Mathematical Induction

and Recursion

COMP 251

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 Goals
• To define the Principle of Mathematical
Induction.
• To provide examples of it’s application to N
and Z+.
• To demonstrate the relationship between the
Principle of Mathematical Induction and
recursive sets.
• To introduce recursion from a mathematical
perspective.
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Textbook

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Consider the Sum of n Positive Integers

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Consider the Sum of n Positive Integers
A Geometric Proof

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Consider the Sum of n Positive Integers

We require a formal proof technique for Z+ rather than a geometric proof.

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 We Begin With
The Well-Ordering Principle

mZ+ nZ+ (m  n)
Every nonempty subset of Z+ contains a smallest element.

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 We Begin With
The Well-Ordering Principle

mZ+ nZ+ (m  n)
Every nonempty subset of Z+ contains a smallest element.

This is equivalent to PMI

(The Principle of Mathematical Induction)

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 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

Basic idea:
• Two steps
1. The first domino falls.
2. When any domino falls, the next one will fall too.

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 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

P{P(1)  kZ+[P(k)  P(k+1)]}  nZ+P(n)

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 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

P{P(1)  kZ+[P(k)  P(k+1)]}  nZ+P(n)

ALGORITHM (viewed as three steps):

1. Verify P(1) is true – BASIS STEP (BS)
2. Assume nP(n) – INDUCTIVE HYPOTHESIS (IH)
3. Verify P(k)  P(k+1) kZ+ - INDUCTIVE STEP (IS)

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 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

THIS IS REPEATED APPLICATIONS OF MODUS PONENS

P(1) BS
P(k)  P(k+1) kZ+ IS
P(n) nZ+P(n)

P(1)
P(1)  P(2)
P(2)
P(2)  P(3)
P(3)
…

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The Sum of the First n Integers

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The Sum of the First n Integers

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The Sum of the First n Integers

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The Sum of the First n Integers

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Sum of Even Positive Integers

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Sum of Even Positive Integers

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Sum of Even Positive Integers

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 Sum of Even Positive Integers

QED

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Sum of Squares

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Sum of Squares

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Sum of Squares

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Sum of Squares

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Geometric Series

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Geometric Series

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Geometric Series

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Geometric Series

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Factorial vs. Exponential Dominance

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Factorial vs. Exponential Dominance

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Factorial vs. Exponential Dominance

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Factorial vs. Exponential Dominance

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Factorial vs. Exponential Dominance

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Recursion

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 Definition
• Recursion occurs when a thing is defined in
terms of itself or of its type.
• Recursion in computing science is a method
where the solution to a problem depends on
solutions to smaller instances of the same
problem (as opposed to iteration) itself or of
its type.

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Recursively Defined Functions

Classic example – the Factorial Function:

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

Read Maryam’s Recursion PDF

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

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Recursively Defined Methods in Java

Every call to the method creates a new set of local

variables (Stack Frame)! 42
Recursively Defined Methods in Java

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Iteratively Defined Factorial

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 Recursively Defined Sequences
Consider a physical process in which a given population, x, doubles over a
particular time, t:

xt+1 = kxt

The process requires an initial condition:

x0 = a 0
This is known as a recursive set (a relation that is defined in terms of
smaller units of itself and requiring a condition to get it started).

This is the discrete description of exponential growth/decay.

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 Recursively Defined Sequences
Reproducing rabbits – The Fibonacci Sequence

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 Recursively Defined Sequences
Recall reproducing rabbits – The Fibonacci Sequence

Recursive f1=1, f2=1,

Set fn = fn-1 + fn-2
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 Recursively Defined Sequences

Fibonacci numbers appear

throughout nature

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 Is there an Biological Basis for
Beauty?

The Golden Ratio (Fibonacci Numbers)

where is the golden ratio. 51

Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod, obeying the following rules:
• Only one disk may be moved at a time.
• Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another
rod, on top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.
• No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

Hn-1 + 1

2Hn-1 + 1
Hn-1
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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

“Open form expression”

“Closed form expression”

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Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi

Require Proof
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 Recursive Sets – Tower of Hanoi
• The minimum number Hn of moves required to transfer a tower of n disks satisfies
the open form expression, Hn = 2Hn-1 + 1 n>1 with H1 = 1 (one move for the case
of one disk).
• We want to prove the closed form expression, Hn = 2n – 1 nZ+.

• PROOF (by PMI):

– BS, n=1: H1 = 1 = 21 – 1 =1 (OK)
– IH: Assume Hn = 2n – 1 kZ+.
– IS:
Hn+1 = 2Hn + 1 Derive the (n+1)st step from the nth step.
= 2[2n – 1] + 1 Apply the IH.
= 2n+1 – 2 + 1 Basic algebra.
= 2n+1 – 1
QED

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How Many Moves For 64 Disks?

The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod, obeying the following rules:
• Only one disk may be moved at a time.
• Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another
rod, on top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.
• No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

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How Many Moves For 64 Disks?

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 Recursion
• We see how the Principle of Mathematical
Induction lends itself naturally to recursion
(initial condition/base step and recursive
step/inductive step).

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 Recursion
• We see how the Principle of Mathematical
Induction lends itself naturally to recursion
(initial condition/base step and recursive
step/inductive step).
• Some computer programs are recursive in
nature and, hence, can be proven correct
using the PMI.

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 Recursion
• We see how the Principle of Mathematical
Induction lends itself naturally to recursion
(initial condition/base step and recursive
step/inductive step).
• Some computer programs are recursive in
nature and, hence, can be proven correct
using the PMI.
• You are responsible for Maryam’s PDF.

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 Stackoverflow

• Also, please read the following discussion:

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/23932519/java-recursion-example

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END PRESENTATION

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