INTRODUCTION

• Structural steel is an alloy of Iron & carbon (carbon% is very less =

0.23% only). As carbon content increases, strength, hardness &
brittleness increases but ductility decreases.
• Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron, chromium, Nickel & carbon (very –
very less% = 0.05%)
• ‘E’ represents the stiffness property of a material, if E is more,
∆(deformations) will be less hence material having more value of
young’s modulus are more stiff

K = and ∆ =
p PL
∆ AE

∴ K =
p
∆

Es = 2 × 105 Mpa

= 200 Gpa 1 pascal = 1

N
m2

ERubber = 2 Mpa . 1 Gpa = 103 Mpa

E∆1 = 70 Gpa ≈ 3 1 Mpa = 1

Es N
m2

Flexural Rigidity – EI ×Nmm2

N
mm2

Arial Rigidity - AE

Torsion Rigidity – Gj

Stress Rigidity – Ar*G Modulus of Rigidity

Reduced area

Any Rigidity/Length = Any stiffness

• Aluminum is increasing used for structural purposes because it requires less
maintenance & strength per unit weight is high.

• The disadvantage of aluminum is that deformations are high for a given load.

(BecauseEal≈ 3 ) and it is costlier.

Es

Indian standard structural steel sections

OR
 • ISMB
Medium

➔ Used as Floor Beams

➔ Relatively high loads

• ISHB / ISWB
Heavy wide flange
➢ Used as column.

2) T – Sections
 used as purlins . Purlin is a beam in a roof truss Which supports roof covering
material

• Ties are Tension members in Roof Trusses.

• Struts are compression members in Roof Trusses
➔ Used as a purlin

➔ Also used as a built up column (in box form)

➔ very weak in resisting the bending

➔ High resistance for compression

Flats

50 ISF8

Width thickness
Sheets

ISSH10

Thickness

➔ used as chequered. Eg. : in train compartments (to join 2 compartments)

Round bars

➔ I S R O 10 - Indian standard Round bars.

dia of bar
➔ I S S Q 10 - Indian Standard Square bars.

Size of square bar

Permissible Stresses in steel structures [𝐖𝐒𝐌]

1)σac = max. Permissible axial compressive stress

= 0.6fy

Used in design of

Struts Columns

Comp. member of Comp member of

Roof truss frame

2) σat = max. Permissible axial Tensile stress

= 0.6fy ➔ same as above

used in design of tension members Ties

Tension member of Roof Truss

3) σbc = max. Permissible Bending compressive stress

= 0.66fy

4) σbt = max. Permissible Bending Tensile stress

= 0.66fy
Used in design of Beams, purlins, plate girders, Gantry girders

Transverse Loading - any loading which does not act along its longitudinal axis.

Beams - flexural member subjected to transverse loading

Girders - Deep beams are called as Girders.

Gantry Girder - is a main beam used for supporting the crane.

5) Max. Permissible max. Shear stresses = 0.45fy

➔ used in the design of beams only

6) Max. Permissible average shear stresses = 0.40fy

➔ Used in the design of beam & plate girders
Max. Permissible Bearing stresses = 075fy

➔ Used for secondary checks in Beam Design

(Web buckling, Flange buckling, local buckling of Web)

➔ Also used in design of column bases.

Permissible Stresses in steel structures (LSM)

F.O.S

1) For Axial stress

FOS = = 1.67
fy
1.6fy

2) For Bending Stresses

FOS = - 1.50
fy
1.66fy

3) For shear stress

FOS = - 2.5
fy
0.4fy

NOTE .1) As per von – Mises Henkly Theory or Distortion energy theory or Max shar
strain energy theory, the max. shear strain energy strain energy for no failure condition
should by:

fu
fs ≤
√3

2) In addition to this, partial F.O.S. of 1.1 is used for steel structures, partial F.O.S of
1.25 is used for connections (rivets & welds) and the partial F.OS of 1.25 is used for
welding at site.

Bearing stress

It is nothing but the compressive stress developed at contact surface of two different
materials.

NOTE : 1) All the stresses ( WSM & LSM) are increased by 33% in steel structures
when wind and earthquake loads are also considered.

2) All the stresses are increased by 25% in connections when wind & earthquake
loads are considered.
3) Checking of structures against bending, shearing & bearing is strength criteria .

4) Checking of structures against deflection is stiffness criteria.

Stiffness criteria (permissible Deflections) [WSM + LSM]

1) Max permissible Horizontal & vertical deflection (for simply supported beam)

δPermissible =
Spam
325
(mm) by WSM

δPermissible =
Spam
300
(mm)- - - - - when members supporting the elements

- LSM (eg. Glass sheets)are not subjected to crack

= (mm) “ “ “ “ “subjected “ “ crack
Spam
360

NOTE : For cantilever beam

𝛿 1 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 2 ×𝛿𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

2) For manually operated cranes, permissible deflection in gantry Girder =

Span
500

3) For electrically operated cranes, (up to 50 tonnes capacity), permissible deflection

in Gantry Girder = (mm)
Span
750

4) For electrically operated area, (For > 50 tonnes capacity), permissible deflection in
Gantry Girder = (mm)
Span
1000
 Riveting + Bolting

Pitch

This is the distance b/w 2 consecutive rivet measured in the parallel direction of
direction of force.

Gauge distance

This is the distance b/w 2 consecutive rivet measured in the perpendicular direction of
direction of force.

The distance b/w center of rivet & edge of the plate element measured parallel to the
direction of force is called as end distance.

The distance b/w center of the rivet & edge of the plate element measured ⊥ to
direction of force is called as edge distance.
 grip length lg≯ 8(gross dia)

Types of Joints

1) Lap Joint

1) This is the least efficient joint because lines of action of 2 forces are diff. These 2
forces form a couple & additional bending stresses are generated in rivets. This
reduces the efficiency of the joint.

2) Rivets are subjected to single shear end bearing

2) single cover Butt Joint

1) it is more efficient then lap joint bar line of action of two forces is same.

2) But the connection is asymmetrical& hence this joint is less efficient then double
cover butt joint.

3) Rivets are subjected to single shear & shearing.

3) Double cover butt joint

i) It is the most efficient joint because line of action of two forces is same & also the
connection is symmetrical.

ii) Rivets are subjected to double shear & bearing.

4) Splitting Failure of plate
It is developed due to diagonal tension

Note:
1) By providing proper end distance, we can prevent the failure of plate.
2) In the design of riveted join, make sure that shearing & bearing strength of rivets is
more than bearing strength of plate because rivet or bolt failure is more dangerous
than component or plate failure.
3) The strength of joint is taken as the least value among the following:

i) Strength of joint against shearing Failure of Rivets (Ps)

Whichever
ii) Strength of joint against bearing failure of Rivets (PB) Is
iii) Strength of joint against tearing failure of plates (P T) less

Lap Joint
d ➔ Gross dia (riveting)
• Nominal dia (Bolting)

For entire plate

Ps = 1 n. d2 fs
π
4

(Single shearing)

n = no. of rivets (9)

fs = permissible shearing stress in connection
= 0.4fy➔ W.S.M[100 − 110MPa ]
LSM

PT =Ag ×
fy
1.1

Whichever is less?
= Anet ×
0.9fu
1.1

Same as in RCC, fck ➔ 0.67 fck

DSS, fu ➔ 0.9 fu

For Gauge distance

No. of rivets@critical section (1-1)in gauge distance

Double cover butt joint

Entire plate
Gauge Length

PS = 2 × n d2 . fs n = 3 (not 6,18)
π
4

Double shear

PB = ndt.fb

PT = (g – n2d) t. ft

n2 = 1(not 3)

n2 = no. of rivets @ critical section 1-1 in gauge length.

NOTE:

1) Rivet value (Rv) or Bolt value (Bv)

Rivet value

1) It means how much load a single rivet or single bolt can take.

2) It is taken as the least value among bearing & shearing strength of a single rivet.

If Rivets are in single shear

PS = 1 . n d2 . fs
π
4
Min. = RV
Pb =d.t.fb

If Rivets are in double shear

PS = 2 × n d2 fs
π
4 Min. = RV

Pb =d.t.fb

Note-2) No. of rivets at a joint

n = =
Force at the joint F
Rivet value Rv

Efficiency of a joint (n)

It is the ratio of strength of a joint to the strength of solid plated

 strength of joint
LEARN =
min[Ps ,Pb ,PL ]
n= strength of solid plate Strength of solid plate

For entire plate, n = =

(B−n,d ).t.ft B−n,d
[ ]
B t ft B

For gauge length, n = = = ( since in a given gauge distance

(g−n2d )t.ft g− d
g.t.ft g

no. of rivets @ critical section is 1)

NOTE : For a given joint, above 2 efficiencies are different

Arrangements of Rivets (To get max. value of pt)

1) Chain Riveting
 (Pt )main place = (B – 3d) tft
1-1

Double Riveted, Double cover Butt Joint

Provide all rivets in 2 cover plates

2 line of rivets

2) Diamond Riveting

Pt(1−1) = (B − d)tft
Diamond riveting is more efficient than chain riveting because only 1 rivet hole
diameter is deducted from width of the plate

Tearing strength of plate

1 - 1 2 – 2

Chain Riveting (B − 3d)tft (B − d)tft + 3RV

Diamond Riveting (B − d)tft (B − 2d)tft + RV

NOTE:

1) In Chan riveting, it is impossible for the failure happen at 2-2 because to crack the
plate, a force of (B − 3d)tft is req. &to take the plate out of joint, an additional force of
3RV is also req. to shear the 3 rivets at 1-1

2) In Diamond riveting, failure will happen at 2-2 only when d t ft> RV

3) At section 1-1, entire applied load is taken by main plate only. Hence, for main
plates, critical section is taken at 1-1 only while finding the tearing strength of main
plate.

4) At section 3-3, the entire load is taken by cover plate only hence critical section for
cover plate is at 3-3.

5) To make cover plate & main plate string, a variation of diamond riveting is the best
possible arrangement as shown in the fig. below because only 1 rivet hole diameter is
deducted at both the critical section and hence, max. Value of tearing strength will be
there.
Specifications for pitch, Gauge Distance, End Distance & Edge Distance
Gross dia/ dia of Rivet hole - Design criteria

d = gross dia

WSM Φn ≤ 20mm Φn + 1.5mm

Φn > 20mm Φn + 2.0mm

LSM Φn ≤ 25mm Φn + 1.5mm

Φn > 25mm Φn + 2 mm

General criteria

Φn (mm) d

12-14 Φn + 1.0mm

14-24 Φn + 1.5mm

>24mm Φn + 2.0mm

2) Min. edge & End distance

= 1.5 d ➔ Power driven Rivets / Machine cut Rivets

= 1.7 d ➔Hand driven Rivets / Hand cut Rivets

D= gross length
3) Max. Pitch for Rivets or Welds in Compression Members

= 12tmin or 200 mm whichever is less

4) Max. pitch for Rivets or Weld in Tension Members

= 16tmin or 200 mm whichever is less

5) NOTE: if staggered Riveting (not in the same line) is provided & g >75 mm, the
alone values are increased by 50%
NOTE :
1) Max. Pitch for Tack Rivets in compression members = 600mm
2) Max. Pitch for Tack Rivets in compression members = 1000mm

Note – In the design of joint, the most imp consideration is that (g-d) t ft < n Rv such
that PLATE will fail but rivet not.

Assumptions in the Design of Riveted Joints

Assertion
1) When the load is axial, all the rivets are assumed to share the applied load equally
Reason
– In actual practice, outer rivets takes more load & inner rivets takes less load within
the proportionality limit But at collapse load, all the rivets yields & take equal load .
hence, the assumption is valid only at collapse load.

2) Shearing & Bearing stresses are assumed to be uniform

3) Bending stresses in rivets is neglected

 Design steps of Rivetted /Bolted connection
1) Dia of Rivet /Bolt
2) Rv
3) n =
F
Rv

4) Arrangement of Rivets (For max. Pt)

5) Width & thickness of main plate

6) Width & thickness of cover plate

WELDED CONNECTIONS
• A part of the weld which is assumed to be effective in transferring the stresses
is called as Throat
• It is the weakest plane in the fillet weld
• Its effective throat thickness (ETT) is the min. dimension in the fillet weld.
• It is assumed that fillet always effers resistance in the terms of shear.
 NOTE
• Bending Tensile stress is transferred as horizontal shear stress in the weld. This
horizontal shear is resisted by throat area of weld.
Stub – a small piece of I-section
Bracket – a small piece of plate, angle, channel.

• The vertical compressive force is transferred as vertical force in the fillet weld.
• fillet weld should not be used if the angle b/w fusion faces is less than 60 and more
than 120.

Smax+Smin
ETT = KS Size of weld =
2

Constant factor (depends upon angle b/w Fusion faces (θ))

K θ

0.70 600−900
0.65 910−1000
0.60 1010−1060
0.55 1070−1130
0.50 1140−1200

Minumum size of Weld (Smin)

→It depends upon thickness of thicker plate being connected.

→ To present the residual tensile stresses, thickness of thicker plate is considered
white fixing min size of weld

Tthicker plate Smin

Upto 10mm 3mm
10-20mm 5mm
21-32mm 6mm
> 32mm 8mm
Load carrying capacity of a weld (P) = fS× Aeff

Slot Welding

P1 = longitudinal shear (shear stress acts in same direction of weld)

P2 = Transverse shear (shear stress acts to direction of weld)
If length of overlap is limited, slot welding is done by making the slots in connecting
plates as shown in the fig.

NOTE: - As far as possible, slots must be symmetrical w.r.t. line of action of loading
so that moments are not developed at the joint.

1) CHANNEL Section is symmetrical about x axis and hence line of action of

loading passes through centre of gravity of weld group. It is called as moment
free connection because moments are not develop in the fillet weld at the joint.
2) If angles are connected to the gusset plate, make sure that moments are not
developed at the welded joints. Therefore length of weld are so proportional that
it should be moment free connection

Eccentric Connections

Type1 – Eccentric Riveted/Bolted connection

• When G.G. of rivet group does not lies on the line of action of loading
connection is called as Eccentric connection.
• If the rivet group & the loading lies in the same plane.
 • Due to eccentric loading, the bracket will bend, bending moment due to
eccentric loading is responsible for development of bending stresses in the
bracket.
• this B.M. is converted as Twisting moment in the connection.
• So, in addition to direct shear stresses, torsional shear stresses are also
developed in the rivets.
• The connection is subjected to as direct force P & a twisting moment of T =
Pe as shown in fig.
• From the principle of superposition, the individual effects of load can be added
to get net effort.

Analysis
1) Shear force in the rivet due to direct load P = F1

F1 =
𝑃
𝐴𝑖
∑𝐴𝑖

𝐴𝑖 = Area of rivet under consideration

∑𝐴𝑖 = Summation of all areas of rivets

If all rivets are of same area (n)

F1 =
𝑝
𝑛

2) F2 = Shear Force in the rivet due to twisting moment T.

F2 = × ri
𝑇
∑(𝑟𝑖 2)

𝑟𝑖 = radiaol distance of rivet under consideration from C.G. of rivet group.

∑𝑟𝑖 = Summation of all radial distances from C.G. of rivet group

NOTE:
1) Direction of F2 is ⊥ to the line joining C.G. of rivet group & the rivet under
consideration.
2) Direction of F2 is same as that of applied moment.
3) Resultant shear Force (FR) = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝜃 = angle b/w F1& F2 (For the rivet under consideration)

4) for Rivets to be safe:

FR≯ RV

i.e. FR≤ RV

NOTE:If all the rivets are of same diameter,the most critically stressed rivet is the one
for which radial distance is max&angle b/w F1& F2 is min.

Type -2 Eccentric Riveted (Bolted (Type-2) Connections

When line of action of loading does not lies in the plane of rivet group, then
1) Due to B.M, rivets above the N.A. are subjected to shearing, bearing & tension.
2) Rivets below the N.A. are subjected to shearing, bearing & compression due to
direct load ‘P’.
3) The depth of bracket is measured from bottom of the bracket to the center of top
rivet as shown in fig.
4) Above the top of rivets, bracket will lost its contact with a flange of column.
ℎ
5) It is assumed that N.A. lies at a distance of from the bottom of the bracket.
7
6) The design crit3eria to prevent failure of the rivets is

𝜎𝑎𝑡,𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝜏𝑣𝑎,𝑐𝑎𝑙
+ ≯ 1.4 WSM criteria
𝜎𝑎𝑡 𝜏𝑣𝑎

𝑃𝑎𝑡,𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑠,𝑐𝑎𝑙
+ ≤ 1.0 LSM Criteria
𝑃𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑣𝑎

𝜎𝑎𝑡 = Calculated axial tensile stress in the rivets.

𝜏𝑣𝑎,𝑐𝑎𝑙 = Calculated average shear stress in the rivets.
𝑃𝑎𝑡,𝑐𝑎𝑙 = Calculated Factored tensile load.
𝑃𝑠,𝑐𝑎𝑙 = Calculated factored shear force.
𝑃𝑎𝑡 = max. tensile load carrying capacity of rivets.
PS = max. shearing capacity of rivets of bolts.

7) The interaction curve for tension & shear for WSM & LSM given by:
Type -1 Eccentric welded connection

[When weld group & loading are in same plane]

1) Effect of eccentric loading at the C.G. of weld load is at direct force ‘P’ & a
twisting moment ‘T’ = P.e.
2) Due to direct force, direct shear stress (f1) will be produced.
3) Due to twisting moment, tensional shear stress (f 2) will be produced. Since these
two stresses are shear stresses hence resultant shear stress can be found (f R).

NOTE:
While calculating C.G. of weld group. IXX& IYY of weld group, weld areas are treated
3
as Line areas i.e. t2 and t terms may be neglected (∵ ETT (t) very small)
Type -2Eccentric welded connections

Top view

1). due to direct load p, fillet weld is subjected to vertical stress ‘f 1’

2). Due to B.M ‘M’, bending tensile stress ‘f2’ is developed in the bracket. this tensile
stress is transferred as horizontal shear stress to the fillet weld at top as shown in fir
3). since two stresses are shear stresses, resultant shear stress can be calculated.
Analysis

1). F1 =
𝑃
2(𝑡𝑑)

2). f2 = due to M

=
𝑀 𝑓2
𝐼 𝑦

. ymax= f2
𝑀𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝑦𝑦

1/2
3). fR = (f12 + f22 +0) (∵𝚹 = 90o b/w f1& f2)

4). for safety of weld ; ➔ fR≯ fs

 Design of tension member

Introduction

1). the non uniform straining of plate due to tension is called as shear lag.

2). shear lag reduces the effectiveness of tension member components which are not
connected directly to the gusset plate.

3). Right face of the element lagged behind left face of the element due to shear.
Hence, this effect is named as shear lag.

4). effect of shear log exists only at connection.

Note;- main design issue in the tension members is shear lag.

 • It is assumed that rivets shared the applied load equally it the applied loadis
axial but in reality outer river take more loads & inner rivet takes less loads
within the proportionality limit.
• Failure in long joints is sequential (one. after another). beginning with those at
ends & progressive towards the inner rivets.
• This failure is called a unbuttoning effect.

Note :- IS code specifies that if length of the joint is more than 15d or 150 ETT, PS
ismultiplied by a reduction factor to take care of loss of efficiency.

Grip length (lg)

lg≯ 8d
1). if the grip length increases, efficiency of the joint decreases.

2). to reduce the effect of bending stresses, IS code restricts lg to be 8d i.e lg≯ 8d
whered = gross dia of rivet.

3). if lg≤ 5d, effect of bending stresses can easily be neglected.

4). if lg = 5d to 8d, Ps value is multiplied by reduction factor to take care of additional

bending stresses

5). if lg> 8d, section should be redesigned i.e increase the diameter of rivet or bolt so
that lg becomes less than 8d.

Lug Angle

• lug angle is a small piece of angle which is used to connect a single angle
member to the gusset plate.
• purpose of lug angle is to reduce the shear lag effect. ASSERTION
• REASON - If lug angle is used, unconnected leg becomes connected leg &
entire cross sectional area of main angle will be no shear lag
 Slenderness ratio for different members

⋋ =
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

Note: - if for a pure tension, member, ⋋> 400 , it behaves like a cable.

For a tension member. in a roof truss subjected to reversal of stress, max.

Slenderness ratio = 350.

 load carrying capacity of a tension member

P = Anet x σat 0.6 fy➔ WSM

Pu = Anet x ➔ LSM
0.9𝑓𝑦
1.25

Anet = net cross sectional area of tension member.

Net effective area calculation

1). for plates

(a) Chain riveting

(Anet)1-1 = (B-3d)t

(Bnet)1-1= B-3d

b). Diamond riveting

(Anet)1-1 = (B-d)t

(Bnet)1-1= (B-d)

c). Staggered Riveting

S1 , S2➔ staggered pitches

g1, g2➔ gauge distance

𝑆2
Solved by empirical formula ➔4𝑔rule

𝑆2
for all inclined legs, 4𝑔
values are written,

𝑆12 𝑆2
(anett) = [(B-nd) + + ]t
4𝑔1 4𝑔2

n = total no of rivets

Efficiency ➔ plates > T section > angle

Strength ➔ angle > T section > plates

True failure path is the one for which Anet is min.

Note :- critical section in staggered riveting will depends upon the relative magnitude
of S,g, no of rivets in path.

2). for angles

A). if a single angle tension member is connected to the gusset plate

Anet = A1 + KA2 Where, K =
3𝐴1
3𝐴1 +𝐴2

Where, Anet = net effective area of angle

A1 = net area of connected leg

= gross area of connected leg area of rivet hole

A2 = gross area of unconnected leg

I. ‘net’ because rivet hole area is deducted.

II. ‘effective’ because ‘k’ fator is used to find effective area of unconnected leg.
III. ‘k’ factor is used to take care of shear lag effect & eccentricity of the
connection
IV. if lug angle is used to connect single angle member to the gusset plate,

Anet = A1 + KA2

Anet = gross area of angle – area of rivet hole

(connected + unconnected)
b). if 2 angle section are placed back to back & are connected to the gusset plate (at
one side)

Anet = A1 +KA2 (∵shear log is relatively less)

K =
5𝐴1
5𝐴1 +𝐴2

If both angles are not tack riveted, both angles are designed separately, and

Anet/for = A1+KA2 , K =
3𝐴1
each angle
3𝐴1 +𝐴2

c). if 2 angles are placed back to back & connected to both sides of gusset plate.
No eccentricity, no shear lag ∴ K = 1

Anet v= A1 + KA2

Anet = total gross area – area of rivet hole

Design of lug angle

1). when lug angle is used.

Anet = A1 + A2 (K=1)

2). rivets (2) should start in advance of all the other rivets to ensure that outstand leg
of main angle effectively transfers the force to the lug angle effectively.

3). the min no of rivets for rivets (2) & rivets (3) = 2
When angle is a main member

Fconnected xA1
𝑃
=
𝐴1+𝐴2

Funconnected xA2
𝑃
=
𝐴1 +𝐴2

or Foutstand

Fleg angle = 1.2 Foutstand

(To fix size of lug angle)

To calculate Frivets (3) = 1.2 Foutstand

no of rivets Frivets= (2) = 1.4 Foutstand

(3), (2), (1) Frivets (1) = Fconnected

Design Steps of tension members

Anet,reg= (WSM), Anet,req = (LSM)

𝑃𝑢
1). find
𝑃
𝜎𝑎𝑡 0.9𝑓𝑦
1.25

2). Increase Anet by 40% - 50% to take care of rivet holes i.e

Agross,req = 1.4 to 1.5 Anet

3). Select a suitable section (either from given set of section or from steel table) of
Agross more than Agross,req.
4). Design the connections (dia of rivet hole calculation0 & find A net= of provided
section.

Check Anet,provided> Anet,req. For sage design

5). check for slenderness ratio

⋋ =
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
≯⋋permissible

Note :- if 2 or more than 2 rivets are used, Leff = 0.8 L

Compression members
(Buckling is main design issue)

Introduction

1). Column is a structural member mainly subjected to compression. This word is used
for compression members of frames. it can be vertical or inclined.

2. Strut is a compression member. This word is used for compression members of

truss. it can also be vertical or inclined.

3. Truss is an assembly of ties & struts. all the members are subjected to either
compression or tension only. The B.M. is zero everywhere in the truss.

4. Frame is a structure consisting of beams & columns in a framed structure,

members are subjects to bending also (in addition to compression & tension)

5. The max. Slenderness ratio for compression members = 180 (due to possibility of
buckling, less value is adopted)

6). ⋋ =
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Effective length of compression members

• Leff is the length of column b/w 2 points of zero moments

 (effective in resisting the compression.)

Leff = K.L

K = Effective length factor

L = unsupported length of column (distance b/w floor to bottom of slab).

End condition
 Euler’s critical load /Buckling load/crippling load

𝜋 2𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑟 2
Per = 𝐿2𝑒𝑓𝑓
= 𝐿2𝑒𝑓𝑓
∵ I = Ar2

𝜋 2𝐸𝐴
= 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 2
( )
𝑟

𝜋 2𝐸𝐴
= ⋋2

Pcr is dependent on:

1). EI

2). AE

3). ⋋

4). end condition

5). Leff

Radius of gyration/rotation/revolution (r or k)

• It is the distance at which the entire area must be kept as a strip so that
moment of inertia will be sameas that of original area.
• It is a measurement of resistance to rotation or resistance to buckling.
• greater value of k or r represents greater resistance to buckling

Note:-

1). Max. Permissible axial compressive stress

σac = 0.6fy

or Whichever is minimum

0.66𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑦
𝑣𝑛
(𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑛 + 𝑓𝑦𝑛 )
  formula came from theory of plates &shells
 Rankine – merchant formula
 n → imperfection formula =1.4
 Fccis used to take care of buckling
 fcc = fcr = Euler’s critical stress in compression

Fcc➔ cc= Critical compression

𝜋2 𝐸 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴
= Pcr =
⋋2 ⋋2

𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸
Fcc = fcr= σcr = =
𝐴 ⋋2

2. Column is tends to buckle about their weak axis.

3. Weak axis is the axis about which moment of inertia & radius of gyration is min.

𝜋2 𝐸.𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
4. Hence in the column formula, Pcr = & I → always min.
𝐿2𝑒𝑓𝑓

5. Assertion ➔ thin hollow circular sections & box sections are more capable in
resisting the compression.

Reason → thin hollow circular & box sections are having max. moment of inertia.
6). Assertion ➔ the most efficient cross section for resisting the B.M is I section.

reason → for a given cross sectional area, shaple factor is min for I section.

i.e. Z M

= 𝑦 ➔ M = s𝑦➔ M = sz
𝑀 𝜎 𝐼
𝐼

∴M𝛼Z

My = sy - Zy➔
𝐼
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥

Mp = sy.Zp➔ (y1+y2)
𝐴
2

S = MP/My = =
𝜎𝑦 𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝
𝜎𝑦 𝑍 𝑍
Elastic condition

Struts (compression member of trusses)

• If a strut spans b/w 2 joints only, it is called as discontinuous strut

• If a strut spans over more than 2 joints, it is called as continuous strut.

Case – 1 – if a single angle discontinuous strut is connected to gusset plates only by

1 rivet at each end then,
Note: - if strut buckles in out plane direction i.e. ⊥ to plane of the truss, leff = L

Note: - if web & flange of an I – section are subjected to buckling

From theory of plates

K → factor = 1.2

Where b = width of outstand leg (measured from face of web)

General criteria ➔ b ≯ 16tf

Compression flange in plate girders, ➔𝑏 ≯ 16tf

256𝑡𝑓
≯ min
√𝑓𝑦

Tension flange in plate girders ➔ b ≯ 20tf

To prevent flange buckling

≯ 16 ➔ b ≯ 16tf
𝑏
𝑡𝑓

To prevent web buckling

≯ 50
𝑑𝑤
𝑡𝑤
Analysis of struts

(if angles are used as strut members)

  Diameter of tack rivet

Min thickness of member dia. of tack rivet

upto 10 mm 16 mm

11-16 mm 20 mm

16 mm 22 mm

xx, yy ➔ symmetrical axis

if area lies on any symmetrical axis ➔ Ixy = 0
∴ Hence, min of Ixx, Iyy is taken as Imin
Symmetric axis for an individual component = u – u

Iu-v = 0 ∵ Symmetrical about u – u axis

Imin s taken as min (Iuu, Ivv)

rmin is taken as min (ruu, rvv)

uu, vv – principal axis

Symmetrical about y – y axis

xx, yy → principal axis

(Ixx, Iyy)min = Imin

(Iuu, Ivv)min = ± Imin

Design of compression members

1. P → given

2. Assume σac (σac = 60 to 80 Mpa for IS Rolled sections)

= 110 to 125 MPa for build-up sections)

3. calculate Agireq =
𝑃
𝜎𝑎𝑐 ,𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑

4. choose a suitable section, Ag provided > Ag1req.

5. calculate ⋋ = red sac from table

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

6. psafe = sac,cat x Ag1provided≥ p

∴ ok

Design of lacings

1). Lacing is a system of connecting elements in a built up column

2). lacing make the component of a column act as a single unit

3). if column component are closed to each other, tack rivets are used to make them
act as a single rivet. but if spacing of components is much large, tack rivets become
useless & lacings & battening are used.
4. length of lacing bar (i1) is taken as the distance b/w centre to centre of rivets or
the inner faces of the weld as shown in fig.

5. in the design of lacing, only 1 rivet is provided at each connection. if a single rivet
is not sufficient to take the applied load, increase the diameter of rivet to take the
applied load.

Fig : - Single lacing

 ⋋max = 145 (designed as compression members)

 𝚹 = 40oto 70o
 ⋋component≯ 50 ⋋component =
𝐶
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

≯ 0.7 ⋋entire min(ruu, rvv)

Double lacing

Nominal dia of rivet Min. width of lacing bar

16 mm 50 mm
18 mm 55 mm
20 mm 60 mm
22 mm 65 mm

Min width ≃ 3 x ϕnominal

 Thickness of lacing bar
for double lacing
𝑙1
60

for single lacing

𝑙1
40
 ➔ if lacing bars are used , the effective length of column is increased by 5% take
case of shear deformation effects in the columns.
➔ if there is a possibility of buckling of column component b//w the connection of
lacings, increase the angle 𝚹 upto 70o to decease the value of ‘c’.
➔ If there is a possibility of buckling even after 𝚹 = 70o, double lacing is used to
prevent the buckling of column component b/w the connection.
➔ The effective length of lacing bar:
leff – l1➔ single lacing
= 0.7 l1➔ for welded & double lacing
 lacing system should not be varied throughout the length of column. i.e width,
thickness, angle of inclination etc. should be same throughout the length of
column.
 at top & bottom of lacing bar, tie plates or stay plates or batten plates are
used to prevent the distortion of column cross section.
 lacing system is designed to resist a transverse shear force of 2.5 % of total
column load.

Design of battening

d ➔ V =2.5% of column load.

End batten

Intermediate batten

Batten plates
or stay plates Batten plates g

or tei plates
x

cyy cyy

x = x + 2cyy
g= gauge distance/rivet distance = Cyy (if not given)
b = width of column components (channels)
S = distance b/w centroid of rivets group in transverse direction
S1 = distance b/w innermost rivets or inner face of welds in transverse direction.
c = distance b/w centroid of rivet groups in longitudinal direction.
x = distance b/w back to back of channels
Cyy = centroidal distance of a channel from back of channel.
x = x + 2 Cyy = distance b/w centroids of 2 channels in transverse direction.
1). Battening is also a method of connecting the element in a built up column.
2). flats (ISF) or angles (ISA) can be used as lacing & battening
3). min. no of battens = 4, so that column is divided into 3 no. of bays.
4). if battens are used, effective length of column is increased by 10% to take care of
shear deformation effects in the column.
5). to prevent the buckling of individual component, the following condition must be
satisfied.

⋋component = ≯ 50
𝐶
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.7 ⋋entire
min(ruu,rvv)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
min (rxx, ryy)
dintermediate = 4x
3

= 2b max
D = d + 2x end distance.
Dandbatten = Max
𝑥
2𝑏
 ᵹ
Thickness of batten =
50

6). Battens are designed for (a) transverse shear force of

V = 2.5 % of column load

b). longitudinal shear force of

𝑉𝑐
𝑁𝑆

c). Moment of
𝑉𝑐
𝑁𝑆
N = No of parallel planes.

No of rivets for resisting any moment =

√6𝑀
𝑅𝑣.𝑝𝑚

P = min pitch.

m = no of runs / no of rivet lines

 √𝑉𝐶

Total no of rivets = + +
𝑣 𝑉𝐶 √2𝑛
𝑁𝑆
𝑅𝑣 √𝑀.𝑅𝑣 .𝑃
𝑅𝑉

Note :- if intermediate battens are safe against bending & shear, end battens will also
be some because their size is more.

Intermediate battens → 200 ISF8 to 250 ISF8

End batten – 270 ISF8 to 350 ISF8

1). splice is a joint when the length of existing column is not sufficient, splices are
used to increase their length.

2). when column ends are machined, for complete bearing the entire load is
transferred. by direct bearing action.

3). flange splices & web splices are not req. if entire load is transferred b direct
bearing action.
4). to take care of accidental lateral load, it is assumed that 50% of the load is
transferred through direct bearing action & remaining 50% is assumed to be
transferred through flange splice & its connection.

5). it means flange splice & its connection are designed for 50% of the load only.

6). since 2 splices are provided, force on each splice plate = 2x i.e =
1 𝑝 𝑝
2 4

7). if column carries a moment ‘M’ also, splice plate must also resist an additional
force of . Hence, amx force on each splice plate = 4+
𝑀 𝑝 𝑀
ℎ ℎ

8). if column ends are not machined for complete bearing action the entire load
assumed to be transferred through flange splice & its connection.

Max. Force ion each splice plate = +

𝑃 𝑀
2 ℎ

Compressive strength of splice pate = Bt *σac

σ = 0.6 fy

𝑓𝑦
=
1.1
a). if column ends are machined

+ ≤ Bt σac
𝑃 𝑀
4 ℎ

b). if column ends are not machined Calculate t

+ ≤ B.t σac
𝑃 𝑀
2 ℎ

a). if shear force is also acting at splice location, web splice must also be provided on
both sides of web

= permissible shear strength

𝑉
2(𝑙1×𝑡)

≤ 0.4 fy➔𝜏va, permissible

≤ 0.4 fy→ calculate t.

𝑉
∵2(𝑙
1 ×𝑡)

∵ rivels at web splice location are subject to Double shear.

Column bases

1). Column bases are used to transfer column load to concrete footing.

2). Column base is a steel base plate which is used to reduce the bearing pressure
on the footing.

Column basis

1. Slab bases

2. Gusseted bases

W = 4 MPa – for M15 grade of concrete

W = 5 MPa – for m20 grade of concrete

3). if column loads are less, slab bases are used.

4). if column loads are HeaVy, gusseted bases are used.

5). if soil is weak, grillage foundation is used.

Thickness of Base plate =

Where, w – upward pressure (kN/m2)

σbs = permissible bearing stress = 185 MPa.

a,b = Larger & smaller projection of column from outer edges of base plate

a,b, should be some as far as possible to get min thickness of base plate.
 Gusseted column bases

1). if column loads are heavy, gusseted column bases are used.
2). In a gusseted base, gusset angle, gusset plate & cleat angle are used. base plate
is also used.
3). gusset plate, gusset angle & cleat angle increases the stiffness of column at
bottom to prevent local buckling of column due to excessive bearing stresses at the
contact surface of base plate & column.
4). critical section for bending moment is taken at root of the gusset angle.
Flexural formula

or ➔𝐼 = =
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
𝑦 𝑅

Bending eqn MR = EI → Flexural rigidity

If R = 1 = unity

Flexural rigidity represents moment req to generate unit radius.

EI = M.R ➔ 1

Laterally Supported/ restrained beams

Note ;- Beam is a structural member mainly subjected to transverse loading.

➔ if the compression flange of the beam is effectively restrained against lateral

movement, it is called as laterally supported or laterally restrained beam.
➔ Since, there is no possibility of buckling of compression flange, due to only
bending compression σbc = 0.66 fy
 Laterally unsupported or unrestrained beam
➔ if the compression flange of the beam is not restrained against lateral
movement, it is called as laterally unreported beams.
since there is a possibility of buckling of compression flange, the permissible
bending compressive stress is given by
σbc = 0.66 fy
= whichever is min
0.66
𝑛 + 𝑓𝑛) 1/𝑛
(𝑓𝑐𝑏 𝑦

Where,

Fcb = Elastic critical stress in bending

n = imperfection factor = 1.4

fcb will take care of buckling effect

Primary criteria in beams design

I Bending 2o - flange buckling

Shear - web buckling

Deflection] (Stiffness criteria ) - web crippling

in the design of beams, it is assumed that flange takes entire bending moment & web
takes entire shear force

depth of web is taken as overall depth of beam

Primary criteria mean beam should be safe against bending, shear & deflection.

Bending & shear check is the strength criteria, whereas deflection check is the
stiffness criteria.
𝜏va,cal = CALCULATED SHEAR STRESS IN WEB

Secondary criteria are to check the beam against flange buckling, web buckling & web
crippling.

1). flange buckling

1). it is due to bending compression.

2). bending compression stress is calculated by taking fcb into consideration.

To prevent flange buckling

≯ 16
𝑏
➔ 𝑡𝑝

𝑏1
➔ 𝑡𝑓
≯ 50

2). web buckling

Due to excessive shear force, elements of the web are subjected to diagonal
compression & diagonal tension. of web buckles due to diagonal compression, it is
called as buckling of web.
 • Due to heavy concentrated loads, at the junction of flange & web ➔ excessive
bearing stresses are developed.
• if web buckles locally due to excessive bearing stresses at the location of toe
filet, it is called as local buckling of web or web crippling

To prevent web crippling

a). At supports (Rxn)

t = thickness of cover plate

tw = thickness of web

Bearing area @ toe of fillet = x.tw

sp,cal = ≮ 00.75 fy Local buckling of web will not happen

𝑅
𝛼𝑡𝑤

𝛼 = a + adjacent side

= a + √3 (h2 + t)

= tan30o➔ adjacent side = √3(h2+t)

ℎ +𝑡
2
∵𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

1/√3

b). under concentrated loads

𝛼 = a + 2 √3(h2+t)

sp,cal =
𝑤
𝛼.𝑡𝑤
≤ 0.75 fy

to prevent web buckling

1). web is treated as an imaginary column of length ‘d’ with both ends fixed

2). it is treated is an imaginary columns because web buckles due to diagonal

compression.

3). the cross sectional area of imaginary column is taken at neutral axis level.

4). cress sectional area is taken at neutral axis because the max stresses are
development at the top of beam. to take the average effect the cross sectional area is
taken at neutral axis level.
(a) At supports (Rxn)

Psafe = sac x Ag≥ R

∵ 2 + t = tan45o➔Adjacent side = 2 + t
𝑑 𝑑

Adjacent side

x = a + ( + 𝑡)
𝑑
2

𝑑1 𝑑1 𝑑1

= = = =
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 2 2 2
⋋imaginary column
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝑤
𝛼.𝑡𝑤2 √ 𝑡𝑤 2√3
√ 12 4×3
𝛼.𝑡𝑤

Read sac a/c to ⋋

psafe = sac x Ag≥ R

∴ web buckling will not happen

b). under concentrated loads

x = a+ 2 (d/2 +t)v 2 load dispersion time

Psafe = Ag x sac≥ w

∴ web buckling will not happen

Design of built - up beams

if a single beam section is not capable to take the applied load, built up beams are
req. if built up beam beams cannot take the applied load, plate girders are used
followed by truss girders.
Zreq =
𝑀
𝜎𝑏𝑐

If cover plates are also used

Zreq = ZBeam + Zplates

2[𝐼𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑜 +𝐴𝑝 ℎ 2]
Zplates = = negligible
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑2
2𝐴𝑝
Zreq = Zbeam + 𝑑
4

➔ Assumed no hole in plate

Ap =
𝑍𝑟𝑒𝑞 −𝑍𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑑

3). Ap is increased by 40 to 50% to take care of rivet hole in tension zone (rivet holes
in tension zone are deducted because rivets are useless in resisting the tension.

4). check for bending

sbc,cat = . ymax≤sbc
𝑀𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝑥𝑥

Equilibrium condition ➔ C = T

σbc,cal x Agress of compression flange = σbt,cal x Anet of tension flange

Calculate sbt,cal≤sbt

σbt = 0.66 fy WSM

σbt = fy/1.1 LSM

5). Design of connection & check for shear

i). in chain riveting, there are 2 rivets in a pitch length but in staggered, riveting,
there is only 1 rivet in a pitch length

ii). By providing staggered riveting, A net of tension flange can be increased i.e load
caring capacity of tension flange can be increased.

iii). so, as far as possible, use staggered riveting to get A net more.
 Gantry Girders

Introduction

• The dynamic action of moving load is called as impact.

• Gantry girders are subjected to 3 mutually ⊥ loads.
(a) Vertical loads – the self weight of truss, crab etc. load lifted by hook
(b) Lateral Loads – Due to moving & stopping of crab
(c) Longitudinal loads – due to moving & stopping of truss itself.
• The movement of truss & crab will not happen simultaneously i.e. when truss is
moving, crab will be at rest & vice-versa. i.e longitudinal & lateral loads will not
act simultaneously.
• Channel over the Gantry Girder increases the stiffness of compression flange of
gantry Girder i.e. it will increase the lateral buckling strength of the gantry
girder.
• if cat wall or diaphragm is used, channel section in effectively restrained against
lateral movement hence, there is no possibility of buckling of the compression
flange. so the max permissible bending compressive stress is given by σbc=0.66
fy
• Generally, cat walls are welded to the channel section throughout its length.
• Channel section does not provide any tensional restraint to the gantry girder
because it is not connected to the web. to provided the torsional restraint to the
Gantry Girder, web stiffeners must be used(either in the form of web cleat or
vertical stiffeners.
• Since, Gantry Girders are subjected to moving loads, impact factor should also
be considered.
• Generally, due to impact, additional loads are
(a) For vertical loads
1. 25% of static wheel load for electrically operated cranes
 2. 10 of static wheel load for manually operated cranes.

(B) For longitudinal & lateral loads = 5% of static wheel load.

fig : - Gantry Girder

Plate Girders

1). when built up beam are not used, plate girders are capable to withstand the
applied load effectively.

2). plate girder consists of flange plates, flange angles & web plate.

3). Compression flange consist of a flange plate, flange angle & a web equivalent
(portion of web embedded of web embedded b/w the flange angles).

Web equivalent =
1
6
× 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑏
=6 Aw
1

4). Tension flange consists of flange plates, flange angle & web equivalent.

Web equivalent =
1
× 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑏
8

= 8Aw➔ Learn
1

5). It is assumed that B.M. is taken by compression & tension flanges whereas shear
force is taken by web.

6). To ensure that, shear force is taken by web only, a gap of 5 mm is provided b/w
flange plate & web plate so that direct bearing action b.w them is avoided. Load is
transferred from flange angle to web plate through rives only.

7). The flange angles should be such that they should form at least 𝑟𝑑 of total flange
1
3

area (either compression flange or tension flange).

8). width of outstand in compression zone

b ≯ 16 tf

b ≯
256𝑡𝑓
√𝑓𝑦

9). width of outstand in tension zone = b ≯ 20 tf

10). For resisting the shear, depth of only web is taken into consideration (not overall
depth of plate Girder)

𝜏va1cat = ≯ 0.4 fy
𝑉
𝑑𝑤 𝑡𝑤

𝑓𝑦
≯1.1 [LSM]
11). The economical depth of plate girder is given by

deconomical = 1.1
√𝑀
𝜎𝑏𝑐 ×𝑡𝑤

Note :- Economical depth means depth of plate girder which corresponds to min
weight but not min. cost.

12. self weight of the plate girder is given by = 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑/300

13. max. Permissible bending compressive stress in plte girder is given by:

σbc = 0.66 fy

0.66𝑓𝑐𝑏𝑓𝑦
= 1 min.
𝑛 +𝑓 𝑛 )𝑛
(𝑓𝑐𝑏 𝑦

14. if < 85 → Vertical stiffeners are not provided because there is no possibility of
𝑑1
𝑡𝑤

buckling of web due to shear.

15. if > 85 ➔ vertical stiffeners are provided to prevent buckling of web due to
𝑑1
𝑡𝑤

diagonal compression.
16). Angle (ISA) or flats (ISF) are used as horizontal & vertical stiffeners.

17). unequal angle sections are used as flange angles to get more bearing area.
longer leg is connected to flange plates

18) if𝑡 1 > 200 ➔ Horizontal stiffeners are all provided above the neutral axis. these
𝑑
𝑤

horizontal stiffeners prevents buckling of web due to bending compressive stresses.

19). Under concentrated loads, vertical stiffeners are provided. these stiffeners are
called as load bearing stiffeners. load bearing stiffeners present web crippling due to
excessive bearing stresses.

d1 = clear depth of web b/w flange angels.

20). if . 250 → Additional horizontal stiffeners are provided at neutral axis. These
𝑑1
𝑡𝑤

stiffeners present the buckling of web b/w vertical stiffeners due to more shear force.

21). if > 400 ➔ section must be redesigned or use truss girders in the place of
𝑑1
𝑡𝑤

plate girders.

21). after providing all the stiffeners, the min, clear panel dimension shall not be more

than 180 tw& greater clear panel dimension shall not be more than 270 t w.
Design of end bearing stiffeners

1). they are always designed as columns with both end fixed such that effective length
= 0.7 l1

Where l1 = length of bearing stiffener.

2). the cross sectional area of imaginary column is taken as cross sectional area of
web plate & angles whose length is equal to 40tw.

3). since Bearing stiffeners are designed as columns, they should be purely vertical &
should not be joggled (they should not be bent to touch the web plate). the gap b/w
bearing stiffener.. & web plate must be filled using filler plate.

4). purpose of filler plate is to only fill the gap it cannot take any load.

5). if the bearing stiffeners are only means of providing torsional restrained moment of
inertia of bearing stiffeners about neutral axis level should not be less than.

𝐷3 𝑇
x
𝑅
250 𝑊
R = Reaction

T = Max. Thickness of flange

W = Total load including self on plate girder.

D = overall depth of plate girder.

Design of vertical stiffeners

1). they are used to prevent buckling of web due to shear i.e. diagonal compression.

2). these stiffeners are not designed as column; hence they can be joggled i.e they
can be bent to touch the web plate.

3). filler plate is not req.

4). min spacing of vertical stiffeners = 0.3 d1

5). the max. spacing of vertical stiffeners = 1.5 d1

Simply supported roof truss can be idealized as simply supported beam

Top members – under compression

Bottom members = under tension

Load on roof trusses

1). the self weight of roof truss is calculated as +

𝑙 6𝑘𝑔
3 𝑚2

Where l = span of truss

2). live load on roof truss

a). 𝚹<10o➔ live load = 0.75 kN/m2

b). 𝚹> 10o➔ live load = 0.75 – 0.02 kN/m2for every increase in degree of slope over
10o.

eg. 𝚹 = 15o

L.L = 0.75 – 0.022 x 5 = 0.65 kN/m2

3). snow load

= 2.5 kN/m2 for 1 mm depth of snow

𝚹>50o➔ not considered.

1). purlins are used to support the roof covering material.

2). purlins are designed as beams.

3). they are provided only at the joints of trusses

4). thruss members are subjected either to tension or compression only. if pulins are
provided at intermediate locations, truss members may bend & it will not be called as
truss.

5). depth of purlin shall not be less than

𝑙
45

(≮)

6). width of purling ≮60

𝑙

𝑊𝑙 𝑧
7). purlins are designed as contiguous beam hence, max B.M. in the purlin =
10

Note :- Raft foundation (mat) & continuous beams are also designed for max. B.M. of
𝑊𝑙 𝑧
10

8). The max permissible bending compressive stress in pulins = 0.66 fy

Note : -

1. if span of pulin is more, B.M. & deflection will be more. to reduce excessive B.M
deflection, sag roods or sag ties are used.

2). sag rods are always provided in the plane of the roof.

3). trusses can resist in plane loads only & they cannot resist out plane loads. to
resist the out plane loads, bracing is provided in the trusses.

4). in plane loads are the forces acting in the plane of truss in horizontal & vertical
direction effectively.

5). out plane loads are the forces acting parallel to the ridge line.