-formed steel, which is covered
by a different specification (AISI, 2007), the AISC Specification is the standard by
which virtually all structural steel buildings in this country are designed and
constructed.
2.3 LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS, AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Equation 2.4 can be written more precisely as
𝛾i Qi ≤ 𝜙Rn (2.5)
where
Qi = a load effect (a force or a moment)
𝛾i = a load factor
Rn = the nominal resistance, or strength, of the component under
consideration
𝜙 = resistance factor
 The factored resistance 𝜙Rn is called the design strength. The summation on the
left side of Equation 2.5 is over the total number of load effects (including, but not
limited to, dead load and live load), where each load effect can be associated with a
different load factor. Equation 2.5 can also be written in the form
Ru ≤ 𝜙Rn (2.6)
where
Ru = required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moments)
 The load factors and load combinations in this standard are based on
extensive statistical studies and are prescribed by most building codes.
ASCE 7 presents the basic load combinations in the following form:
Combination 1: 1.4D
Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
Combination 4: 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S
Combination 6: 0.9D + 1.0W where
Combination 7: 0.9D + 1.0E D = dead load
L = live load due to occupancy
Lr = roof live load
S = snow load
R = rain or ice load*
W = wind load
E = earthquake (seismic load)
 In combinations 3, 4, and 5, the load factor on L can be reduced to 0.5 if L is
no greater than 100 pounds per square foot, except for garages or places of public
assembly.
The ASCE 7 basic load combinations are also given in Part 2 of the AISC
Steel Construction Manual (AISC 2011a), which will be discussed in Section 2.6 of
this chapter. They are presented in a slightly different form as follows:
Combination 1: 1.4D
Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W)
Combination 4: 1.2D +1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
Combinations 6 and 7: 0.9D ± (1.0W or 1.0E)

Combination 6: 0.9D ± 1.0W

Combination 7: 0.9D ± 1.0E
 Combinations 6 and 7 account for the possibility of dead load and wind or
earthquake load counteracting each other; for example, the net load effect could be
the difference between 0.9D and 1.0W or between 0.9D and 1.0E. (Wind or
earthquake load may tend to overturn a structure, but the dead load will have a
stabilizing effect.)
As previously mentioned, the load factor for a particular load effect is not
the same in all load combinations.
2.4 SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD
For allowable strength design, the relationship between loads and strength
(Equation 2.1) can be expressed as
𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑎 ≤
Ω
Where
Ra = required strength
Rn = nominal strength (same as for LRFD)
Ω = safety factor
RnΩ = allowable strength
 These combinations, as presented in the AISC Steel Construction Manual
(AISC 2011a), are
Combination 1: D
Combination 2: D+L
Combination 3: D + (Lr or S or R)
Combination 4: D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: D ± (0.6W or 0.7E)
Combination 6a: D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 6b: D + 0.75L ± 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
Combinations 7 and 8: 0.6D ± (0.6W or 0.7E)

The factors shown in these combinations are not load factors. The 0.75
factor in some of the combinations accounts for the unlikelihood that all loads in
the combination will be at their lifetime maximum values simultaneously.
 Corresponding to the two most common values of resistance factors in LRFD are
the following values of the safety factor Ω in ASD: For limit states involving yielding
Corresponding to the two most common values of resistance factors in LRFD are the
following values of the safety factor Ω in ASD: For limit states involving yielding
1.5
Ω= ϕ

For reasons that will be discussed later, this relationship will produce similar designs
for LRFD and ASD, under certain loading conditions.
If both sides of Equation 2.7 are divided by area (in the case of axial load)
or section modulus (in the case of bending moment), then the relationship becomes
f≤F
where
f = applied stress
F = allowable stress
This formulation is called allowable stress design.
DESIGN COMPUTATIONS AND PRECISION
The computations required in engineering design and analysis are done
with either a digital computer or an electronic calculator. When doing manual
computations with the aid of an electronic calculator, an engineer must make a
decision regarding the degree of precision needed.
Example 2-1
A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to the
following loads:
Dead load: 109 kips compression
Floor live load: 46 kips compression
Roof live load: 19 kips compression
Snow: 20 kips compression
a) Determine the controlling load combination for LFRD and the corresponding
factored load.
b) If the resistance factor ɸ is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c) Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding
required service load strength.
d) If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on
the required service load strength?
Dead load: 109 kips compression Combination 1: 1.4D

Floor live load: 46 kips compression Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

Roof live load: 19 kips compression Combination 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W)
Combination 4: 1.2D +1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Snow: 20 kips compression
Combination 5: 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
Combinations 6 and 7: 0.9D ± (1.0W or 1.0E)
Combination 6: 0.9D ± 1.0W
Combination 7: 0.9D ± 1.0E
Dead load: 109 kips compression Combination 1: D
Floor live load: 46 kips compression Combination 2: D+L
Roof live load: 19 kips compression Combination 3: D + (Lr or S or R)
Snow: 20 kips compression Combination 4: D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: D ± (0.6W or 0.7E)
Combination 6a: D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 6b: D + 0.75L ± 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
Combinations 7 and 8: 0.6D ± (0.6W or 0.7E)