AUTOMOTIVE CHASSIS

UNIT I
An Automobile is generally considered to be made up of two major assemblies:
1. Chassis 2. Body

CHASSIS
It is a French term used to denote the main structure of the vehicle. It is now extensively used to
denote the complete vehicle except the body for the heavy vehicle having a separate body. For light
vehicles of mono construction types having body integral with frame, it denotes the whole vehicle.

Layout of an Automobile

The chassis includes the following components:

1. Frame
2. Power plant
3. Transmission system
4. Controls
5. Suspension system
6. Auxiliaries
7. Axles, wheels & tyres

Types of Chassis layout with reference to Power plant location & Drive
1. Front Mounted Engine and Rear Wheel Drive
2. Front Mounted Engine and Front Wheel Drive
3. Rear Mounted Engine and Rear Wheel Drive
4. Four Wheel Drive or All Wheel Drive
Front Mounted Engine and Rear Wheel Drive
This layout has the engine mounted in the front, mounted longitudinally, and the drive axle in the
rear. The gearbox is usually behind the engine, and a drive shaft transfers power back to the rear
axle. In this arrangement the rear wheel act as the driving wheels and the front wheels swivel to
allow the vehicle to be steered. Spacing out the main components makes each unit accessible but a
drawback is the intrusion of transmission components into the passenger compartment. These
create a large bulge in the region of gearbox and a raised long bulge, called a tunnel, down the
centre of the car floor for the accommodation of the propeller shaft. Using the rear wheels to propel
the vehicle utilizes the load transfer from the front to rear of the vehicle when climbing a hill or
accelerating and therefore good traction is obtained.

Front engine and front wheel drive

This type of drive and steering is generally found in dumpers, certain battery-electric vehicles and
forklifts.
Long propeller shafts are eliminated and simplified linkage for actuation of clutch and transmission.
This drive pulls the vehicle rather than pushing it due to major weight acting at the front. So,
skidding tendency can be avoided, thus providing safety, especially on slippery surfaces.
This arrangement tends to produce under steering characteristics which is always preferred by
drivers.
In case of transverse mounted engines, as the crankshaft and wheels already rotate in the same
plane, therefore, they do not require their drive to be turned through .
The combination of steered and driven wheels with short drive shafts provide the main
disadvantage. This require 4 constant velocity joints because ordinary universal joints would give
large speed fluctuations.
The component of the vehicle weight on the driving wheels is reduced when going steep gradient.
This results in decrease of tractive effort when it needed most.
To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy braking, the required weight of the rear
necessitates special arrangement.
The concentration of the weight at the front tends to make the steering slightly heavier.
REAR ENGINE REAR WHEEL DRIVE
The engine, clutch and gear box, final drive from a single unit in this layout to reduce the rear
overhang.
The absence of propeller shaft allows to decrease the chassis height and the front of the car is
amendable to a better design from the point of view of streamlining.
There is increase of weight on the driving wheels while going up, thus giving better traction through
improved road adhesion.
Front axle construction is further simplified which is used for steering only.
The exhaust gases fumes heat of the engine and noise are also carried away from the passengers
and the front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility because of the absence of engine at
the front.
The exhaust pipe need not span the entire length of the vehicle and can be more compact.
The rearward concentration of the weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side winds at
high speeds.
Light weight at the front tends to cause over steering conditions which is very sensitive to cross
winds. This necessitates steering correction in the opposite direction.
FOUR WHEEL OR ALL WHEEL DRIVE
In case of vehicles like jeeps or military vehicles which is required to operate on rough
unconstructed roads, this four wheel drive is used.
In this there is a transfer box in addition which divides the torque equally between the front and rear
axles.
There is a provision in the transfer box so that front wheel drive may be disengaged when not
required.
Due to all wheels being driven, while weight of the vehicle is available for traction.
The main advantage of the four wheel drive is that when the front wheel fall into a ditch, they can
be driven out, being power driven. In the case of ordinary two wheel drive, where only the rear axle
is the live axle, the car will have to be reversed in such a situation but even then it will not be certain
always that the front wheels would come out.
Constant velocity joints have to be provided in the front axle, because of larger angular movements
involved during steering. The four wheel drive enables the vehicle to negotiate very bad ground
smoothly.
All these advantages has to be paid for in terms of higher initial cost as well as addition running cost
because of extra fuel consumption.
FRAME
It is the foundation on which the power plant and the body are carried and which in turn is
supported on the road wheels through the axles and spring.
The engine, wheels, power train, brake and steering systems when installed on the frame, the
assembly is called chassis.

1. It acts as a base for mounting engine transmission units, body and fuel tank etc.,
2. It supports the weight of the body and passenger / goods.
3. It takes up the engine transmission thrust and torque stresses.
4. It accommodates the springing system.
5. It should withstand bending stresses and twisting due to the rise and fall of the front and rear
axles

STRESSES ON FRAME MEMBERS

1. When a motor vehicle is at rest, the stresses to which its frame (side) members are subjected
are chiefly due to vertical bending moments(weight of vehicle & passengers)

2. In motion, these stressed are modified and considerably increased as a result of road shocks.
Bending moments reach their maximum values when either both front or both rear wheels pass
over an obstacle at speed (bump or hallow), a shock with a large vertical component is imparted
to the adjacent corner of the frame. This causes the frame to twist or deflect torsionally.

3. When one of the front wheels runs up against a major obstruction, a nearly horizontal shock
may be imparted to it. This shock is transmitted through the axle and spring to the side rail on
that side. Then the frame has a tendency to weave. Modern passenger car frames with
substantial x-members are well able to take shocks of this kind.
4. Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn, which result in lateral
bending of side members.

5. Impact loads during a collision results in damage of the frame.

TYPES OF CAR FRAME

The different types of car frames used are

1. Ladder type frame
Because of the tendency of reducing the height of cars use is chiefly made of perimeter type and
X-shape frames which permit the floor level to be lowered below the upper plane of the frame
wherever possible. When ladder frames are used to lower the floor level the cross-section height
of their side members at necessary places is decreased by increasing the width.
It consists of two parallel side members (A) connected to each other by several cross-members
(B). The frame is upswept at the rear and front to accommodate the movement of the axles due
to springing and also to keep the chassis height low. The frame is narrowed down at the front to
have a better sreering lock, which gives a smaller turning circle. C are the brackets supporting the
body. EI are the dumb irons to act as bearings for spring shackles. Brackets E are meant for
mounting the springs. The extensions of the chassis frame ahead of the front axle is called front
overhang, whereas its extension beyond the rear axle is called rear overhang.

The engine, clutch and transmission are all bolted together to form one rigid assembly which is
mounted usually on the front end of the frame. It is supported on the frame at three places by
means of rubber blocks. This helps to isolate the engine from road shocks and the body from
engine vibrations. This method accommodates any misalignment between the engine or the
transmission relative to the frame or the body.

2. Perimeter type frame

In this type, the middle part of the frame expands and at the ends it narrows. At the front the
distance between the side members is determined by the track and the maximum angle of turn of
front wheels and at the rear by the track of rear wheels. The front ‘shoulders’ of side members are
placed ahead of the inclined part of the floor in the zone of the engine compartment partition. The
rear ‘shoulders’ are placed under the rear seat rest. The shoulders may be fabricated as separate
parts and welded to the front, middle and rear parts of side members or may be die-stamped
together with the side members. The perimeter type frame like other types of car frames has gabs
in the zones of front and rear wheels in order to ensure displacement of lower arms of the front
and rear independent suspension.
3. X – shape frame
It is named because of its shape. Frame has a stiff front and rear section along with a rigid center
section. The middle of the frame is a short tube which forms forks art the front and rear end. The
front fork serves for locating the power unit and the rear fork is used to accommodate the rear
axle. The propeller shaft passes through the tubular part of the frame. The ends of the front and
rear forks are joined by several cross members which are used to install the front and rear
suspensions. X-type frame width and height of the tunnel are large but the width if the protruding
sills is relatively small. Though for reasons of safety in case of accidents, it is necessary to ensure
definite rigidity and strength of sills.
Ladder-type frame of truck

These frames are mostly used in commercial vehicles. These frames have parallel die-stamped side
members joined by cross-members. The side members support the load and the cross-members give
torsional rigidity to the frame. The steel channel section used for side members has a vertical web
with a horizontal flange top and bottom. In the middle part of the frame the side member has
maximum height and width of the flanges. These dimensions decrease towards the front and rear ends
of the frame in accordance with the bending moments graphs. The upper flange of the side member is
usually made flat along its length. As far as possible the frame width is kept constant all along its
length. Rolled profiles (channels) are used in extra high-duty trucks from manufacturing and
economical considerations.

The web supports the downward weight of the body and pay load and the flanges provide lateral
support. Although the flange width is constant, the web depth may be varied along the length of the
frame.
The location of cross members along the length of the frame depends on the disposition of assemblies
of the chassis, cab, platform etc. The places where the cross-members are joined with side members
are reinforced by gusset plates or struts in order to increase the stiffness of the frame and thus prevent
diagonal deformations in the horizontal plane. In the truck frames the cross-members are usually
riveted to the side members.

INTEGRAL AND CHASSILESS CONSTRUCTION

The terms integral and chassiless construction are often confused, but the difference is simple.
Integral construction is that in which a chassis frame is welded to, integrated with, the body. It was
the first stage in the evolution of the chassiless form of construction, in which no chassis frame can be
recognised.

Troubles in operation resulting from inadequate stiffness of chassis frames suggested the idea of using
the body as the main structural member and eliminating a separate chassis frame. At the beginning of
World War II frameless construction of passenger cars was employed by manufacturers in different
European countries.

Frameless construction is employed chiefly in connection with all-steel bodies with steel roof. These
bodies usually are made in two parts, an underbody and a superstructure, the former comprising the
sills and floor. Frame extensions are provided at front and rear and are bolted to the body sills. The
front extensions, of course, are longest and to give them the necessary rigidity they are braced to the
cowl of the body and sometimes even to the roof. The chief reason for the adoption of frameless
construction usually is that it permits of a saving in weight. This, however, is not as great as might be
inferred from the fact that the entire center section of the chassis frame is eliminated. Because the
body is made of much lighter stock than the conventional frame, it must be suitably reinforced where
the spring brackets are located and at other points of stress concentration and these reinforcements
together with the struts at the forward end, cut down the weight saving. It has been estimated that
frameless construction makes possible a saving of about 2% in the total weight and a somewhat
greater saving in production costs. In addition to saving weight, it increases the torsional stiffness of
the car, chiefly as a result of the provision of struts between the forward frame extensions and the
cowl. It also permits of reducing floor heights which is desirable from the stand points of both
stability (safety) and appearance. During collision the body crumbles, thereby absorbing the shock
due to import and thus providing safety to the passengers.

Spot welding is used extensively in its construction, though some unstressed panels may be bolted on,
for ease of replacement in the event of damage and hence increased cost of repairs. Topless cars are
difficult to design with the frameless construction since the roof, screen pillars, doors pillars and rear
panel are essential load-taking parts of the structure.

Materials used for making frames

The materials used to make car and truck frames should have the following properties. Sufficiently
high yield strength and endurance limit; low sensitivity to stress concentrators, good stamping quality
in the cold state and weldability.
Low-carbon steel (SAE steel no. 1020)
Medium-carbon steel (SAE steel no. 1025) and
Low-alloyed steels (SAE steel no. 3230) meet these requirements.
Carbon structural steel is used for making car frames. Side members and cross-members are
fabricated from 3 to 4mm thick plate material.
Low and medium-carbon and low-alloyed steel grades are used for making truck frames; if necessary,
these steels are given a necessary heat treatment which makes it possible to make use of higher
stresses in the elements of frames and thereby reduce the frame mass. Side members are made from 5
– 9mm thick plate material depending on the load-caryying capacity of a truck.
Cross-section used for frames (side / cross-members)

Channel section
It is usually employed for side members as it provide excellent resistance to vertical bending loads but
with minimum weight. A further advantage of channel section is that it allows easy attachment of
cross members and mounting of other components. However, channel section provides only a limited
resistance to torsion and is therefore unsuitable for cross members.

Box sections
Sometimes the box section is formed by welding a plate to a channel section or by welding two
channel sections face to face. They have high bending stiffness and possess torsional stiffness. These
sections are used extensively for the construction of cross members.

Top-hat section
It is sometimes used along with channel section for cross-members. It is not commonly used due to
weakness and propensity to rust

I - section
For heavy duty applications, side members may be formed by placing two channel sections back to
back. It possess good resistance to bending and torsion.
Tubular/Circular section
As the cross-members must be capable of resisting torsional effects, they may be formed from hollow
tube or circular section. They have high torsional stiffness and possess little bending stiffness.

Front Axles – Generally dead axle

The conventional front axle is of the divided type, comprising an axle center and two steering
knuckles pivotally connected to the center. In most of the earliest motor vehicles the front axles
were straight, the centre portion being in line with the spindles of the steering knuckles. Later,
when the engine was located in front, either it or a drop-type cross member of the frame came
directly over the axle and this necessitated “dropping” the axle at the center to prevent
interference. Still later, when the C.G. of road vehicles had to be lowered, for the sake of greater
stability and safety at high speeds, the entire center portion of the axle center, including the spring
pads was dropped. These three stages in front-axle development are illustrated in Fig. Axles
without drop similar to the one shown at the top in Fig. are still being used where high ground
clearance is required, as in farm tractors. The lowest of the three views is typical of the front axles
of modern road vehicle.
Loads and Stresses on front axles
Front axles of road vehicles are subjected to two principal type of stresses viz., bending stress due to
the load supported, and that shear stress due to the braking moment or torque.
In the static condition, the axle may be considered as a beam supported vertically upward at the
ends, i.e., at the centre of the wheels and loaded vertically downward at the centres of the spring
pads. The vertical bending moment thus caused is zero at the point of support and rises linearly to a
maximum at the point of loading and thus remains constant.
Thus maximum bending moment = Wl, Nm
where W - Load on one wheel, N
l - distance between the centre of wheel and the spring pad, m

Under dynamic conditions, the vertical bending moment is increased due to road roughness. But its
estimate is difficult and hence can be accounted for through a higher factor of safety.
The front axle also experiences a horizontal bending moment because of resistance to motion; this is
of a nature similar to the vertical one but of very small magnitude and hence can be neglected
except in those situations when it is comparatively large.
The resistance to motion also cause a torque in the case of drop type front axle as shown in Fig. Thus
the portion projected after the spring pads are subjected to combined bending and torsion.
The magnitude of the torque = Rδ, Nm
where R – resistance to motion, N
δ – the drop from the spindle axis to the centre of the section, m

The shear stress in the axle is due to braking torque whose magnitude = µWr, Nm
Where r – wheel radius, m
µ - co-efficient of adhesion between road and tyre
The braking torque is lower for the section lying between the spring pads and is given by µW(r-δ). In
this portion the bending moment predominates whereas at the steering head torsion predominates
and is gradually changed to circular or elliptic section at the steering head.
Different types of stub axles
Front axles are built according to four basic designs for attaching the steering knuckle to the beam.
They are
1. Elliot axle
Each end of the main beam is open to form a C-shaped yoke. The steering knuckle fits between
the upper and lower arms of this yoke. The king pin extends through the upper arm of this yoke,
through the knuckle and into the lower arm of the yoke. Usually, the kingpin is secured in the
steering knuckle so that when the knuckle swivels, the kingpin turns in the yoke. The holes in the
yoke which receive the ends of the kingpin are fitted with bushings, called kingpin bushings, so
that the kingpin can turn easier. In some vehicles, roller bearings are used instead of bushings. A
thrust bearing is installed on the kingpin between the steering knuckle and the upper arm of the
Elliot yoke. In most cases, this is a sealed ball bearing or roller bearing. This steering knuckle
thrust bearing actually supports the weight of the vehicle.
2. Reversed Elliot axle
The construction is reversed in the reverse Elliot axle. The yoke is part of the steering knuckle
and fits over the ends of the axle. The kingpin is secured in a vertical hole through the end of the
axle beam, and the knuckle swivels on it. The kingpin bushings or bearings are mounted on the
steering knuckle. The steering knuckle thrust bearing is located between the axle and the lower
arm of the knuckle.
There are no appreciable differences in merit or performance between the two types of axle
construction.
3. Lamoine axle
2 spindles at right angles to each other, stub axle and axle center. Lemoine, a French axle and spring
manufacturer, and in his design the pivot spindle extended up from the wheel spindle. Tends to raise
the axle center above the wheel spindle – poorly suited to modern conditions, which call for low axle
centres

4. Reversed lamoine axle

Marmon, American passenger car manufacturer, therefore reversed the arrangement and
developed the design. A natural drop to the axle center, an advantageous feature
In the portion between the spring pads bending moment predominates whereas at the steering
head torsion predominates and is gradually changed to circular or elliptic section at the steering
head
Functions of the steering system
1. To convert the rotary movement of the steering wheel in the driver’s hands into angular turn of
the front wheels.
2. To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.
3. To provide perfect steering condition, i.e., perfect rolling motion of the road wheels at all times.
4. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
5. To minimise tyre wear
6. To multiply the driver’s effort by leverage or mechanical advantage so as to make it fairly easy to
turn the wheels.
7. It also must absorb a large part of the road shocks, thus preventing them from being transmitted
to the driver.
Requirements of a good steering system
1. The steering mechanism should be accurate and easy to handle
2. The effort required to steer should be minimal and must not be tiresome to the driver
Steering mechanism
For perfect steering we must always have an instantaneous centre about which all wheels must
rotate. For this purpose, the inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheels. To achieve this
condition, two types of mechanism have been devised.
True rolling
Rolling of vehicle without lateral slip is called as true rolling. The steering of multi-wheeled vehicle, is
far as possible, arranged so that the wheels will roll truly.
Fig. shows a cylindrical wheel in contact with the ground. If this wheel is rolled along it will move in
the direction yy, perpendicular to axis xx. This action will be a purely rolling action.
If the wheel is made to move in the direction xx, the action is fully a sliding one.
If now the made to move in some intermediate direction zz, the action will be a rolling action in the
direction yy and a sliding action in the direction xx.
Hence, if a wheel is desired to roll without lateral slip, the direction of its motion must be
perpendicular to the axis.
To obtain true rolling of the wheels when moving in a curved path, it is necessary that the axes of
the front wheels produced should meet the rear wheel axis at one point, called the instantaneous
centre of the vehicle.

Fundamental condition for true rolling motion

When the vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels move faster than the inner wheels. The four wheels
must roll on the road so that there is a line contact between the road surface and tyres. The rolling
motion of the wheels on the road surface is possible, only if, these describe concentric circles on the
road at an instantaneous centre, when the vehicle is taking a turn. In order to turn the vehicle to the
left or right, its two front wheels are mounted on stub axles, pivoted to the chassis of the vehicle.
The axes of these axles, when produced meet at an instantaneous centre O which lies on the
common axis of the rear wheels. The axis of the inner wheel makes a larger turning angle θ than
angle Φ made by the axis of the outer wheel. The radius of the arc described by the centre of the
track made by the outside front wheel of the vehicle when making its shortest turn is known as the
turning circle radius.

From Δ OQP, cot Φ = OQ ……………….. (1)

PQ

where Φ is angle of outside lock or outer stub axle turning angle.

From Δ OSR, cot θ = OS = OS ……………….. (2)

RS PQ
where θ is angle of inside lock or inner stub axle turning angle.

cot Φ - cot θ = OQ - OS = QS
PQ PQ

i.e., cot Φ - cot θ = c , a constant.

b
If this equation is satisfied, then there will not be any lateral slip on the wheels, when the vehicle is
taking a turn.
Turning circle radius of inner front wheel Rif = b _ a-c .
sin θ 2
 [ From Δ OSR, sin θ = RS , OR = RS = b ]
OR sin θ sin θ

Turning circle radius of outer front wheel Rof = b + a-c .

sin Φ 2

[ From Δ OQP, sin Φ = PQ , OP = PQ = b ]

OP sin Φ sin Φ

Turning circle radius of inner rear wheel Rir = b _ a-c .

tan θ 2

[ From Δ OSR, tan θ = RS , OS = RS = b ]

OS tan θ tan θ
Turning circle radius of outer rear wheel Ror = b + a-c .
tan Φ 2
[ From Δ OQP, tan Φ = PQ , OQ = PQ = b ]
OQ tan Φ tan Φ

Steering mechanism
For perfect steering we must always have an instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must
rotate. For this purpose inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel. To achieve this
condition, two types of mechanisms have been devised, viz., the Ackermann and the Davis steering
mechanisms. Out of these Ackermann mechanism is almost universally adopted because of its
simplicity.
Ackermann steering mechanism
Fig. shows this mechanism. Links PM and RN are integral with the stub axles. These links are
connected with each other through track rod MN. When the vehicle is in straight ahead position
these links make equal angle α with the centre line of the car. The dotted lines indicate the position
of the mechanism when the car is turning right.
Neglecting the obliquity of track rod in the turned position, the movements of M and N in the
horizontal direction may be taken to be same. i.e., ‘y’.
From the fig., sin(α+θ) = x+y ……………….. (1)
r
where r is the length of track arm.
sin(α-Φ) = x-y ……………….. (2)
r
(1) + (2) gives
sin(α+θ) + sin(α-Φ) = x+y + x-y = 2 x
r r r

i.e., sin(α+θ) + sin(α-Φ) = 2 sin α [sin α = c-d = x ]

2r r

where ‘c’ is the distance between the pivot pins and ‘d’ is the length of track rod.

Only at 3 positions, this mechanism can give true rolling motion, when the vehicle is moving
i) straight
ii) small turning angle either to the left or right.
However, for other angles also it gives a close approximation to the ideal condition. Further this has
the advantage that it employs pivots and not sliding pairs, due to which reason its maintenance is
easier. That is why it is universally employed.
It may be noted that while parking, it is easier to steer a vehicle in reverse than in the forward
direction because the rear wheels turn on smaller radius than the front wheels.
Davis steering mechanism
The mechanism is shown in fig. and it consists of two arms AG and BH which are fixed to the stub
axles CA and BD to form bell crank levers CAG and DBH respectively.
A and B are the pivots. Link EF which is known as cross link, is constrained to slide parallel to AB.
EF is pin jointed at E with AG and at F with BH. The sliders S1 and S2 are free to slide on links AG and
BH respectively.
When the vehicle moves along a straight path, the links AG and BH make equal angle α with the
vertical.

When the vehicle is turning right, the cross link EF moves to the right by a distance x from the mid
position. The bell crank levers assume the positions C΄AG΄ and D΄BH΄ as shown in fig.
 From Δ F΄F΄΄B, tan (α-θ) = y-x
h

i.e., tan α – tan θ = y-x and tan α = y/h

1+ tan α tan θ h

cot θ = y2-xy + h2 ……………….. (1)

hx

From Δ E΄E΄΄A, tan (α+Φ) = y+x

h
i.e., tan α + tan Φ = y+x and tan α = y/h
1+ tan α tan Φ h

cot Φ = y2+xy + h2 ……………….. (2)

hx
(2) - (1) gives
cot Φ - cot θ = 2xy = 2 y = 2 tan α = 2 .c
hx h 2b

(tan α should be equal to c/2b)

cot Φ - cot θ = c = 0.4-0.5 (0.455 in general)

b
It is a little bit complicated one. In this mechanism, sliding action takes place which cause wear and
tear and so there is slackness between the sliding parts. Therefore, accuracy after some time is lost.
That is the reason why it is not in common use.
Steering linkages

The components of a steering system are steering wheel, steering column, steering gear box, drop
arm (or Pitman arm or Ackermann’s arm), Link rod(or drag link), steering knuckle arm(or link rod
arm), track rod arm, Track rod(or Tie rod) etc.,

Steering linkage for rigid axle suspension

The drop arm is rigidly connected to the cross-shaft of the steering gear box at its upper end, while
its lower end is connected to the link rod through a ball joint. To the other end of the link rod is
connected the steering knuckle arm through a ball joint. Attached rigidly to the other end of the
steering knuckle arm is the stub axle on which the road wheel is mounted. Each stub axle has a
forged track rod arm rigidly bolted to the wheel axis. The other ends of the track rod arm are
connected to the track rod by means of ball joints. An adjuster is provided in the track rod to change
its length for adjusting wheel alignment.
The steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required at the
steering wheel to apply a much larger force to the steering linkage. It also provides the desired
velocity ratio so that much smaller movement of the stub axle is obtained with large angular
movements of the steering wheel. When the steering wheel is turned, the swinging action of the
drop arm imparts a linear movement to the link rod. This movement is transmitted through the
steering knuckle arm to the stub axle so as to turn the later about its pivot, which may be a king pin.
The other wheel is steered through the track rod. Thus only one wheel is positively steered.
Steering linkage for independent suspension
In case of the conventional rigid axle suspension, there is no vertical deflection of the suspension
and hence there is no change in the effective track-rod length. However, in the case of independent
suspension, the two stub axles can move up or down independent of each other due to which
distance between ball-joint ends of the two track rod arms is continuously varying and a single track
rod cannot be used. Here three-piece track rod is used, the centre portion being the relay rod, which
is connected at one end to an idler arm supported on body structure and to the drop arm of the
steering gear at the other end through ball joints. The relay rod is restricted to move in horizontal
plane only. Movement in vertical plane is provided by the outer portions, viz., the tie rods about the
end ball joints.
Steering geometry
Camber (Wheel rake)
The angle between the centre line of the tyre and the vertical line when viewed from the front of the
vehicle (i.e., longitudinal vertical plane) is known as Camber. When the angle is outward, so that the
wheels are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, the camber is positive. When the angle is
inward, so that the wheels are closer together at the top than at the bottom, the camber is negative.
It is always desirable that tyres should roll on the ground vertically so that the wear is uniform. In
positive camber, the rolling radius at different points of the tyre tread is different as a result of
which the tyre tends to roll like a truncated cone about centre of rotation and the tyre will wear
more on the outer side. In negative camber, the tyre will wear more on the inner side. Initially
positive camber is provided to the wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, they automatically
come to a vertical position.

Obviously the tyre life will be maximum when the camber in running condition is zero with average
load. If the camber on the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards the side
where the camber is higher. When the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on road
which is highly crowned, it has a tendency to pull away the car towards the side of the road.
Camber is generally less than 3° in present day cars.
King Pin Inclination (Steering Axis Inclination)
Inclination of the king pin from the vertical is called the King pin Inclination or King pin rake. In
modern cars, ball joints were used instead of king pin and the term is renamed as Steering Axis
Inclination (defined as the inclination of the ball joint-axis from the vertical). Steering axis is an
imaginary line drawn through the lower and the upper steering pivot points.
In present day vehicles ranges from 3° to 8° (average value is 5°).
It must be equal on both sides. If it is greater on one side the vehicle will tend to pull to the side
having the greater angle. If the angle is too large, the steering will become exceedingly difficult.
King pin inclination has a pronounced effect on the steering effort and returnability. As the front
wheels are turned around an inclined steering axis or king pin, the front of the vehicle is lifted. This
lifting of the vehicle is experienced as turning effort when the turn is executed and exhibits itself as
recovery force when the steering wheel is released. Thus it helps to provide steering stability. It also
reduces steering effort especially when the vehicle is stationary. It also reduces tyre wear.
Combined Angle (or Included Angle)
It is the angle formed in the vertical plane between the wheel centre line and the king pin centre line
(or steering axis)
Combined angle = Camber + King pin inclination (or Steering axis inclination)
Scrub radius (or King pin offset)
It is the distance between the centre of the tyre patch and intersection of the king pin or steering
axis with the ground. It is positive when the tyre centre line lies outside the steering axis. It is
negative when the tyre centre line lies inside the steering axis. It is measured in mm.
If the scrub radius is zero, the wheel keeps its straight position; the steering is called centre point
steering. The tyres must scrub around the centre of the pin patch when turned in a static condition.
This requires high static steering effort. However, if the king pin offset is added to the front wheel
geometry, the tyre will tend to roll around the intersection of the king pin axis with the ground even
though the vehicle is static. This results in a combined rolling and scrubbing action of the tyre. This in
turn lowers the steering effort.
A large scrub radius will cause greater torque to turn the wheel which means higher loads on the
steering linkage and suspension components. This would result in greater wear of steering linkage.
The effect of unequal braking on the front wheels would also be enhanced with a large scrub radius,
which would make the driving dangerous.
If the included angle is not equal on both the wheels, the vehicle will obviously have a tendency to
pull towards the side having the larger scrub radius.
As the driving and handling sensations come from the road and the tyre, the scrub radius is the
parameter to provide necessary road feel to the driver.
Combined angle may be 9-10 degrees and the scrub radius should be upto 12mm.
Castor
The angle between the king pin centre line (or steering axis) and the vertical, in the plane of the
wheel (i.e., transverse vertical plane) is called the Castor angle. If the king pin centre line meets the
ground at a point in front of the wheel centre line, it is called positive castor while it is behind the
wheel centre line, it is called negative castor.

Positive castor provides directional stability. The wheel simply follows the king pin axis which has
some lead over the former. When the vehicle having positive castor takes a turn, the outerside of
the vehicle is lowered while the inner one is raised. i.e., positive castor helps the centrifugal force in
rolling out the vehicle.
In case of negative castor there would be poor directional control as the centre of tyre print leads
the steering axis. Negative castor tends to “roll-in” the vehicle. i.e., the effect of centrifugal force is
counteracted.
If the castor at the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards the side where
the castor is least.
About 3° of castor gives good results.
Toe-in and Toe-out
The front wheels are usually point inward slightly in front. The distance between the front ends of
the wheels is slightly less than the distance between the rear ends when the vehicle is stationary and
that difference is called toe-in. Toe-in initially provided does not exceed 3 mm. It ensures parallel
rolling of the front wheels and it stabilises steering. It prevents side slipping and excessive wear of
the tyres.
The distance between the front wheels at the front end is greater than the distance between the
rear, when the vehicle is stationary, this position of the front wheels is called toe-out. There is
usually an inherent tendency for the wheels to toe-out because of purposeful deviation from the
centre point steering and also due to errors in steering angles of the inner and outer wheels on
moderate bends. To offset this tendency a small amount of toe-in is initially provided so that the
wheels move perfectly straight under normal running conditions. In front wheel drive cars, initial
toe-out has been provided to counteract the tendency to toe-in present already. The toe-in or toe-
out, is sometimes called wheel alignment.
Steering gear
If the steering wheel is directly connected to the steering linkage, it requires a great effort to move
the front wheels. Therefore, to assist the driver to steer the vehicle without fatigue, a gear reduction
system (leverage) is used. It is a device which converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into
to-and-fro motion of the link rod of the steering linkage.
Types of steering gear
There are two types of steering gear, namely, Manual steering gear and Power steering gear.
Manual steering gears
1. Worm and wheel steering gear
The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm, which in turn drives the worm wheel.
Attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of steering wheel
corresponds to swinging action of the drop arm, which in turn converted to a linear motion of
the link rod attached to it. In place of worm wheel, only a sector is sometimes used. The full
wheel has an advantage in that back lash due to wearing out of the teeth of the worm and wheel
can be easily adjusted by mounting the wheel over an eccentric bush. Sometimes, since only a
small segment of the gear teeth on the wheel is being used and it became worn, the wheel is
rotated on to the unused teeth. Steering boxes having worm combinations are of high cost and
difficult to manufacture. This type of steering boxes have disappeared with modern vehicles.
2. Worm and nut steering gear
Here the steering wheel rotates the worm which in turn moves the nut along its length. This
causes swinging action of the drop arm, which in turn converted to a linear motion of the link
rod attached to it.
3. Cam and roller steering gear
The cam and roller steering boxes are efficient. A Vee shaped roller is carried on the drop arm
spindle. The roller engages a spiral groove cut in a member keyed to the steering wheel shaft
and fixed axially. When the steering wheel is turned, the spiral groove in the member constrains
the roller to move to the right or left. This roller movement makes the drop arm to turn,
converted to a linear motion of the link rod attached to it. The pin which carries the roller has
the provision for moving the roller into closer mesh with the member which contains the spiral
groove. The centre portion of the pin is eccentric to its end portions, thus by turning the pin, the
roller can be moved closer to the member having the helical groove. This type of steering gear is
popular in heavy vehicles of Ashok Leyland.

4. Recirculating Ball type steering gear

It consists of a worm at the end of a steering rod. A nut is mounted on the worm with two sets
of balls in the grooves of the worm, in between the nut and the worm. The balls reduce the
friction during the movement of the nut on the worm. The nut has a number of teeth on the
outside, which mesh with the teeth on a worm wheel sector, on which is further mounted the
drop arm. When the steering wheel is turned, the balls in the worm roll in the grooves and cause
the nut to travel along the length of the worm. The balls, which are in 2 sets, are recirculated
through the guides. The movement of the nut causes the wheel sector to turn at an angle and
actuate the link rod through the drop arm, resulting in the desired steering of the wheels.
5. Rack and pinion steering gear
This type of steering gear is mostly used on smaller cars like Maruti 800. It is simple, light and
responsive. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkages compared to the
worm and wheel type of gear. The steering gear assembly is completely sealed, so it needs no
maintenance.
The rotary motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion of the steering gear through
universal joints. The pinion is in mesh with a rack. The circular motion of the pinion is transferred
into the linear rack movement, which is further relayed through the ball joints and tie rods to
the stub axles for the wheels to be steered.

Steering ratio
Steering ratio is the angle through which the steering wheel is turned divided by the corresponding
angle turned by the front wheels. The typical ratios are 12:1 for cars and 35:1 for heavy vehicles. The
front wheels turn through a smaller angle than the cross shaft. The steering linkage also provides a
mechanical advantage or leverage. Overall steering ratio is usually 15 to 20% higher than the
steering gear ratio, in both manual and power steering. On an average it takes about one and a half
complete turn of the steering wheel each side of mid position to apply a full lock of 45° on either
way on the front wheels.
Reversible steering
A steering gear is said to be reversible if by turning of stub axles, it is possible to turn the steering
wheel. Any road shock experienced by the wheels is transmitted to the steering wheel through the
linkages and it can prevented by providing slight slackness in linkages.
Irreversible steering
Irreversibility in steering can be achieved by making the pitch angle of the screw used very less. It is
one in which the road shocks are not transmitted to the steering wheel. The driver doesn’t have to
experience the ‘kicks’ at the steering wheel (No road feel). Due to large amount of friction present in
this system, the forward efficiency (it is the amount of driver input torque which is available at the
wheels to turn the same to the total amount of input torque from the driver at the steering wheel)
is very low and consequently steering operation becomes quite heavy. Present day designs are
almost all semi-reversible.
Slip angle
While taking a turn, the centrifugal force acts on the vehicle which produces a side thrust. To sustain
that force the plane of the wheel must make some angle with the direction of motion of the vehicle
and this is achieved by the distortion of the tyre which is flexible.

The angle through which the wheel has to turn to sustain the side force is called the slip angle(the
angle between the path the wheel is actually taking and the plane of the wheel) and the force
produced due to this which counters the side thrust, is known as cornering force.
Value of slip angle depends upon the amount of side force, flexibility of tyre, load carried by each
wheel, camber, condition of road surface etc.,
Understeer
When the slip angles of the front wheels are greater than those of the rear wheels, the radius of the
turn is increased. This means that the vehicle will turn less sharply than it should for a given rotation
of the steering wheel. In other words, the vehicle will try to move away from its normal direction of
motion and therefore to keep it on the right path, we have to steer a little more than is theoretically
needed. This condition is called Understeer.
Oversteer
When the slip angles of the front wheels are less than those of the rear wheels, the radius of the
turn is decreased. This means that the vehicle will turn more sharply than it should for a given
rotation of the steering wheel. In other words, the vehicle will try to move away from its normal
direction of motion and therefore to keep it on the right path, we have to steer a little less than is
theoretically needed. This condition is called Oversteer.
Understeer is comparatively less desirable, though both are unwanted, because the driver reacts
naturally and positively by steering in the desired direction. In the case of oversteer, he is always
conscious of losing the control and therefore greater care is required.
Generally, the vehicles are designed to provide understeer conditions at normal speeds. But at
higher speeds, the situation changes first to neutral steer and then to oversteer because the driver
has less time to take corrective action. A sharp transition from understeer to oversteer is particularly
dangerous.
Necessity of Power Steering
Throughout the years several things have occurred that tend to make steering of an automotive
vehicle more difficult.
i) The weight of the vehicle not only has been increased but this weight has been moved more and
more forward so it must be carried by the front wheels.
ii) Tyres have become wider, carry lower air pressures, and the width of their contact on the road
has been increased.
iii) Increased speeds have increased the effort required to turn the wheels on the highway.
iv)The greatest amount of manual effort, however, is required in parking the vehicle. Parking
requires that the wheels must be turned while the vehicle is not moving or is barely moving.
It is not possible to provide more and more mechanical advantage since a practical limit,
however, exists as to the steering ratio. The more mechanical advantage desired, the more the
steering wheel must be turned to turn the front wheels a given number of degrees. The obvious
answer to this problem is to provide automatic assistance to the turning effort applied to the manual
steering system. This has been accomplished by the power steering systems now available in most
vehicles as an optional equipment. A source of power easily tapped in the automotive electrical
system and it would be an easy matter to design an all electric power steering system. However, it is
already overloaded, so manufacturers have almost universally adopted hydraulically operated power
steering systems.

Power in abundance, of course, exists in the modern automobile engine, and this power can
be put to work to turn the wheels quite simply. Several things are desirable and have been provided
in all types of power steering.
i) First of all, a sense of “feel” must be retained. To retain this sense of “feel” all power steering
systems have been designed so that some manual effort on the part of the driver is required before
th power mechanism take over (say 10 N). without this resistance the driver would have a feeling of
insecurity.
ii) A shift of position by the driver might cause him to slightly turn the steering wheel without
wanting to. This hazard has been eliminated in all power steering systems by having a resistance that
must be overcome before the power takes over.
iii) all power steering systems require the engine to be running in order to supply the power. This
means that if the car is being towed or pushed with the transmission in neutral, or the clutch
disengaged, no power is available to assist the steering. All designs provide for manual steering
under this condition, or whenever the power steering system fails. If the power steering mechanism
drive belt breaks, or some failure occurs, the vehicle can still be steered.
iv) With manual steering, when one front wheel suddenly hits a bump or puddle of water, or when a
front tyre blows out, there is often a tendency for the steering wheel to be violently jerked out of
the driver’s hand. In all types of power steering this is reduced to moderate tendency of the steering
wheel to turn that is easy to control.
Working of power steering
Principle:
The slight movement of the steering wheel actuates a valve so that the fluid under pressure from the
reservoir enters on the appropriate side of a cylinder, thereby applying pressure on one side of a
piston to operate the steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction.

Broadly, the power steering are classified into two categories. viz., the integral type and the linkage
type. In the former the power steering assembly is an integral part of the steering gear whereas in
the linkage type it is a part of the linkage.

The Fig. shows the linkage type power steering system in which the valve assembly and the cylinder
are one unit. The piston rod of the cylinder is attached to the chassis frame. The cylinder is attached
to the steering linkage, forming a part of the linkage. This assembly is called the power link since it is
a part of the linkage and at the same time supplies steering power.

The Fig. shows the valve position when the power steering unit is in neutral. For a right turn, the
steering wheel is turned clockwise so that the ball on the end of the pitman(drop) arm shifts the
valve to the left when the manual effort exceeds the spring(force) kept on its side. Hence the ports
A, D are opened and B is closed. This permits the oil to flow under pressure from the reservoir
through the ports C, A and F and enters the left side of the cylinder and oil leaves from the cylinder
through the ports G, D and E to the reservoir, so the cylinder is made to move to the left side. It is
that movement of the cylinder which assists the manual steering effort.

The amount of flow which is directed to any one side of the piston is proportional to the speed at
which steering wheel is being turned. Pressure required to complete a steering maneuver depends
upon the amount of resistance presented by the steering wheels.

Similarly, for a left turn, the steering wheel is turned anticlockwise so that the ball at the end of the
drop arm shifts the valve to the right whenever the manual effort exceeds the spring force kep[t on
its side. This causes the ports A, D to open and E to close so that the fluid under pressure from the
reservoir flows through the ports C, D and G, enters the right side of the cylinder and oil leaves the
cylinder through the ports F, A and B, so that the cylinder is moved to the right side and this
movement is transferred to the linkages.