Mathematical Excalibur Vol. 1, No.

1, lan-Feb, 95
Page 3

Problem Corner By the pigeonhole principle, two of the color c. Otherwise, all edges of T are
nine points must have the same parity colored opposite to c. In both cases,there
We welcome readers to submit coordinate patterns. Then their midpoint is a triangle with all edgesthe same color.
solutions to the problems posed below for must have integer coordinates.
publication consideration. Solutions 4. Let d1, d2, ..., dl6 be the digits ofa 16-
should be preceededby the solver's name, 3. Let the six people correspond to the six digit number. H one of the digits of the
addressand school affiliation. Pleasesend vertices of a regular hexagon. If two sixteendigits is either 0 or 1 or 4 or 9, then
submissions to Dr. Kin r: Li, Department people know each other, then color the the problem is solved. So, we may assume
of Mathematics,Hong Kong University of segment with the associatedvertices red, each of the digits is 2, 3, 5, 6=2x3, 7 or
Science and Technology, Clear Water otherwise blue. SolVing the problem is 8=23. Let Xo= 1 and Xi be the product of dJ'
Bay,Kowloon. The deadline for submitting equivalentto showing that a red triangle or d2,...,difori=I,2,...,16. Now each Xi =
a blue triangle exists. ~'x3qlx5"x7" fori=O, 1,2, ..., 16. Each
solutions is January 31st, 1995.
Take any vertex. By the pigeonhole of thePi' qi' rj, $tis either even or odd. So
Problem 1. The sum of two positive principle, of the five segmentsissuing from there are 24 = 16 possible parity patterns.
integers is 2310. Show that their product this vertex, three have the same color c. By the pigeonhole principle, the Pi' qt, rj, $j
is not divisible by 2310. Consider the three vertices at the other for two of the seventeenx/s, say Xjand Xk
ends of these segmentsand the triangle T with j < k, must have the same parity
Problem 2. Given N objects and B(~2) with these vertices. If T has an edge pattern. Then dj+1x ...X dk = X~Xjis a
boxes,find an inequality involving N and B colored c, then there is a triangle with
perfect square.
such that if the inequality is satisfied, then
at least two of the boxes have the same
number of objects. Mathematical Application: Pattern Design
Problem 3. Showthat for everypositive Roger Ng
integer n, there are polynomials P(x) of Mathematics is by far the most
degreen and Q(x)of degreen-l suchthat poweiful tool that human race has
(P(x)f- 1 = (r-l)(Q(x)f.
created. We invite articles which can
share with us different areas of
Problem 4. If the diagonals of a
applications in mathematics. We wish that
quadrilateral in the plane are this column will inspire students to study
perpendicular. show that the midpoints of
mathematics. -Editors
its sides and the feet of the perpendiculars
droppedfrom the midpoints to the opposite
sides lie on a circle.

Problem 5. (1979 British Mathematical

Answers to Exercises in
"Pigeonhole Principle"
1. The setof eleven numbers have 211_2=
2046 nonempty subsets with less than
eleven elements, and the maximal sum of
the elementsin any of these subsetsis 91 +
92 + ...+ 99 + 100 = 955. So, by the
pigeonhole principle, there are two
rionempty subsets with the same sum. If
they have common elements, then remove
them from both subsetsand we will get two
CO ~
---
nonempty disjoint subsets with the same
sum. Same Slope
1
2. For the nine points, each of the three
C T~=:~~
coordinatesis either even or odd. So, there
are 23=8parity patterns for the coordinates.
Figure 1
Polya’s Third Principle: Carry out the plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is
care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that
you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don’t be
misled, this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals.

Polya’s Fourth Principle: Look back

Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look
back at what you have done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this will enable
you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems.

So starting on the next page, here is a summary, in the master’s own words, on
strategies for attacking problems in mathematics class. This is taken from the book,
How To Solve It, by George Polya, 2nd ed., Princeton University Press, 1957, ISBN
0-691-08097-6.

2
Mathematical Excalibur Vol. 1, No.1, lan-Feb, 95 Page 4

Olympiad Corner
(continuedfrom page 1) From Fermat Primes to Constructible Regular Polygons
Problem 3. (Romania) Tsz-MeiKo
For any positive integer k, let f( k) be the
number of elements in the set {k+l, k+2, Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), an decided to devote his life to mathematics.
..., 2k} whose base 2 representation has amateurmathematician,once guessedthat After his death, a bronze statue in memory
precisely three 1 s. all numbers in the form 22"+ 1 are prime of him standing on a regular 17-gon
(a) Prove that, for eachpositive integer m, numbers. If we try the fIrst five n's (n = 0, pedestal was erected in Brauschweig-the
there exists at least one positive 1,2,3,4), they are in fact all primes: hometown of Gauss.
integer k such thatf(k)=m.
(b) Determine all positive integers m for
22" + 1
which there exists exactly one k with Which regular polygons are
f(k)=m. 0 3 constructible? From Gauss's result, we
1 5 know that the regular triangle, pentagon,
Problem 4. (Australia) 17-gon, 257-gon and 65537-gon are
Detennine all ordered pairs (m,n) of 2 17
constructible. (How?) We also know that
positiveintegerssuchthat 3 257 regular polygons with 7, 11, 13, 19, ...
4 65537 sides are not constructible since they are
n3 +1 primes but not Fermat primes. In addition,
mn -1 It was later discovered by Leonhard Euler we know how to bisect an angle and thus
(1707-1783) in 1732 that the next Fermat regular polygons with 4,8,16,32, ...or 6,
is an integer. number (n = 5) can be factored as 12, 24,48, ...sides are also constructible.
s What aboutthe others? Is a regular 15-gon
22 + 1 = 641 x 6700417
Problem 5. (United Kingdom) constructible? The answer turns out to be
andthus not a prime. The story would have
Let S be the set of real numbers strictly yessince 1/15 = 2/5 -1/3 and thus we can
ended here if without an ingenious
greaterthan-1. Find all functions/." S -+ S divide a circle into 15 equal parts. What
discovery by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-
satisfying the two conditions: about a regular 9-gon? It can be proved
1855). that a regular 9-gon is not constructible.
(i) f(x + f(y) + xf(y)) = y + f(x) + yf(x) for
all x and y in S; Can you find a general theorem on which
In 1794, atthe age of seventeen,Gauss
(ii) f(x)/x is strictly increasing on each of regular polygons are constructible?
found that a regular 'p-gon" (a polygon
the intervals -1 < x < 0 and 0 < x. with p sides), where p is a prime, is
constructible (i.e., using only ruler and Are there any other constructible p-
Problem 6. (Finland) compass) if and only if p is a "Fermat gons (where p is a prime) besidesthe five
Show that there exists a set A of positive prime" (a prime number in the foim22" + 1). mentioned? This question is equivalent to
integers with the following property: For He proved this by considering the solutions asking whether there are any other Fermat
any infinite setS of primes there exist two of certain algebraic equations. (The primes. To date, no other Fermat number
positive integers mEA and n $"A eachof interested reader may refer to the book, has been shown to be prime, and it is still
which is a product of k distinct elementsof "What Is Mathematics?" written by not known whether there are more than
S for some k ? 2. Courant and Robbins, Oxford University five Fermat primes. Perhaps you can
Press.) The young Gauss was so discover a new Fermat prime and make a
overwhelmedby his discovery that he then note in the history of mathematics.

([)

Right: A photo of the six members of the Hong Kong

From left to right are: SueD Yun-Leung, Chu Hoi-