Part 1

Introduction
to marketing
communications
Part 1 is concerned with establishing the scope and contextual aspects of marketing com-
munications. It provides an underpinning for the other chapters in this book.

Chapter 1 provides an introductory perspective on marketing communications and sets out

some of the key concepts. From a consideration of the scope, role and tasks of marketing
communications it explores ideas associated with engagement and the way the marketing
communications mix is configured.

Chapter 2 explores issues concerning communications theory. In particular it examines a

range of theoretical interpretations and communications that reflect developments in the
media and the way marketing communications is thought to work. In addition, this chapter
highlights the influence of people, their behaviour and the interactional elements within
the communications process.

Chapter 3 is concerned with two main aspects of audience behaviour. The first considers
traditional, academic approaches to the way audiences process marketing communica-
tions messages and the purchase decisions and behaviour that can follow. It also explores
more contemporary approaches, such as those based on behavioural economics and tribal
consumption.

The final chapter in this part introduces ideas about how marketing communications might
work. Rather than trust a single approach, five separate approaches are presented. These
reflect the diverse thinking and developing knowledge about how marketing communica-
tions might work. These five are the sequential, attitude, relationship, significant value, and
cognitive processing approaches.

Chapter 1 Introducing marketing communications

Chapter 2 Communications: forms and conversations

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 2 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Chapter 3 Audience insight: information processing and behaviour

Chapter 4 How marketing communications might work

For readers with access to the companion website that accompanies this book, there are
supplementary chapters, drawn from previous editions, available in PDF form.

Understanding how customers process information

Customer decision-making

Ethics in marketing communications

Shareholders: supply chains and inter-organisational relationships

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 Chapter 1
Introducing marketing
communications

Marketing communications is concerned with the methods, processes, meanings, percep-

tions and actions that audiences (consumers and organisations) undertake with regard
to the presentation, consideration and actions associated with products, services and
brands.

Aims and learning objectives

The primary aim of this chapter is to introduce some of the key concepts associated
with marketing communications. In addition, readers are encouraged to consider the
scope and purpose of marketing communications, and to develop an appreciation of
the key characteristics of the communications mix.

The learning objectives are to enable readers to:

1. understand the concept of exchange and how it impacts marketing communications;

2. discuss the scope, role and tasks of marketing communications;
3. explore ideas about how marketing communications can be used to engage
audiences;
4. define marketing communications and examine ways in which the environment
can influence the use of marketing communications;
5. appraise the nature and characteristics of the marketing communications mix;
6. evaluate the reasons why the configuration of the marketing communications
mix varies.

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 4 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Sensodyne Pronamel
Sensodyne Pronamel is a toothpaste designed to help their patients about acid wear, so there was no one
protect against the problem of acid wear. This occurs raising awareness of the condition. In addition, people
when enamel, the toughest substance in the body, thought they were doing enough already in terms of
starts to soften and weaken as a result of the acids brushing, flossing and rinsing, and no one wants to
in our diet. Weakened and worn enamel can lead to hear bad news.
thinning, yellow enamel and chipped teeth. If allowed To achieve the 4 per cent market share that we
to worsen, cracks can appear in the enamel, and there needed to be commercially viable, and overcome the
can be sensitivity pain through the exposure of under- communications hurdles, we created a two-phase
lying dentine. Enamel can’t grow back – once it’s gone, launch campaign. The first was to create condition
it’s gone. Acid wear can’t be fixed with fillings. Serious awareness and educate about the causes. The second
sufferers can require complicated and expensive den- was to establish relevancy, both in terms of helping
tistry such as porcelain veneers. consumers identify with the problem, and establish
One in three young adults have early signs of acid Pronamel as the solution.
wear due to acids in their diets at a time when cavities
have been falling. The main reason for this increase in
the prevalence of acid wear is the cultural shift to an Campaign phase 1: Condition
increased consumption of healthy foods and drinks,
many of which are acidic.
awareness (2006–2009)
Since fluoride toothpaste first gained medical In order to protect people from acid wear, we had to
approval for the prevention of cavities in 1955, there let them know it existed. To achieve this we commu-
have been many developments in format, taste and nicated directly with dentists, educating them about
active ingredients, but only three distinct new cat- acid wear and Sensodyne Pronamel’s unique formula-
egories: sensitivity (1961); gum health (1968); and tion. We did this using clear, instructional leaflets and
whitening (1989). The launch of Sensodyne Pronamel ads in dentistry industry titles, plus visits by Senso-
introduced a fourth category: enamel protect. dyne representatives.
Sensodyne Pronamel allows minerals to penetrate Once the ground had been prepared, we commu-
deep into a weakened enamel surface, strengthen it, nicated with consumers to educate them about acid
and help prevent further enamel loss. Being a daily wear. We did not want to scare them as this could
toothpaste, it also cleans, freshens breath and pre- have generated cynicism, and comments such as ‘Of
vents cavities. As it is from Sensodyne, it also relieves course they say it’s serious, they have a toothpaste
sensitivity. to sell.’ To establish the credibility of the condition
The launch of Sensodyne Pronamel was far from people needed to hear real dentists (not actors)
straightforward, however, as there were some serious provide authoritative, expert and independent rec-
communications challenges. These included the fact ommendations. These opinion formers never used
that acid wear is invisible at first so there are no visual scripts, and were not paid, so their endorsement was
cues for consumers. Second, dentists weren’t telling genuine. We enhanced credibility by inviting people

Campaign phase 1 Campaign phase 2

2006–2009 2010–2013

Condition
Relevancy
awareness

Audience 1 Audience 2 Audience

dentists consumers healthy balancers

Role: Create awareness that Role: Create understanding that

there is a condition called acid acid wear is caused by healthy
wear diets and affects you

Figure 1.1 The Structure of the Sensodyne Pronamel Campaign

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 5

to not just take our word for it, but to ask their own public health announcement. Second, its broad reach
dentist about it. also allowed dentists to oversee consumer activity,
Early stage acid wear is difficult to show, so we cre- underlining acid wear’s importance to their patients.
ated The Torch Test. It’s a visually impactful demon- After three years competitors began to launch
stration of the truth that only dentists can see early their own versions, yet despite their global size, they
signs such as translucent enamel. lacked our experience in this new market. Many made
We weighted the media mix towards television for mistakes on entry, such as the shock tactics used by
several reasons. First, television gave the feel of a Colgate Sensitive Enamel Protect which demonised

Exhibit 1.1 Long-copy print to provide consumers hints for starting conversations with their dentist
Source: Grey Group 2011 all rights reserved.

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 6 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

healthy food and drinks, literally sounding a warning

siren over their images. Having been in this market
a little longer, we knew this approach would lead to
resistance and cynicism.

Campaign phase 2: Creating

relevancy
Having established strong levels of awareness our
next task was to make this knowledge relevant
to consumers. Three opportunities to protect and
cement Sensodyne’s lead were identified.
Although awareness of acid wear was good, non-
buyers of Enamel Protect toothpaste simply didn’t
think the condition affected them personally. We had
to make it relevant. Rather than spread ourselves
thin with a broad audience, a segmentation study
identified a sizable group called ‘healthy balancers’.
They have healthy diets and lifestyles and are highly
engaged in oral health. These people were not only
the most at risk, but also the most likely to act.
We wanted to engage people through their love
of healthy food, and this was achieved by positioning
Sensodyne Pronamel as a facilitator. The brand allows
them to continue to enjoy their aspirational healthy
lifestyles, worry free.
Dentists were encouraged to explain to their
patients how healthy diets lead to acid wear. Televi-
sion remained our lead medium, but we now included
real consumers (opinion leaders) in our the ads, to
reinforce the news that healthy diets cause acid wear.
We extended the media mix to reach healthy balanc-
ers when they were considering or consuming acidic
foods or drinks. These relevant times included in and
around gyms, in the aisles of acidic food and drink in
supermarkets, and in the lifestyle press.
In just 7 years, the new Enamel Protect category
has become a significant sector in the toothpaste
market. Econometrics shows that the UK campaign
contributed approximately 30 per cent to the total
revenue of the Sensodyne Pronamel brand and
helped launch the Enamel Protect category, worth
over £32 million. The campaign required significant
investment, as the total media spend (including pro-
duction costs) was £9.8 million in Phase 1 and £7.2
million in Phase 2.

This case was written by Rachel Walker, Planning Sensodyne, Pronamel

and the rings device are registered trade marks of the GlaxoSmithKline group of companies.

Director at Grey London

Questions relating to this case can be found at the Exhibit 1.2 A Sensodyne Pronamel yoga mat
end of this chapter. Source: Grey Group 2011 all rights reserved.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 7

Exhibit 1.3 Banner ad

Source: Grey Group 2011 all rights reserved.

Introduction
Have you ever considered how organisations use communications to reach and engage
with their various audiences? Organisations such as Sensodyne, whose campaign to
launch Sensodyne Pronamel, presented above, and others as diverse as Kraft Heinz
company and the Wei-Chuan Food Corporation, Google and Samsung, Delta Airlines
and Air China, Oxfam and Médecins Sans Frontières, and the Swedish and Singapore
governments, all use marketing communications in different ways, to achieve different
goals, and to pursue their marketing and business objectives. The aim of this book is
to help people, just like you, to explore the various academic and practitioner views of
marketing communications.
The opening sentence contains the word ‘engage’. ‘Engagement’ refers to the nature
of the communications that can occur between people, and between people and technol-
ogy. There is no universally agreed definition of the term ‘engagement’, and it is used in
many different contexts. Marketing communications is closely aligned to an educational
context and Li et al. (2014) refer to three types of engagement taken from a learning per-
spective. These are cognitive, relational and behavioural engagement. Cognitive engage-
ment refers to the degree to which individuals are engrossed and intellectually involved
in what they are learning (messages). Relational engagement refers to the extent to which
individuals feel connected with their environment, whilst behavioural engagement reflects
the extent to which individuals feel involved and participate in activities.
All three of these forms of engagement are relevant to marketing communications.
Here engagement refers to a range of communications events used first to expose, and
then sometimes to capture the attention, captivate and then enable interaction with an
audience. It is often achieved through a blend of intellectual and emotional content.

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 8 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Engagement may last seconds, such as the impact of a stunning ad, the sight of a beauti-
ful person, or the emotion brought on by a panoramic view, or what a piece of music
might bring to an individual. Alternatively, engagement may be protracted and last
hours, days, weeks, months or years, depending on the context and the level of enjoy-
ment or loyalty felt towards the event, object or person.
Organisations such as Apple and Google, John Lewis and Aldi, HSBC and Santander,
Haier and LG, Samsung and Sony, Ryanair and easyJet, Chanel and L’Oréal, Boeing
and Airbus, Oxfam and Shelter, and Merlin and Disney all operate across different sec-
tors, markets and countries and use a variety of marketing communications activities
to engage with their various audiences. These audiences consist not only of people who
buy their products and services but also of people and organisations who might be able
to influence them, who might help and support them by providing, for example, labour,
finance, manufacturing facilities, distribution outlets and legal advice or who are inter-
ested because of their impact on parts of society or the business sector in particular.
The organisations mentioned earlier are all well-known brand names, but there are
hundreds of thousands of smaller organisations that also use marketing communications
to engage their audiences. Each of these organisations, large and small, is part of a network
of companies, suppliers, retailers, wholesalers, value-added resellers, distributors and other
retailers, which join together, often freely, so that each can achieve its own goals.
The structure of this chapter is as follows. First there is a consideration of the ideas
associated with exchange that underpin marketing principles and, of course, marketing
communications. We then consider the scope, role and tasks of marketing communi-
cations, which includes defining marketing communications. This is followed by an
introduction to the elements that constitute the marketing communications mix, before
concluding with a view of the key differences between marketing communications used
in consumer and business markets.

The concept of marketing

as an exchange
The concept of exchange, according to most marketing academics and practitioners, is
central to our understanding of marketing. For an exchange to take place there must
be two or more parties, each of whom can offer something of value to the other and
who are prepared to enter freely into the exchange process, a transaction. It is generally
accepted that there are two main forms of exchange: transactional and relational (or
collaborative) exchanges.
Transactional (or market) exchanges (Bagozzi, 1978; Houston and Gassenheimer,
1987) occur independently of any previous or subsequent exchanges. They have a short-
term orientation and are primarily motivated by self-interest. When a consumer buys
a ‘meal’ from a burger van they have not used before, then a market exchange can be
identified. Burger and chips in exchange for money. In contrast to this, collaborative
exchanges have a longer-term orientation and develop between parties who wish to
build and maintain long-term supportive relationships (Dwyer et al., 1987). So, when
someone frequents the same burger van on a regular basis, perhaps on their way home
after lectures, or an evening’s entertainment, increasingly relational or collaborative
exchanges can be considered to be taking place.
These two types of exchange represent the extremes in a spectrum of exchange trans-
actions. This spectrum of exchanges, as depicted in Figure 1.2, is underpinned by rela-
tional theory. This means that elements of a relationship can be observed in all exchanges

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 9

Figure 1.2 A spectrum of marketing exchanges

(Macneil, 1983). Relationships become stronger as the frequency of exchanges increases. As

exchanges become more frequent the intensity of the relationship strengthens, so that the
focus is no longer on the product or price within the exchange but on the relationship itself.
In industrial societies transactional exchanges have tended to dominate commercial
transactions, although recently there has been a substantial movement towards estab-
lishing collaborative exchanges. In other words, a variety of exchanges occurs, and each
organisation has a portfolio of differing types of exchange that it maintains with different
customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Communications can be considered in terms
of oil in that they lubricate these exchanges and enable them to function. However, just
as different types of oil are necessary to lubricate different types of equipment, so differ-
ent types of communications are necessary to engage with different audiences.
Collaborative exchanges form the basis of the ideas represented in relationship mar-
keting. Many organisations use the principles of relationship marketing manifest in the
form of customer relationship marketing or loyalty marketing programmes. However, it
is important to note that short-term relationships are also quite common and a necessary
dimension of organisational exchange. This book is developed on the broad spectrum of
relationships that organisations develop directly with other organisations and consum-
ers, and indirectly on a consumer-to-consumer and inter-organisational basis.

Marketing communications
and the process of exchange
The exchange process is developed and managed by:
● researching customer/stakeholder needs;
● identifying, selecting and targeting particular groups of customers/stakeholders who
share similar discriminatory characteristics, including needs and wants;
● developing an offering that satisfies the identified needs at an acceptable price, which
is available through particular sets of distribution channels;
● making the target audience aware of the existence of the offering. Where competition
or other impediments to positive consumer action exist, such as lack of motivation
or conviction, a promotional programme is developed and used to communicate with
the targeted group.

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 10 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Collectively, these activities constitute the marketing mix (the ‘4Ps’ as the originator of
the term, McCarthy (1960), referred to them), and the basic task of marketing is to com-
bine these 4Ps into a marketing programme to facilitate the exchange process. The use of
the 4Ps approach has been criticised for limiting the scope of the marketing manager. The
assumption by McCarthy was that the tools of the marketing mix allow adaptation to the
uncontrollable external environment. It is now seen that the external environment can be
influenced and managed strategically, and the rise and influence of the service sector is not
easily accommodated within the original 4Ps. To do this, additional Ps such as processes,
physical evidence, people and even political power have been suggested. The essence of the
mix, however, remains the same: namely, that it is product-focused and reflects an inside/
out mentality; that is, inside the organisation looking out on the world (or customer). This
deterministic approach has raised concerns about its usefulness in a marketing environ-
ment that is so different from that which existed when the 4Ps concept was conceived.
Promotion is one of the elements of the marketing mix and is responsible for com-
municating the marketing offer to the target market. While recognising that there are
implicit and important communications through the other elements of the marketing mix
(through a high price, for example, symbolic of high quality), it is the task of a planned
and integrated set of communications activities to communicate effectively with each of
an organisation’s stakeholder groups.
At a fundamental level it is possible to interpret the use of marketing communica-
tions in two different ways. One of these ways concerns the attempt to develop brand
values. Historically, advertising has been used to focus on establishing a set of feelings,
emotions and beliefs about a brand or organisation. In this way brand communications
used to help consumers think positively about a brand, helping them to remember and
develop positive brand attitudes in the hope that, when they are ready to buy that type
of product again, Brand x will be chosen because of the positive feelings, or absence of
any serious negative feelings.
The other and perhaps more contemporary use of marketing communications is to
help shape behaviour, rather than feelings. In an age where short-term results and mana-
gerial accountability are increasingly critical, investment in brands is geared to achieve
a fast return on investment (ROI). This does not allow space and resources to build
positive attitudes towards brands. Now the urgency is to encourage people to behave
differently. This might be by driving them to a website, buying the product or making
a telephone call. This behaviour change can be driven by using messages that provide
audiences with a reason to act – or what is referred to as a ‘call-to-action’.
So, on the one hand communications can be used to develop brand feelings and on the
other to change or manage the behaviour of the target audience. These are not mutually
exclusive: for example, many television advertisements are referred to as direct-response
ads because, not only do they attempt to create brand values, but they also carry a web-
site address, telephone number or details of a special offer (sales promotion). In other
words, the two goals can be mixed into one – a hybrid approach.

The scope of marketing

communications
At a basic level marketing communications, or ‘promotion’ as it was originally known,
is used to communicate elements of an organisation’s offering to a target audience.
This offer might refer to a product, a service or the organisation itself as it tries to build

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 11

Figure 1.3 The scope of marketing communications

Source: From Redefining the nature and format of the marketing communications mix,
The Marketing Review, 7 (1), 45-57 (Hughes, G. and Fill, C. 2007), reproduced by
­permission of Westburn Publishers Ltd.

its reputation. However, this represents a broad view of marketing communications

and fails to incorporate the various issues, dimensions and elements that make up this
important communications activity. Duncan and Moriarty (1997) and Gronroos (2004)
suggest that in addition to these ‘planned’ events there are marketing communications
experienced by audiences relating to both their experience from using products (how
tasty is this smoothie?) and the consumption of services (just how good was the service
in that hotel, restaurant or at the airport?). In addition to these there are communications
arising from unplanned or unintended brand-related experiences (empty stock shelves
or accidents). These dimensions of marketing communications are all represented in
Figure 1.3 (Hughes and Fill, 2007).
Figure 1.3 helps demonstrate the breadth of the subject and the complexity associated
with the way audiences engage with a brand. Although useful in terms of providing an
overview, this framework requires elaboration in order to appreciate the detail associ-
ated with each of the elements, especially planned marketing communications. This book
builds on this framework and in particular considers issues associated with both planned
and unplanned aspects of marketing communications.
Planned marketing communications incorporates three key elements: tools, media and
content (messages). The main communications tools are advertising, sales promotion,
public relations, direct marketing, personal selling and added-value approaches such as
sponsorship, exhibitions and field marketing. Content can be primarily informative or
emotional but is usually a subtle blend of both dimensions, reflecting the preferences
and needs of the target audience. To help get these messages through to their audiences,
organisations have three main routes:
● They can pay for the use of particular media that they know their target audiences
will use – for example, magazines, websites or television programmes.
● They can use their own assets to convey messages, such as their buildings, employees,
vehicles and websites, which they do not have to pay to use.

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 12 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

● They can encourage people to talk and share ideas about their brand, often through
social media, which involves relatively little cost.
In reality brands use a mixture of these three routes.
Unplanned marketing communications involves messages that have not been antici-
pated. These may be both positive and negative, but the emphasis is on how the organ-
isation reacts to and manages the meaning attributed by audiences. So, comments by
third-party experts, changes in legislation or regulations by government, the actions
of competitors, failures in the production or distribution processes or – perhaps the
most potent of all communications – word-of-mouth comments between customers,
all impact on the way in which organisations and brands are perceived and the images
and reputations that are developed. Many leading organisations recognise the influ-
ence of word-of-mouth communications and actively seek to shape the nature, timing
and speed with which it occurs. This topic is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
Increasingly, interactive media, and the Internet in particular, are used to ‘talk’ with
current, potential and lapsed customers and other stakeholders. See Viewpoint 1.1
for an example of planned and service experienced-based communications not in
equilibrium.

Viewpoint 1.1 The right scope for a new sports channel

In 2013 BT spent £738 million over three years for the rights to screen 38 live Premier League matches a
season. BT had previously bought up the rights to show Premiership Rugby as well as many other sports.
This was all part of its battle with Sky who had moved into BT’s telephony and broadband domain in 2006.
BT Sport represented their move into Sky’s sporting territory, with a view to winning the triple-play mar-
ket, namely the bundling of television, telephone and broadband.
Building awareness for the new sports channel featured the use of outdoor media across the UK.
Sky used the recently retired David Beckham while BT featured Manchester United’s Robin van Persie,
Manchester City’s Joe Hart and Tottenham’s Gareth Bale. In addition BT used its ‘Name that Team’
competition. This required fans to locate and name the 44 sports teams hidden in visual clues in an
illustration.
This activity raised interest, shaped expectations of the services to be experienced and stimulated
people to become subscribers. Unfortunately some customers were disappointed that their ser-
vice expectations were not realised. Some customers were confused because BT Sport was initially
free on BT TV, but was subsequently encrypted. Consequently there was a surge in the number of
complaints at around the time of the launch of the sports channel. In particular these related to BT
TV’s service issues and complaints handling. According to the media regulator Ofcom, the rate of
complaints per 1,000 subscribers was more than 10 times that at Virgin and more than 20 times the
rate at Sky.
BT were quick to apologise to their customers, suggesting that the high volume of interest in their
services, and their attempt to support multiple TV platforms in a very short space of time were partly to
blame for the issues. No doubt the intensive awareness campaign didn’t help matters.

Source: Based on Adie (2013); Anon (2013); Brignall (2013); Staff (2013).

Question: How does this reflect an imbalance in the scope of BT TV’s marketing communications?
Find another campaign where the balance across the four scoping elements might not
Task: 
have been as planned.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 13

The role of marketing

communications
Organisations communicate with a variety of audiences in order to pursue their market-
ing and business objectives. Marketing communications can be used to engage with a
variety of audiences and in such a way that meets the needs of the audience. Messages
should encourage individuals to respond to the focus organisation (or product/brand).
This response can be immediate through, for example, purchase behaviour or the use of
customer-support lines, or it can be deferred as information is assimilated and considered
for future use. Even if the information is discarded at a later date, the communications
will have attracted attention and consideration of the message.
The reason to use marketing communications may vary according to the prevailing
situation or context but the essential goal is to provoke an audience response. For Ros-
siter and Percy (2013: 392) this response is only about selling products and services.
They see the role of advertising as unquestionably about selling ‘more of the branded
product or service, or to achieve a higher price that consumers are willing to pay than
would obtain in the absence of advertising’.
To get to the point of purchase, however, several communications effects may need
to have been achieved. So, the response might be geared to developing brand values,
attitudes, preferences, and the positive thoughts an individual might have about a brand.
This is grounded in a ‘thinking and feeling orientation’, a combination of both cognitive
thoughts and emotional feelings about a brand.
Another type of response might be one that stimulates an audience to act in particular
ways. Referred to as ‘behavioural’ or sometimes ‘brand response’, the goal is to ‘encour-
age particular audience behaviours’. For example, these might include trying a piece of
cheese in a supermarket, encouraging visits to a website, sampling a piece of music, plac-
ing orders and paying for goods and services, sharing information with a friend, register-
ing on a network, opening letters, signing a petition or calling a number. Brands with a
Facebook presence can utilise call-to-action buttons. These link to any destination on
or off Facebook and include: Book Now, Contact Us, Use App, Play Game, Shop Now,
Sign Up, and Watch Video. All of these are an integral part of an engagement strategy
(Anon, 2014a). Figure 1.4 depicts the two key drivers of engagement.
Apart from generating cash flows, the underlying purpose of these responses can be
considered to be a strategic function of developing relationships with particular audi-
ences and/or for (re)positioning brands. For example, marketing communications at

Figure 1.4 The two key drivers of engagement

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 1.3, p. 10, reproduced by permission of Pearson Education Ltd.

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 14 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Magners, the drinks brand, used to be based on communicating product information.

One campaign featured Magners set in a timeless idyll and conveyed messages about
the brand being made in the dark, that the apples were soundly pressed, and that they
required the pollination of 17 varieties of apple.
Willifer (2013) reports that this strategy shifted to one founded on dramatising the
emotional benefits. A brand representative/narrator was depicted visiting various contem-
porary Irish bars, urging viewers through rhyming couplets to embrace all things ‘Now’.
The endline is ‘Now is a good time’. The word ‘Now’, according to Willifer, refers to
being spontaneous and embracing opportunities as they arise, going with the flow. It also
means modern, not historic, with both representing the new associations audiences should
make with the brand. Magners changed the way audiences engaged with the brand.
Engagement, therefore, can be considered to be a function of two forms of response. The
quality of engagement cannot be determined, but it can be argued that marketing communi-
cations should be based on driving a particular type of response that captivates an individual.
For example, Petplan used television to develop new brand values and then switched to
behavioural advertising to drive responses to call centres and their website. This activity was
supported with an online competition via Facebook, inviting pet owners to join in with the
campaign and to submit a photo of their pet to form the basis of a user-generated version
of the advert. Over 28,000 owners entered their pets into the Facebook competition, dem-
onstrating not only their positive feelings towards the campaign, but also a growing affinity
with the Petplan brand (see the case study at the start of Chapter 6 for more information).
Where engagement occurs, an individual might be said to have been positively captivated
and, as a result, opportunities for activity should increase. Engagement acts as a bridge, a
mechanism through which brands and organisations link with target audiences and through
which the goals of all parties can be achieved. In other words, there is mutual value.
An extension of the engagement process can be seen in the way many brands now
focus on developing customer experiences. This requires linking together the various
points at which customers interact with brands so that there is consistency in their brand
experiences. Today there is a multitude of media channels which represents a major chal-
lenge for those seeking to interlink their communications. For example, many retailers
attempt to manage the multichannel environment but do so by treating each channel as
an independent entity, a silo approach.
Some retailers have moved to a customer-centric focus and have tried to link the chan-
nels so that customer perception of the brand is less disjointed and more consistent with
the desired perceptions (Patel, 2012). For example, Poletti and Viccars (2013) report that
the upmarket supermarket brand Waitrose uses an iPhone app to bring together functional
activities such as recipes, shopping lists and wine matching, with customer publishing
and magazines, social media communities, and YouTube and TV channels, all anchored
by celebrity chef ambassadors (see Viewpoint 1.2 for another example of this approach).

Viewpoint 1.2 Experience Victoria’s Secret in store

In view of the growing trend towards multichannel retailing and online sales the design of Victoria’s
Secret’s (VS) flagship store in New Bond Street, London, needed to incorporate a digital experience.
The store, set over four floors, features elaborately carved mouldings, ornate decorative painting
and custom Murano glass chandeliers, all of which suggest lavishness and splendour. However, it is the
use of multimedia technology that provides flexibility around this base to create memorable customer
experiences throughout a visit. These experiences cannot be replicated online, but do provide consist-
ency in every channel. By introducing multimedia to a store experience a very different level of customer
engagement is developed.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 15

The focal point is a giant two-storey

HD LCD video wall, which is reflected
into the mirrored hallway. The content,
which is changed frequently, features
live feeds to the latest fashion shows,
behind-the-scenes material on the pro-
duction of ads, or plays footage from
the most recent Victoria’s Secret Fash-
ion Show. The result is that every visit
to the store provides a fresh and unique
experience.
Video walls are integrated through-
out the store, for example in the cash
and wrap areas, whilst a gallery of iconic
photography features the Victoria’s
Exhibit 1.4 The exterior of Victoria’s Secret store
Secret Angels (models) and illuminated hides the bright, digital state of the art
fragrance bars display the brand’s interior design
signature scents. The use of in-store Source: Alamy Images/Reiner Elsen.
video and soundscapes helps generate
energy around the store, adding to the
brand experience and helping to stimulate return visits. This demonstrates how the use of an in-store
digital environment can act as a key competitive advantage, in what is increasingly an experience-
consuming society.
In addition, VS has adopted a mobile strategy enabling users to download an app in order to access the
VS catalogue, undertake quizzes and games, enable mobile chat to allow users to socialise with others,
and provide a messaging feature to provide access to the brand’s annual Fashion Show.
The use of multimedia technologies in this way helps customers to connect directly with a brand
regardless of channel.

Source: Bergin (2012); Bohannon (2015); Patel (2012); www.fashionfoiegras.com/2012/08/first-look-victorias-

secret-new-bond.html.

This Viewpoint was written by Reece Drew when he was a marketing student at Manchester B
­ usiness
School.

To what extent are these in-store experiences a manifestation of behavioural

Question: 
engagement?
Identify other brands that have attempted to incorporate digital technology within a retail
Task: 
environment. What success did they have?

Successful engagement indicates that understanding and meaning have been conveyed
effectively, that the communications have value. Counting the number of likes, viewers,
readers or impressions says little about the quality of the engagement and the value that
it represents to individuals. At one level, engagement through one-way communications
enables target audiences to understand product and service offers, to the extent that the
audience is sufficiently engaged to want to enter into further communications activity.
At another level, engagement through two-way or interactive communications enables
information that is relationship-specific (Ballantyne, 2004) to be exchanged. The greater
the frequency of information exchange, the more likely collaborative relationships will
develop.

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 16 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

As if to emphasise the appropriateness of the term ‘engagement’ the concept is now

being tested as an alternative measurement to impressions, clicks and page-views. Ideas
of ‘engaged time’, the amount of time that individuals spend on a web page, is a metric
being considered by several organisations. The Financial Times was reported to be about
to start selling display ads based on how long an audience spends with its content (Anon,
2014b). A key measurement metric at ScribbleLive is User Engagement Minutes, or
UEMs. These represent the amount of time a person spends ‘engaged’ with their content
(Anon, 2015). All of this suggests that the primary role of marketing communications
is to engage audiences.

Scholars’ paper 1.1 Beware, engaging confusion

Verhoef, P.C., Reinartz, W.J. and Krafft, M. (2010) Customer engagement as a new
perspective in customer management, Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 247–52.

As already mentioned in the text, the use of the term ‘engagement’ has become
increasingly widespread in the marketing literature. The term is used in different
ways to mean different things and this paper is a good example of the different
interpretations that are available. This paper considers engagement as a behavioural
manifestation towards the brand or firm, one that goes beyond transactions. The
authors propose a conceptual model of the antecedents, impediments, and firm con-
sequences of customer engagement. Readers might be interested to know that this
journal published a special edition on customer engagement.

The tasks of marketing

communications
Bowersox and Morash made a significant contribution in their 1989 paper when they
demonstrated how marketing flows, including the information flow, can be represented
as a network that has the sole purpose of satisfying customer needs and wants. Com-
munications are important in these exchange networks as they can help achieve one of
four key tasks:
● Communications can inform and make potential customers aware of an organisation’s
offering. They can also provide knowledge and understanding about a brand.
● Communications may attempt to persuade current and potential customers of the
desirability of entering into an exchange relationship.
● Communications can also be used to reinforce experiences. This may take the form
of reminding people of a need they might have or reminding them of the benefits of
past transactions with a view to convincing them that they should enter into a similar
exchange. In addition, it is possible to provide reassurance or comfort either immedi-
ately prior to an exchange or, more commonly, post-purchase. This is important, as
it helps to retain current customers and improve profitability, an approach to busi-
ness that is much more cost-effective than constantly striving to lure new customers.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 17

■ Finally, marketing communications can act as a differentiator, particularly in markets

where there is little to separate competing products and brands. Mineral water prod-
ucts, such as Perrier and Highland Spring, are largely similar: it is the communications
surrounding the products that has created various brand images, enabling consumers
to make purchasing decisions. In these cases it is the images created by marketing
communications that enable people to differentiate one brand from another and
position them so that consumers’ purchasing confidence and positive attitudes are
developed.
Therefore, communications can inform, persuade, reinforce and build images to dif-
ferentiate a product or service, or to put it another way, DRIP (see Table 1.1).
At a higher level, the communications process not only supports the transaction, by
informing, persuading, reinforcing or differentiating, but also offers a means of exchange
itself, for example communications for entertainment, for potential solutions and con-
cepts for education and self-esteem. Communications involve intangible benefits, such as
the psychological satisfactions associated with, for example, the entertainment associated
with engaging and enjoying advertisements (Schlinger, 1979) or the experiences within
a sponsored part of a social network.
Communications can also be seen as a means of perpetuating and transferring values
and culture to different parts of society or networks. For example, it is argued that the
way women are portrayed in the media and stereotypical images of very thin or ‘size
zero’ women are dysfunctional in that they set up inappropriate role models. The form
and characteristics of the communications process adopted by some organisations (both
the deliberate and the unintentional use of signs and symbols used to convey meaning)
help to provide stability and continuity. Dove, for example, understood this and suc-
cessfully repositioned itself based on natural beauty, using a variety of ordinary people
for its communications.
Other examples of intangible satisfactions can be seen in the social and psychological
transactions involved increasingly with the work of the National Health Service (NHS),
charities, educational institutions and other not-for-profit organisations, such as housing
associations. Not only do these organisations recognise the need to communicate with
various audiences, but they also perceive value in being seen to be ‘of value’ to their
customers. There is also evidence that some brands are trying to meet the emerging needs
of some consumers who want to know the track record of manufacturers with respect to
their environmental policies and actions. For example, the growth in ‘Fairtrade’ prod-
ucts, designed to provide fairer and more balanced trading arrangements with producers
and growers in emerging parts of the world, persuaded Kraft that it should engage with
this form of commercial activity.

Table 1.1 DRIP elements of marketing communications

Task Sub-task Explanation

Differentiate Position To make a product or service stand out in the

category

Reinforce Remind, reassure, refresh To consolidate and strengthen previous

messages and experiences

Inform Make aware, educate To make known and advise of availability and
features

Persuade Purchase or make further enquiry To encourage further positive purchase-

related behaviour

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 18 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

The notion of value can be addressed in a different way. All organisations have the
opportunity to develop their communications to a point where the value of their mes-
sages represents a competitive advantage. This value can be seen in the consistency,
timing, volume or expression of the message. Heinonen and Strandvik (2005) argue
that there are four elements that constitute communications value. These are the mes-
sage content, how the information is presented, where the communications occur and
their timing: in other words, the all-important context within which a communications
event occurs. These elements are embedded within marketing communications and are
referred to throughout this book.
Some marketing communications activity, however, can be considered culturally dys-
functional. For example, Kemp (2014: 49) cites Green, the editor at trends consultancy
LSN:Global. She believes that social media drive many users to ‘want more, do more and
be more’. This involves observing others, making comparisons and judgements, which
can lead to personal dissatisfaction. This in turn can lead to a form of culturally induced
social anxiety. It follows that brands should attempt to acknowledge people’s anxieties,
and then help to resolve them. Kemp cites Dawson who refers to Sainsbury’s with its
‘Live well for less’ campaign and Aldi with its ‘Like brands. Only cheaper’ activity as
recognition of social anxiety and good examples of empathic positioning.

Scholars’ paper 1.2 Early days of marketing communications

Ray, M.L. (1973) A decision sequence analysis of developments in marketing com-

munications, Journal of Marketing, 37 (January), 29–38.

This older paper has been included because it provides perspective. Much of contem-
porary marketing communications has a digital orientation. This paper reminds us of
the evolution of marketing communications, way before digitisation. This paper could
also be listed in Chapter 5, about strategy and planning, because Ray introduces a
planning model in the paper, and Chapter 10 as there are embryonic ideas about inte-
grated marketing communications as well. It may not be da Vinci but it is certainly
forward thinking.

Communications can be used for additional reasons. The tasks of informing, persuad-
ing and reinforcing and differentiating are primarily activities targeted at consumers or
end-users. Organisations do not exist in isolation from each other, as each one is a part
of a wider system of corporate entities, where each enters into a series of exchanges to
secure raw material inputs or resources and to discharge them as value-added outputs
to other organisations in the network.
The exchanges that organisations enter into require the formation of relationships,
however tenuous or strong. Andersson (1992) looks at the strength of the relationship
between organisations in a network and refers to them as ‘loose or tight couplings’.
These couplings, or partnerships, are influenced by the communications that are trans-
mitted and received. The role that organisations assume in a network and the manner
in which they undertake and complete their tasks are, in part, shaped by the variety and
complexity of the communications in transmission throughout the network. Issues of
channel or even network control, leadership, subservience and conflict are implanted in
the form and nature of the communications exchanged in any network.
Within market exchanges, communications are characterised by formality and plan-
ning. Collaborative exchanges are supported by more frequent communications activity.
As Mohr and Nevin (1990) state, there is a bi directional flow to communications and
an informality to the nature and timing of the information flows.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 19

Defining marketing
communications
Having considered the scope, role and tasks of marketing communications, it is now
appropriate to define the topic. There is no universal definition of marketing communi-
cations and there are many interpretations of the subject. Table 1.2 depicts some of the
main orientations through which marketing communications has evolved. The origin of
many definitions rests with a promotional outlook where the purpose was to use com-
munications to persuade people to buy products and services. The focus was on products,
one-way communications, and the perspective was short-term. The expression ‘marketing
communications’ emerged as a wider range of tools and media evolved and as the scope
of the tasks these communications activities were expected to accomplish expanded.
In addition to awareness and persuasion, new goals such as developing understand-
ing and preference, reminding and reassuring customers became accepted as impor-
tant aspects of the communications effort. Direct marketing activities heralded a new
approach as one-to-one, two-way communications began to shift the focus from mass
to personal communications efforts. Now a number of definitions refer to an integrated
perspective. This view has gathered momentum since the mid-1990s and is even an
integral part of the marketing communications vocabulary. This topic is discussed in
greater depth in Chapter 10.
However, this transition to an integrated perspective raises questions about the purpose
of marketing communications. For example, should the focus extend beyond products
and services; should corporate communications be integrated into the organisation’s mar-
keting communications; should the range of stakeholders move beyond customers; what
does integration mean and is it achievable? With the integrative perspective, a stronger
strategic and long-term orientation has developed, although the basis for many market-
ing communications strategies appears still to rest with a ‘promotional mix’ orientation.

Table 1.2 The developing orientation of marketing communications

Orientation Explanation

Information and Communications are used to persuade people into product purchase,
promotion using mass-media communications. Emphasis on rational, product-
based information.

Process and imagery Communications are used to influence the different stages of the
purchase process that customers experience. A range of tools is
used. Emphasis on product imagery and emotional messages.

Integration Communications resources are used in an efficient and effective way

to enable customers to have a clear view of the brand proposition.
Emphasis on strategy, media neutrality and a balance between
rational and emotional communications.

Relational Communications are used as an integral part of the different

relationships that organisations share with customers. Emphasis
on mutual value and meaning plus recognition of the different
communications needs and processing styles of different
stakeholder groups.

Experience In some contexts communications are used to develop unique

customer experiences. These involve both integration and relational
elements necessary for consistency and meaning.

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 20 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Some of these interpretations fail to draw out the key issue that marketing communi-
cations provides added value, through enhanced product and organisational symbolism.
They also fail to recognise that it is the context within which marketing communica-
tions flows that impacts upon the meaning and interpretation given to such messages.
Its ability to frame and associate offerings with different environments is powerful.
Today, in an age where the word ‘integration’ is used to express a variety of marketing
and communications-related activities, where corporate marketing is emerging as the
next important development within the subject (Balmer and Gray, 2003) and where
interaction is the preferred mode of communications and relationship marketing is the
preferred paradigm (Gronroos, 2004), marketing communications embraces a wider
remit, one that has moved beyond the product information model and now forms an
integral part of an organisation’s overall communications and relationship management
strategy. This perspective embraces communications as a one-way, two-way, interactive
and dialogic approach necessary to meet the varying needs of different audiences. The
integration stage focuses on the organisation, whereas the next development may have
its focus on the relationships that an organisation has with its various audiences. Above
all else, marketing communications should be an audience-centred activity.
Two definitions are proposed: one short and memorable, the other deeper, more
considered and involving. First, the short definition:

Marketing communications is an audience-centred activity, designed to engage audi-

ences and promote conversations.

This definition focuses marketing communications on generating engagement and

conversations as outputs of the activity. The longer definition that follows has three
main themes:

Marketing communications is a process through which organisations and audiences

attempt to engage with one another. Through an understanding of an audience’s
preferred communications environments, participants seek to develop and present
messages, before evaluating and responding. By conveying messages that are relevant
and significant, participants are encouraged to offer attitudinal, emotional and behav-
ioural responses.

The first concerns the word engages. By recognising the different transactional and
collaborative needs of the target audience, marketing communications can be used to
engage with a variety of audiences in such a way that one-way, two-way, interactive
and dialogic communications are used that meet the needs of the audience (Chapters 2
and 10). It is unrealistic to believe that all audiences always want a relationship with
your organisation/brand, and, for some, one-way communications are fine. Messages,
however, should encourage individual members of target audiences to respond to the
focus organisation (or product/brand). This response can be immediate through, for
example, purchase behaviour, use of customer carelines or use of the FAQs on a web
page. Alternatively it can be deferred as information is assimilated and considered for
future use. Even if the information is discarded at a later date, the communications will
have attracted attention and consideration of the message.
The second theme concerns the audiences for, or participants in, marketing commu-
nications. Traditionally, marketing communications has been used to convey product-
related information to customer-based audiences. Today, a range of stakeholders have
connections and relationships of varying dimensions, and marketing communications
needs to incorporate this breadth and variety. Stakeholder audiences, including custom-
ers, are all interested in a range of corporate issues, sometimes product-related and some-
times related to the policies, procedures and values of the organisation itself. Marketing

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 21

communications should be an audience-centred activity and in that sense it is important

that messages be based on a firm understanding of both the needs and environment of
the audience. To be successful, marketing communications should be grounded in the
behaviour and information-processing needs and style of the target audience. This is
referred to as ‘understanding the context in which the communications event is to occur’.
From this base it is easier to present and position brands in order that they are perceived
to be different and of value to the target audience.
The third theme from the definition concerns the response. This refers to the outcomes
of the communications process, and can be used as a measure of whether a communica-
tions event has been successful. There are essentially two key responses, cognitive and
emotional. Cognitive responses assume an audience to be active problem-solvers and that
they use marketing communications to help them in their lives, in purchasing products
and services and in managing organisation-related activities. For example, brands are
developed partly to help consumers and partly to assist the marketing effort of the host
organisation. A brand can inform consumers quickly that, among other things, ‘this
brand means x quality’ so, through experience of similar brand purchases, consumers
are assured that their risk is minimised. If the problem facing a consumer is ‘which new
soup to select for lunch’, by choosing one from a familiar family brand the consumer is
able to solve it with minimal risk and great speed. Cognitive responses assume audiences
undertake rational information processing.
Emotional responses, on the other hand, assume decision-making is not made through
rational, cognitive processing but as a result of emotional reaction to a communications
stimulus. Hedonic consumption concerns the purchase and use of products and services
to fulfil fantasies and to satisfy emotional needs. Satisfaction is based on the overall
experience of consuming a product. For example, sports cars and motorbikes are not
always bought because of the functionality and performance of the vehicle, but more due
to the thrill of independence, power and a feeling of being both carefree and in danger.
Marketing communications and content, in particular, should be developed in anticipa-
tion of an audience’s cognitive or emotional response.
Marketing communications, therefore, can be considered from a number of per-
spectives. It is a complex activity and is used by organisations with varying degrees of
sophistication and success. It is now possible, however, to clarify both the roles and the
tasks of marketing communications. The role of marketing communications is to engage
audiences and the tasks are to differentiate, reinforce, inform or persuade audiences to
think, feel or behave in particular ways.

Scholars’ paper 1.3 Consumerism and ethics in IMC

Kliatchko, J.G. (2009) The primacy of the consumer in IMC: espousing a personal-
ist view and ethical implications, Journal of Marketing Communications, 15(2–3),
April–July, 157–77.

Having established that marketing communications should be audience-centred, this

paper by Kliatchko provides an interesting view of some of the issues about the por-
trayal of consumers in marketing communications, as reflected in previous studies.
His focus is integrated marketing communications (Chapter 10) and concludes that
consumers have invariably been treated as ‘mere subjects for financial gain at any
cost above all other considerations’. This paper should be read in conjunction with
Richard Christy’s chapter on ethics in marketing communications, which can be found
on the website supporting this book (www.pearson.com).

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 22 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Environmental influences
The management of marketing communications is a complex and highly uncertain
activity. This is due in part to the nature of the marketing communications variables,
including the influence of the environment. The environment can be considered in many
different ways, but for the purposes of this opening chapter, three categories are consid-
ered: the internal, external and market environments. The constituents of each of these
are set out in Figure 1.5.

Internal influences
The internal environment refers primarily to the organisation and the way it works,
what its values are and how it wants to develop. Here various forces seek to influence
an organisation’s marketing communications. The overall strategy that an organisation
adopts should have a huge impact. For example, how the organisation wishes to differ-
entiate itself within its target markets will influence the messages and media used and, of
course, the overarching positioning and reputation of the company. Brand strategies will
influence such things as the way in which brands are named, the extent to which sales
promotions are an integral part of the communications mix and how they are positioned.
The prevailing organisational culture can also be extremely influential. A hierarchical
management structure and power culture usually leads to a subservient, risk-averse cul-
ture. This can lead to communications which are largely orientated to USPs and product
benefits, rather than orientated to engaging audiences emotionally.
The amount of money available to a marketing communications budget will influence
the media mix or the size of the sales force used to deliver messages. Apart from the qual-
ity and motivation of the people employed, the level of preferences and marketing skills
deployed can impact on the form of the messages, the choice of media, and the use of
agencies and support services. Finally, the socio-political climate of the firm shapes not
only who climbs the career ladder fastest, but how and to which brands scarce market-
ing resources are distributed.

Market Internal
Marketing
communications

External

Customers Political Strategy

agencies economic culture
competitor social resources
strategies and technological socio-political
use of tools, legal
media, messages environmental

Figure 1.5 The environmental forces that shape marketing communications

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 23

Marketing communications is sometimes perceived as only dealing with communica-

tions that are external to the organisation. It should be recognised that good communi-
cations with internal stakeholders, such as employees, are also vital if, in the long term,
favourable images, perceptions and attitudes are to be established successfully. Influences
through the workforce and the marketing plan can be both positive and effective. For
example, staff used in B&Q and Halifax advertising are intended to project internal
values that should reflect positively upon the respective brands.

Market influences
Market influences are characterised by partial levels of control and typified by the impact
of competitors. Competitors occupy particular positions in the market and this shapes
what others claim about their own products, the media they use, the geographic cover-
age of the sales force and their own positioning. Intermediaries influence the nature of
business-to-business marketing communications. The frequency, intensity, quality and
overall willingness to share information with one another are significant forces. Of
course, the various agencies an organisation uses can also be very influential, as indeed
they should be. Marketing research agencies (inform about market perception, attitudes
and behaviour), communications agencies (determine what is said and then design how
it is said, what is communicated) and media houses (recommend media mixes and when
it is said) all have considerable potential to influence marketing communications.
However, perhaps the biggest single market group consists of the organisation’s cus-
tomers and network of stakeholders. Their attitudes, perceptions and buying preferences
and behaviours, although not directly controllable, (should) have a far-reaching influence
on the marketing communications used by an organisation.

External influences
As mentioned earlier, the external group of influencers are characterised by the organisa-
tion’s near lack of control. The well-known PEST framework is a useful way of consid-
ering these forces. Political forces, which can encompass both legal and ethical issues,
shape their use of marketing communications through legislation, voluntary controls and
individual company attitudes towards issues of right and wrong, consequences and duties
and the formal and informal communications an organisation uses. Indeed, increasing
attention has been placed upon ethics and corporate responsibility to the extent that in
some cases a name and shame culture might be identified.
Economic forces, which include demographics, geographics and geodemographics,
can determine the positioning of brands in terms of perceived value. For example, if
the government raises interest rates, then consumers are more inclined not to spend
money, especially on non-staple products and services. This may mean that marketing
communications needs to convey stronger messages about value and to send out strident
calls-to-action.
Social forces are concerned with the values, beliefs and norms that a society enshrines.
Issues to do with core values within a society are often difficult to change. For example,
the American gun culture or the once-prevalent me-orientation with respect to self-
fulfilment set up a string of values that marketing communications can use to harness,
magnify and align brands. The current social pressures with regard to obesity and health-
ier eating habits forced McDonald’s to defend its appointment as the official restaurant
partner at the London Olympics (Rowley, 2012). This and other criticism of the fast-
food company influenced it to introduce new menus and healthier food options. As a
result, its marketing communications has not only to inform and make audiences aware
of the new menus but also to convey messages about differentiation and p ­ ositioning and
provide a reason to visit the restaurant (see Viewpoint 1.3).

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 24 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Technological forces have had an immense impact on marketing communications.

New technology continues to advance marketing communications and has already led to
more personalised, targeted, customised and responsive forms of communications. What
was once predominantly one-way communications, based upon a model of information
provision and persuasion, have given way to a two-way model in which integration with
audiences, and where sharing and reasoning behaviours are enabled by digital technol-
ogy, are now used frequently with appropriate target audiences.
Legal forces may prevail in terms of trademarks and copyrights, while environmental
forces might impact in terms of what can be claimed and the associated credibility and
social responsibility issues.
Marketing communications has evolved in response to changing environmental con-
ditions. For example, direct marketing is now established as a critical approach to
developing relationships with buyers, both consumer and organisational. New and
innovative forms of communications through social media, digital technologies such
as near-field technologies, plus sponsorship, ambient media and content marketing,
all suggest that effective communications require the selection and integration of an
increasing variety of communications tools and media, as a response to changing envi-
ronmental contexts.

Viewpoint 1.3 Coca-Cola respond to social forces

The interface between a brand and the social context within which it exists has often been ignored.
However, many FMCG (fast-moving consumer goods) brands have embraced the issues and have tried
to harness social forces within their propositions and positioning. With regard to the obesity crisis, for
example, McDonald’s introduced salads and low-calorie options.
Coca-Cola are heavily dependent on the support of the local communities and local governments.
This support enables Coke to sustain their global manufacturing facilities and bottling plants, as well as
backing up their local distribution networks. It was therefore imperative that the company defend their
reputation and readdress their stance on the obesity issue.
In 2013 Coca-Cola’s strategy involved the provision of no- or low-calorie beverages of their main brands
in all their markets. They also tried to defuse the arguments that sugary drinks contribute to the global
obesity epidemic, by putting the calorie counts of their drinks on their respective packaging and by dis-
tributing diet options.
In addition, the company realigned some of their sponsorship activities to focus on physical activities
in each of the markets in which they operate.

Source: Boyle (2014); Warc (2013); Webb (2014).

U nder what circumstances might organisations be accused of responding to social

Question: 
forces in order to avoid accusations of unethical behaviour and to maintain commercial
performance?
Visit www.forbes.com/sites/larryhusten/2014/04/27/what-role-should-coca-cola-play-in-
Task: 
obesity-research/ and consider whether it was right to include the report authors with con-
nections with Coca-Cola.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 25

The marketing
communications mix
In the recent past there have been several major changes in the communications environ-
ment and in the way organisations can communicate with their target audiences. Digital
technology has given rise to a raft of different media at a time when people have devel-
oped a variety of new ways to spend their leisure time. These phenomena are referred
to as media and audience fragmentation respectively, and organisations have developed
fresh combinations of the communications mix in order to reach their audiences effec-
tively. For example, there has been a dramatic rise in the use of direct-response media
as direct marketing has become a key part of many campaigns. The Internet and digital
technologies have enabled new interactive forms of communications, where receivers
can be more participative and assume greater responsibility for their contribution in the
communications process.
Successful marketing communications involves managing various elements according
to the needs of the target audience and the goals the campaign seeks to achieve. Originally
the elements that made up the marketing communications mix were just the tools or
disciplines, namely advertising, sales promotions, public relations, direct marketing and
personal selling. These were mixed together in various combinations and different degrees
of intensity in order to attempt to communicate meaningfully with a target audience.
This mix was used at a time when brands were developed through the use of advertising to
generate ‘above-the-line’ mass communications campaigns. The strategy was based around
buying space in newspapers and magazines, or advertising time (called spots) in major televi-
sion programmes that were watched by huge audiences (20+ million people). This strategy
required media owners to create programmes (content) that would attract brand owners
because of the huge, relatively passive audiences. By interrupting the audience’s entertain-
ment, brand owners could talk to (or at) their markets in order to sell their brands.
Since the days of just two commercial television stations there has been a prolifera-
tion of media. Although the use of television is actually increasing, audiences, especially
young adults, no longer use television as their main source of information or entertain-
ment. When considered together with falling newspaper and magazine readership, it is
clear that consumers are using media for a variety of purposes. These include a need to
explore and discover new activities, people, experiences and brands, to participate in
events and communities, to share experiences and information, and to express them-
selves as individuals. This reveals that people seek active engagement with media.
We now have a huge choice of media and leisure activities, and we decide how and
when to consume information and entertainment. People are motivated and able to
develop their own content, be it through text, music or video, and consider topics that
they can share with friends on virtual networks. Media and messages are therefore key
to reach consumers today, not the tools. More direct and highly targeted, personalised
communications activities using direct marketing and the other tools of the mix now
predominate. This indicates that, in order to reach audiences successfully, it is necessary
to combine not just the tools, but also the media and the content and messages.
So, in addition to the five principal marketing communications tools, it is necessary to
add the media, or the means by which advertising and other marketing communications
messages are conveyed. Tools and media should not be confused as they have different
characteristics and seek to achieve different goals. Also, just in case you were thinking
something is missing, the Internet is a medium, not a tool.
To complete the trilogy, messages need to be conveyed to the target audience. Increas-
ingly referred to as content, four forms can be identified: informational, emotional,

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 26 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Increasing level of integration

5 3
communications categories
tools of media

The MCs mix

Increasing level Increasing level

of integration of integration
4
core types
of message

Figure 1.6 The marketing communications mix

user-generated and branded content. These are explored in Chapter  17, but View-
point  1.4 shows how some brands are switching from informational to emotional
messages in order to connect with consumers. Previously organisations were primarily
responsible for the origin and nature of the content about their brand. Today an increas-
ing number of messages are developed by consumers, and shared with other consumers.
The marketing communications mix depicted in Figure 1.6 represents a shift in approach.
Previously the mix represents an intervention-based approach to marketing communica-
tions, one based on seeking the attention of a customer who might not necessarily be inter-
ested, by interrupting their activities. The shift is towards conversation-based marketing
communications, where the focus is now on communications with and between members of
an audience who may even have contributed content to the campaign. This has a particular
impact on direct marketing, interactive communications and, to some extent, personal sell-
ing. Figure 1.6 depicts the marketing communications mix at the core of three overlapping
elements: tools, media and content. The dashed lines serve to illustrate the varying degree
of integration and coordination between the three elements. The wider the circle, the higher
the level of integration and the more effective the marketing communications mix.

Viewpoint 1.4 Building brands around emotion in the home

Paint brands such as Crown and Dulux are not newcomers to a marketing communications strategy based
on emotional benefits. Since 77 per cent of consumers say they feel better when they decorate, Dulux
try to connect with this, using an emotional approach to their communications.
However, for a large proportion of brands in the home improvement sector this approach is unusual.
The primary approach has been to place undue emphasis on advertising, direct marketing and sales pro-
motion to offer low prices, discounts and ‘buy me now’ offers. This behavioural approach is now giving
way to advertising designed to build a brand through emotionally led messages.
For example, the furniture retailer DFS has used a formulaic approach of functionally driven advertis-
ing, conveyed through the use of minor celebrities sitting on sofas, urging viewers to get to the sale to

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 27

take advantage of the low prices and extended credit facilities. However, this has changed as a more
emotionally led campaign has evolved. Now, instead of prices, comfort is stressed, as children are seen
playing on sofas and a slogan that says ‘Making everyday more comfortable’, using an updated, heart-
shaped logo, appeals to the mind rather than the wallet or credit card. The 2013 Christmas ads showed
Santa entering a DFS store and jotting down what’s available, or working in a factory, before delivering
furniture for people who ordered in time for Christmas.
In a similar way, bedroom-furniture retailers ‘Dreams’ and ‘Harvey’s’ have released more emotional
campaigns. Harvey’s used to use their communications to push several – as many as ten – products in an
ad. This is now seen as too masculine, since the decision-makers are more often than not women, who
are getting more involved in home improvements anyway. One of their changes has been to develop a
mobile app that lets users ‘test-drive’ sofas in their own homes. Dreams show people switching off their
lights to go to sleep, accompanied by soothing music.
Why the change, especially in times of recession when typically price-based brands lead the way?
There are several reasons put forward. First, research by Mintel reveals that over 40 per cent of con-
sumers express more trust in retailers such as John Lewis and IKEA, who use an emotional approach.
Unfortunately, less than 20 per cent of consumers trust price-focused brands. More women are getting
involved in home improvements and the success of the pre-Christmas John Lewis campaigns is felt to
have prompted a review of brand development in home and in marketing communications.

Source: Based on Brownsell (2012); Vizard (2013).

What role do informational messages play in the market communications used in the DIY
Question: 
market?
Task: List the different types of key message a furniture retailer might use.

Exhibit 1.5 Traditional and emotional advertising used by DFS

(a) A traditional DFS ad where price, functionality and style are predominant;
(b) represents a more emotional approach to advertising.
Source: Blue Rubicon Ltd.

Criteria when devising a mix

Using the key characteristics it is possible to determine the significant criteria organisa-
tions should consider when selecting the elements of the marketing communications
mix. These are:
● the degree of control required over the delivery of the message;
● the amount of available financial resources;
● audience size, and geographic dispersion;

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 28 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

● media preferences and the behaviour of the target audiences;

● the tasks to be accomplished.
It should be noted that there are other elements that can influence the configuration of
the mix. These include competitive activity, media rates, internal political perspectives,
agency bias, and strategy.

Control
Control over the message is necessary to ensure that the intended message is shared with
and among the target audiences. Furthermore, messages must be capable of being under-
stood in order that the receiver can act appropriately. Message control is complicated by
interference or negative ‘noise’ that can corrupt and distort messages. Obsessive media
attention to a brand in distress can lead to a freeze on all paid-for marketing communi-
cations, that is no advertising.
Advertising, sales promotions, and most paid-for media allow for a reasonable level
of control over a message, from design to transmission. Interestingly, they afford only
partial control or influence over the feedback associated with a message or how it is
disseminated among audiences.
Control can also be an important factor when considering online and digital-based
communications. For example, the ability to place banner ads, to bid for sponsored links
and determine keyword rankings in search engines require control and deliberation. How-
ever, it should be noted that message control is an ambiguous term. Brand owners desire
control over message placement and seeding but they also want people to talk about their
brands. Here owners sacrifice control over what is said about a brand, who says it and in
which context. Engagement is about provoking conversations and that implies that there
is virtually no control over this aspect. Planned marketing communications carries a high
level of control, while unplanned word-of-mouth conversations carry little control. See
Viewpoint 1.5 for an example of controlling social media.

Viewpoint 1.5 Hyatt listen to social media

Like many agencies Sparks and Honey manages social-media comment on behalf of its clients. However,
in addition to listening to what is being said about a brand, and scoring it on a sentiment rating scale, it
also observes other hot topics, assigns each to a particular category, and uses predictive analytics to
estimate the speed at which a trend might become established. This information is then used to feed
clients with relevant, salient branded content.
This process also helps clients to avoid material that might damage their brand. For example, hotel
group Hyatt had spent a lot of time and resources developing a content marketing strategy based on the
theme ‘women having it all’. This was intended to lead to a campaign targeted at career-minded women,
but it was all stopped after its agency had monitored an increasing number of negative discussions about
the recently published book Lean In written by Facebook’s COO Sheryl Sandberg.
Other material identified for use by Hyatt included content on yoga and meditation, getting a good
night’s sleep and how travellers can benefit from the use of various digital tools.

Source: Kaye (2013).

Is real control of social media possible or is it simply a matter of reducing the margins for
Question: 
error? Explain your reasoning.
Find two examples of poor brand-based social media activity. Make notes on how these
Task: 
events might have been avoided.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 29

Financial resources
Control is also a function of financial power. In other words, if an organisation is prepared
to pay a third party to transmit a message, then long-term control will rest with the spon-
sor for as long as the financial leverage continues. However, short-term message corrup-
tion can exist if management control over the process is less than vigilant. For example,
if the design of the message differs from that originally agreed, then partial control has
already been lost. This can happen when the working relationship between an advertising
agency and the client is less than efficient and the process for signing off work in progress
fails to prevent the design and release of inappropriate creative work.
Advertising and sales promotion are tools that allow for a high level of control by the spon-
sor, whereas public relations, and publicity in particular, is weak in this aspect because the
voluntary services of a third party are normally required for the message to be transmitted.
In business-to-business (B2B) communications the sales department often receives
the bulk of the marketing budget and little is spent on research in comparison with the
consumer market.
There is a great variety of media available to advertisers. Each type of medium carries
a particular cost, and the financial resources of the organisation may not be available to
use particular types of media, even if such use would be appropriate on other grounds.

Audience size and geographic dispersion

The size and geographic dispersion of the target audience can be a significant influence
on the configuration of the communications mix. A national consumer audience can
be reached effectively through tools such as advertising and sales promotion. Similarly,
various specialist businesses require personal attention to explain, design, demonstrate,
install and service complex equipment. In these circumstances personal selling – one-to-
one contact – is of greater significance. The choice of media can enable an organisation
to speak to vast national and international audiences through the Internet and satellite
technology, or with single persons or small groups through personal selling and the
assistance of word-of-mouth recommendation.

Media behaviour and preferences

An insight into the characteristics of the target audiences can have a very strong influence
on the shape of the mix. For example, understanding the way different consumers use
different media can have a considerable influence over the way a message is formulated,
the media used, and the way paid media are scheduled. The McCain case study at the
start of Chapter 4 shows dramatically how the location, choice and scheduling of the
media were influenced by the behaviour of the target audience.
With many audiences now familiar with multiscreen and mobile usage and as interac-
tive media have become widespread so it is necessary to use a range of media to under-
stand the behaviour preferences of audiences in order to cut through the clutter and noise
that can lead people to screen out marketing communications messages.

Communications tasks
Each element of the communications mix has strengths and weaknesses, therefore the
selected mix should be based on a configuration designed to maximise the strengths
and accomplish specific tasks. For example, one of the reasons direct marketing has
become so successful is that it delivers a call-to-action and is therefore a very good per-
suasive tool as well as being good at reinforcing messages. This behavioural dimension is
counter-balanced by advertising and public relations where engagement is largely based
on ­differentiating offerings and informing audiences about key features and benefits.

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 30 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Communications differences
Another way of considering these issues involves comparing the communications used
to reach consumer and B2B audiences. Organisational purchases are intended for com-
pany usage, whereas products bought in a consumer context are normally intended for
personal consumption. Table 1.3 and the following are intended to set out some of the
more salient differences.

Message reception
The contextual conditions in which messages are received and meanings ascribed are
very different. In organisational settings the context is more formal, and as the funding
for a purchase is derived from company sources (as opposed to personal sources for
consumer market purchases), there may be a lower orientation to price as a significant
variable in the purchase decision, and more on the benefits of use in the message.

Number of decision-makers
In consumer markets a single person very often makes the decision. In organisational
markets decisions are made by many people within a buying centre. This means that the

Table 1.3 Differences between consumer and business-to-business marketing

Consumer-oriented markets Business-to-business markets

Message reception Informal Formal

Number of decision-makers Single or few Many

Balance of the Advertising and sales promotions Personal selling dominates

communications mix dominate

Specificity and integration Broad use of communications mix with a Specific use of below-the-line tools but
move towards integrated mixes with a high level of integration

Variety of media Huge assortment of media Narrow range of media

Message content Greater use of emotions and imagery Greater use of rational, logic and
information-based messages although
there is evidence of a move towards the
use of imagery

Message origin Increasing use of Limited use of user-generated materials

user-generated content

Length of decision time Normally short Long and involved

Negative communications Limited to people close to the Potentially an array of people in the
purchaser/user organisation and beyond

Target marketing and research Great use of sophisticated targeting and Limited but increasing use of targeting,
communications approaches segmentation and community
approaches

Budget allocation Majority of budget allocated to brand Majority of budget allocated to sales
management management

Evaluation and measurement Great variety of techniques and Limited number of techniques and
approaches used approaches used

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 31

interactions of the participants should be considered. In addition, a variety of different

individuals need to be reached and influenced and this may involve the use of different
media and message strategies.

The balance of the communications mix

The role of advertising and sales promotions in B2B communications is primarily to support
the personal selling effort. This contrasts with the mix that predominates in consumer mar-
kets. Personal selling plays a relatively minor role and is only significant at the point of pur-
chase in some product categories where involvement is high (cars, white goods and financial
services), reflecting high levels of perceived risk. However, the high use of direct marketing
in consumer markets suggests that personal communications are becoming more prevalent
and in some ways increasingly similar to the overall direction of B2B communications.

Specificity and integration

B2B markets have traditionally been quite specific in terms of the tools and media used to
reach audiences. While the use of advertising literature is very important, there has been
a tendency to use a greater proportion of ‘below-the-line’ activities. This compares with
consumer markets, where a greater proportion of funds are allocated to ‘above-the-line’
activities. It is interesting that the communications in the consumer market are moving
towards a more integrated format, more similar in form to the B2B model than was previ-
ously considered appropriate. In both contexts the use of social media has become increas-
ingly prevalent as brands seek to develop relationships with specific audiences.

Variety of media
Increasingly the role of media within the communications mix has become a critical
effectiveness factor. The surge towards the incorporation of interactive media within an
integrated format in order to engage and interact with consumers has recently started to
be mirrored by organisations operating in the B2B market. Viewpoint 19.3 demonstrates
this vividly. The range of media available for use within consumer markets far exceeds
those that are available and effective within B2B markets. Although television remains
a dominant medium for some major FMCG brands, the selection of the right media mix
has become more complex for brands operating in consumer markets.

Content
Purchase decisions can be characterised as high involvement in many B2B contexts, so
messages tend to be much more rational and information-based than in consumer markets.

Message origin
Increasingly, consumers are taking a more active role in the creation of content. ­Blogging,
for example, is important in both consumer and business markets, but the development
of user-generated content and word-of-mouth communications is a significant part of
consumer-based marketing communications activities.

Length of purchase decision time

The length of time taken to reach a decision is much greater in organisational markets.
This means that the intensity of any media plan can be dissipated more easily in organi-
sational markets.

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 32 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

Negative communications
The number of people affected by a dissatisfied consumer, and hence negative market-
ing communications messages, is limited. The implications of a poor purchase decision
in an organisational environment may be far-reaching, including those associated with
the use of the product, the career of participants close to the locus of the decision and,
depending on the size and spread, perhaps the whole organisation.

Target marketing and research

The use of target marketing processes in the consumer market is more advanced and
sophisticated than in the organisational market. This impacts on the quality of the
marketing communications used to reach the target audience. However, there is much
evidence that B2B market organisations are becoming increasingly aware and sophisti-
cated in their approach to segmentation techniques and processes.

Measurement and evaluation

The consumer market employs a variety of techniques to evaluate the effectiveness of
communications. In the organisational market, sales volume, value, number of enquiries
and market share are the predominant measures of effectiveness.

Marketing communications goals

Perhaps the most influential factors when considering the configuration of the marketing
communications mix are the communications goals that the mix is intended to accom-
plish. Apart from financial returns, the reasons to use marketing communications can be
varied and are explored in Chapter 6. However, these goals can be considered in layers
and as we saw earlier the type of engagement can provide an initial indicator of the type
of tools, media and messages to be used. For example, if the goal is to drive consumer
brand values then the message is more likely to have significant emotional content and
will not be designed to drive responses. The tools chosen are more likely to involve
advertising, public relations and sponsorship, not direct marketing, sales promotions or
personal selling. Paid-for online and offline media will be used to support the advertising
element and earned media will be used to enhance message distribution.
Another filter might be whether the goal is to penetrate a market, and that means
finding new customers, or whether retention and creating customer loyalty is the primary
goal. A penetration goal leans towards informing and creating awareness and this means
advertising, public relations, paid media and informing or emotional messages will be
primary. If retention is the goal then a mix aimed at rewarding current customers will
be preferable.
A third layer, referred to by the IPA as intermediate communications goals, involves
creating awareness, consideration or preference as the focus of the activity. Again the
mix should reflect these goals.
The way in which a mix is configured reflects a number of issues and contextual ele-
ments. There is no algorithm, fixed schematic or single way of creating the appropriate
marketing communications mix. What we can do, however, is consolidate our understand-
ing about the role, the tasks and the marketing communications mix. The role is to engage
audiences, the tasks are to DRIP and through the selection and deployment of the elements
of the mix, organisations seek to engage audiences and achieve their goals (DRIP).
There can be no doubt that there are a number of major differences between the mar-
keting communications mixes used in consumer and organisation contexts. These reflect
the nature of the environments, the tasks involved and the overall need of the recipients

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 33

for particular types of information. Throughout this book, reference will be made to
the characteristics, concepts and processes associated with marketing communications
in each of these two main sectors.

Scholars’ paper 1.4 Abandon island thinking

Gummesson, E. and Polese, F. (2009) B2B is not an island! Journal of Business &
Industrial Marketing, 24(5/6), 337–50.

The reason for encouraging readers to see this paper is because it suggests that
marketing should be considered not as just B2B or B2C, but as a joined-up part of the
same marketing context and service system, one in which there is a coherent network
of relationships. The authors stress the interdependency between B2B and B2C. The
implications are that marketing planning should incorporate the relational patterns
within a company’s network and that systematic attention should be given to the
customers’ role in value creation and treating them as a resource and co-creator.

Key points
● There are two broad types of exchange and they can be considered to sit at either
end of a spectrum of exchange transactions. At one end are transactional or market
exchanges, which are characterised as one-off exchanges in which price and product
are central elements. At the other end are relational or collaborative exchanges where
there has been a stream of transactions and the relationship is the central element.
● Relationships become stronger as the frequency of exchanges increases. As exchanges
become more frequent, the intensity of the relationship strengthens so that the focus
is no longer on the product or price within the exchange but on the relationship itself.
● The scope of marketing communications embraces an audience-centred perspective
of planned, unplanned, product and service experiences. The role of marketing com-
munications is to engage audiences with a view to provoking relevant conversations.
The tasks of marketing communications are based within a need to differentiate,
reinforce, inform or persuade audiences to think and behave in particular ways.
● Engagement is a function of two elements. The first is the degree to which a message
encourages thinking and feeling about a brand: the development of brand values.
The second is about the degree to which a message stimulates behaviour or action.
Engagement may last a second, a minute, an hour, a day or even longer.
● Definitions have evolved as communications have developed. Here marketing com-
munications is defined as:
a process through which organisations and audiences engage with one another.
Through an understanding of an audience’s preferred communications environ-
ments, participants seek to develop, and present messages, before evaluating and
acting upon any replies. By conveying messages that are relevant and signifi-
cant, participants are encouraged to offer attitudinal, emotional and behavioural
responses.

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 34 Part 1  •  Introduction to marketing communications

● The internal, market and external environments all influence the use of marketing
communications. The internal environment refers to employees, the culture, the finan-
cial resources and the marketing skills available to organisations. The market environ-
ment refers principally to the actions of competitors and the perceptions and attitudes
held by customers towards an organisation or its brands.
● The external environment can be considered in terms of the PEST framework. The
influence of any one of these elements on marketing communications can be signifi-
cant, although the impact is usually generic and affects all organisations rather than
any single brand or organisation.
● The marketing communications mix consists of various tools, media and messages
that are used to reach, engage and provoke audience-centred conversations. The five
tools, three categories of media and four types of message can be configured in dif-
ferent ways to meet the needs of target audiences.
● The way in which the marketing communications mix is configured for consumer mar-
kets is very different from the mix used for business markets. The tools, media and mes-
sages used are all different as the general contexts in which they operate require different
approaches. Business markets favour personal selling: consumer markets, advertising.
Both make increasing use of interactive media, and while rational messages are predomi-
nant in business markets, emotion-based messages tend to prevail in consumer markets.

Review questions
Sensodyne Pronamel case questions
1. Evaluate the main role of marketing communications in the Sensodyne Pronamel
launch campaign.
2. Using the DRIP framework identify and explain the key tasks that marketing
communications was required to accomplish for the successful launch of Sensodyne
Pronamel.
3. Examine the main elements of the marketing communications mix that were used in
this campaign.
4. Appraise the main forces in the external environment that influenced the shape,
nature and characteristics of the campaign.
5. Explain how the marketing communications mix was adapted for the different
audiences in the Sensodyne campaign.
General questions
1. Define marketing communications. What are the key elements in the definition?
2. Briefly compare and contrast the two main types of exchange transaction. How do
communications assist the exchange process?
3. How might the contribution of the tools differ from those of the media within a
marketing communications programme?
4. Discuss the way in which the elements of the mix compare across the following
criteria: control, communications effectiveness and cost.
5. Evaluate the ways in which engagement might vary across campaigns.
6. Explain how marketing communications might differ within consumer and business
marketing strategies.

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 Chapter 1  •  Introducing marketing communications 35

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Journal of Marketing, 23(2), 58–67. 49–51.

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Kliatchko, J.G. (2009) The primacy of the consumer science head, Telegraph, 19 July 2012, retrieved 10
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 Chapter 2
Communications: forms and
conversations

Communications are concerned with receiving, interpreting and sending messages, but
are essentially about sharing meaning with others. Only by using messages that reduce
ambiguity, and which share meaning with audiences, can it be hoped to stimulate mean-
ingful interaction and dialogue. To create and sustain valued conversations the support
of influential others is often required. These may be people who are experts, those who
share common interests, those who have relevant knowledge or people who have access
to appropriate media channels.

Aims and learning objectives

The aims of this chapter are to introduce communications theory and to set it in the
context of marketing communications.

The learning objectives are to enable readers to:

1. understand the linear model of communications and appreciate how the various
elements link together and contribute to successful communications;
2. examine the characteristics of the influencer, interactional, relational and network
forms of communications;
3. explain the influence of opinion leaders, formers and followers;
4. examine the nature and characteristics associated with word-of-mouth
communications;
5. describe the processes of adoption and diffusion as related to marketing
communications.

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 38 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

British Heart Foundation:

Vinnie – stayin’ alive!
In the UK, 60,000 cardiac arrests occur outside of 3. No need for kissing.
hospital every year and only an average of 7 per 4. Push hard and fast in the middle of the chest.
cent (4,200) survive to be discharged from hospital.
5. To the tempo of 100 BPM.
However, if someone can step in before emergency
services arrive and perform CPR (getting the blood cir- The challenge was to teach this behaviour, not
culating again by performing chest compressions and just drive awareness. Previous public service com-
rescue breaths), survival rates can double. munications, such as Clunk, Click Every Trip and Slip!
It is the speed of intervention that is critical. Per- Slop! Slap, worked because of their simplicity, and the
forming CPR is about buying time and restoring oxy- instruction which used different ‘hooks’ that pulled on
genated blood to the brain and heart until professional different senses. Many used a clear visual moment with
help arrives. For every minute that goes by, a victim’s a snappy-sounding phrase. Others offered a simple
chance of survival drops 10 per cent. action that could easily be copied. Just as a catchy tune
With ambulances struggling to get through infiltrates your brain and doesn’t leave you, we needed
crowded road networks, and the number of people to create our own simple and sticky piece of commu-
calling 999 increasing all the time, the British Heart nications that stepped people through the procedure.
Foundation (BHF), the UK’s number one heart charity, As we began to develop the campaign we found some
felt compelled to mobilise the public to step in and fill advice that suggested fear could be defused through
the time before ambulances arrived. the power of laughter. Could we use humour to enable
Previously CPR instruction had been complex, intimidat- our message to cut through the fear felt by our audience
ing and sparsely communicated, let alone understood. It about cardiac arrests? Our train of thought was roughly:
was little wonder that there was a fear of making things
Ok, we need a song and it has to be the right tempo.
worse, and that 76 per cent of people admitted a lack of
100 BPM.
confidence to perform CPR. In fact 82 per cent of adults
didn’t even know if CPR was the right response, and BHF It needs to be something everyone knows. Disco?
research showed that 73 per cent of adults claimed they Yes.
were unfamiliar with the CPR procedure. Stayin’ Alive! by The Bee Gees and at 100 BPM.
A new simplified ‘Hands-only CPR’ approach had
Who would get noticed saving a life? A celeb.
been devised, one not requiring mouth-to-mouth, or
the ‘kiss of life’ as it was once known. The BHF saw Not any celeb, a hard man . . . one famed for vio-
an opportunity to create an army of knowledgeable lence. Someone who could push hard and fast. Vin-
bystanders ready to apply CPR wherever they were: nie Jones. Doing Stayin’ Alive!
a fifth emergency service. We’d created a funny and memorable ‘dance’ that
With a tiny budget, the communications needed to brought together five elements to maximise ‘cut
accomplish four main tasks: through’:

1. Ensure people knew how to perform the new 1. A 100 BPM soundtrack with universal appeal:
technique. ‘Stayin’ Alive’ by The Bee Gees.
2. Remove the fear and instil the confidence to act. 2. A well-known character famous for toughness
3. Register mass awareness of the new ‘Hands-only and hurting people: Vinnie Jones, football and
CPR’ technique at a national level. Hollywood.

4. Save lives. 3. A sticky phrase that conveyed the key action: hard
and fast.
There are five steps to the new procedure with no
4. A tone that would challenge traditional government
need for mouth-to-mouth:
first aid messaging: the comedic and the serious.
1. Call 999. 5. A script that clearly walked the five steps of hands-
2. Check the person is breathing. only CPR.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 39

The TV buying strategy for ‘Vinnie’ was designed to the feature on two mainstream BBC shows. The ad was
reach 80 per cent of the population at least once. Dur- even recreated in LEGO as part of the p ­ romotion for
ing a 4-week campaign, we ran 480 TVRs (television The LEGO Movie where famous UK ads were spoofed
ratings) and ‘road blocked’ the nation’s most popular and pulled together for a special ad break.
programmes to ensure we generated maximum fame. The campaign was a huge success, and by turning
The ‘Vinnie’ film became the most shared online video something that is serious and scary into something
in launch week, with 72,601 shares across social funny, we changed people’s lives and behaviour. Our
media in the first 10 days. aim was to recruit an army of bystanders who were
We debuted the ad socially on Twitter with the more likely to step in during an emergency. Post-
hashtag ‘\#hardandfast’, which trended organically tracking told us that we created an extra 6 million
five times on launch day. It was bolstered further with people who were now more likely to perform ‘Hands-
promoted tweets and 37 million impressions booked only CPR’. We know that 30 lives were saved as a
as rich display media on national sites such as Yahoo!, direct result of people seeing the ad, due to the let-
MSN and AOL. Public relations and social media further ters we have received.
amplified the campaign. How were these lives saved? Research indicates
We launched a how-to-do ‘Hands-only CPR’ app that the likability element of the campaign message
through websites such as iTunes and Google Play and enabled it to become easily understood and ‘sticky’
sold a set of limited edition ‘Vinnie’ T-shirts across the as it resonated with people and was passed on to
BHF’s 700 shops nationwide. others. N
­ euro-linguistic programming (NLP) suggests
The ‘Vinnie’ campaign gained major PR coverage people learn in three key ways: through pictures and
across the biggest online and offline national media images (visually); through chants and rhythm (audi-
channels including the BBC, the Sun and Daily Mail. tory); and through gestures and body movements
The Hands-only TV ad was parodied on the biggest TV (kinaesthetically). ‘Vinnie’ combined all three and it
shows including The Graham Norton Show (BBC1), The was this that helped to communicate effectively,
Alan Carr Show (Channel 4) and Soccer AM (Sky Sports). maximise reach, and enable a mass audience to learn
Reconstructed ‘Hands-only CPR’ rescues were made a new behaviour.

Exhibit 2.1 Vinnie – Hands-Only CPR

Source: British Heart Foundation.

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 40 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Exhibit 2.2 Vinnie is now used for NHS training

Source: British Heart Foundation.

This case was written by Matt Buttrick, Planning Questions relating to this case can be found at the
Director at Grey London end of this chapter.

An introduction to the process

of communications
It was established in Chapter 1 that marketing communications is partly an attempt by
an organisation/brand to create and sustain conversations with its various audiences. It
is also necessary to encourage members of these audiences to talk amongst themselves
about a brand. As communications are the process by which individuals share meaning,
each participant in the communications process needs to be able to interpret the meaning
embedded in the messages, and be able to respond in appropriate ways.
In the British Heart Foundation (BHF) case, or ‘Vinnie’ as it is generally understood,
appreciating the nature and characteristics of the target audience was an important ele-
ment of the BHF’s successful campaign. Their campaign required that information was
transmitted to, and then among, key participants. It is important, therefore, that those
involved with marketing communications understand this complexity. Through knowl-
edge and understanding of the communications process, participants are more likely to
achieve their objective of sharing meaning with each member of their target audiences
and so have an opportunity to enter into a sustainable dialogue.
This chapter examines several models, or forms, of the communications process. It
considers the characteristics associated with word-of-mouth communications and looks
at the way products and ideas are adopted by individuals and markets.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 41

A linear model of
communications
Wilbur Schramm (1955) developed what is now accepted as the basic model of mass
communications, shown in Figure 2.1. The components of the linear model of com-
munications are:
1. Source: the individual or organisation sending the message.
2. Encoding: transferring the intended message into a symbolic style that can be
transmitted.
3. Signal: the transmission of the message using particular media.
4. Decoding: understanding the symbolic style of the message in order to understand the
message.
5. Receiver: the individual or organisation receiving the message.
6. Feedback: the receiver’s communications back to the source on receipt of the message.
7. Noise: distortion of the communications process, making it difficult for the receiver
to interpret the message as intended by the source.
This is a linear model, one that emphasises the ‘transmission of information, ideas,
attitudes, or emotion from one person or group to another (or others), primarily through
symbols’ (Theodorson and Theodorson, 1969). The model and its components are
straightforward, but it is the quality of the linkages between the various elements in the
process that determine whether a communications event will be successful.

Figure 2.1 A linear model of communications

Source: Based on Schramm (1955) and Shannon and Weaver (1962).

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 42 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Source/encoding
The source is an individual or organisation, which identifies a need to transmit a mes-
sage. It then selects a combination of appropriate words, pictures, symbols and music
to represent the message to be transmitted. This is called ‘encoding’. The purpose is to
create a message that is capable of being understood by the receiver. The BHF under-
stood people’s confusion and reluctance to get involved with CPR but used humour
and a catchy song to encode the message sufficiently that audiences could understand
(decode), learn and act on (and share) the message.
There are a number of reasons why the source/encoding link might break down. For exam-
ple, the source may fail to diagnose a particular situation accurately. By not fully understand-
ing a stakeholder’s problem or level of knowledge, inappropriate information may be included
in the message, which, when transmitted, may lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretation
by the receiver. By failing to appreciate the level of education of the target receiver, a message
might be encoded in words and symbols that are beyond the comprehension of the receiver.
Some organisations spend a great deal of time and expense on market research, try-
ing to develop their understanding of their target audience. The source of a message is
an important factor in the communications process. A receiver who perceives a source
lacking conviction, authority, trust or expertise is likely to discount any message received
from that source, until such time as credibility is established.
Many organisations spend a great deal of time and expense recruiting sales repre-
sentatives. The risk involved in selecting the wrong people can be extremely large. Many
high-tech organisations require their new sales staff to spend over a year receiving both
product and sales training before allowing them to meet customers. From a customer’s
perspective, salespersons who display strong product knowledge skills and who are also
able to empathise with the individual members of the decision-making unit are more
likely to be perceived as credible. Therefore, an organisation that prepares its sales staff
and presents them as knowledgeable and trustworthy is more likely to be successful in
the communications process than one that does not take the same level of care.
The source is a part of the communications process, not just the generator of detached
messages. Patzer (1983) determined that the physical attractiveness of the communica-
tor, particularly if they are the source, contributes significantly to the effectiveness of
persuasive communications. This observation can be related to the use, by organisa-
tions, of spokespersons and celebrities to endorse products. Spokespersons can be better
facilitators of the communications process if they are able to convey conviction, if they
are easily associated with the object of the message, if they have credible expertise and
if they are attractive to the receiver, in the wider sense of the word.
This legitimate authority is developed in many television and video advertisements by
the use of the ‘white coat’, black-framed glasses or product-specific clothing, as a symbol
of expertise. Dressing the spokesperson in a white coat means that they are immediately
perceived as a credible source of information (‘they know what they are talking about’),
and so are much more likely to be believed.

Signal
Once encoded, the message must be put into a form that is capable of transmission. It
may be oral or written, verbal or non-verbal, in a symbolic form or in a sign. Whatever
the format chosen, the source must be sure that what is being put into the message is
what is required to be decoded by the receiver.
The channel is the means by which the message is transmitted from the source to the
receiver. These channels may be personal or non-personal. The former involves face-to-
face contact and word-of-mouth communications, which can be extremely influential.
Non-personal channels are characterised by mass-media advertising, which can reach
large audiences.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 43

Information received directly from personal influence channels is generally more per-
suasive than information received through mass media. This may be a statement of the
obvious, but the reasons for this need to be understood. First, the individual approach
permits greater flexibility in the delivery of the message. The timing and power with
which a message is delivered can be adjusted to suit the immediate ‘selling’ environ-
ment. Second, a message can be adapted to meet the needs of the customer as the sales
call progresses. This flexibility is not possible with mass-media messages, as these have
to be designed and produced well in advance of transmission and often without direct
customer input.

Viewpoint 2.1 Encoding ads for Chinese empathy

Adidas developed a campaign for the Beijing Olympics with the goal of overtaking the share of the Chi-
nese market held by their arch competitor Nike. Adidas chose to promote Chinese nationalism at a time
when human rights issues and environmental policies dominated the approaches used by advertisers.
The platform for the Adidas campaign was the pride the Chinese felt in winning and hosting the Games.
The campaign featured Chinese athletes such as basketball player Sui Feifei and diver Hu Jia. Ads fea-
tured computer-animated Chinese fans helping Chinese athletes in their events. For example, fans were
shown blocking a volleyball shot, another flicking a pass to a basketball player or helping to launch a
diver. Another ad showed the Chinese women’s volleyball team talking about how they overcame the
huge expectations of their country to win a medal at the previous Olympic Games in Greece. Adidas even
made the outfit worn by the Chinese delegation at each medal ceremony, and featured this is an ad.

Exhibit 2.3 Adidas ad used to appeal to the pride of the Chinese at hosting the 2008 Beijing Olympics
Source: 2015 Adidas.

Unlike its normal global approach to ads during major sporting events, this campaign was only shown
in China. It used TV, outdoor, retail, mobile and online marketing.
Some brands occasionally misinterpret the context of their audience and develop ads whose meaning is
not understood because they are decoded in a different way to that intended. As a result they are passed
over or in some cases cause annoyance or generate outright indignation. Part of the reason for this is that
the encoding process was misjudged and the associated marketing management processes failed.

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 44 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

For example, Bruce Lee fans and Chinese film-makers voiced their disapproval when Diageo resurrected
the martial-arts star for a Johnnie Walker ad for their Blue Label whisky brand. The video, aimed at Chinese
markets, depicted Lee being brought back to life through animation. The encoding process failed to antici-
pate the timing of the ad’s release which coincided with the considerable commemorative activity celebrat-
ing Lee’s death 40 years previously. In addition to this, using Lee in association with alcohol was misjudged
because Lee never drank. The final encoding mishap concerned the actor used to represent Lee. In the ad he
spoke Putonghua, a standardised form of Chinese, whereas Lee was born in Hong Kong and spoke Cantonese.

Source: Anon (2010a); Barnes (2013).

Question: Why did Adidas restrict the campaign to a China-only audience?

Task: Find two other campaigns which are anchored in a particular context.

Decoding/receiver
Decoding is the process of transforming and interpreting a message into thought. This
process is influenced by the receiver’s realm of understanding, which encompasses the
experiences, perceptions, attitudes and values of both the source and the receiver. The
more the receiver understands about the source and the greater their experience in decod-
ing the source’s messages, the more able the receiver will be to decode and attribute the
intended meaning to the message.

Feedback/response
The set of reactions a receiver has after seeing, hearing or reading a message is known
as the response. These vary from the extreme of calling an enquiry telephone number,
returning or downloading a coupon or even buying the product, sending a text/email,
to storing information in long-term memory for future use. Feedback is that part of the
response that is sent back to the sender, and it is essential for successful communica-
tions. The need to understand not just whether the message has been received but also
‘which’ message has been received is vital. For example, the receiver may have decoded
the message incorrectly and a completely different set of responses may have been elic-
ited. If a suitable feedback system is not in place then the source will be unaware that
the communications have been unsuccessful and is liable to continue wasting resources.
This represents inefficient and ineffective marketing communications.

Scholars’ paper 2.1 Mass communication – uncut

Schramm, W. (1962) Mass communication, Annual Review of Psychology,

13(1), 25–84.

This is a seminal paper. Schramm explores mass communications and the various
elements that influence or constitute the mass communications process. This paper
provides an excellent insight into the theoretical development of the topic, at which
point the linear model of communications was possibly at its highest point of popular-
ity. You will be surprised at the range of elements considered by Schramm.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 45

The evaluation of feedback is vital if effective communications are to be developed.

Only through evaluation can the success of any communications be judged. Feedback
through personal selling can be instantaneous, through overt means such as questioning,
raising objections or signing an order form. Other means, such as the use of gestures and
body language, are less overt, and the decoding of the feedback needs to be accurate if an
appropriate response is to be given. For the advertiser, the process is much more vague
and prone to misinterpretation and error.
Feedback through mass-media channels is generally much more difficult to obtain,
mainly because of the inherent time delay involved in the feedback process. There are
some exceptions, namely the overnight ratings provided by the Broadcasters’ Audience
Research Board (see www.barb.co.uk) to the television contractors, but as a rule feedback
is normally delayed and not as fast. Some commentators argue that the only meaningful
indicator of communications success is sales. However, there are many other influences
that affect the level of sales, such as price, the effect of previous communications, the rec-
ommendations of opinion leaders or friends, poor competitor actions or any number of
government or regulatory developments. Except in circumstances such as direct marketing,
where immediate and direct feedback can be determined, organisations should use other
methods to gauge the success of their communications activities: for example, the level
and quality of customer enquiries, the number and frequency of store visits, the degree
of attitude change and the ability to recognise or recall an advertisement. All of these
represent feedback, but, as a rough distinction, the evaluation of feedback for mass com-
munications is much more difficult than the evaluation of interpersonal communications.

Noise
A complicating factor, which may influence the quality of the reception and the feed-
back, is noise. Noise, according to Mallen (1977), is ‘the omission and distortion of
information’, and there will always be some noise present in all communications. Man-
agement’s role is to ensure that levels of noise are kept to a minimum, wherever it is
able to exert influence.
Noise occurs when a receiver is prevented from receiving all or part of a message in
full. This may be because of either cognitive or physical factors. For example, a cogni-
tive factor may be that the encoding of the message was inappropriate, thereby making
it difficult for the receiver to decode the message. In this circumstance it is said that the
realms of understanding of the source and the receiver were not matched. Another reason
noise may enter the system is that the receiver may have been physically prevented from
decoding the message accurately because the receiver was distracted. Examples of distrac-
tion are that the telephone rang, or someone in the room asked a question or coughed.
A further reason could be that competing messages screened out the targeted message.
Some sales promotion practitioners are using the word ‘noise’ to refer to the ambience
and publicity surrounding a particular sales promotion event. In other words, the word
is being used as a positive, advantageous element in the communications process. This
approach is not adopted in this text.

Realms of understanding
The concept of the ‘realm of understanding’ was introduced earlier. It is an important
element in the communications process because it is a recognition that successful com-
munications are more likely to be achieved if the source and the receiver understand
each other, that is they share meaning. This understanding concerns attitudes, percep-
tions, behaviour and experience: the values of both parties to the communications pro-
cess. Therefore, effective communications are more likely when there is some common
ground, a realm of understanding between the source and receiver.

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 46 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Some organisations, especially those in the private sector, spend a huge amount of
money researching their target markets and testing their advertisements to ensure that their
messages can be decoded and understood. The more organisations understand their receiv-
ers, the more confident they become in constructing and transmitting messages to them.
Repetition and learning are important elements in marketing communications. Learning
is a function of knowledge and the more we know, the more likely we are to understand.

Factors that influence the

communications process
The linear, sequential interpretation of the communications process was developed at a
time when broadcast media dominated commercial communications. It no longer pro-
vides an accurate representation of contemporary communications processes and fails to
accurately represent all forms of communications. Issues concerning media and audience
fragmentation, the need to consider social and relational dimensions of communications,
and the impact of interactive communications has reduced the overall applicability of
the linear model.
However, there are two particular influences on the communications process that need
to be considered. First, the media used to convey information, and, second, the influence
of people on the communications process. These are considered in turn.

The influence of the media

The dialogue that marketing communications seeks to generate with and among audi-
ences is partially constrained by an inherent time delay based on the speed at which
responses are generated by the participants in the communications process. Technology
allows participants to conduct marketing-communications-based ‘conversations’ at elec-
tronic speeds. The essence of this speed attribute is that it allows for real-time interac-
tively based communications, where enquiries can be responded to more or less instantly.
Digital-based technologies, and the Internet in particular, provide opportunities for
interaction and dialogue with customers. With conventional (linear) media the tendency
is for monologue or at best delayed and inferred interaction. One of the first points
to be made about these new, media-based communications is that the context within
which marketing communications occurs is redefined. Traditionally, dialogue occurs in
a (relatively) familiar context, which is driven by providers who deliberately present their
messages through a variety of communications devices into the environments that they
expect their audiences may well pass or recognise. Providers implant their messages into
the various environments frequented by their targets. Yuan et al. (1998) refer to advertis-
ing messages being ‘unbundled’, such as direct marketing, which has no other content,
or ‘bundled’ and embedded with other news content such as television, radio and web
pages with banner ads. Perhaps more pertinently, they refer to direct and indirect online
advertising. Direct advertising is concerned with advertising messages delivered to the
customer (email) while indirect advertising is concerned with messages that are made
available for a customer to access at their leisure (websites).
Digital media communications tend to make providers relatively passive. Their mes-
sages are presented in an environment that requires specific equipment and actions to
search them out. The roles are reversed, so that the drivers become active information
seekers, represented by a target audience (members of the public and other information
providers such as organisations), not just the information-providing organisations.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 47

The influence of people

The traditional view of communications holds that the process consists essentially of
one step. Information is directed and shot at prospective audiences, rather like a bullet
is propelled from a gun. The decision of each member of the audience whether to act on
the message is the result of a passive role or participation in the process. Organisations
can communicate with different target audiences simply by varying the message and the
type and frequency of channels used.
The linear model has been criticised for its oversimplification, and it certainly ignores
the effect of personal influences on the communications process and potential for infor-
mation deviance. To accommodate these influences two further models are introduced,
the influencer model and the interactional model of communications.

The influencer model

of communications
The influencer model depicts information flowing via media channels to particular types
of people (opinion leaders and opinion formers) to whom other members of the audi-
ence refer for information and guidance. Through interpersonal networks, opinion lead-
ers not only reach members of the target audience who may not have been exposed to
the message, but may reinforce the impact of the message for those members who did
receive the message (Figure 2.2). For example, feedback and comments from travellers
on Tripadvisor.com assist others when making travel plans, and constitute opinion lead-
ership. However, editors of travel sections in the Sunday press, television presenters of
travel programmes, and professional travel bloggers fulfil the role of opinion former and
can influence the decision of prospective travellers through their formalised knowledge.
Originally referred to as the ‘two-step model’, this approach indicates that the mass
media do not have a direct and all-powerful effect over their audiences. If the primary

Figure 2.2 The influencer model of communications

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 2.2, p. 39.

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 48 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Figure 2.3 Multi-step variation of the influencer model of communications

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 2.3, p. 39.

Exhibit 2.4 Influencer communications to promote authentic Caribbean rum

Source: Bray Leino Ltd.

function of the mass media is to provide information, then personal influences are neces-
sary to be persuasive and to exert direct influence on members of the target audience.
The influencer approach can be developed into a multi-step model. This proposes that
communications involve interaction among all parties to the communications process
(see Figure 2.3). This interpretation closely resembles the network of participants who
are often involved in the communications process.

Interactional model
of communications
The models and frameworks used to explain the communications process so far should
be considered as a simplification of reality and not a true reflection of communications
in practice. The linear model is unidirectional, and it suggests that the receiver plays a

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 49

passive role in the process. The influencer model attempts to account for an individual’s
participation in the communications process. These models emphasise individual behav-
iour but exclude any social behaviour implicit in the process.
The interactional model of communications attempts to assimilate the variety of influ-
ences acting upon the communications process. This includes the responses people give
to communications received from people and machines. Increasingly communications
are characterised by attributing meaning to messages that are shared, updated and a
response to other messages. These ‘conversations’ can be termed interactional and are
an integral part of society. Figure 2.4 depicts the complexity associated with these forms
of communications.
Interaction is about actions that lead to a response. The development of direct mar-
keting helped make a significant contribution to the transition from what is essentially
one-way to two-way and then interactive-based communications. Digital technology has
further enabled this interaction process. However, interaction alone is not a sufficient
goal, simply because the content of the interaction could be about a radical disagreement
of views, an exchange of opinion or a social encounter.
Ballantyne refers to two-way communications with audiences as first, as a ‘with’
experience, as manifest in face-to-face encounters and contact centres. Second, he distin-
guishes a higher order of two-way communications based on communications ‘between’
parties. It is this latter stage that embodies true dialogue where trust, listening and adap-
tive behaviour are typical. These are represented in Table 2.1. L’Oréal has gradually been
adapting its strapline, ‘Because I’m worth it’. In the mid-2000s this changed to ‘Because
you are worth it’ and then in 2009 there was a further move to ‘Because we’re worth it’
(Clark, 2012), a recognition perhaps of the word ‘we’ as a key to building customer rela-
tionships as it denotes stronger consumer involvement in, and satisfaction with, L’Oréal.

Figure 2.4 The interactional model of communications

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 2.4, p. 41.

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 50 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Table 2.1 Communications matrix

Direction Mass markets Portfolio/mass-customised Networks

One-way. Communications ‘to’. Communications ‘for’.

Planned communications Planned persuasive Planned persuasive
designed to inform and messages aimed messages with
persuade. at securing brand augmented offerings
Medium to high wastage. awareness and loyalty; for target markets; e.g.
e.g. communications of communicating targeted
USPs and ESPs. lifecycle products,
guarantees, loyalty
programmes.

Two-way. Communications ‘with’. Communications ‘between’.

Formal and informal with Integrated mix of planned Dialogue between
a view to listening and and interactively shared participants based on trust,
learning. knowledge; e.g. face-to- learning and adaptation
Minimal wastage. face, direct (database), with co-created outcomes;
contact centres, interactive e.g. key account liaison,
B2B Internet portals. expansion of communities,
staff teamwork.

Source: Ballantyne (2004).

A key question emerges: what is interaction and what are its key characteristics? If we
can understand the dynamics and dimensions of interactivity then it should be possible
to develop more effective marketing communications. In this context interactivity can be
considered from one of two perspectives. One is the technology, tools and features (e.g.
multimedia, www, online gaming) that provide for interaction. The second, according
to Johnson et al. (2006), is the added value that interactivity is perceived to bring to the
communications process.
Arising out of interaction is dialogue. This occurs through mutual understanding and a
reasoning approach to interactions, one based on listening and adaptive behaviour. Dia-
logue is concerned with the development of knowledge that is specific to the relationship of
the parties involved. Ballantyne refers to this as ‘learning together’ (Ballantyne, 2004: 119).
The adoption of dialogue as the basis for communications changes an organisation’s
perspective with its audiences. Being willing and able to enter into a dialogue indicates
that there is a new emphasis on the relationships organisations hold with their stake-
holders. In other words, for meaningful dialogue to occur there must first be interaction.
The influencer model is important because it demonstrates the importance of people in
the communications process. Successful communications, however, are often determined
by the level of interactivity the communications encourage.

Word-of-mouth communications
Consumer-to-consumer conversations about products, services and brand-related mar-
keting messages and meanings are naturally occurring events. Buyers, potential buyers
and non-buyers exchange information without influence or being prompted by the brand
owner.
Many organisations use word of mouth as an integral part of their marketing com-
munications and deliberately encourage people to have positive conversations about their
particular brand. They do this because word-of-mouth communications (WoM) are con-
sidered to be the primary driver behind 20 to 50 per cent of all purchasing decisions

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 51

(Bughin et al., 2010). Shih et al. (2013) refer to a Nielsen survey of online consumers which
found that whereas only 33 per cent of consumers trust online advertisements, 90 per
cent trust recommendations from friends and 70 per cent trust eWoM (electronic WoM).
WoM communications are characterised as informal, unplanned and unsolicited con-
versations. These recommendations provide information and purchasing support and
serve to reinforce an individual’s purchasing decisions. At the heart of this approach
is the source credibility that is assigned to people whose opinions are sought after and
used in the purchase decision process. Those who provide information in WoM com-
munications can be characterised as informal experts who are unbiased, trustworthy and
who can be considered to be objective. Personal influence is important and can enrich
the communications process. Unlike advertising, where messages are primarily linear,
unidirectional and formal, WoM communications are interactive, bidirectional and more
believable. Or, as Hamilton et al. (2014: 197) put it, the ‘opinions of other consumers
are appreciated because they are more likely to include negative information about a
product or service than one could find in formal marketing communications’.

Scholars’ paper 2.2 So why am I talking about this brand?

Berger, J. and Schwartz, E.M. (2011) What drives immediate and ongoing word of
mouth? Journal of Marketing Research, XLVIII (October), 869–80.

These researchers consider the psychological drivers of WoM and how companies can
design more effective WoM marketing campaigns. Whereas most of the research in
this area looks at the consequences of WoM, the focus here is on what causes WoM,
how the product itself can shape what is discussed, and how WoM may vary over
different time horizons. They distinguish between immediate and ongoing WoM. This
paper should be considered in terms of updating Dichter’s 1966 paper.

Definition and motives

Arndt (1967: 66) sets out WoM as ‘an oral, person-to-person communication between
a receiver and a communicator whom the receiver perceives as non-commercial, regard-
ing a brand, product, or service’. Put in more simple terms, WoM communications
concerns the sharing of an opinion among people independent from a company or its
agents (Santo, 2006: 29).
Stokes and Lomax (2002) define WoM communications as ‘interpersonal commu-
nication regarding products or services where the receiver regards the communicator
as impartial’. This simple definition was developed from some of the more established
interpretations that failed to accommodate contemporary media and the restrictions
concerning the perceived independence of the communicator.
Kawakami et al. (2014: 17) define WoM as ‘the exchange of information and evalu-
ative beliefs between adopters and potential adopters regarding a product in which the
communications content is not created or sponsored by the product manufacturer or
related marketing organisations’. They also make the point that WoM can occur between
people who know each other personally (pWoM) and between people who have never
met each other in real life, which they refer to as virtual (vWoM). Weisfeld-Spolter et
al. (2014) identify several different formats of eWoM, which suggests that there needs
to be care when referring to eWoM.
People like to talk about their product (service) experiences for a variety of reasons
that are explored in the next section. By talking with a neighbour or colleague about
the good experiences associated with a holiday, for example, the first-hand ‘this has

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 52 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

actually happened to someone I know’ effect can be instrumental in the same views
being passed on to other colleagues, irrespective of their validity or the general impres-
sion people have of other holidays and destinations. Mazzarol et al. (2007) identify
the ‘richness of the message’ and the ‘strength of the implied or explicit advocacy’ as
important triggers for WoM. Palmer (2009) brings these together and refers to WoM
as information people can trust as it comes from people just like them and it helps them
make better decisions.
Helm and Schlei (1998: 42) refer to WoM as ‘verbal communications (either positive
or negative) between groups such as the product provider, independent experts, fam-
ily, friends and the actual or personal consumer’. As discussed later, organisations use
eWoM techniques in a commercial context in order to generate brand-based conversa-
tions around a point of differentiation. Where WoM used to be a one-to-one conver-
sation, the digital influence makes this a one-to-many communications when product
reviews are posted online or when blogs or videos go viral.
One important question that arises is: why do people want to discuss products or
advertising messages? Bone (1995) as cited by Stokes and Lomax (2002) refers to three
elements of WoM (see Table 2.2).
Dichter (1966) determined that there were four main categories of output WoM.
1. Product involvement
People, he found, have a high propensity to discuss matters that are either distinctly
pleasurable or unpleasurable. Such discussion serves to provide an opportunity for
the experience to be relived, whether it be the ‘looking for’ or the ‘use’ experience,
or both. This reflects the product and service experience elements of marketing com-
munications, identified as part of the scope of the topic, in Chapter 1.

2. Self-involvement
Discussion offers a means for ownership to be established and signals aspects of pres-
tige and levels of status to the receiver. More importantly, perhaps, dissonance can be
reduced as the purchaser seeks reassurance about a decision.

3. Other involvement
Products can assist motivations to help others and to express feelings of love, friend-
ship and caring. These feelings can be released through a sense of sharing the variety
of benefits that products can bestow.

4. Message involvement
The final motivation to discuss products is derived, according to Dichter, from the
messages that surround the product itself, in particular the advertising messages and,

Table 2.2 Elements of word-of-mouth communications

Element of WoM Explanation

Direction Input WoM Customers seeking recommendation prior to purchase

Output WoM Expression of feelings as a result of the purchase

experience

Valence The positive or negative feelings resulting from the

experience

Volume The number of people to which the message is conveyed

Source: After Bone (1995).

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 53

in the B2B market, seminars, exhibitions and the trade press, which provide the means
to provoke conversation and so stimulate WoM recommendation.
Marketing communications can be used to stimulate conversations, by using these
motivations as an anchor for messages.
People who identify very closely with a brand and who might be termed ‘brand advo-
cates’ often engage in WoM communications. Advocacy can be demonstrated not only
through WoM communications but also through behaviour – for example, by wearing
branded clothing or using tools and equipment.

Viewpoint 2.2 GreenHopping’s start through WoM

GreenHopping is an online platform that promotes the green side of European destinations and busi-
nesses. The brand presents a destination’s sustainability credentials and other attributes, with a view
to inspiring, engaging, and providing visitors an insightful experience and understanding. It achieves this
by providing local stories, beautiful pictures, and detailed information about the various local labels and
certificates. For example, it informs about how a hotel in a region can achieve eco certification, or how a
restaurant can become part of the Slow food network, plus other key points related to these good prac-
tices. This enables professionals to spot opportunities to promote and assist organisations to improve
and achieve their green based goals.
As a start-up company, headquartered in Brussels, the first big issue GreenHopping faced was the
fact that the brand was unknown and new to the market. The major task therefore, was to inform and
make professionals and potential investors aware of the new and unique brand. With limited resources,
targeted paid advertising was out of the question. The GreenHopping team, all recent graduates, decided
to use a word of mouth strategy instead. Although the platform was developed for the B2C market, the
initial focus was on the B2B sector.
The team targeted 200 potential businesses to green map Brussels. They also contacted local influ-
encers such as NGOs, bloggers, photographers and other professionals; some they met in person. Exam-
ples include organisations such as the Brussels Greeters, USE it maps, Slow food Brussels and others.
These were selected on the basis of their sustainability and eco-tourism credentials. The team visited
several marketing conferences and through personalised word of mouth communications they managed
to spread the word about GreenHopping between marketers.
Professionals were presented with written articles, pictures, statements and documents about Green-
Hopping’s beliefs, aims and values, plus insights about specific labels and certificates. As a result they
learned about the major issues that organisations and destinations faced when defining and delivering
their green identity. They were also kept up to date with the latest trends in sustainability.
As a result these professionals became real supporters of the GreenHopping brand. The platform
helped people to start talking to one another and to share their new knowledge. With people in Brussels
talking about GreenHopping, organisations soon started to work and collaborate with the brand. Journal-
ists began to contact the team with the result that articles started to appear in newspapers, whilst the
founders were interviewed on television. From this potential partnerships for new and exciting projects
began to emerge for both the B2B and B2C markets, all as a result of the WoM strategy.

This Viewpoint was contributed by Bilyana Petrova, a Digital Marketing Specialist at BGMenu,
­Bulgaria. Previously she studied Advertising and Marketing at Coventry University, UK.

Question: If WoM communications are so important, why are they not a core activity for all brands?
When you next visit a leisure or entertainment complex, make a mental note of the ways in
Task: 
which the brand owner encourages visitors to talk about the complex.

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 54 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

These motivations to discuss products and their associative experiences vary between
individuals and with the intensity of the motivation at any one particular moment. There
are two main persons involved in this process of WoM communications: a sender and
receiver. Research indicates that the receiver’s evaluation of a message is far from stable
over time and accuracy of recall decays (expectedly) through time. What this means for
marketing communications is that those people who have a positive product experience,
especially in the service sector, should be encouraged to talk as soon as possible after the
event (Christiansen and Tax, 2000). Goldsmith and Horowitz (2006) found that risk
reduction, popularity, reduced costs, access to easy information, and even inspiration
from offline sources such as cinema, TV and radio were some of the primary reasons
why people seek the opinions of others online.

Opinion leaders
Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) first identified individuals who were predisposed to receiv-
ing information and then reprocessing it to influence others. Their studies of American
voting and purchase behaviour led to their conclusion that those individuals who could
exert such influence were more persuasive than information received directly from the
mass media. These opinion leaders, according to Rogers (1962), tend ‘to be of the same
social class as non-leaders, but may enjoy a higher social status within the group’. Wil-
liams (1990) uses the work of Reynolds and Darden (1971) to suggest that they are more
gregarious and more self-confident than non-leaders. In addition, they have a greater
exposure to relevant mass media (print) and, as a result, have more knowledge/familiar-
ity and involvement with the product class, are more innovative and more confident of
their role as influencer (leader) and appear to be less dogmatic than non-leaders (Chan
and Misra, 1990).
Opinion leadership can be simulated in advertising by the use of product testimonials.
Using ordinary people to express positive comments about a product to each other is a
very well-used advertising technique.
The importance of opinion leaders in the design and implementation of commu-
nications plans should not be underestimated. Midgley and Dowling (1993) refer to
innovator communicators: those who are receptive to new ideas and who make innova-
tion-based purchase decisions without reference to or from other people. However, while
the importance of these individuals is not doubted, a major difficulty exists in trying to
identify just who these opinion leaders and innovator communicators are. While they
sometimes display some distinctive characteristics, such as reading specialist media vehi-
cles, often being first to return coupons, enjoying attending exhibitions or just involving
themselves with new, innovative techniques or products, they are by their very nature
invisible outside their work, family and social groups.

Table 2.3 Characteristics associated with opinion leaders

Characteristic Explanation

Social gregariousness Refers to an opinion leader’s level of social embeddedness because

they tend to have more social ties, more friends, and more social
contacts than non-leaders.

Efficacy and trust Opinion leaders have a higher self-confidence and self-reliance than
non-leaders, although it is noted that they generally have lower
confidence in political systems.

Values and Opinion leaders are less concerned with material gain and financial
satisfaction success than non-leaders. They tend to exhibit higher levels of social
responsibility, political tolerance, civic-mindedness, and environmental
concern.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 55

Nisbet (2005) provides a useful insight into the background of opinion leadership. He
observes that opinion leadership has been previously defined as exhibiting three primary
dimensions: social embeddedness (Weimann, 1994), information-giving (Rogers, 2003),
and information-seeking (Keller and Berry, 2003) behaviours. Table 2.3 sets out some
of the main characteristics associated with opinion leaders.

Viewpoint 2.3 Advocates, influencers and ambassadors

To assist the development of the Sensodyne Pronamel brand in Hungary, Glaxosmithcline used a word of
mouth campaign. This involved the recruitment of 1,000 brand ambassadors who were required to drive
conversations about the acid wear of teeth, and the Sensodyne Pronamel range. The ambassadors had
to convey messages that this is a special toothpaste that helps prevent acid erosion. To do this they had
to experience the product, use a starter kit to explain and pass samples on to friends, family members
and acquaintances, and generate conversations about the product. Over 185,000 conversations were
made during the campaign period, plus the many that happened after the campaign officially finished.
The ‘I am Stela’ campaign used brand advocates such as Tony Robinson, Claudia Winkleman and Sir
Ranulph Fiennes. These and other celebrities openly declared on social media that ‘I am Stela’. Their posts
were linked to a video about Stela, a 12-year-old girl from Turkana. Her life had been changed radically
following the installation of a freshwater pump funded by sales of One Water.
Carlos Soria is a Spanish mountaineer who represents many of BBVA’s values: integrity, humility, the
quest for excellence, commitment and cooperation. His aim at the age of 73 is to scale the 14 mountains
in the world that are over 8,000 metres.
Marmite is a sticky, dark brown, yeast extract paste. It is used to spread on bread and toast, and is
made from the by-products of brewing, the brewer’s yeast that’s been used to ferment sugars into alco-
hol. Not surprising then that Marmite has a strong, distinctive taste. Marmite encourage the creation of
brand endorsers through an online community called the ‘Mamarati’. This is a secret club for super fans,
entirely fabricated through social media and given a history, identity and various rituals and traditions.
Community members seeking acceptance into the Marmarati have to be inducted into the ‘First Circle’,
read the Marmarati Oath, and take part in blindfolded tastings.
It is believed that sales of single malt whisky are driven primarily by WoM recommendations and so it
is not surprising that William Grant & Sons, producer of Glenfiddich and Sailor Jerry’s, decided to realign
its marketing budget in order to create more content to encourage influencers to talk about the brand.

Source: Anon (2010b); Bamford (2013); Bolger (2013); Joseph (2014); Rantal (2011); www.marmite.com; www.
wearesocial.net; www.bbva.com/.

Question: What is the main difference between a brand ambassador and a celebrity endorser?
Find two examples of brand ambassadors and then make a list of the other brands they
Task: 
endorse. Are there any similarities across each list?

Opinion formers
Opinion formers are individuals who are able to exert personal influence because of their
authority, education or status associated with the object of the communications pro-
cess. Like opinion leaders, they are acknowledged and sought out by others to provide
information and advice, but this is because of the formal expertise that opinion formers
are adjudged to have. For example, community pharmacists are often consulted about
symptoms and medicines, and film and theatre critics carry such conviction in their
reviews that they can make or break a new production.

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 56 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Popular television soap operas such as General Hospital (USA), Alles was zählt (Ger-
many), Shortland Street (New Zealand) and Coronation Street (UK), all of which attract
huge audiences, have been used as vehicles to draw attention to and open up debates
about many controversial social issues, such as contraception, abortion, drug use and
abuse, and serious illness and mental health concerns.
The influence of opinion formers can be great. For example, the editor of a journal
or newspaper may be a recognised source of expertise, and any offering referred to by
the editor in the media vehicle is endowed with great credibility. In this sense the editor
acts as a gatekeeper, and it is the task of the marketing communicator to ensure that all
relevant opinion formers are identified and sent appropriate messages.
The credibility of opinion formers is vital for communications effectiveness. If there
is a suspicion or doubt about the impartiality of the opinion former, then the objectivity
of their views and comments is likely to be perceived as tainted and not believed so that
damage may be caused to the reputation of the brand and those involved.
Many organisations constantly lobby key members of parliament in an effort to per-
suade them to pursue ‘favourable’ policies. Opinion formers are relatively easy to iden-
tify, as they need to be seen shaping the opinion of others, usually opinion followers.

Opinion followers
The vast majority of consumers can be said to be opinion followers. The messages they
receive via the mass media are tempered by the opinions of the two groups of personal
influencers just discussed. Some people actively seek information from those they believe
are well informed, while others prefer to use the mass media for information and guid-
ance (Robinson, 1976). However, this should not detract from the point that, although
followers, they still process information independently and use a variety of inputs when
sifting information and responding to marketing stimuli.
Ethical drug manufacturers normally launch new drugs by enlisting the support of par-
ticular doctors who have specialised in the therapy area and who are recognised by other
doctors as experts. These opinion formers are invited to lead symposia and associated
events activity around the new product to build credibility. At the same time, public rela-
tions agencies prepare press releases with the aim that the information will be used by the
mass media (opinion formers) for editorial purposes and create exposure for the product
across the target audience, which, depending upon the product and/or the media vehicle,
may be GPs, hospital doctors, patients or the general public. All these people, whether
they be opinion leaders or formers, are active influencers or talkers (Kingdom, 1970).

Developing brands with

word-of-mouth communications
So far in this section WoM communications have been examined as naturally occurring,
unplanned conversations. This is not entirely correct, as many organisations deliberately
attempt to reach their audiences using WoM principles. The term ‘word-of-mouth mar-
keting’ (WoMM) refers to the electronic version of the spoken endorsement of a product
or service, where messages are targeted at key individuals who then voluntarily pass the
message to friends and colleagues. In doing so they endorse the message and provide it with
a measure of credibility. WoMM is a planned, intentional attempt to influence consumer-
to-consumer communications using professional marketing methods and technologies
(Kozinets et al., 2010) to prompt WoM conversations (see www.womma.org).

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 57

From this it can be assumed that there are a variety of methods that organisations
use to influence their audiences, all in the name of WoM. Of these, three main forms of
WoM can be identified: voluntary, prompted and managed.

1. Voluntary WoM – can be considered to be the most natural form of interpersonal

conversation, free from any external influence, coercion or intent. This still occurs
among genuine opinion leaders, formers and followers for reasons considered
earlier.
2. Prompted WoM – occurs when organisations convey information to specific opinion
leaders and formers, with the intention of deliberately encouraging them to forward
and share the information with their followers. The goal is to prompt conversations
among followers based around the credibility bestowed on the opinion leader. This
outward perspective can be counterbalanced by an inward view. For example, some
organisations use various elements of social media, such as blogs, online communities
and forums, to prompt consumer-to-consumer conversations and then listen, observe
and revise their approaches to the market.
3. Managed WoM – occurs when organisations target, incentivise and reward opinion
leaders for recommending their offerings to their networks of followers. In these situ-
ations opinion leaders lose their independence and objectivity within the communica-
tions process, and become paid representatives of a brand. As a result, the credibility
normally attached to these influencers diminishes and the essence of freely expressed
opinions about products and brands is removed.

There is evidence that organisational use of contemporary marketing communica-

tions seeks to drive voluntary conversations, stimulated by positive product and service
experiences. The prompted approach is used extensively and enables organisations to
retain credibility and a sense of responsibility. The organisations that exploit their audi-
ences through managed WoM conversations are not acting illegally, but may be guilty of
transgressing ethical boundaries and demonstrating disrespect for their audiences – not
a position for long-term strength.
Traditionally brands were built partly through offline communications directed to
opinion leaders, when they could be identified, and through opinion formers. Sporting
and entertainment celebrities have been used as brand ambassadors for a long time. They
are used to enable audiences to develop positive associations between the personality
of the ambassador and a brand. A celebrity endorser is defined as ‘any individual who
enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good
by appearing with it in an advertisement’ (McCracken, 1989: 310).
McCracken (1989) believes that celebrity endorsement works through the theory of
meaning transfer. Consumers make an overall assessment of what a celebrity ‘repre-
sents’ to them, based on their perception and interpretation of the celebrity’s identity
cues. These cues relate to their behaviour, comments, ability and attributes that are of
particular interest to the consumer. McCracken (1989: 315) refers to their public image
as demonstrated in ‘television, movies, military, athletics, and other careers’.
Jin and Phua (2014) found that celebrities who use Twitter to endorse brands are
invariably perceived by their followers as fellow social media users. This helps make their
endorsements more credible and trustworthy than if they had appeared in television or
print advertisements. In addition, their research found that the celebrities who endorse
a large number of brands through eWoM are likely to lose trust as they are perceived
to be ‘tweeters for hire’.
The meaning assigned to a celebrity is transferred from the celebrity endorser to the
product when the two are paired in a commercial message. Gwinner and Eaton (1999)
argue that, when a consumer acquires/consumes the product, the meaning is transferred
to the user and the process is complete.

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 58 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Scholars’ paper 2.3 Effective eWoM through bloggers

Kozinets, R.V., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A.C. and Wilner, S.J.S. (2010) Networked nar-
ratives: understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities, Journal of
Marketing, 74 (March), 71–89.

This paper considers the use and effectiveness of word-of-mouth communications

through online influencers, bloggers. The authors reveal four distinct blogger commu-
nications strategies. These are evaluation, embracing, endorsement, and explanation.
Each of them is influenced by character narrative, communications forum, communal
norms, and the nature of the marketing promotion. The implications for online and
offline and word-of-mouth campaigns are presented.

Brand development now incorporates the use of social media, and bloggers in par-
ticular, who play an increasingly critical role in the dissemination of brand-related
information. More detailed information about the use of social media can be found in
Chapter 19, but here it is important to establish the way in which brands can be devel-
oped through WoM marketing communications.
Opinion formers such as journalists find or receive information about brands through
press releases. They then relay the information, after editing and reformatting, to their
readers and viewers through their particular media. Accordingly, brand-related informa-
tion is targeted at journalists, with the intention that their messages will be forwarded
to their end-user audience through media channels.
Bloggers are now an important and influential channel of communications. How-
ever, they do not share the same characteristics as journalists. For example, the number
of bloggers in any one market can be counted in terms of tens of thousands of people
in contrast to the relatively small, select number of opinion formers. The majority of
bloggers have an informal interest in a subject, whereas opinion formers are deemed to
have formal expertise. Bloggers, however, are not tied to formal processes or indeed an
editor. As a result, bloggers do not have to be objective in their comments and are not
constrained by any advertising messages. Most importantly, bloggers conduct conversa-
tions among themselves and their followers, whereas journalists receive little feedback
(see Viewpoint 2.4 and Chapter 19).

Viewpoint 2.4 Fashionable bloggers

As a 15 year old, Isy Hossack developed a food-based blog, ‘Top with Cinnamon’, which within 2 years had
attracted a following of over 300,000. Her blog is notable not only for the recipes but also for her friendly
yet direct writing style, and for the quality of the photography and videos. Her influence in social media
led to a publisher offering a book deal to feature her recipes, advertisers who place ads on her website
attempting to reach her followers, and of course a growing array of people attracted to her recipes and
food ideas.
Organisations use bloggers to reach and influence their target audiences. For example, Unilever devel-
oped a YouTube channel ‘All Things Hair’ to advertise their brands such as Toni & Guy, Dove and VO5. Zoella,
a video blogger who has over seven million followers, is paid to develop hair styling tutorials based on trends
in social media and Google data about current hair styling talking points. Unilever then enable followers to
purchase the brands.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 59

Exhibit 2.5 Zoella – an established hair styling vblogger

Source: Getty Images/David M. Benett / Getty Images for
Zoella Beauty.

Source: Rivalland (2014); Robinson and Malm (2015); Swift (2014).

Is blogging just a means of self-expression?

Question: 
Find three different blogs in fashion, travel and sport. Make a list of their similarities and
Task: 
differences.

To conclude this section on WoM communications, three elements concerning the

potential of any one WoM recommendation to change behaviour or dissuasion from
doing so can be identified. According to Bughin et al. (2010) these are what is said, who
says it and where it is communicated.
The primary driver is the content of a message, what is said. The message must address
important product or service features. For example, in skin care, functional aspects such
as packaging and ingredients create more powerful WoM communications than emo-
tional messages about how a product makes people feel.
The second driver concerns the person sending the message. Opinion leaders or influ-
entials embody trust and competence. As a result, they generate three times more WoM
messages than non-influentials. Each leader-based message has four times more impact
on a recipient’s purchasing decision.
The third driver is about the environment and power with which WoM messages
circulate. Compact, trust-based networks enable low reach, but messages in this type of
environment have great impact, relative to those circulated through dispersed communi-
ties. This is because there is often a high correlation between people whose opinions we
trust and the members of networks we most value.

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 60 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Amplification
Marketing communications is about enabling relevant brand based conversations. It
might be claimed that an effective communications programme should therefore be based
on the number, as well as the quality, of conversations. There are several circumstances
when this logic does not tie together, but in principle the volume, diversity and perhaps
the dispersion of conversations can be indicative of a successful communications event.
In essence therefore, WoM communications are about amplifying a message so that it
reaches as many people as possible. Today, the interaction of people through various media,
and social media in particular, can lead to an exponential increase in the number of conver-
sations. Indeed, viral marketing programmes (considered in more detail in Chapter 19) can
be generated either by the judicious and deliberate seeding of content around the Internet,
or spontaneously, as a result of a cultural spark. In both cases a message is amplified and
reaches a much wider audience than would normally be expected.
Amplification involves both the cognitive and behavioural elements of the engagement
concept. This means saving reviews about a brand, either as thoughts and feelings about a
brand, or actions such as a brand trial, experience, or purchase, and then sharing it with
a network of contacts, friends and family. In social media the use of sponsored stories,
embedded tweets and social ads using trending content all serve to amplify messages.
The use of and measurement of both online and offline WoM communications are
recognised as important although not always undertaken or prioritised as highly as they
should (Leggatt, 2014). Groeger and Buttle (2014: 1186) use social networking analysis
to investigate the effectiveness of eWoM. One of their findings concerns the possible
overstatement of WoM conversations. They refer to standard metrics for these cam-
paigns which assume that reach equates to the number of campaign-related conversa-
tions. They argue that this approach does not recognise that some people may be exposed
multiple times to campaign-related messaging. What this means is that campaigns could
be ‘significantly less efficient in terms of cost-per-conversation’ than is normally under-
stood and that ‘multiple exposures mean that the total number of campaign-related
conversations cannot be regarded as equivalent to the number of individuals reached’.

Relational approaches
to communications
The previous model accounts for social behaviour but does not account for the context
within which the behaviour occurs. Communications events always occur within a con-
text (Littlejohn, 1992) or particular set of circumstances. It is the context which not only
influences the form of the communications but also affects the nature and the way the
communications are received, interpreted and acted upon. There are a huge number of
variables that can influence the context, including the disposition of the people involved,
the physical environment, the nature of the issue, the history and associated culture, the
goals of the participants and the expected repercussions of the dialogue itself.
Littlejohn identifies four main contextual levels: interpersonal, group, organisational
and mass communications. These levels form part of a hierarchy whereby higher levels
incorporate the lower levels but ‘add something new of their own’.
The relational approach means that communications events are linked together in an
organised manner, one where the events are ‘punctuated’ by interventions from one or
more of the participants. These interventions occur whenever the participants attempt
cooperation or if conflict arises.

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 61

Soldow and Thomas (1984), referring to a sales negotiation, state that a relation-
ship develops through the form of negotiations rather than the content. An agreement
is necessary about who is to control the relationship or whether there will be equality.
Rothschild (1987) reports that ‘sparring will continue’ until agreement is reached or the
negotiations are terminated. In other words, without mutual agreement over the roles
of the participants, the true purpose of the interaction, to achieve an exchange, cannot
be resolved.
An interesting aspect of relational communications theory is social penetration (Tay-
lor and Altman, 1987). Through the disclosure of increasing amounts of information
about themselves, partners in a relationship (personal or organisational) develop levels
of intimacy, which serve to build interpersonal relationships. The relationship moves
forward as partners reveal successive layers of information about each other and, as a
greater amount or breadth of information is shared, confidence grows. These levels can
be seen to consist of orientation, exploratory affective exchange, affective exchange and
stable exchange (see Table 2.4). These layers are not uncovered in a logical, orderly
sequence. It is likely that partners will return to previous levels, test the outcomes and
rewards and reconsider their positions as the relationships unfold through time. This
suggests that social penetration theory may lie at the foundation of the development of
trust, commitment and relational exchanges between organisations.
Relationships need not be just dyadic, as the interactional approach suggests, but
could be triadic or even encompass a much wider network or array of participants.
Through this perspective a ‘communications network’ can be observed, through which
information can flow. Participants engage in communications based upon their percep-
tion of the environment in which the communications occur and the way in which each
participant relates to the others.
Rogers (1986) identifies a communications network as ‘consisting of interconnected
individuals who are linked by patterned communications flows’. This is important, as
it views communications as transcending organisational boundaries. In other words, it
is not only individuals within an organisation that develop patterned communications
flows but also individuals across different organisations. These individuals participate
with one another (possibly through exchanges) and use communications networks to
achieve their agenda items.
The extent to which individuals are linked to the network is referred to as connected-
ness. The more a network is connected, the greater the likelihood that a message will
be disseminated, as there are few isolated individuals. Similarly, the level of integration
in a network refers to the degree to which members of the network are linked to one
another. The greater the integration, the more potential channels there are for a message
to be routed through.
Systems theory recognises that organisations are made of interacting units. The
relational approach to communications is similar to systems theory. The various

Table 2.4 Layers of social penetration

Layer Explanation

Orientation The disclosure of public information only.

Exploratory affective exchange Expansion and development of public information.

Affective exchange Disclosure, based upon anticipated relationship rewards, of

deeper feelings, values and beliefs.

Stable exchange High level of intimacy where partners are able to predict each
other’s reactions with a good level of accuracy.

Source: Taylor and Altman (1987).

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 62 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

‘criss-crossing’ flows of information between reciprocating units allow individuals and

groups to modify the actions of others in the ‘net’, and this permits the establishment of
a pattern of communications (Tichy, 1979).

Scholars’ paper 2.4 Let’s get relational

Soldow, G.F. and Thomas, G.P. (1984) Relational communication: form versus con-
tent in the sales interaction, Journal of Marketing, 48 (Winter), 84–93.

This was the first paper that attempted to develop ideas about face-to-face com-
munications, which until that point had been well established. Soldow and Thomas
introduced the concept of relational communications, which refers to that part of a
message beyond the actual content which enables participants to negotiate their
relative positions. Thus, the message sender can bid for dominance, deference, or
equality. The message receiver, in turn, can accept the bid or deny it.

Network approaches to
communications
The regular use of these patterned flows leads to the development of communications
networks, which have been categorised as prescribed and emergent (Weick, 1987). Pre-
scribed networks are formalised patterns of communications, very often established by
senior management within an organisation or by organisational representatives when
inter-organisational communications is considered. It follows that emergent networks
are informal and appear as a response to the social and task-orientated needs of the
participants.
The linear or one-way model of communications fails to accommodate the various
complexities associated with communications. As discussed earlier, the model is too sim-
plistic and fails to represent many aspects of communications events. Although the linear
model is essentially a sequential rather than an interactional approach, it is still used
and practised by many organisations. Varey (2002) refers to this as the ‘Informational
model’ of communications and, as both Grunig (1992) and Ballantyne (2004) suggest,
it is just one of a number of ways in which communications can work. Communications
are an integral part of relationship marketing, and within this collaborative context,
interaction and dialogue are essential factors. Varey refers to this as ‘Transformational
communications’.

Process of adoption
An interesting extension to the concept of opinion followers and the discussion on WoM
communications is the process by which individuals become committed to the use of a
new product. Rogers (1983) has identified this as the process of adoption and the stages
of his innovation decision process are represented in Figure 2.5. These stages in the

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 63

Figure 2.5 The stages in the innovation decision-making process of adoption

adoption process are sequential and are characterised by the different factors that are
involved at each stage (e.g. the media used by each individual).
1. Knowledge
The innovation becomes known to consumers, but they have little information and
no well-founded attitudes. Information must be provided through mass media to
institutions and people whom active seekers of information are likely to contact.
Information for passive seekers should be supplied through the media and channels
that this group habitually uses to look for other kinds of information (Windahl et al.,
1992).
Shane washes his hair regularly, but he is beginning to notice tufts of hair on his comb.
He becomes aware of an advertisement for Mane in a magazine.

2. Persuasion
The consumer becomes aware that the innovation may be of use in solving known
and potential problems. Information from those who have experience of the product
becomes very important.
Shane notices that the makers of Mane claim that, not only does their brand
reduce the amount of hair loss, but also it aids hair gain. Mane has also been rec-
ommended to him by someone he met in the pub last week. Modelling behaviour
predominates.

3. Decision
An attitude may develop and may be either favourable or unfavourable, but as a result
a decision is reached whether to trial the offering or not. Communications need to
assist this part of the process by continual prompting.
Shane is prepared to believe (or not to believe) the messages and the claims made
on behalf of Mane. He thinks that Mane is potentially a very good brand (or not).
He intends trying Mane because he was given a free sample (or because it was on a
special price deal).

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 64 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Exhibit 2.6 A Victorian trade card for Packer’s All-Healing Tar Soap, a hair restorative from 1890
Source: Getty Images/Buyenlarge.

4. Implementation
For the adoption to proceed in the absence of a sales promotion, buyers must know
where to get it and how to use it. The product is then tested in a limited way. Commu-
nications must provide this information in order that the trial experience be developed.
Shane tries the Mane treatment.

5. Confirmation
The innovation is accepted or rejected on the basis of the experience during trial.
Planned communications play an important role in maintaining the new behaviour
by dispelling negative thoughts and positively reaffirming the original ‘correct’ deci-
sion. McGuire, as reported in Windahl et al. (1992), refers to this as post-behavioural
consolidation.
It works. Shane’s hair stops falling out as it used to before he tried the Mane treat-
ment. He reads an article that reports that large numbers of people are using these
types of products satisfactorily. Shane resolves to buy and use Mane in the future.

This process can be terminated at any stage and, of course, a number of competing
brands may vie for consumers’ attention simultaneously, so adding to the complexity
and levels of noise in the process. Generally, mass communications are seen to be more

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 65

effective in the earlier phases of the adoption process for products that buyers are actively
interested in, while more interpersonal forms are more appropriate at the later stages,
especially trial and adoption. This model assumes that the stages occur in a predictable
sequence, but this clearly does not happen in all purchase activity, as some information
that is to be used later in the trial stage may be omitted, which often happens when loy-
alty to a brand is high or where the buyer has experience in the marketplace.

Process of diffusion
The process of adoption in aggregate form, over time, is diffusion. According to Rogers
(1983), diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over a period of time among the members of a social system. This is a group
process and Rogers again identified five categories of adopters. Figure 2.6 shows how
diffusion may be fast or slow and that there is no set speed at which the process occurs.
The five categories are as follows:
1. Innovators
These groups like new ideas and have a large disposable income. This means they are
more likely to take risks associated with new products.

2. Early adopters
Research has established that this group contains a large proportion of opinion leaders
and they are, therefore, important in speeding the diffusion process. Early adopters tend
to be younger than any other group and above average in education. Internet activity
and use of publications are probably high as they actively seek information. A high pro-
portion of early adopters are active bloggers. This group is important to the marketing
communications process because they can determine the speed at which diffusion occurs.

Figure 2.6 Fast and slow diffusion of an innovation

Source: From Hawkins et al. (1989) Consumer Behavior, 4th edition. Used with permission
of the McGraw-Hill Companies.

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 66 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

3. Early majority
The early majority are usually composed of opinion followers who are a little above
average in age, education, social status and income. Although not capable of sub-
stantiation, it is probable that web usage is high and they rely on informal sources of
information and take fewer publications than the previous two groups.

4. Late majority
This group of people is sceptical of new ideas and only adopts new products because
of social or economic factors. They take few publications and are below average in
education, social status and income. Their web usage may be below average.

5. Laggards
This group of people is suspicious of all new ideas and is set in their opinions. Lowest
of all the groups in terms of income, social status and education, this group takes a
long time to adopt an innovation.
This framework suggests that, at the innovation stage, messages should be targeted at
relatively young people in the target group, with a high level of income, education and
social status. This will speed WoM recommendation and the diffusion process. Mahajan
et al. (1990) observe that the personal influence of WoM communications does not work
in isolation from the other communications tools and media. Early adopters are more
likely to adopt an innovation in response to ‘external influences’ and only through time
will the effect of ‘internal influences’ become significant. In other words, mass-media
communications needs time to work before WoM communications can begin to build
effectiveness. However, digital developments circumvent the need to use mass media,
which means that viral communications and social networks alone can lead to substan-
tial WoM penetration.
Gatignon and Robertson (1985) suggest that there are three elements to the diffusion
process, which need to be taken into account, particularly for the fast-moving consumer
goods sector:
1. The rate of diffusion or speed at which sales occur.
2. The pattern of diffusion or shape of the curve.
3. The potential penetration level or size of the market.

Care should be taken to ensure that all three of these elements are considered when
attempting to understand the diffusion process. It can be concluded that if a campaign
is targeted at innovators and the early majority, and is geared to stimulating WoM
communications, then the diffusion process is more likely to be successful than if these
elements are ignored.

Key points
● The linear or one-way communications process suggests that messages are developed by a
source, encoded, transmitted, decoded and meaning applied to the message by a receiver.
Noise in the system may prevent the true meaning of the messages from being conveyed,
while feedback to the source is limited. The effectiveness of this communications process
is determined by the strengths of the linkages between the different components.
● There are two particular influences on the communications process that need to be
considered. First, the media used to convey information have fragmented drastically

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 Chapter 2  •  Communications: forms and conversations 67

as a raft of new media have emerged. Second, people influence the communications
process considerably, either as opinion leaders or formers or as participants in the
word-of-mouth process.
● The influencer model depicts information flowing via media channels to particular
types of people (opinion leaders and opinion formers; see p. 54) to whom other
members of the audience refer for information and guidance. Through interpersonal
networks, opinion leaders not only reach members of the target audience who may
not have been exposed to the message, but may reinforce the impact of the message
for those members who did receive the message.
● Increasingly communications are characterised by attributing meaning to messages
that are shared, updated and a response to other messages. These ‘conversations’ can
be termed ‘interactional’ and are an integral part of society. The interactional model
of communications attempts to assimilate the variety of influences acting upon the
communications process and account for the responses (interactions) people give to
messages received from people and machines.
● Opinion leaders are members of a peer group who have informal expertise and knowl-
edge about a specific topic. Opinion formers have formal expertise bestowed upon
them by virtue of their qualifications, experience and careers. Opinion followers value
and use information from these sources in their decision-making processes. Marketing
communications should, therefore, target leaders and formers as they can speed the
overall communications process.
● Word-of-mouth (WoM) communications are ‘interpersonal communications regard-
ing products or services where the receiver regards the communicator as impartial’.
WoM is an increasingly important form of effective communications. It is relatively
cost-free yet very credible, and embodies the increasingly conversational nature of
marketing communications.
● The process of adoption in aggregate form, over time, is diffusion. It is a group process
by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over a period of
time among the members of a social system. Five particular groups, each with distinct
characteristics, can be identified.

Review questions
British Heart Foundation case questions
1. Discuss the way in which the BHF encoded their message. Could it be improved and if
so how?
2. Make brief notes explaining how consumer insight assisted the development of the
BHF campaign.
3. What role might opinion leaders have had in the effectiveness of the campaign?
4. How might the BHF case be interpreted through the influencer model of
communications?
5. Which of the linear, influencer and interactional models best illustrates how
communications worked for the BHF?
6. Discuss ways in which the BHF message might be interpreted through the process of
adoption.

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 68 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

General questions
1. Name the elements of the linear model of communications and briefly describe the
role of each element.
2. How do opinion leaders differ from opinion formers and opinion followers?
3. What are the three elements of word-of-mouth communications identified by Bone?
4. If voluntary is one form of WoM, what are the other two and how do they differ?
5. Using a product of your choice, show how the stages in the process of adoption can
be depicted.

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 Chapter 3
Audience insight: information
processing and behaviour

Understanding the way in which people perceive their world, the way they learn, develop
attitudes and respond to marketing communications stimuli is fundamental if effective
communications are to be developed. In the same way, understanding the ways in which
people make decisions and the factors that impact upon the decision process can also
influence the effectiveness of marketing communications.

Aims and learning objectives

The aims of this chapter are first to consider some of the ways information is pro-
cessed by people and second to examine the key issues associated with purchase
decision-making and their impact on marketing communications.

The learning objectives are to enable readers to:

1. appreciate the primary elements associated with information processing: percep-

tion, learning, attitudes;
2. explain how information is used by both consumers and organisations when making
purchase decisions;
3. discuss ideas associated with purchase decision-making;
4. understand how perceived risk and involvement can influence the use of marketing
communications;
5. suggest ways in which marketing communications can be influenced by an under-
standing of behavioural economics, and hedonic and tribal consumption.

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 72 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

The intellectual Alibi – or how the

Dacia challenged conventional
perceptions of value
Renault, the French car manufacturer, bought Dacia, car in the market. This approach was successful, prof-
a former state-owned Romanian car manufacturer, itable and upset the stability of the car market across
in 1999. Renault then relaunched the Dacia brand Europe.
across Europe, as a no-frills value brand. The strat- In 2012 Renault turned their attention to launch-
egy required undercutting the competition and ena- ing the Dacia into the UK, a market characterised by
bling customers on restricted budgets to buy a new deep recession which had reshaped the car market. In
car at used car prices, yet with a three-year warranty. a search for savings and great value, buyers preferred
The communications carried the message ‘shockingly cars that were expensive, cheap, or second-hand. This
affordable’, and positioned the Dacia as the cheapest spelt trouble for the mass-market, mid-range brands,

Exhibit 3.1 A Christmas press ad used to support the UK launch of the Sandero and
Duster.
Source: Renault UK.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 73

including Renault who languished in 18th place in the UK people and their cars, and the degree to which cars
car sales rankings with just 1.99 per cent market share. were perceived to make social statements about
Renault’s strategy for recovery partly rested on their owners.
the value brand it already owned, and they launched They knew that the launch campaign had to pro-
the Dacia Duster in 2013 as the lowest-priced SUV vide a really good intellectual alibi to make buyers feel
in the UK market. Its price was £5,000 cheaper than good, not shoddy, for choosing Dacia, and to rebut the
its nearest rival, the Skoda Yeti. The Dacia Sandero purveyors of mirth and derision.
(a five-door hatchback), at just £5,995, was the UK’s To make buyers feel good, competitors communi-
cheapest new car of any kind. cated ‘generosity’ and packed in as many extras (e.g.
The key to unlocking the UK market, however, body colour bumpers, electric windows with auto
was not going to be a low price. This is because peo- up and down driver controls, daytime running lights)
ple in the UK tend to think that the lower the price, into the price as possible. Consumers had been con-
the lower the quality, and this encourages jokes, ditioned into thinking that value was about getting
mockery and derision. The Skoda, Lada and Trabant more for less. Dacia took a different path. The basic
are all budget-priced Eastern European car brands models on sale had no gadgets at all – no cup holders,
and each had long been the butt of cruel jokes. The no electric door mirrors, no tinted glass, no sat-nav,
Dacia was to be no exception, with the presenters not even a radio. The car was stripped down to the
of the popular TV motoring show Top Gear already bare essentials needed for a comfortable, safe drive
cracking jokes about the brand even before it was from A to B.
launched. Thus, Dacia challenged the idea that more is bet-
People have a relationship with their cars that ter and exposed the unnecessary extravagance of
goes beyond the purely functional. There is a sense paying for things that were not needed. Good value
that your car says something about you, and you are would be about paying for what was really needed
judged by it. The emotional connection people have in a car and saving on things that weren’t. Dacia tar-
with their cars reflects both a social and ego risk geted people who got a kick from saving money by
attachment. Indeed, Renault saw this as a stigma that cutting out unnecessary frills, and made them feel
had to be negotiated if the Dacia stood any chance of that they’d got absolutely everything that mattered
success in the UK. in a car, but that they’d been clever enough to save
The ‘intellectual alibi’ is a term accredited to the thousands by not paying for all of the superfluous
French psychoanalyst Clotaire Rapaille, to describe stuff that other people get sucked into by sharp-
the reason people give for doing what they do. If suited sales staff.
Dacia buyers were going to find themselves the This positioned Dacia as the ‘enemy of the unnec-
butt of jokes from the likes of Top Gear, then they essary’, and the intellectual alibi involved reframing
needed a damn good, foolproof alibi to retain their the concept of value in the car market and to extol
dignity and their belief in having made the right the virtues of having less rather than more. This trans-
choice. lated into a campaign which said:
Research has shown that the reasons people given
Look, here’s what you actually want from a car.
for choosing a particular car are often rationalisations
Now, you can get all that in a car costing £30,000.
rather than literal truths. For example, SUV drivers
Or you can get the exact same things in a car cost-
often described why they really, really needed four-
ing less than £10,000. So which would you choose?
wheel drive and chunky tyres, even though they lived
In fact, which would anyone in their right mind
in a town and mainly used their car for the school-
choose? You do the maths.
run. Rapaille commented that New York SUV drivers
give ‘the difficulty of parking in snow’ as one of their Different executions featuring the two main mod-
main reasons for choice. Other drivers describe how els (Duster and Sandero) tackled the message from
they paid extra for a higher-range model because of different angles. Some playful, some ‘straight,’ some
certain features and buttons – and yet when probed mocking other car brands’ ways of doing things,
about how often they used these features and but- some casting a Dacia eye over topical issues like the
tons, it turned out that the answer was mostly ‘seldom way footballers are bought and sold. But all coming
or never’. back to the same point. The same alibi. You don’t
Although Renault were sure that people really choose Dacia because you’re hard up, or struggling,
did want to save money, they were also aware of or because you can’t afford a well-known brand. You
the strength of the emotional connection between choose Dacia because you’re smart, because you’re

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 74 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Exhibit 3.2 A print ad for the Duster, presenting the intellectual alibi.....‘you do the
maths’
Source: Renault UK.

savvy, and because you’re not taken in by the expen- Dacia in France where sales had been buoyed by the
sive hype that fools so many other people. prominence of Renault.
By the end of its first year, Dacia had sold 17,263
This case was written by Julian Earl, Planning Director
new cars, far surpassing its base sales volume target.
at Publicis
Dacia UK outstripped launches in all other European
countries outside of Dacia’s home nation of Romania. Questions relating to this case can be found at the
Astonishingly, by March 2014, Dacia UK had outsold end of this chapter.

Introduction
People consume products and services not only because of the utilitarian value but also
because of what they represent, their meaning and symbolic value. In other words, peo-
ple make purchase decisions, either knowingly or subconsciously, about their identity
and how they might wish to be seen. The Dacia case on the intellectual alibi illustrates
this wonderfully.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 75

Marketing communications is about managing promises: their creation, delivery and

realisation. It makes sense, therefore, to understand the way buyers think and behave,
in order that these promises remain realistic and effective. Understanding the ways in
which buyers make decisions, the factors that impact upon the decision process and their
preferred identities, can influence the effectiveness of marketing communications. In
particular, it can affect message structure, content and media scheduling. In this chapter,
and indeed the book, reference is made to both buyers and audiences. This is because,
although all buyers constitute an audience, not all audiences are buyers.
The whole process of customer purchasing is often referred to as a journey. This
encapsulates the initial stages of problem awareness, the search for solutions, decision-
making and then through to post-purchase experience and reflection.
There are numerous, largely practitioner-based ideas, about what constitutes a jour-
ney. The customer decision journey was once conceptualised as a linear format, often
represented by a (sales) funnel as set out in Figure 3.1 (Court et al., 2009). This approach
was used to portray the way customers identified a problem, how they considered a
certain set of brands, and then their systematic reduction of the number of feasible solu-
tions until a purchase was made (McNeal, 2013).
Today, the complexity of the media landscape, the variety of buying opportunities and
the huge volume of data that is available have made the linear interpretation redundant.
Now a non-linear explanation, one based on a circular or even a jigsaw format, is used
to express the multiplicity of paths customers use to make purchase decisions.
This complexity means that organisations have less time, fewer resources per jour-
ney format and hence less control than they thought they used to have. Court et al.
(2009) argue that there are four distinct phases to the contemporary customer decision
journey:
● initial consideration;
● active research and evaluation of potential purchases;
● closure through the selection and purchase of a brand;
● post-purchase, the overall experience of the brand as a solution and shaping of future
purchases.
Figure 3.2 sets out the way in which these elements work together.
Most organisations attempt to isolate one key journey and from that build a busi-
ness model. This is not a feasible approach and their attempt to manage the various
consumer/brand touchpoints in order to improve efficiency and customer satisfaction at
individual parts of the journey is equally questionable. Rawson et al. (2013: 92) believe
that customer satisfaction is not a factor of these multiple, yet individual interactions, it
is the ‘cumulative experiences across multiple touchpoints and in multiple channels over

Awareness Familiarity Consideration Purchase Loyalty

Figure 3.1 The traditional funnel metaphor

Source: Court et al. (2009), used with the kind permission of McKinsey.

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 76 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

2
Consumers add or subtract
brands as they evaluate what
they want.
1
The consumer considers Active evaluation 3
an initial set of brands, Information gathering, shopping Ultimately, the consumer
based on brand perceptions selects a brand at the
and exposure to recent moment of purchase.
touch points.

Loyalty loop
Initial-
Moment of
consideration
purchase
set
Trigger

Postpurchase experience
Ongoing exposure

4
After purchasing a product or service,
the consumer builds expectations
based on experience to inform the next
decision journey.

Figure 3.2 The circular decision-making journey

Source: Court et al. (2009), used with the kind permission of McKinsey.

time’ that influence the overall experience and levels of customer satisfaction. Indeed, it
is the sum of all the different types and forms of engagement with a brand that appears
to be critical. Viewpoint 3.1 describes a journey that is nearing reality.
This chapter considers some of the key issues that impact on the use of marketing
communications at various points within these customer journeys. There are three main
sections. The first considers issues relating to the classical way people are thought to
process information. The second embraces conventional ideas about decision-making,
again based on a classical interpretation which assumes rational decision-making. The
third looks at some alternative, less orthodox, approaches to understanding consumer
behaviour. These assume that individuals make decisions based on incomplete infor-
mation, and that their decisions are often based on heuristics and rules of thumb, are
essentially irrational and founded largely on emotion.

Viewpoint 3.1 A digitised customer decision journey

Imagine that a couple have just bought their first home and are now looking to purchase a washer and
a dryer. Mike and Linda start their journey by visiting several big-box retailers’ websites. At one store’s
site, they identify three models they are interested in and save them to a ‘wish list’. Because space in
their starter home is limited – and because it is a relatively big purchase in their eyes – they decide they
need to see the items in person.
Under an optimised cross-channel experience, the couple could find the nearest physical outlet on
the retailer’s website, get directions using Google Maps, and drive over to view the desired products.
Even before they walk through the doors, a transmitter mounted at the retailer’s entrance identifies
Mike and Linda and sends a push alert to their mobile phones welcoming them and providing them with

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 77

personalised offers and recommendations based on their history with the store. In this case, they receive
quick links to the wish list they created, as well as updated specs and prices for the washers and dryers
that they had shown interest in (captured in their click trails on the store’s website). Additionally, they
receive notification of a sale – ‘15 per cent off selected brand appliances, today only’ – that applies to
two of the items they had added to their wish list.
When they tap on the wish list, the app provides a store map directing Mike and Linda to the appliances
section and a ‘call button’ to speak with an expert. They meet with the salesperson, ask some questions,
take some measurements, and close in on a particular model and brand of washer and dryer. Because the
store employs sophisticated tagging technologies, information about the washer and dryer has automati-
cally been synced with other applications on the couple’s mobile phones – they can scan reviews using their
Consumer Reports app, text their parents for advice, ask Facebook friends to weigh in on the purchase, and
compare the retailer’s prices against others. Mike and Linda can also take advantage of a ‘virtual designer’
function on the retailer’s mobile app that, with the entry of just a few key pieces of information about room
size and decor, allows them to preview how the washer and dryer might look in their home.
All the input is favourable, so the couple decides to take advantage of the 15 per cent offer and buy
the appliances. They use Mike’s ‘smartwatch’ to authenticate payment, and walk out of the store with a
date and time for delivery; a week later, on the designated day, they receive confirmation that a truck is
in their area and that they will be texted within a half hour of arrival time – no need to cancel other plans
just to wait for the washer and dryer to arrive. Three weeks after that, the couple gets a message from
the retailer with offers for other appliances and home-improvement services tailored towards first-year
home owners. And the cycle begins again.

Source: An extract from van Bommel et al. (2014). Used with permission from McKinsey.

Question: How might this journey change in the future?

Make notes about the digital journey someone might make when shopping for food and
Task: 
another one for fashion clothing.

Information processing
Marketing communications is an audience-centred activity, so it is vitally important to
understand the way in which people process information prior to, during and after mak-
ing product/service purchase decisions. Traditionally, awareness has been considered an
integral part of information processing. However, this important topic is considered as
part of an organisation’s objectives and positioning activities (see Chapter 6). Here three
main information-processing issues are considered: perception, learning and attitudes.

Perception
Perception is concerned with how individuals see and make sense of their environment.
It is about how individuals select, organise and interpret stimuli, so that they can under-
stand their world.

Perceptual selection
The vast number of messages mentioned earlier needs to be filtered, as individuals cannot
process them all. The stimuli that are selected result from the interaction of the nature
of the stimulus with the expectations and the motives of the individual. Attention is an

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 78 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

important factor in determining the outcome of this interaction: ‘Attention occurs when
the stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves and the resulting sensations
go to the brain for processing’ (Hawkins et al., 1989).
The nature of the stimuli, or external factors such as the intensity and size, position,
contrast, novelty, repetition and movement, are factors that have been developed and
refined by marketing communicators to attract attention. Animation is used to attract
attention when the product class is perceived as bland and uninteresting, such as margarine
or teabags. Unexpected camera angles and the use of music can be effective methods of
gaining the attention of the target audience, as used successfully in the Ibis ad, ‘Everybody’s
Famous’, supported by Martin Solveig’s ‘Everybody’. Sexual attraction, as promoted
through perfume ads, can be a powerful means of capturing the attention of audiences and,
when associated with a brand’s values, can be a very effective method of getting attention.
The expectations, needs and motives of an individual, or internal factors, are equally
important. Individuals see what they expect to see, and their expectations are normally
based on past experience and preconditioning. From a communications perspective,
the presentation of stimuli that conflict with an individual’s expectations will invari-
ably receive more attention. The attention-getting power of erotic and sexually driven
advertising messages is understood and exploited. For example, jeans manufacturers
such as Levis, Wranglers and Diesel often use this type of stimulus to promote their
brands. However, advertising research based on recall testing often reveals that the
attention-getting stimulus (e.g. the male or female) generates high recall scores, but the
product or brand is very often forgotten. Looked at in terms of Schramm’s model of
communications (Chapter 2), the process of encoding was inaccurate, hence the inap-
propriate decoding.
Of particular interest is the tendency of individuals to select particular information
from the environment. This process is referred to as selective attention. Through atten-
tion, individuals avoid contact with information that is felt to be disagreeable because
it opposes strongly held beliefs and attitudes.
Individuals see what they want or need to see. If they are considering the purchase of a
new car, there will be heightened awareness of car advertisements and a correspondingly
lower level of awareness of unrelated stimuli. Selective attention allows individuals to
expose themselves to messages that are comforting and rewarding. For example, reas-
surance is often required for people who have bought new cars or expensive technical
equipment and who have spent a great deal of time debating and considering the pur-
chase and its associated risk. Communications congratulating the new owner on their
wise decision often accompany post-purchase literature such as warranties and service
contracts. If potentially harmful messages do get through this filter system, perceptual
defence mechanisms help to screen them out after exposure.

Perceptual organisation
For perception to be effective and meaningful, the vast array of selected stimuli needs to
be organised. The four main ways in which sensory stimuli can be arranged are: figure–
ground, grouping, closure and contour.

Figure–ground
Each individual’s perception of an environment tends to consist of articles on a general
background, against which certain objects are illuminated and stand proud. Williams
(1981) gives the examples of trees standing out against the sky and words on a page.
This has obvious implications for advertisers and the design and form of communica-
tions, especially advertisements, to draw attention to important parts of the message,
most noticeably the price, logo or company/brand name.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 79

Grouping
Objects that are close to one another tend to be grouped together and a pattern devel-
ops. Grouping can be used to encourage associations between a product and specific
attributes. For example, food products that are positioned for a health market are often
displayed with pictures that represent fitness and exercise, the association being that
consumption of the food will lead to a lifestyle that incorporates fitness and exercise, as
these are important to the target market.

Closure
When information is incomplete, individuals make sense of the data by filling in the gaps.
This is often used to involve consumers in the message and so enhance selective atten-
tion. Advertisements for American Express charge cards or GM credit cards (‘if invited
to apply’), for example, suggest that ownership denotes membership, which represents
exclusiveness and privilege.
Television advertisements that are run for 60 seconds when first launched are often
cut to 30, 15 or even 7 seconds later in the burst. The purpose is two-fold: to cut costs
and to keep reminding the target audience. This process of reminding is undertaken
with the assistance of the audience, who recognise the commercial and mentally close
the message even though the advertiser only presents the first part.

Exhibit 3.3 De Beers Shadows

This message draws on a grouping of the silhouetted depersonalised
individuals and the ring and requires a cultural decoding of what the
event represents.
Source: DeBeers UK Ltd.

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 80 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Contour
Contours give objects shape and are normally formed when there is a marked change in
colour or brightness. This is an important element in package design and, as the battle
for shelf space in retail outlets becomes more intense, so package design has become an
increasingly important aspect of attracting attention. The Coca-Cola bottle and the pack-
aging of the Toblerone bar are two classic examples of packaging that conveys the brand.
These methods are used by individuals in an attempt to organise stimuli and simplify
their meanings. They combine in an attempt to determine a pattern to the stimuli, so that
they are perceived as part of a whole or larger unit. This is referred to as gestalt psychology.

Perceptual interpretation
Interpretation is the process by which individuals give meaning to the stimuli once they
have been organised. As Cohen and Basu (1987) state, by using existing categories,
meanings can be given to stimuli. These categories are determined from the individual’s
past experiences and they shape what the individual expects to see. These expectations,
when combined with the strength and clarity of the stimulus and the motives at the time
perception occurs, mould the pattern of the perceived stimuli.
The degree to which each individual’s ascribed meaning, resulting from the interpreta-
tion process, is realistic is dependent upon the levels of distortion that may be present.
Distortion may occur because of stereotyping: the predetermined set of images which we
use to guide our expectations of events, people and situations. Another distortion fac-
tor is the halo effect that occurs when a stimulus with many attributes or dimensions is
evaluated on just a single attribute or dimension. Brand extensions and family branding
strategies are based on the understanding that if previous experiences with a different
offering are satisfactory, then risk is reduced and an individual is more likely to buy a
new offering from the same ‘family’.

Marketing and perception

We have seen that individuals select and interpret particular stimuli in the context of the
expectations arising from the way they classify the overall situation. The way in which
individuals perceive, organise and interpret stimuli is a reflection of their past experiences
and the classifications used to understand the different situations each individual frames
every day. Individuals seek to provide a context within which their role becomes clearer.
Shoppers expect to find products in particular situations, such as rows, shelves or display
bins of similar goods. They also develop meanings and associations with some grocery
products because of the utility and trust/emotional satisfaction certain pack types evoke.
The likelihood that a sale will be made is improved, if the context in which a purchase
transaction is undertaken does not contradict a shopper’s expectations.
Marketing communications should attempt to present products (objects) in a frame
or ‘mental presence’ (Moran, 1990) that is recognised by a buyer, such as a consump-
tion or purchase situation. A product has a much greater chance of entering an evoked
set if the situation in which it is presented is one that is expected and relevant. A new
pack design, however, can provide differentiation and provoke people into reassessing
their expectations about what constitutes appropriate packaging in a product category.
Javalgi et al. (1992) point out that perception is important to product evaluation and
product selection. Consumers try to evaluate a product’s attributes using the physical
cues of taste, smell, size and shape. Sometimes no difference can be distinguished, so the
consumer has to make a judgement on factors other than the physical characteristics
of the product. This is the basis of branding activity, where a personality is developed
for the product which enables it to be perceived differently from its competitors. The
individual may also set up a separate category or evoked set in order to make sense of
new stimuli or satisfactory experiences.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 81

Exhibit 3.4 KFC – Gender-driven advertisement

When KFC introduced their BBQ Rancher, a range launched in response to market needs for a
healthy non-fired burger, the 400-calorie, chicken-based product was communicated through
two ad themes. One was aimed at men using a ‘fun-loving’ approach. The other was designed
to appeal to women and was based on etiquette (Reynolds, 2012).
Source: Freud Communications.

Scholars’ paper 3.1 Simply a cosmetic perception

Guthrie, M.F. and Kim, H.S. (2009) The relationship between consumer involvement
and brand perceptions of female cosmetic consumers, Journal of Brand Manage-
ment, 17(2), 114–33.

Although this may not be ranked as a seminal or great paper, it is interesting because
it provides an application of Kapferer and Laurent’s consumer-involvement profile. It
shows how segmentation can be undertaken based on consumer perceptions and
from this brand communications used to develop suitable images.

The concept of positioning products in the mind of each consumer is fundamental to

marketing strategy and is a topic that will be examined in greater depth in Chapter 6.
Individuals carry a set of enduring perceptions or images. These relate to themselves, to
products/services and to organisations. The way a brand is positioned is partly based
on how people perceive the brand. For example, many consumers perceive the financial
services industry negatively. Originally this was due to the inherent complexity associ-
ated with the propositions. This has been compounded by a string of banking scandals,
seemingly outrageous bonus systems and the banking industry’s contribution to the
cause of the recession. Creating positive perceptions of a brand such as the Cooperative
Bank becomes problematic when it is held up to be guilty of unethical practices, when
deliberately positioned as an ethical bank.
Organisations need to monitor and adjust their identities constantly in respect of the
perceptions and expectations held by other organisations in their various networks. For
example, the level of channel coordination and control can be a function of the different

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 82 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Viewpoint 3.2 Time spent . . . changing perceptions

Many campaigns are designed to change the way people see or perceive a brand. For example, the
National Trust used marketing communications to move away from an image based on formality, a demo-
graphic rooted in middle/older age, and a brand that was way out of date. The strategy was to broaden
the range of products and experiences people could have with the National Trust.
The campaign has now been running for several years and uses the strapline, ‘Time well Spent’. The
principle was that people should be encouraged to perceive the National Trust as an opportunity for ‘sim-
ple pleasures and quality, memorable experiences at affordable rates’. This was translated into a series
of outdoor ads that showed various types of people enjoying different experiences. A couple might be
attempting a topiary maze, or a family might be shown sitting near a beautiful river. Radio ads featured
chirping birds and the delight of children playing. Online ads included an interactive facility helping people
identify their nearest National Trust property. All the ads began with the message, ‘Time to . . . ’, which
was followed by a message, such as, be together . . . see something . . . unwind . . . explore.
Since then the Trust has launched an iPhone app designed to help gardeners and day-trippers to find
and explore and browse any of the 150 National Trust gardens whenever they want. In 2010 visitor num-
bers increased by 16 per cent and membership increased by nearly 18 per cent.
Typical of the revised orientation, in 2013 the NT launched a nationwide campaign called ‘50 things
to do before you’re 113⁄4’. This was designed following the publication of a report that highlighted a long-
term and dramatic decline in the relationship children have with the outdoors. Typically, fewer than 10
per cent of children regularly play in wild places, 33 per cent have never climbed a tree, 10 per cent can’t
ride a bike; whilst three times as many are taken to hospital after falling out of bed, as from falling out

Exhibit 3.5 The National Trust’s ‘50 things to do before you’re 113⁄4’ campaign
Source: The National Trust

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 83

of a tree. The campaign, therefore, was designed to encourage sofa-bound, gadget-orientated children
to get outside and to explore nature and the environment.

Source: Anon (2011); Eleftheriou-Smith (2011); McMeeken (2012); Staff (2013).

Question: How might the National Trust make best use of social media?

Find a campaign where the core task appears to be to change perceptions about health issues.
Task: 

perceptions of channel members. These concern the perception of the channel depth,
processes of control and the roles each member is expected to fulfil. Furthermore, the
perception of an organisation’s product quality and its associated image (reputation) are
becoming increasingly important. Both end-user buyers and channel members are attempt-
ing to ensure that the intrinsic and extrinsic cues associated with their products are appro-
priate signals of product quality (Moran, 1990).

Learning
There are two mainstream approaches to learning. These are behavioural and cognitive
and their core characteristics are set out in Table 3.1.

Behavioural learning
The behavourist approach to learning views the process as a function of an individual’s
acquisition of responses. There are three factors important to behavioural learning:
association, reinforcement and motivation. However, it is the basic concept of the stimu-
lus–response orientation that will be looked at in more detail.
It is accepted that for learning to occur all that is needed is a ‘time–space proximity’
between a stimulus and a response. Learning takes place through the establishment of a
connection between a stimulus and a response. Marketing communications is thought
to work by the simple process of people observing messages and being stimulated/moti-
vated to respond by requesting more information or purchasing the advertised product
in search of a reward. Behaviour is learned through the conditioning experience of a
stimulus and response. There are two forms of conditioning: classical and operant.

Table 3.1 Types of learning

Type of learning Explanation

Behavioural Classical Individuals learn to make associations or connections between a

stimulus and their responses. Through repetition of the response (the
behaviour) to the stimulus, learning occurs.

Operant Learning occurs as a result of an individual operating or interacting

with the environment. The response of the individual is instrumental
in getting a positive reinforcement (reward) or negative
reinforcement (punishment). Behaviour that is rewarded or reinforced
will be continued, whereas behaviour that is not rewarded will cease.

Cognitive Assumes that individuals attempt to actively influence their

immediate environment rather than be subject to it. They try to
resolve problems by processing information from past experiences
(memory) in order to make reasoned decisions based on judgements.

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 84 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning assumes that learning is an associative process that occurs between
a stimulus and a response, within an existing relationship. By far the best-known exam-
ples of this type of learning are the experiments undertaken by the Russian psycholo-
gist Ivan Pavlov. He noticed that dogs began to salivate at the sight of food. He stated
that this was not taught, but was a reflex reaction. This relationship exists prior to any
experimentation or learning. The food represents an unconditioned stimulus and the
response (salivation) from the dogs is an unconditioned response.
Pavlov then paired the ringing of a bell with the presentation of food. Shortly the dogs
began to salivate at the ringing of the bell. The bell became the conditioned stimulus
and the salivation became the conditioned response (which was the same as the uncon-
ditioned response).
From an understanding of this work it can be determined that two factors are impor-
tant for learning to occur:
● To build the association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, there
must be a relatively short period of time.
● The conditioning process requires that there be a relatively high frequency/repetition
of the association. The more often the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli occur
together, the stronger will be the association.
Classical conditioning can be observed operating in each individual’s everyday life.
An individual who purchases a new product because of a sales promotion may con-
tinue to buy the product even when the promotion has terminated. An association has
been established between the sales promotion activity (unconditioned stimulus) and the
product (conditioned stimulus). If product quality and satisfaction levels allow, long-run
behaviour may develop despite the absence of the promotion. In other words, promotion
need not act as a key purchase factor in the long run.
Advertisers attempt to frame the way their products/services are perceived by using
images and emotions that are known to evoke positive associations and reactions from
consumers. Image advertising seeks to develop the associations that individuals have
when they think of a brand or an organisation, hence its reputation. Messages of this
type show the object with an unconditioned stimulus that is known to evoke pleasant
and favourable feelings. So, the puppet ‘Aleksandr Orlov’ is the face for comparethemar-
ket.com, Gary Lineker is associated with Walker’s crisps, Gisele with Pantene, Jennifer
Lopez with L’Oréal, and Jeremy Lin represents Volvo. The product becomes a condi-
tioned stimulus eliciting the same favourable response.

Operant conditioning
This type of learning, sometimes known as instrumental conditioning, occurs as a result
of an individual operating or acting on some part of the environment. The response of
the individual is instrumental in getting a positive reinforcement (reward) or negative
reinforcement (punishment). Behaviour that is rewarded or reinforced will be continued,
whereas behaviour that is not rewarded will cease.
B.F. Skinner was a pioneer researcher in the field of operant conditioning. His showed that
rats learned to press levers in order to receive food. He went on to demonstrate that the rats
learned to press the lever when a light was on (discriminative stimulus). This highlights the
essential feature of this form of conditioning, that reinforcement follows a specific response.
Many organisations use reinforcement in their communications by stressing the ben-
efits or rewards that a consumer can anticipate receiving as a result of using a product
or brand. For example, airlines offer air miles, Tesco offers ‘reward points' and Nectar
offers a reward of money savings which ‘makes the difference’. Reinforcement theories
emphasise the role of external factors and exclude an individual’s ability to process

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 85

information internally. Learning takes place either through direct reinforcement of a

particular response or through an associative conditioning process. However, operant
conditioning is a mechanistic process that is not realistic, as it serves only to simplify an
extremely complex process.

Cognitive learning
This approach to our understanding of learning assumes that individuals are capable of
and attempt to control their immediate environments. They are seen as active participants
in that they try to resolve problems by processing information that is pertinent to each situ-
ation. Central to this process is memory. Just as money can be invested in short-, medium-
and long-term investment accounts, so information is memorised for different periods of
time. These memories are sensory, short-term and long-term, set out in Figure 3.3.
Sensory storage refers to the period in which information is sensed for a split second.
If an impression is made the information is transferred to short-term memory where it
is rehearsed before transfer to long-term memory. Short-term memory lasts no longer
than approximately eight seconds and a maximum of four or five items can be stored in
short-term memory at any one time. Readers will probably have experienced being intro-
duced to someone at a social event only to forget the name of the guest when they next
meet them at the same event. This occurs because the name was not entered into long-
term memory. Information can be stored for extended periods in long-term memory.
This information is not lying dormant, however, it is constantly being reorganised and
recategorised as new information is received.
There are four basic functions by which memory operates. The first is rehearsal, where
information is repeated or related to an established category. This is necessary so that
the second function, encoding, can take place. This involves the selection of an image to
represent the perceived object. Once in long-term memory it is categorised and stored,
the third function. Retrieval is the final function, a process by which information is
recovered from storage.
Cognitive learning is about processing information in order that problems can be
resolved. These information-handling processes can range from the simple to the com-
plex. There are three main processes: iconic, modelling and reasoning.

Figure 3.3 Memory and information storage

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 86 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Iconic rote learning involves understanding the association between two or more
concepts when there is an absence of a stimulus. Learning occurs at a weak level through
repetition of simple messages. Beliefs are formed about the attributes of an offering
without any real understanding of the source of the information. Advertisers of certain
products (low value, frequently purchased) will try to remind their target audiences
repeatedly of the brand name in an attempt to help consumers learn. Through such
repetition, an association with the main benefits of the product may be built, if only via
the constant reminders by the spokesperson.
Learning through the modelling approach involves the observation and imitation of
others and the associated outcomes of their behaviour. In essence, a great deal of children’s
early learning is developed in this way. Likewise, marketing communicators use the prom-
ise of rewards to persuade audiences to act in a particular way. By using positive images of
probable rewards, buyers are encouraged to believe that they can receive the same outcome
if they use the particular product. For example, clothing advertisements often depict the
model receiving admiring glances from passers-by. The same admiration is the reward
‘promised’ to those who wear the same clothing. A similar approach was used by Kellogg’s
to promote its Special K breakfast cereal. The commercial depicted a (slim) mother and
child playing on a beach. The message was that it is important to look after yourself and
to raise your family through healthy eating, an outdoor life and exercise.
Reasoning is perhaps the most complex form of cognitive learning. Through this
process, individuals need to restructure and reorganise information held in long-term
memory and combine it with fresh inputs in order to generate new outputs. Financial
services providers have to convey complex information, strictly bounded by the Financial
Services legislation and the Financial Conduct Authority. So, brands such as Nationwide
and Hiscox convey key points about simplicity and specialist services respectively, to dif-
ferentiate their brands. This enables current and potential customers to process detailed
information about these brands and to make judgements or reason that these brands
reach acceptable (threshold) standards.
Of all the approaches to understanding how we learn, cognitive learning is the most
flexible interpretation. The rational, more restricted approach of behavioural learning,
where the focus is external to the individual, is without doubt a major contribution to
knowledge. However, it fails to accommodate the complex internal thought processes
that individuals utilise when presented with various stimuli.
It is useful to appreciate the way in which people are believed to learn and forget
as there are several issues which are useful to media planners in particular. Cognitive
theory has underpinned much of the research that has been undertaken to explain how
marketing and communications work.

Decay
The rate at which individuals forget material assumes a pattern, as shown at Figure
3.4. Many researchers have found that information decays at a negatively decelerating
rate. As much as 60 per cent of the initial yield of information from an advertisement
has normally decayed within six weeks. This decay, or wear-out, can be likened to the
half-life of radioactive material. It is always working, although it cannot be seen, and the
impact of the advertising reduces through time. Like McGuire’s (1978) retention stage
in his hierarchy of effects model (see Chapter 12), the storage of information for future
use is important, but with time, how powerful will the information be and what triggers
are required to promote recall?
Advertising wear-out is thought to occur because of two factors. First, individuals use
selective perception and mentally switch off after a critical number of exposures. Second,
the monotony and irritation caused by continued exposure lead to counter-arguments
to both the message and the advertisement (Petty and Cacioppo, 1979). Advertisements
for alcoholic drinks such as Carlsberg and Stella Artois attempt to prevent wear-out by

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 87

Figure 3.4 A standard decay curve

using variations on a central theme to provide consistency yet engage audiences through
interest and entertainment.

Cognitive response
Learning can be visualised as following either of the curves set out in Figure 3.5. The
amount learnt ‘wears out’ after a certain repetition level has been reached. Grass and
Wallace (1969) suggest that this process of wear-out commences once a satiation point
has been reached. A number of researchers (Zielske, 1959; Strong, 1977) have found

Figure 3.5 Learning curves

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 88 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

that recall is improved when messages are transmitted on a regular weekly basis, rather
than daily, monthly or in a concentrated or dispersed format.
An individual’s ability to develop and retain awareness or knowledge of a product/
service will therefore be partly dependent not only on the quality of the message, but also
on the number and quality of exposures to a message. To assist media planners, there are
a number of concepts that need to be appreciated and used within the decisions about
what, where and when a message should communicate. There are a number of concepts
that are of use to media planners: these are reach and coverage, frequency, gross rating
points, effective frequency, efficiency and media source effects.

Scholars’ paper 3.2 Learning about brands

Heath, R. (2001) Low involvement processing – a new model of brand communica-

tion, Journal of Marketing Communications, 7, 27–33.

At the beginning of the noughties, Heath began publishing papers about low-involve-
ment processing and how we learn about brands through communications. He sub-
sequently changed the terminology to low- and high-attention theory. Since then he
has published a stream of papers on this topic, one of which contradicts the tradi-
tional rational view of brand choice. Heath offers a new and different perspective on
how consumers are influenced by advertising. This paper provides an insight into the
literature and his thinking. It also serves to link various concepts, many of which are
covered in this chapter.

Attitudes
The perceptual and learning processes usually lead to the formation of attitudes. These
are predispositions, shaped through experience, to respond in an anticipated way to an
object or situation. Attitudes are learned through past experiences and serve as a link
between thoughts and behaviour. These experiences may relate to the product itself, to
the messages transmitted by the different members of the channel network (normally
mass-media communications) and to the information supplied by opinion leaders, form-
ers and followers.
Attitudes tend to be consistent within each individual: they are clustered and very
often interrelated. This categorisation leads to the formation of stereotypes, which is
extremely useful for the design of messages as stereotyping allows for the transmission
of a lot of information in a short time period (30 seconds) without impeding learning or
the focal part of the message.

Attitude components
Attitudes are hypothetical constructs, and classical psychological theory considers atti-
tudes to consist of three components:
1. Cognitive component (learn). This component refers to the level of knowledge and
beliefs held by individuals about a product and/or the beliefs about specific attributes
of the offering. This represents the learning aspect of attitude formation.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 89

Marketing communications is used to create attention and awareness, to provide

information and to help audiences learn and understand the features and benefits a
particular product/service offers.
2. Affective component (feel). By referring to the feelings held about a product – good,
bad, pleasant or unpleasant – an evaluation is made of the object. This is the com-
ponent that is concerned with feelings, sentiments, moods and emotions about an
object.
Marketing communications is used to induce feelings about the product/service such
that it becomes a preferred brand. This preference may be based on emotional attach-
ment to a brand, conferred status through ownership, past experiences and longevity
of brand usage or any one of a number of ways in which people can become emotion-
ally involved with a brand.
3. Conative component (do). This is the action component of the attitude construct and
refers to the individual’s disposition or intention to behave in a certain way. Some
researchers go so far as to suggest that this component refers to observable behaviour.
Marketing communications, therefore, should be used to encourage audiences to do
something. For example, visit a website, phone a number, take a coupon, book a visit,
press red (on a remote control unit) for interactivity though digital television.
This three-component approach to attitudes, set out in Figure 3.6, is based upon
attitudes towards an object, person or organisation. The sequence of attitude forma-
tion is generally considered to be learn, feel and do. However, this approach to attitude
formation is limited in that the components are seen to be of equal strength. A single-
component model has been developed where the attitude only consists of the individual’s
overall feeling towards an object. In other words, the affective component is the only
significant component.

Figure 3.6 The three-component attitude model

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 90 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Attitudes impact on consumer decision-making, and the objective of marketing com-

munications is often to create a positive attitude towards a product and/or to reinforce
or change existing attitudes. An individual may perceive and develop a belief that British
Airways has a friendly and informal in-flight service and that the service provided by
Lufthansa is cold and formal. However, both airlines are perceived to hold a number of
different attributes, and each individual needs to evaluate these attributes in order that
an attitude can be developed. It is necessary, therefore, to measure the strength of the
beliefs held about the key attributes of different products. There are two main processes
whereby beliefs can be processed and measured: compensatory and non-compensatory
models.
An understanding of attitude components and the way in which particular attributes
can be measured not only enables organisations to determine the attitudes held towards
them and their competitors, but also empowers them to change the attitudes held by
different stakeholders, if it is thought necessary.

Decision-making
Much of marketing communications activity has been orientated towards influencing
decision-making processes used by customers. This requires identifying the right type
of information, to be conveyed at the right time, in the appropriate format, in order to
engage with the target audience.
There are two broad types of customer, consumers and organisational buyers, and
each is considered to follow particular rational, sequential and logical pathways when
making purchase decisions. The consumer decision-making process is depicted at Figure
3.7 and the organisational process in Figure 3.8. The consumer pathway consists of five
stages, and marketing communications can impact upon any or all of these stages with
varying levels of potential effectiveness.

Consumer purchase decision-making process

There are many factors that impact on decision-making including the time available,
levels of perceived risk and the degree of involvement a buyer has with the type of prod-
uct, and past experience – to name a few. Perceived risk and involvement are explored
later. However, three types problem-solving behaviour can be identified (extended
problem solving, limited problem solving and routinised response) and are considered
here. However, it should be noted that in reality buyers do not follow these decision
steps.

Extended problem solving (EPS)

Consumers considering the purchase of a car or house undertake a great deal of external
search activity and spend a lot of time reaching a solution that satisfies, as closely as
possible, the evaluative criteria previously set. This activity is usually associated with
products that are unfamiliar, where direct experience and hence knowledge are weak,
and where there is considerable financial risk.
Marketing communications should aim to provide a lot of information to assist the
decision process. The provision of information through sales literature, such as bro-
chures and leaflets, websites for determining product and purchase criteria in product
categories where there is little experience, access to salespersons and demonstrations
and advertisements, are just some of the ways in which information can be provided.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 91

Figure 3.7 A consumer’s decision-making framework

Limited problem solving (LPS)

Having experience of a product means that greater use can be made of internal,
memory-based search routines and the external search can be limited to obtaining
up-to-date information or to ensuring that the finer points of the decision have been
investigated.
Marketing communications should attempt to provide information about any product
modification or new attributes and convey messages that highlight those key attributes
known to be important to buyers. By differentiating the product, marketing communica-
tions provides the buyer with a reason to select that particular product.

Routinised response behaviour (RRB)

For a great number of products the decision process will consist only of an internal
search. This is primarily because the buyer has made a number of purchases and has
accumulated a great deal of experience. Therefore, only an internal search is necessary,
so little time or effort will be spent on external search activities. Low-value items that
are frequently purchased fall into this category – for example, toothpaste, soap, tinned
foods and confectionery.
Communicators should focus upon keeping the product within the evoked set or
getting it into the set. Learning can be enhanced through repetition of messages, but
repetition can also be used to maintain attention and awareness.

Organisational decision-making process

In much the same way organisational buying decisions can be considered in terms of pro-
cesses and procedures. In order to function, organisations need to buy materials, parts,
general supplies and services from a range of other organisations. Although referred to
as business-to-business marketing, the term ‘organisational marketing’ is used here to
reflect the wide range of organisations involved with such activities.
The term ‘buyphases’ was given by Robinson et al. (1967) to the several stages of the
organisational buying decisions, as depicted in Figure 3.8. However, considering the
buying process in terms of these neat steps is also misleading, again owing to the various
forces acting on organisations.

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 92 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Figure 3.8 The buyphases of organisational buying decisions

Just like consumers, organisational buyers make decisions that vary with each buying
situation and buyclass. Buyclasses, according to Robinson et al. (1967), comprise three
types or contexts: new task, modified rebuy and straight rebuy (see Table 3.2).
Some readers may have noticed how these phases bear a strong resemblance to the
extended, limited and routinised responses identified earlier with respect to the consumer
market.
Organisational buying, according to Webster and Wind (1972), is ‘the decision mak-
ing process by which formal organisations establish the need for purchased products
and services and identify, evaluate and choose among alternative brands and suppliers’.
Of particular significance is the relationship that develops between organisations that
enter market exchange transactions. As mentioned previously, the various networks that
organisations belong to will influence the purchase decisions that other organisations in
the network make. However, before exploring these issues, it is necessary to review the
context in which organisational decisions are made.
One way of examining the context is to compare organisational decisions with those
made in consumer markets. There are far fewer buyers in the organisational context than
in the consumer market, although there can be a number of people associated with a
buying decision in an organisation. Orders are invariably larger and the frequency with
which they are placed is much lower. It is quite common for agreements to be made

Table 3.2 The main characteristics of the buyclasses

Buyclass Degree of familiarity Information Alternative solutions

with the problem requirements

New buy The problem is fresh to A great deal of Alternative solutions

the decision-makers. information is required. are unknown, all are
considered new.

Modified The requirement is not More information is Buying decision needs

rebuy new but is different from required but past new solutions.
previous situations. experience is of use.

Rebuy The problem is identical Little or no information is Alternative solutions not

to previous experiences. required. sought or required.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 93

between organisations for the supply of materials over a number of years. Similarly,
depending upon the complexity of the product (photocopying paper or a one-off satel-
lite), the negotiation process may also take a long time.
Many of the characteristics associated with consumer decision-making processes can
be observed in the organisational context. However, organisational buyers make deci-
sions which ultimately contribute to the achievement of corporate objectives. To make
the necessary decisions, a high volume of pertinent information is often required. This
information needs to be relatively detailed and is normally presented in a rational and
logical style. The needs of the buyers are many and complex and some may be personal.
Goals, such as promotion and career advancement within the organisation, coupled with
ego and employee satisfaction combine to make organisational buying an important
task, one that requires professional training and the development of expertise if the role
is to be performed optimally.
Reference has been made on a number of occasions to organisational buyers, as if
these people are the only representatives of an organisation to be involved with the pur-
chase decision process. This is not the case, as very often a large number of people are
involved in the purchase decision. This group is referred to as either the decision-making
unit (DMU) or the buying centre.
Buying centres vary in size and composition in accordance with the nature of each
individual task. Webster and Wind (1972) identified a number of people who make up
the buying centre.
Users are people who not only initiate the purchase process but also use the product,
once it has been acquired, and evaluate its performance. Influencers very often help
set the technical specifications for the proposed purchase and assist the evaluation of
alternative offerings by potential suppliers. Deciders are those who make purchasing
decisions. In repeat buying activities the buyer may well also be the decider. However,
it is normal practice to require that expenditure decisions involving sums over a certain
financial limit be authorised by other, often senior, managers. Buyers (purchasing man-
agers) select suppliers and manage the process whereby the required products are pro-
cured. As identified previously, buyers may not decide which product is to be purchased
but they influence the framework within which the decision is made.
Gatekeepers have the potential to control the type and flow of information to the
organisation and the members of the buying centre. These gatekeepers may be technical
personnel, secretaries or telephone switchboard operators.
The size and form of the buying centre is not static. It can vary according to the com-
plexity of the product being considered and the degree of risk each decision is perceived
to carry for the organisation. Different roles are required and adopted as the nature of
the buying task changes with each new purchase situation (Bonoma, 1982). It is vital
for seller organisations to identify members of the buying centre and to target and refine
their messages to meet the needs of each member of the centre.
The task of the communications manager and the corresponding sales team is to
decide which key participants have to be reached, with which type of message, at what
frequency, and to what depth should contact be made. Just like individual consumers,
each member of the buying centre is an active problem-solver and processes information
so that personal and organisational goals are achieved.

Influences on the buying centre

Three major influences on organisational buyer behaviour can be identified as stakehold-
ers, the organisational environment and those aspects which the individual brings to the
situation, as set out in Table 3.3.
Stakeholders develop relationships between the focus organisation and other stake-
holders in the network. The nature of the exchange relationship and the style of

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 94 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Table 3.3 Major influences on organisational buying behaviour

Stakeholder influences Organisational influences Individual influences

Economic conditions Corporate strategy Personality

Legislation Organisational culture and Age

values

Competitor strategies Resources and costs Status

Industry regulations Purchasing policies and Reward structure and

procedures systems

Technological developments Interpersonal relationships

Social and cultural values

Inter-organisational
relationships

Source: Based on Webster and Wind (1972).

communications will influence buying decisions. If the relationship between organisa-

tions is trusting, mutually supportive and based on a longer-term perspective (a relational
structure) then the behaviour of the buying centre may be seen to be cooperative and
constructive. If the relationship is formal, regular, unsupportive and based on short-term
convenience (a market, structure-based relationship) then the purchase behaviour may
be observed as courteous yet distant.
Without doubt the major determinant of the organisational environment is the cost
associated with switching from one supplier to another (Bowersox and Cooper, 1992).
When one organisation chooses to enter into a buying relationship with another organi-
sation, an investment is made in time, people, assets and systems. Should the relationship
with the new supplier fail to work satisfactorily, then a cost is incurred in switching to
another supplier. It is these switching costs that heavily influence buying decisions. The
higher the potential switching costs, the greater the loss in flexibility, and the greater the
need to make the relationship appropriate at the outset.
Behaviour within the buying centre is also largely determined by the interpersonal rela-
tionships of the members of the centre. Participation in the buying centre has been shown
to be highly influenced by the perceptions individuals have of the personal consequences
of their contribution to each stage in the process. The more that individuals think they
will be blamed for a bad decision or praised for a good one, the greater their participation,
influence and visible DMU-related activity (McQuiston and Dickson, 1991). The nature
and dispersal of power within the unit can influence the decisions that are made. Power
is increasingly viewed from the perspective of an individual’s ability to control the flow of
information and the deployment of resources (Stone and Gronhaug, 1986). This approach
reflects a network approach to, in this case, intra-organisational communications.

Fear and perceived risk

Of the many emotions experienced by individuals fear is an underlying driver of con-
sumer behaviour. Fear is generated by the presence or anticipation of a specific danger
or threat. So, rather than fear itself it is the threat of fear that can evoke complex psy-
chophysiological arousal responses (LaTour and Rotfeld, 1997).
Research shows that anxiety and fear can make consumers more risk averse, and the
use of scarcity appeals are less likely to be successful. Dunn and Hoegg (2014) report
that fear can also motivate individuals to connect with others, as demonstrated by troops

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 95

on a battlefield (Marshall, 1947), and the victims of natural disasters (Fried, 1963). By
sharing experiences and affiliating with others people are effectively trying to manage
the fear they perceive. Dunn and Hoegg have demonstrated that this affiliation process
in the presence of a threat of fear can also enhance an emotional attachment to a brand.
For example, Birkner (2014) reports that Doritos promoted old chip flavours, that were
back-from-the-dead, through an online video horror game (Hotel 626). The only refer-
ence to Doritos was a small logo in the corner of the screen. Within a month all of these
flavours were sold out and a further game was produced (Asylum 626).
The threat of fear induces a sense of risk or uncertainty. The concept of perceived risk,
first proposed by Bauer (1960), concerns the negative and positive consequences that are
perceived to arise from a purchase decision, whether that might be not to buy or to buy.
Risk is perceived because a buyer has little or no experience of the performance of
the product or the decision process associated with the purchase. As Chang and Hsiao
(2008) state, perceived risk includes two factors. The first can occur prior to a purchase
and the second subsequent to a purchase when an individual experiences the unfavour-
able consequences of a purchase (Cox and Rich, 1967).
Risk is related not only to brand-based decisions but also to product categories, an
especially important aspect when launching new technology products, for example. The
level of risk an individual experiences varies through time, across products, and is often a
reflection of an individual’s propensity to manage risk. Settle and Alreck (1989) suggest
that there are five main forms of risk that can be identified and Stone and Gronhaug
(1993) added time as a further factor. These are set out in Table 3.4 using the purchase
of a laptop to illustrate each element.
What constitutes risk is a function of the contextual characteristics of each situa-
tion, the individuals involved and the product under consideration. Indeed, it is pos-
sible to use contextual risk to frame communications when launching new products, as
evidenced through the launch of Sensodyne Pronamel (Chapter 1 case), Ready Baked
Jackets (Chapter 4 case), and the Kärcher window cleaning system (Chapter 20 case)
(see Fill, 2015).
A major reason to use marketing communications, therefore, is to reduce levels of
perceived risk. By providing extensive and relevant information a buyer’s risks can be
reduced substantially. Mass media, word of mouth, websites and sales representatives,
for example, are popular ways to set out the likely outcomes from purchase and so
reduce the levels of risk. Brand loyalty can also be instrumental in reducing risk when
launching new products. The use of guarantees, third-party endorsements, money-back
offers (some car manufacturers offer the opportunity to return a car within 30 days or
exchange it for a different model) and trial samples (as used by many haircare products)
are also well-used devices to reduce risk.

Table 3.4 Types of perceived risk

Type of perceived risk Explanation

Performance Will the laptop perform all the functions properly?

Financial Can I afford that much or should I buy a less expensive version?

Physical Is the laptop built to the required safety standards . . . will it catch fire?

Social Will my friends and colleagues approve?

Ego Will I feel cool about using this equipment?

Time Can I afford the right amount of time to search for a good laptop?

Source: Derived from Settle and Alreck (1989) and Stone and Gronhaug (1993).

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 96 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Many websites and direct-response magazine ads seek to reduce a number of differ-
ent types of risk. Companies offering wine for direct home delivery, for example, try
to reduce performance risk by providing information about each wine being offered.
Financial risk is reduced by comparing the ‘special’ prices with those in the high street,
social risk is approached by developing the brand name associations trying to improve
credibility and time risk is reduced through the convenience of home delivery.

Scholars’ paper 3.3 Well, it must be risky

Stone, R.N. and Gronhaug, K. (1993) Perceived risk: further considerations for the
marketing discipline, European Journal of Marketing, 27(3), 39–50.

Readers interested in consumer behaviour and marketing communications should

understand the basic principles associated with perceived risk. This is the seminal
paper in this area, although the concept was introduced much earlier by Bauer. This
paper provides an insight into the literature and issues associated with perceived risk
and references the uncertainty experienced by consumers when making purchasing
decisions.
See also: Boshoff, C., Schlechter, C. and Ward, S.-J. (2011) Consumers’ perceived risks
associated with purchasing on a branded website: the mediating effect of brand
knowledge, South African Journal of Business Management, 42(1), 45–54.

Involvement theory
One of the factors thought to be key to brand choice decisions is the level of involvement
a consumer has with either the product or the purchase process. Involvement is about the
degree of personal relevance and risk perceived by consumers when making a particular
purchase decision (Rossiter et al., 1991). This implies that the level of involvement may
vary through time as each member of the target market becomes more (or less) familiar
with the purchase and associated communications. At the point of decision-making,
involvement is high or low, not somewhere on a sliding scale or on a continuum between
two extremes.

High involvement
High involvement occurs when a consumer perceives an expected purchase that not
only is of high personal relevance but also represents a high level of perceived risk. Cars,
washing machines, houses and insurance policies are seen as ‘big ticket’ items, infrequent
purchases that promote a great deal of involvement. The risk described is financial but,
as we saw earlier, risk can take other forms. Therefore, the choice of perfume, suit,
dress or jewellery may also represent high involvement, with social risk dominating the
purchase decision. Consumers therefore devote a great deal of time to researching these
intended purchases and collect as much information as possible in order to reduce, as
far as possible, levels of perceived risk.

Low involvement
A low-involvement state of mind suggests that an intended purchase represents little
threat or risk. Low-priced items such as washing powder, baked beans and breakfast

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 97

cereals are bought frequently. Purchase and consumption experience of the product
class and the brand provides purchase cues, so little information or support is required.
Items such as alcoholic and soft drinks, cigarettes and chocolate are also normally seen
as low involvement, but they induce a strong sense of ego risk associated with the self-
gratification that is attached to the consumption of these products.

Two approaches to decision-making

From this understanding of general decision-making processes, perceived risk and involve-
ment theory, it is possible to identify two main approaches to consumer decision-making.

High-involvement decision-making
If an individual is highly involved with the initial purchase of a product, EPS is the
appropriate decision sequence, as information is considered to be processed in a rational,
logical order. Individuals who are highly involved in a purchase are thought to move
through the process shown in Figure 3.9. When high-involvement decision-making is
present, individuals perceive a high level of risk and are concerned about the intended
purchase. The essential element in this sequence is that a great deal of information is
sought initially and an attitude is developed before a commitment or intention to trial
is determined.
Information search is an important part of the high-involvement decision-making
process. Because individuals are highly motivated, information is actively sought, pro-
cessed and evaluated. Many media sources are explored, including websites, the mass
media, word-of-mouth communications, and point-of-sale communications. As individu-
als require a lot of information, print media used to be the primary media where high
involvement was identified. Today, websites are the primary source of large volumes of
detailed information. Unlike print, these sites can also be updated quickly but both types
enable visitors to search and process information at a speed they can control.

Viewpoint 3.3 ‘Live Chat’ reduces booking anxiety at Exodus

Exodus offers adventure and alternative experience based holidays such as walking, cycling and trekking
trips, cross-country skiing, and wildlife, polar and dogsledding expeditions. A typical Exodus customer is a
40-year-old city dweller with a high level of disposable income. Although they are computer literate and
are totally familiar with online booking processes, committing to a once in a lifetime holiday experience
can involve substantial perceived risks associated with finance, physical safety, social, ego and time
associated with the decision-making and booking process. As a result of their high involvement they
appreciate advice and guidance in order to follow through and invest their financial resources, time, and
energy.
It was clear that website bookings needed to be improved in order to attract, engage and convert
website visitors in order to boost online bookings. A ‘Live Chat’ facility was available 24/7, with users
sending a message to invite an expert to discuss their holiday requirements. This served to improve
engagement rates and facilitate the collection of pertinent customer data used to feed promotional
activities.
Part of the issue, however, was that the ‘Live Chat’ tool was positioned at the foot of the web pages.
Action was required to make visitors more aware of the ‘Live Chat’ tool. A pop-up, designed to invite a chat
or offer a callback, was designed to get the attention of site visitors. The pop-up was triggered after a
site visitor had been on the site for a minute on the home page. The timing and frequency of the pop-up

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 98 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

varies according to the average time spent on the page. Roughly 1,500 visitors per month will engage
with a Live Chat expert each month and of these 50 per cent are regarded as hot leads.
Exodus have introduced a content targeting tool to aim sales promotions and guide site traffic to par-
ticular parts of the website. Communications were targeted at either new customers with special offers
or current customers with incentives to book another trip. Non-sales messages are used during periods
when the use of price offers is not necessary. These are used to boost the Exodus online community and
help develop user generated content and encourage customer feedback.
These changes have had a big impact on performance. Online sales have increased by 14 per cent
reflecting the improvement in conversion rates; 25 per cent of online sales are now generated through
Live Chat, and 75 per cent of the hot leads proceed to make a booking.

Source: Bolger (2014); www.exodus.co.uk.

To what extent is Live Chat a facility designed to overcome the impersonal nature of website
Question: 
technology?

Task: Make a list of product categories where this type of facility would be inappropriate

Figure 3.9 Decision-making process where there is high involvement

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 3.5, p. 72.

Low-involvement decision-making
If an individual has little involvement with an initial purchase of a product, LPS is the
appropriate decision process. Information is processed cognitively but in a passive, invol-
untary way. Processing occurs using right-brain thinking so information is stored as it
is received, in sections, and this means that information is stored as a brand association
(Heath, 2000). An advertisement for Andrex toilet tissue featuring a puppy is stored as
the ‘Andrex Puppy’ without any overt thinking or reasoning. Because of the low personal
relevance and perceived risk associated with this type of processing, message repetition
is necessary to define brands and create meaningful brand associations. Individuals who
have a low involvement with a purchase decision choose not to search for information
and are thought to move through the process shown in Figure 3.10.
Communications can assist the development of awareness in the low-involvement
decision-making process. However, as individuals assume a passive problem-solving role,
messages need to be shorter than in the high-involvement process and should contain
less information. Broadcast media are preferred as they complement the passive learning
posture adopted by individuals. Repetition is important because receivers have little or

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 99

Figure 3.10 Decision-making process where there is low involvement

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011)
figure 3.6, p. 73.

no motivation to retain information, and their perceptual selection processes filter out
unimportant information. Learning develops through exposure to repeated messages,
but attitudes do not develop at this part of the process (Harris, 1987).
Where low involvement is present, each individual relies upon internal, rather than
external, search mechanisms, often prompted by point-of-purchase displays.

Impact on communications
Involvement theory is central to our understanding of the way in which information is
processed and the way in which people make decisions about product purchases. We
have established in the preceding section that there are two main types of involvement,
high and low. These two types lead directly to two different uses of marketing commu-
nications. In decisions where there is high involvement, attitude precedes trial behaviour.
In low-involvement cases this position is reversed.
Where there is high involvement, consumers seek out information because they are
concerned about the decision processes and outcomes. This can be because of the levels
of uncertainty associated with the high costs of purchase and usage, inexperience of
the product (category) – often due to the infrequency of purchases – the complexity
of the product and doubts about its operational usefulness. Because they have these
concerns, people develop an attitude prior to behaviour. Informational ads that require
cognitive processing are recommended.
Where there is low involvement, consumers are content to select any one of a number
of acceptable products and often rely on those that are in the individual’s evoked set.
Low involvement is thought to be a comfortable state, because there are too many other
decisions in life to have to make decisions about each one of them, so an opportunity not
to have to seek information and make other decisions is welcome. See Figure 3.11, which
indicates the marketing communications strategies best suited for each level within both
involvement sequences. Emotional or transformational ads are recommended.
Planning communications based on involvement are not as straightforward as the
preceding material might suggest. There are various factors that might influence the
outcomes. For example, some individuals who are cognitively capable of processing
information may not always be able to process information in information-based ads
because they are overloaded. In these circumstances they are more likely to develop posi-
tive attitudes towards affective or transformational ads. Ranjbariyan and Mahmoodi
(2009) also found that people under time pressure are more prone to use transforma-
tional ads, as they will pick up visual cues to help their decision-making.
The material presented so far in this section is based on classical research, theoretical
development and is supported by empirical research. However, much of the knowledge has

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 100 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Figure 3.11 Marketing communications approaches for the two levels of involvement
Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011) figure 3.7, p. 74.

been developed in a non-digital era, and that raises questions about the depth of its validity
in the contemporary world. Foley et al. (2009) undertook research that showed that
people organise product categories according to the level of risk associated with brand-
choice decisions and the level of reward, together with the enjoyment people derive from
the decisions they make. They also found that the types of categories people organise lead
to different patterns of decision-making. Four main product categories were identified:
1. Routine.
In this category people perceive low risk and low reward. Brand choice decision-
making is therefore characterised by inertia and decision-making is robotic.
2. Burden.
People perceive high risk and low reward. Search is extensive and decision-making
improved if someone can assist.
3. Passion.
Risk is high and reward is high because people are emotionally engaged with these
types of products and services. The symbolism and meaning attached to brands in the
category is high, reflected in high ego and social risks.
4. Entertainment.
People use this category where risk is low but reward can be high. This means that
decision-making can be a pleasant, if brief, experience.
Each of these categories has implications for the communications strategies neces-
sary to reach people and be effective. For example, consideration of the type of website
that best suits each of these categories provides immediate insight into how having an
understanding or insight into the target audience can shape marketing communications.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 101

Other approaches
Consideration so far has been given to what might be called ‘the rational and cognitive
approach’ to both information processing and decision-making. These are informative
and enable us to build an organised understanding. Indeed, organisations often instal log-
ical buying procedures as a means of controlling and managing the procurement process.
Many organisations recognise that the linear, logic journey that consumer decision
follows is no longer relevant. As a result they now consider issues concerning customer
experience, and focus on maximising engagement opportunities at particular ‘touchpoints’
on a consumer journey. There is a view that this approach misses the bigger picture of a
consumer’s overall decision journey (Rawson et al., 2013). As will be seen shortly, implicit
decision-making concerns the emotional value that people attach to the various options
they are faced with when making a decision. Damasio (1996) argues that when faced with
time pressures or too many options, complex decisions are resolved by choosing an option
that evokes the greatest number of positive emotional associations (Kent-Lemon, 2013).
These implicit heuristics, it is argued, are the emotional shortcuts we use every day, when
it is not possible, due to the available time or energy required, to use rational analysis.
A number of different views about consumer decision-making and behaviour have
been advanced. Three are considered here. The first to be considered is called hedonic
consumption, the second is tribal consumption and the third is behavioural economics,
which, although not new, has received increased attention recently. All have implications
for the way marketing communications should be used.

Hedonic consumption
There is a range of products and services that can evoke high levels of involvement
based on the emotional impact that consumption provides buyers. This is referred to as
‘hedonic consumption’, and Hirschmann and Holbrook (1982) describe this approach
as ‘those facets of consumer behaviour that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emo-
tive aspects of one’s experience with products’. With its roots partly in the motivation
research and partly in the cognitive processing schools, this interpretation of consumer
behaviour seeks to explain how and why buyers experience emotional responses to the
act of purchase and consumption of particular products.
Historical imagery occurs when, for example, the colour of a dress, the scent of a
perfume or cologne, or the aroma of a restaurant or food can trigger an individual’s
memory to replay an event. In contrast, fantasy imagery occurs when a buyer constructs
an event, drawing together various colours, sounds and shapes to compose a mental
experience of an event that has not occurred previously. Consumers imagine a reality in
which they derive sensory pleasure. Some smokers were encouraged to imagine them-
selves as ‘Marlboro Men’: not just masculine, but as idealised cowboys (Hirschmann
and Holbrook, 1982).
The advertising of fragrances and luxury brands is often based on images that encour-
age individuals to project themselves into a desirable or pleasurable environment or situ-
ation: for example, those which foster romantic associations. Some people form strong
associations with particular fragrances and use this to develop and maintain specific
images. Advertising is used to create and support these images and, in doing so, enhance
the emotional benefits derived from fragrance brand associations. As Retiveau (2007) indi-
cates, hedonics are closely related and influence the simultaneous perception of fragrances.
There are a number of challenges with this approach – namely, measurement factors
of reliability and validity; nevertheless, appreciating the dreams, ideals and desires of
the target audience can be an important contribution to the creation of promotional
messages.

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 102 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Exhibit 3.6 Attendance at music festivals represents hedonic

consumption
Source: Shutterstock.com/Monkey Business Images.

Tribal consumption
Another approach to understanding consumption concerns the concept of individualism and
tribes. Cova (1997) identifies two schools of thought about consumption and identity. The
Northern school believe that consumption enables individuals to reveal their self-identity
in society. People consume as an end in itself as this allows them to take meaning for their
lives through what they consume. Here consumption is a means of individual differentiation.
The Southern school believe that it is important to maintain a culture’s social fabric.
As society reconfigures itself into groups of people that, according to Maffesoli (1996),
reflect primitive tribes, so the role of consumption evolves into a means of linking people
to multiple communities, or tribes. Here consumption is a means of offering value to a
tribe (Cooper et al., 2005).
Maffesoli (1996) considers contemporary culture to be not one based on individual-
ism, but one defined by ‘fluidity, occasional gatherings and dispersal’. This might be
likened to a fragmentation of social groupings (Hamilton and Hewer, 2010) many of
which are transient. According to Jenkins (2006), tribes represent a participatory culture
where business and social interests and affiliations come together.

Scholars’ paper 3.4 Thriving networks and tribal identities

Hamilton, K. and Hewer, P. (2010) Tribal mattering spaces: social-networking sites,

celebrity affiliations, and tribal innovations, Journal of Marketing Management,
26(3–4), 271–89.

Further to the exploration of tribes in consumer behaviour, these authors use ideas
about tribal identities and fandom to explore Web 2.0. They argue that social networks
which focus on iconic celebrities provide a rich context to consider the interaction,
connectivity, and creativity of the fans that populate them.

See also: Cova, B. and Cova, V. (2001) Tribal aspects of postmodern consumption
research, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 1(1), 67–76.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 103

The term ‘tribe’ refers to communities characterised by people who share emo-
tions, experiences, lifestyles and patterns of consumption. In order that these tribes
are able to effect tribal communion (Cova et al., 2007) so that members can reaffirm
their identity, various emblems, sites, recognition or support are used. Products and
services are not consumed for their utility value, or for the sense of individual iden-
tification. Their consumption is considered to be important for the ‘linking value’
they provide within a tribal network. Tribes serve to link people who share passions
and interests, examples of which, according to Hamilton and Hewer (2010), include
brands such as Harley-Davidson, Saab, Star Trek and the X-Files, adrenalin activities
such as skydiving, dancing, river rafting, or a variety of sports, or even sports stars
and celebrities. Tribes are loosely interconnected communities (Cova and Cova, 2001)
where bonding and linking represent key activities designed to retain tribal member-
ship (see Exhibit 3.7).
Tribes proliferate on the Internet, thanks mainly to its power to aggregate communi-
ties who share similar interests. These e-tribes have the same characteristics as traditional
communities: namely, shared rituals and traditions, a similar consciousness of kind, and
an obligation, or sense of duty, to the community and to its individual members (Muniz
and O’Guinn, 2001). Kozinets (2008) established that there were eight Es that can be
associated with e-tribes. These are set out in Table 3.5.

Exhibit 3.7 The tribal map

Source: Elia Mörling / Tribaling.com.

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 104 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Table 3.5 Eight Es of e-tribes

E reference Explanation

Electronic e-tribes communicate via the medium of the Internet

Enculturating e-tribe members learn and adopt the language, practices, rituals and
values of the community

Emotive e-tribes generate a high level of emotional involvement from members

Expressive e-tribe members engage in creative, product work

Empowered e-tribe members gain great satisfaction from the agentic potential of
their practices

Evangelical e-tribe membership can be compared with a quasi-religious or spiritual

experience

Emergent e-tribes are self-generated, emerging on their own rather than under the
control of a company

Entangled Network boundaries overlap and merge

Source: Hamilton and Hewer’s (2010) adaption of Kozinets (2008).

According to Hamilton and Hewer, this listing indicates the breadth and complex-
ity of the virtual tribal environment and the openness and opportunities that people
have to explore, work, play and become immersed and passionate about interests,
which Kozinets et al. (2008) relate to the intimate feelings people experience in
childhood.
The recognition and acceptance of e-tribes and tribal consumption for marketing
communications practitioners is not clear cut. Indeed, some commentators warn against
outright tribal intrusion and recommend activities that encourage a tribe’s social and
linking behaviours, simply because these are critical for members. Organisations should
aim to become listeners and to work ‘with’ tribes by fostering conversations and enabling
them to function through the provision of ‘play rich mattering spaces’ (Hamilton and
Hewer, 2010: 285).

Behavioural economics
Just as ideas about tribal consumption are a rejection of ‘rational man’ perspectives, so
behavioural economics is grounded in the belief that people are ‘fundamentally irra-
tional in their decision-making and motivated by unconscious cognitive biases’ (Ariely,
2009). The third issue to be considered under the banner of alternative approaches to
understanding consumer behaviour, therefore, concerns the emerging popularity of the
concept called ‘behavioural economics’. One of the interesting points about behavioural
economics is that it challenges established thinking, and another is that it is not a million
miles from the idea of low-attention processing.
Behavioural economics has emerged following decades of frustration with classical
economic theory. Conventional economic theory suggests that people make rational
choices in their decision-making and even seek to maximise their opportunities and mini-
mise expenditure. The ‘rational man’ makes the best possible decisions, on the basis of
maximising benefits and minimising costs, in order to obtain the most advantageous and
efficient economic outcome. The classical view of economics is reflected in advertising
that is essentially informational in nature and which promotes a USP. The Persil slogan

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 105

‘washes whiter’ typifies the traditional perspective of advertising: one core message, we
are better, faster, safer or cleaner than the rest. The utilisation of behavioural economics
in advertising is reflected in the use of emotional content that seeks to embrace audiences
and develop brand associations.
Classical economics assumes rational decision-making and that, in general, markets
and institutions are self-regulating. The collapse of the banks and much of the financial
sector in 2008, however, casts serious doubt on the efficacy of this view. Behavioural
economics, therefore, challenges the conventional view about the way people and organi-
sations behave. Indeed, the central platform on which behavioural economics is con-
structed is behaviour. This moves advertising and marketing communications forward
because the focus is no longer on attitudes, beliefs and opinions, USPs, or even on what
people intend to do, but on how they behave, what they actually do.
In order to change existing behaviours, or encourage new ones, people need to be
presented with a choice that makes decision-making feel effortless, even automatic, or as
Gordon (2011) puts it, ‘a no-brainer’. Thaler and Sunstein (2008) refer to this as ‘choice
architecture’. This posits that there is no neutral way to present a choice. People choose
according to what is available, not what they absolutely want. What is also important
is that they do not expend much energy or thought when they make a choice, and they
use heuristics or rules of thumb to assist them. As mentioned earlier, these heuristics
are thought to be rooted in emotional drivers. See Viewpoint 3.4 for some examples of
BE in action.

Table 3.6 Elements of behavioural economics

BE element Explanation

How Helping people to make a decision by presenting easy methods can encourage
action now, rather than in the future. For example, paying for tickets for a
festival online is easier than being in a queue on the telephone. Schemes that
require people to opt out are more likely to generate the desired behaviour, than
requiring people to make the choice to opt in.

When When required to do something disagreeable, people are more likely to delay
making a decision or taking action – for example, to stop smoking, to complete
an income tax return form, or start an essay.

Where Although price and perceived value can be important, it can be location and
convenience that shape a decision. Questions such as ‘Do I have to go there
to do this or should I do it here where it is convenient?’ can often influence
behaviour.

Availability Items that appear to be scarce have a higher value than those items that are
plentiful. For example, recorded music is abundant and virtually free, yet live
music is relatively expensive, as it is scarce.

Price The price of an item leads people to give it a value. So, people who pay more
for a product/service often perceive increased benefit or gain. However, price
needs to be contextualised and supported by other indicators of value.

Task duration People prefer to complete parts of a task rather than try to finish in a single
attempt. Therefore, the way a task is presented can influence the behaviour
and the number of people completing the task. Filling in forms seems less
daunting with the opportunity to save and return. Colour coding antibiotic pills
might ensure more people complete the treatment and avoid repeat visits,
further illness and lost days from work.

Source: Based on Gordon (2011); IPA (2010).

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 106 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

The idea that people follow a sequential decision-making process is a long way from
the truth. Both Kooreman and Prast (2010) and Grapentine and Altman Weaver (2009)
agree that people’s behaviour is often not congruent with their intentions, that they are
sensitive to the way choices are presented to them, and that they have limited cognitive
abilities. However, not everyone agrees that BE is a good step forward. For example,
Mitchell (2010) puts forward a number of doubts about the validity of the concept.
So, purchase decisions are not made deliberatively and consciously by evaluating all
permutations and outcomes. Decisions are made around choices that are based on com-
parison, rather than absolutely. These decisions are based on what is available rather
than scanning the whole market or options and, as Gordon says, in terms of ‘how this
makes me feel’ both emotionally and instinctively, but not rationally.
One of the main areas in which behavioural economics impacts upon advertising
and brand communications is choice architecture. Indeed, the Institute of Practition-
ers in Advertising (IPA, 2010) has embraced behavioural economics and observed its
relevance to campaign planning, purchase decisions, brand experiences, how behaviour
can be changed, and the way that choice works in complex situations. All of these can
be reflected in the advertising and brand communications.

Viewpoint 3.4 BE drives action and behaviour

Various organisations have adopted behavioural economics, partly as a result of the IPA championing it
by providing visibility, information and insight. Here are a few examples:

Fire safety – attitudes and intentions often have a very weak correlation to actual behaviour in real
life. This can be seen when people say testing their smoke alarms is important, but in reality many don’t
actually follow through and test. As a result over 100 people die in house fires in England each year, in
dwellings where there was a non-working fire alarm.
There have been many previous attitudinal campaigns designed to encourage and motivate people
to test their alarms. This campaign used the ideas of behavioural economics and focused on changing
behaviour by decreasing the perceived effort required to test the alarms. The campaign nudged people
into testing their smoke alarms by piggy-backing on existing behaviours, namely the twice-yearly clock
change.
A print campaign featured a single powerful image of a burnt clock in the context of a real home. The
ad was designed to look as if it was forensic evidence retrieved from a home that had been on fire. The
goal was to provide a visual stimulus between the need to change our clocks (twice a year) and the need
to test smoke alarms.

Hyundai – consumer fear at the huge depreciation incurred when buying a new car prompted Hyundai into
reframing the choice car buyers are faced with. Instead of shying away from the issue, Hyundai offered
new car buyers a guaranteed price for their car, valid for four years after purchase. Television advertising
was used to communicate the deal and so reduce perceived risk.

Transport for London (TfL) had been telling people about the advantages of cycling to work for many
years, but the communications had not been very successful. So, rather than keep telling people, TfL
installed a bicycle hire scheme, sponsored by Barclays, which enabled two things. First, people could hire
a bike and leave it at a designated point in London, and avoid capital outlay, maintenance, and storage
costs. Second, the scheme encouraged a change in behaviour because the bikes were made available,
and their distinctive Barclays logo and bike stands are visible across the capital.

Cadbury’s reintroduced the Wispa bar in 2007 following its axing in 2003, and the subsequent cam-
paigns on various social network sites Bebo, Myspace and Facebook, and a stage rush by Wispa fans at

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 107

Exhibit 3.8 Burnt clocks used in a fire safety campaign

Source: Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.

Glastonbury. Instead of simply announcing its return, Cadbury’s announced that Wispa would be back with
a special-edition limited run. Sales went through the roof, and the Wispa bar was available on a regular
basis. However, by announcing a limited run of the brand it encouraged people to think that they needed
to buy a Wispa, otherwise it would be removed once again. In other words, loss aversion was used to
stimulate demand.

Source: Huntley and Hoad (2014); McCormick (2011); Panlogic (2011).

Choose a brand and consider ways in which the principles of behavioural economics might be
Question: 
utilised.

Choose three product categories and make notes about the way behavioural economics
Task: 
might be applied to enhance communications.

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 108 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Key points
● Awareness of the existence and availability of a product/service or an organisation
is necessary before information can be processed and purchase behaviour expected.
Much of marketing communications activity is directed towards getting the attention
of the target audience.
● Awareness needs to be created, developed, refined or sustained, according to the
characteristics of the market and the particular context facing an organisation (or
audience) at any one point in time.
● Perception is concerned with how individuals see and make sense of their environ-
ment. The way in which individuals perceive, organise and interpret stimuli is a reflec-
tion of their past experiences and the classifications used to understand the different
situations each individual frames every day.
● Marketing communications is used to position brands using a variety of stimuli so
that consumers understand and recognise them.
● There are three factors important to the behavourist approach to learning: associa-
tion, reinforcement and motivation. Behaviour is learned through the conditioning
experience of a stimulus and response.
● Cognitive learning considers learning to be a function of an individual’s attempt to
control their immediate environment. Cognitive learning is about processing informa-
tion in order that problems can be resolved. Central to this process is memory.
● Information-handling processes can range from the simple to the complex. There are
three main processes: iconic, modelling and reasoning.
● Attitudes are predispositions, shaped through experience, to respond in an anticipated way
to an object or situation. Attitudes are learned through past experiences and serve as a link
between thoughts and behaviour. Attitudes tend to be consistent within each individual:
they are clustered and very often interrelated. Attitudes consist of three interrelated ele-
ments: the cognitive, affective and conative, otherwise referred to as learn, feel, do.
● Marketing communications can be used to influence the attitudes held by a target
market. When developing campaigns, consideration needs to be given to the current
and desired attitudes to be held by the target audience. The focus of communications
activities can be on whether the audience requires information (learning), an emo-
tional disposition (feeling) or whether the audience needs to be encouraged to behave
in a particular way (doing).
● Classical theory suggests that there are five stages to the general process whereby
buyers make purchase decisions and implement them. These are problem recogni-
tion, information search, alternative evaluation, purchase decision and post-purchase
evaluation. Organisations use marketing communications in different ways in order
to influence these different stages.
● Buyers do not follow the general purchase decision sequence at all times and three
types of problem-solving behaviour are experienced by consumers. These are extended
problem solving, limited problem solving and routinised response. The procedure
may vary depending upon the time available, levels of perceived risk and the degree
of involvement a buyer has with the type of product.
● The organisational buying decision process consists of six main stages or buyphases.
These are need/problem recognition, product specification, supplier and product
search, the evaluation of proposals, supplier selection and evaluation.

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 Chapter 3  •  Audience insight: information processing and behaviour 109

● There are a wide variety of individuals involved in organisational purchase decisions.

There are users, influencers, deciders, buyers and gatekeepers. All fulfil different
functions, all have varying degrees of impact on purchase decisions and all require
different marketing communications in order to influence their decision-making.
● Consumers and organisational buyers experience risk when making purchasing decisions.
This risk is perceived and concerns the uncertainty of the proposed purchase and the
outcomes that will result from a decision to purchase a product. Five types of perceived
risk can be identified. These are ego, social, physical, financial and performance risks.
● Individuals and groups make purchasing decisions on behalf of organisations. Dif-
ferent types of risk can be experienced, relating to a range of organisational and
contextual issues. Marketing communications has an important task to reduce risk
for consumers and organisational buyers.
● Involvement is about the degree of personal relevance and risk perceived by indi-
viduals in a particular purchase situation. Individuals experience involvement with
products or services to be purchased.
● The level of involvement may vary through time as each member of the target market
becomes more (or less) familiar with the purchase and associated communications.
At the point of decision-making, involvement is either high or low.
● Some products and services can evoke high levels of involvement based on the emo-
tional impact that consumption provides the buyer. This is referred to as hedonic
consumption and refers to behaviour that relates to the multi-sensory, fantasy and
emotive aspects of an individual’s experience with products. Historical imagery and
fantasy imagery are two aspects of hedonic consumption.
● Tribes are loosely interconnected communities where bonding and linking represent
key activities designed to retain tribal membership. Tribes serve to link people who
share passions and interests and ‘tribal consumption’ refers to consumption of prod-
ucts and services, not for their utility value, or for the sense of individual identifica-
tion. Their consumption is considered to be important for the ‘linking value’ they
provide within a tribal network.
● Tribes proliferate on the Internet, thanks mainly to its power to aggregate communities
who share similar interests. These e-tribes have the same characteristics as traditional
communities: namely, shared rituals and traditions, a similar consciousness of kind,
and an obligation, or sense of duty, to the community and to its individual members.
● Behavioural economics is grounded in the belief that people make irrational rather than
rational decisions and the central platform is about actual behaviour, not attitudes or
opinions. People choose according to what is available, not what they absolutely want.

Review questions
Dacia case questions
1. How might an understanding of perception have assisted Dacia’s marketing
communications?
2. Identify the different types of perceived risk that potential Dacia customers might
have experienced. How did Dacia’s communications help reduce them?
3. Explain how Dacia’s marketing communications can be understood in terms of
learning theory.

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 110 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

4. Explain how Dacia’s marketing communications can be interpreted in the light of

attitude theory.
5. Explain ways in which the intellectual alibi assisted Dacia customers in their decision-
making processes.
General questions
1. Make brief notes explaining each of the following: buyclasses, buying centre, EPS,
LPS and RRB.
2. Describe the high- and low-involvement decision-making processes. How do these
help the practice of marketing communications?
3. Make brief notes about the characteristics of each of the attitude components and
explain how marketing communications can be used to change attitudes.
4. Find examples of tribal consumption or hedonic consumption.
5. What is behavioural economics and what does it mean for marketing
communications?

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 Chapter 4
How marketing communications
might work

Understanding how marketing communications might work with its rich mosaic of percep-
tions, emotions, attitudes, information and patterns of behaviour is challenging in itself.
Any attempt to understand how marketing communications might work must be cautioned
by an appreciation of the complexity and contradictions inherent in this complicated com-
mercial activity.

Aims and learning objectives

The aims of this chapter are to explore some of the theoretical concepts associ-
ated with ideas about how marketing communications might work and to consider
the complexities associated with understanding how clients can best use marketing
communications.

The learning objectives are to enable readers to:

1. explore ideas concerning strategy, engagement and the role of marketing

communications;
2. explain how marketing communications works through sequential processing;
3. understand how marketing communications can be used to influence attitudes;
4. appraise the way relationships can be shaped through the use of marketing
communications;
5. consider ways in which marketing communications might develop significant value;
6. examine the role marketing communications might play in helping people process
information.

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 114 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

McCain – Ready Baked Jackets

Jacket potatoes are traditionally cooked in an oven, how great the product was. Positive mentions and
for over an hour. Although the taste, aroma and crispi- comments from those who had tried the product
ness is deeply satisfying, the length of time they take were shown to be more motivating to the sceptics
to cook can be an inconvenience. It is not surprising, than anything advertising could deliver. The launch of
therefore, that many consumers cook them in a micro- RBJs therefore had to incorporate a strong word-of-
wave to speed up the process. The result is a soggy, mouth element.
mediocre, tasteless spud that satisfies hunger but lit- The communications strategy was developed
tle else. Consumers, therefore, had to either compro- around these three points by matching paid, owned
mise on time by oven baking a potato, or compromise and earned media with the three specific communi-
on taste by using a microwave. cations tasks. Awareness and appetite appeal had a
This represented a worthy commercial challenge bias towards paid for media, while trial was matched
to McCain, whose famous ‘Oven Chips’ had estab- with owned, and advocacy and conversations utilised
lished their brand credentials as the makers of earned media.
excellent frozen potato products. After 12 months
of development McCain broke the need for compro-
mise when they developed an oven baked jacket
Awareness and appetite appeal
potato that was ready in just 5 minutes. The prod- A heavyweight TV campaign was deployed across
uct was a slow-cooked, fluffy jacket potato that had February 2012 driving broad awareness of the new
been baked by McCain and then frozen for consum- product. We identified a time when a cynical audi-
ers to be able to enjoy in just 5 minutes from the ence would be much more open to the concept of
microwave. a 5-minute jacket: when it was too late to bake one
The communications to launch the Ready Baked from scratch for an hour in the oven. We coined the
Jackets (RBJs) had to drive new consumers into the concept of the ‘9 p.m. post-jacket watershed’ and
brand and bring consumers to the frozen aisle who ensured a significant amount of TV ratings hit our
were not currently buying into the frozen potato cat- audience at this time.
egory. We also wanted to convert consumers from An extensive press and outdoor campaign deliv-
making their own jacket potatoes to using McCain’s ered the mouth-watering product visuals across
RBJs. multiple environments to maximise appetite appeal.
Research revealed that consumers simply didn’t We also stimulated appetites when people were mak-
believe that a frozen jacket potato that was ready ing their way home thinking about what to have for
in just 5 minutes from the microwave would taste as dinner. We incorporated over 20 large format digital
good as one that was oven baked. McCain needed screens that we switched on at 4 p.m. each evening
their communications to stimulate consumer appe- across the campaign.
tites and to leverage the brand’s food credentials We worked with JCDecaux to create a series of
by focusing on the delicious end product not the ten bespoke bus stops across the UK to deliver a
process. We therefore developed a piece of com- unique McCain Jackets experience. The comforting
munications which very simply informed consum- warmth of a jacket potato was delivered through
ers that this new product tastes just like an oven a realistic fibreglass heated potato built into bus
baked jacket because that’s exactly what it is. Three shelters to warm up cold hands in a freezing Febru-
key reasons to believe were identified: smell/taste/ ary. With the insight that nothing makes you sali-
fluffy texture. vate like the smell of a jacket potato, the product’s
Research also found that many consumers who delicious aroma was delivered by a spray of the
held negative associations towards microwaved scent of freshly baked potatoes when consumers
food changed their attitude once they had smelt and passed the site.
tasted RBJs. Statements such as ‘Tastes really deli- Finally, we built a taste and trial driving element
cious’ and ‘Tastes the same as a jacket made in the into the bus shelters by incorporating couponing into
oven’ meant that our communications had to drive the six-sheets. At the press of a button consumers
brand trial. were able to collect a 50p-off coupon so they could
With this product having such a cynical audience try McCain Jackets for themselves. This was the first
we couldn’t rely on advertising alone to tell people campaign of its kind in the UK.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 115

Exhibit 4.1 Six-Sheet poster with hand warming potato feature

Source: PHD Media UK/JCDecaux.

Driving trial An online display running across MSN and AOL net-
works drove traffic straight through to a sponsored
Owned media was used to drive trial once people had section on MySupermarket.co.uk where consumers
been made aware of the product. A ‘money-back guar- could purchase the product. Behaviourally targeted
antee’ was issued across all product packaging. This placements also ran on this site, activated when
meant that potential customers could be reassured consumers were browsing products that are used
that if they weren’t satisfied with the product they as jacket potato toppings, such as grated cheese or
wouldn’t have to pay. baked beans. To target consumers who made jacket
Working alongside the deals to drive further potatoes from scratch we ran placements across the
trial was an extensive couponing campaign. During fresh potato section within the site.
launch there were three million money-off coupons To maximise in-store sales and act as a final call
distributed across multiple channels. These coupons to action before purchase, a geo-targeted text mes-
successfully generated 300,000 new customers. sage campaign was activated to target shoppers as

Exhibit 4.2 Outdoor media timed to meet peak time commuter rush
Source: PHD Media UK/JCDecaux.

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 116 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

they entered supermarkets. Over 300,000 texts were product were positioned so that they were the first
delivered targeting the biggest retailers nationally. thing visitors to the page would see.

Advocacy and conversations Results

Foodie and convenience food sceptics, Tom Parker- Paid for media was so successful that we smashed our
Bowles (food writer for the Daily Mail) and Alex James awareness target (reaching 56 per cent prompted aware-
(food writer for the Sun) turned out to be our most ness in just 6 weeks) and delivered an impressive RROI
powerful advocates, once they had tasted the prod- of £1.25. Paid media drove 19 per cent of all RBJs sales,
uct. In addition to the national press, McCain were double the average contribution of media expected.
also able to get TV editorial, gaining further endorse- McCain RBJs was the most successful FMCG (fast-
ment and advocacy from some of Britain’s best-loved moving consumer goods) launch of 2012 (Kantar
TV celebrities such as Matthew Wright on Channel Worldpanel). By December 2012 cumulative penetra-
5’s The Wright Stuff, and Holly Willoughby and Philip tion had reached 15.6 per cent with the product hav-
Schofield on ITV’s This Morning. ing been bought by 4.1 million households. This beat
RBJs passed the Good Housekeeping Institute the Year 1 target by 50 per cent.
tests, and the GHI endorsement was used across all of
our communications and packaging, lending an extra This case was written by Rebecca Clay, Media Direc-
layer of credibility to the product. The Facebook brand tor at PHD
page drove awareness, over 100,000 likes and, most
importantly, it started and fuelled conversations from Questions relating to this case can be found at the
consumers about RBJs. Positive reviews of the new end of this chapter.

Introduction
The McCain case describes aspects of the marketing communications used to launch a
new product. A range of tools, media and messages were used within a common theme,
and particular time scale, to reinforce predetermined brand messages. What may not
be clear is just how these elements work together and how marketing communications
might actually work. This chapter explores this topic, and introduces a number of con­
cepts and frameworks that have contributed to our understanding. Ideas about how
advertising works dominate the literature, whereas ideas about how marketing com­
munications is thought to work appear to be of secondary importance, which is strange
when so much energy is put into the idea of integrated marketing communications. It
is clear that there is no single, universally agreed explanation about how marketing
communications works. This chapter therefore presents a variety of explanations and
interpretations about how marketing communications might work.

The strategic context

For a long time marketing communications was considered to be a purely operational
issue, one which worked by delivering messages about products, to audiences who then,
if the communications were effective, purchased the product. No real consideration was
given to combining or synchronising the tools, reinforcing messages, understanding the
target audience or keying the communications into an overall strategy.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 117

This silo approach has changed. Propelled by the emerging focus on a wider range of
stakeholders, the excitement about relationship marketing, surging developments in digi­
tal technology and media applications (Chapters 18 and 19), and questions concerning
integrated marketing communications (Chapter 10), have all served to raise the profile
and importance of a strategic orientation for marketing communications.
It could be argued that marketing communications works when it reflects the­
corporate-level strategy and supports the marketing plan and other related activities.
It does not work simply because it complements strategy, but it certainly will not work
unless it does reflect an organisation’s marketing and business imperatives.

Engagement and the role of

marketing communications
In Chapter 1 the term ‘engagement’ was introduced to explain the role of marketing com­
munications. ‘Engagement’, rather like ‘integrated marketing communications’, is a term
that is used regularly and inconsistently by commentators, journalists and academics.
What can be said, however, is that for engagement to occur there must first be some
attention or awareness, be that overt or at a low level of processing. Engagement can be
considered to consist of two main elements: intellectual and emotional (Thomson and
Hecker, 2000). The intellectual element is concerned with audiences engaging with a
brand on the basis of processing rational, functional information. The emotional element
is concerned with audiences engaging and aligning themselves with a brand’s values on
the basis of emotional and expressive information.
It follows that marketing communications should be based on the information-pro­
cessing styles and needs of audiences, and their access to preferred media. Communica­
tions should reflect a suitable balance between the need for rational information to meet
intellectual needs and expressive types of communications to meet emotional needs of
different audiences. These ideas are important foundations and will be returned to later.
Brakus et al. (2009) refer to engagement as a form of (brand) experience. They believe
engagement consists of two dimensions both evoked by brand-related stimuli, including
the design, packaging, identity, communications and environment. One dimension con­
cerns the sensations, feelings and cognitions experienced individually and subjectively as
an internal response. The second concerns the behavioural responses the stimuli prompt.
From this it is possible to conclude that the primary role of marketing communications
is to engage audiences in one of two ways:
● To drive a response to the message itself, often reflected in building awareness, and
brand associations, cultivating brand values or helping to position brands in markets,
or the minds of people in target audiences.
● To drive a response to the brand itself. This might be to encourage calls to a particular
number, visits to a website, shop or showroom, or participation in a game, discount
scheme or other form of entertainment. These requests within a message are referred
to as a call-to-action.
When engagement occurs an individual might be said to have been positively capti­
vated, and as a result opportunities for further communications activity should increase.
Engagement involves attention-getting and awareness but it also encompasses the
decoding and processing of information at a conscious or subconscious level, so that
meaning can be attributed to a message, at the appropriate time. See Viewpoint  4.1
for an example of how engagement can be generated.

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 118 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Viewpoint 4.1 Using unusual animals to assist engagement

When First Direct started in 1989, it offered no branches, just 24/7, 365-day telephone banking with a
high level of personal service. This challenged the established practices within the banking sector and
although the model has been superseded initially by its competitors and then the Internet, First Direct’s
values have continued to challenge expected attitudes and beliefs.
Although most of the bank’s customers are acquired through recommendation, poor recent perfor-
mance led to the launch of The Unexpected Bank campaign, aimed at acquiring customers in the 25–34
age range.
The essence of the campaign was to communicate the spirit of independence and individuality that still
lies at the heart of the bank’s brand values. Using First Direct’s brand challenger orientation, ideas about
deviation emerged that led to the campaign which sought to get people to see the bank in a different, devi-
ated way. The aim of the campaign, therefore, was to encourage people to see the bank’s personality as a
deviation from what might normally be expected of a bank, the unexpected element. The first phase fea-
tured an unbranded 9-second teaser, featuring three ‘dubstep birds’, which set up consumers to ‘expect the
unexpected’. This led to more than 6,000 mentions on Twitter and a video which attracted around 150,000
views on YouTube.
The next phase featured above-the-line advertising involving outdoor and a TV ad to drive engagement
through awareness and a consideration of what the bank represented. The ads featured various strange
and unusual members of the animal kingdom as ‘spokes-creatures’. These animals fronted each piece of
communications activity. For example, Barry the platypus, half bird, half mammal, who collects vinyl on
Colombia Road, captured the essence of The Unexpected Bank.
In addition, behavioural engagement was sought through a series of 10-second direct response ads.
Each of these offered potential new customers a £100 incentive to switch to First Direct. The campaign
was so successful it had to be pulled six weeks early. This was because the new customer target had
been met and, if more customers switched, First Direct felt they would not be able to sustain the required
level of customer service.
‘The Unexpected Bank’ platform was revived in September 2014 and entitled ‘little frill’. This campaign
centred on the story of a frilled lizard who was frustrated by a number of poor customer service experi-
ences, the solution to which is First Direct. Little Frill has its own Twitter account, with a bio that reads,
‘Discerning pizza lover, keen runner and reptilian celebrity. Not a fan of shoddy service.’

Source: Brownsell (2013); Jack (2014); Roderick (2014).

In addition to communicating their differences, how might First Direct have behaved in order
Question: 
to better express their ‘deviant’ positioning?

Compare the advertising for two other banks. What, if any, are the core differences in their
Task: 
approach?

Successful engagement suggests that understanding and meaning have been conveyed
effectively. At one level, engagement through one-way communications enables target
audiences to understand, for example, product and service offers, to the extent that the
audience is sufficiently engaged to want further communications. This is what adver­
tising does well. At another level, engagement through two-way, or interactive, com­
munications enables information that is relationship-specific (Ballantyne, 2004) to be
exchanged. Advertising is not always able to generate or sustain this frequency or type
of information exchange so other communications tools are often used to support these
relationship needs.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 119

The communications mix has expanded and become more complex managerially, but
essentially it is capable of developing brand values, and changing behaviour through the
delivery of calls-to-action. From a strategic perspective, the former is oriented to the long
term and the latter to the short term. It is also apparent that the significant rise of the
below-the-line tools within the mix is partly a reflection of the demise of the USP, but it
is also a reflection of the increasing financial pressures experienced by organisations to
improve performance and improve returns on investment.

How does marketing

communications work?
The main thrust of this chapter is to consider how marketing communications works
in order to achieve successful engagement. Despite years of research and speculation
by a great many people, there is no single model that can be presented as the definitive
way marketing communications works. However, from all the work undertaken in this
area, mainly with regard to advertising, a number of views have been expressed, and the
following sections attempt to present some of the more influential perspectives. For an
interpretation of how advertising might work, this chapter should be read in conjunction
with Chapter 11. Here five different interpretations of how marketing communications
is considered to work are presented (see Figure 4.1).
For a message to be communicated effectively, it should be meaningful to the participants
in the communications process. Messages need to be targeted at the right audience, be capa­
ble of gaining attention, and be understandable, relevant and acceptable. For effective com­
munications to occur, messages should be designed that fit the context in which the messages
are ‘processed’. In the sections that follow, a number of different interpretations about how
marketing communications works are considered, each in a different context.

Sequential
buying
processes Attitude
change

How marketing
communications
Shaping might work
relationships
Significant
value

Cognitive
processing

Figure 4.1 Five interpretations of how marketing communications works

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 120 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

HMCW Interpretation 1: Sequential models

Various models have been developed to assist our understanding of how communications
tasks are segregated and organised effectively. Table 4.1 shows some of the better-known
models. These models were developed primarily to explain how advertising worked.
However, the principle of these hierarchical models also applies to marketing commu­
nications. The context for all of these sequential models is the general purchase process.

AIDA
Developed by Strong (1925), the AIDA model was designed to represent the stages that a
salesperson must take a prospect through in the personal selling process. This model shows
the prospect passing through successive stages of attention, interest, desire and action. This
expression of the process was later adopted, very loosely, as the basic framework to explain
how persuasive communications, and advertising in particular, was thought to work.

Hierarchy of effects models

An extension of the progressive, staged approach advocated by Strong emerged in the
early 1960s. Developed most notably by Lavidge and Steiner (1961), the hierarchy of
effects models represent the process by which advertising was thought to work and
assume that there is a series of steps a prospect must pass through, in succession, from
unawareness to actual purchase. Advertising, it is assumed, cannot induce immediate
behavioural responses; rather, a series of mental effects must occur, with fulfilment at
each stage necessary before progress to the next stage is possible.

The information-processing model

McGuire (1978) contends that the appropriate view of the receiver of persuasive advertis­
ing is as an information processor or cognitive problem-solver. This cognitive perspective

Table 4.1 Sequential models of marketing communications

Stage AIDAa Hierarchy of effectsb Information processingc

Awareness Presentation
→

Cognitive Attention
→

Attention Knowledge Comprehension

→

Interest Liking Yielding

→

Affective Preference
→

Desire Conviction Retention

Conative
→

Action Purchase Behaviour

Source: aStrong (1925); bLavidge and Steiner (1961); cMcGuire (1978).

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 121

becomes subsumed as the stages presented reflect similarities with the other hierarchi­
cal models, except that McGuire includes a retention stage. This refers to the ability
of the receiver to understand and retain information that is valid and relevant. This is
important, because it recognises that marketing communications messages are designed
to provide information for use by a prospective buyer when a purchase decision is to be
made at some time in the future.

Difficulties with the sequential approach

For a long time the sequential approach was accepted as the model upon which adver­
tising should be developed. However, questions arose about what actually constitute
adequate levels of awareness, comprehension and conviction and how one can determine
which stage the majority of the target audience has reached at any one point in time.
The model is based on a logical and sequential movement of consumers towards a pur­
chase via specified stages. The major criticism is that it assumes that the consumer moves
through the stages in a logical, rational manner: learn, then feel and then do. This is obviously
not the case, as anyone who has taken a child into a sweetshop can confirm. There has been a
lot of research that attempts to offer an empirical validation for some of the hierarchy propo­
sitions, the results of which are inconclusive and at times ambiguous (Barry and Howard,
1990). Among these researchers is Palda (1966), who found that the learn–feel–do sequence
cannot be upheld as a reflection of general buying behaviour and provided empirical data
to reject the notion of sequential models as an interpretation of the way advertising works.
The sequential approach sees attitude towards the product as a prerequisite to pur­
chase, but there is evidence that a positive attitude is not necessarily a good predictor of
purchase behaviour. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) found that what is more relevant is the
relationship between attitude change and an individual’s intention to act in a particular
way. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suggest that what is of potentially greater ben­
efit is a specific measure of attitude towards purchasing or intentions to buy a specific
product. Despite measurement difficulties, attitude change is considered a valid objective,
particularly in high-involvement situations.
All of these models share the similar view that the purchase decision process is one
in which individuals move through a series of sequential stages. Each of the stages from
the different models can be grouped in such a way that they are a representation of the
three attitude components, these being cognitive (learn), affective (feel) and conative
(do) orientations. This could be seen to reflect the various stages in the buying process,
especially those that induce high involvement in the decision process but do not reflect
the reality of low-involvement decisions.

Scholars’ paper 4.1 Let’s do it in sequence

Lavidge, R.J. and Steiner, G.A. (1961) A model for predictive measurements of
advertising effectiveness, Journal of Marketing, 25(6), (October), 59–62.

Published in the Journal of Marketing in 1961, this paper was pivotal in changing the
way we considered advertising. Up until then advertising research and measurement
was very much orientated to techniques and methods. This paper asked the question:
what is advertising supposed to do and what function should it have?
The answer was broadly that advertising should help consumers move through the
various steps in the purchasing process. Lavidge and Steiner then made the link to
the attitude construct, upon which so much work has been done and from which so
many ideas have subsequently emerged.

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 122 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

HMCW Interpretation 2: Changing attitudes

Attitude change has been regarded by many practitioners as the main way to influence
audiences through marketing communications. Although it is recognised that product
and service elements, pricing and channel decisions all play an important part in shaping
the attitudes held, marketing communications has a pivotal role in conveying each of
these aspects to the target audience and in listening to responses. Branding (Chapter 9) is
a means by which attitudes can be established and maintained in a consistent way, and it
is through the use of the communications mix that brand positions can be sustained. The
final point that needs to be made is that there is a common thread between attributes,
attitudes and positioning. Attributes provide a means of differentiation, and positions
are shaped as a consequence of the attitudes that result from the way people interpret
the associated marketing communications.
Environmental influences on the attitudes people hold towards particular products
and services are a consequence of many factors. First, they are a reflection of the way
different people interpret the marketing communications surrounding them. Second,
they are an expression of their direct experience of using them and, third, they are the
result of the informal messages and indirect messages received from family, friends and
other highly credible sources of information. These all contribute to the way people
perceive (and position) products and services and the feelings they have towards them
and towards competing products. Managing brand attitudes is considered to be very
important, and marketing communications can play an important part in changing or
maintaining the attitudes held by a target audience. There are a number of ways in which
attitude change can be implemented through marketing communications.

Influencing the components of the attitude construct

As outlined previously (Chapter 3), attitudes are made up of three components: cogni­
tive, affective and conative. Marketing communications can be used to influence each of
these elements: namely, the way people think, feel or behave towards a brand.

Cognitive component
When audiences lack information, misunderstand a brand’s attributes or when their
perception of a brand is inappropriate, the essential task of marketing communications
is to give the audience the correct or up-to-date information. This enables perception,
learning and attitude development based on clear truths. This is a rational, informational
approach, one that appeals to a person’s ability to rationalise and process information
in a logical manner. It is, therefore, important that the level and quality of the informa­
tion provided is appropriate to the intellectual capabilities of the target audience. Other
tasks include showing the target audience how a brand differs from those of competi­
tors, establishing what the added value is and suggesting who the target audience is by
depicting its members in the message.
Both advertising and public relations are key tools, and the Internet, television,
print are key media for delivering information and influencing the way people perceive
a brand. Rather than provide information about a central or popular attribute or
aspect of an offering, it is possible to direct the attention of an audience to different
aspects of an object and so shape its beliefs about a brand in ways that are different
to those of competitors. So, some crisp and snack food manufacturers used to com­
municate the importance of taste. Now in an age of chronic social obesity, many of
these manufacturers have changed the salt and fat content and appeal to audiences
on the basis of nutrition and health. They have changed the focus of attention from
one attribute to another.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 123

Although emotion can be used to provide information, the overriding approach is

informational.

Scholars’ paper 4.2 Do I really need to get your attention?

Heath, R. and Feldwick, P. (2008) 50 years using the wrong model of TV advertising,
International Journal of Market Research, 50(1), 29–59.

For several years Heath (and Feldwick) have challenged the dominance and perva-
siveness of the information-processing approach and believe that attention is not
necessary for ads to be effective. Students will find this paper helpful because it sets
out the arguments and history associated with information processing. The authors
argue that people can be influenced by advertising, even when they cannot recall
ads. Decision-making is founded on emotions triggered through associations made
at subconscious levels.

Affective component
Rational, logical information may not be enough to stimulate behaviour, in which case
marketing communications can be used to convey a set of emotional values that will
appeal to and, hopefully, engage a target audience.
When attitudes to a brand or product category are discovered to be either neutral or
negative, it is common for brands to use an emotional rather than rational or informa­
tion-based approach. This can be achieved by using messages that are unusual in style,
colour and tone and, because they stand out and get noticed, they can change the way
people feel and their desire to be associated with that object, brand or product category.
There is often great use of visual images and the appeal is often to an individual’s senses,
feelings and emotional disposition. The goal is to help people feel, ‘I (we) like, I (we)
desire (aspire to), I (we) want or I (we) belong to’ whatever is being communicated.
Establishing and maintaining positive feelings towards a brand can be achieved through
reinforcement and to do this it is necessary to repeat the message at suitable intervals.
Creating positive attitudes used to be the sole preserve of advertising, but today a
range of tools and media can be used. For example, product placement within films
and music videos helps to show how a brand fits in with a desirable set of values and
lifestyles. The use of music, characters that reflect the values of either the current target
audience or an aspirational group, a tone of voice, colours, images, and even brand
experience, all help to create a particular emotional disposition and understanding about
what the brand represents or stands for.
Perhaps above all else, the use of celebrity endorsers is one of the main ways attitudes
are developed. The role for marketing communications is to stimulate desire for the
object by helping to make an association (celebrity and brand) which is based on an
emotional disposition towards the celebrity. This approach focuses on changing attitudes
to the communications (attitudes to the ad) rather than the offering. Fashion brands are
often presented using a celebrity model and little or no text. The impact is visual, inviting
the reader to make positive attitudes and associations with the brand and the endorser.
Marmite uses an emotional approach based on challenging audiences to decide whether
they love or hate the unique taste. The government has used a variety of approaches to
change people’s attitude to drink/driving, smoking, vaccinations, tax, pensions and the
use of rear seat belts, to name but a few of their activities. The government will often
use an information approach, but in some cases use an affective approach, based on

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 124 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

dramatising the consequences of a particular behaviour to encourage people to change

their attitudes and behaviour. The overriding strategy is therefore emotional.

Conative element
In some product categories people are said to be inert because they are comfortable with
a current brand, have little reason to buy into a category, do not buy any brand or are
just reluctant to change their brand. In these situations attitude change should be based
on provoking behaviour. The growth and development of direct marketing, through
both online and mobile-based communications, are based partly on the desire to encour­
age people to do something rather than undertake passive attitude change that does not
necessarily result in action or a sale. Accordingly, a conative approach stimulates people
to try, test, trial, visit (a showroom or website) a brand, usually free and often without
overt commitment.
Sales promotion, personal selling and direct marketing are the key tools used to drive
behavioural change. For example, sales promotions are geared to driving behaviour by
getting people to try a brand, direct marketing seeks to encourage a response and hence
engage in interaction, and salespeople will try to close a customer to get a sale. Advertis­
ing can be used to raise awareness and lead people to a store or website.
In addition to these approaches, experiential marketing has become increasingly popu­
lar, as it is believed that direct experience of touching, feeling or using a product helps
establish positive values and develop commitment. For example, many car manufactur­
ers offer opportunities to test-drive a car not only for a few hours but for several days.
They have test circuits where drivers can spend time driving several different cars in the
range across different terrains.
The overriding strategy in this context is to provoke customers into action. See View­
point  4.2.

Viewpoint 4.2 Chipotle change attitudes through their values

In 1993 Steve Ellis opened the first Chipotle restaurant. Since then the Mexican-based brand has been
bought and sold by McDonald's, and has consolidated its position as a fresh food, fast service brand,
whose values are diametrically opposed to its larger high street competitors. Their success is mirrored
in their third quarter results in 2014 which reflect revenue and strong profit growth, unlike McDonald’s
whose sales fell. These and other recent industry trends indicate that increasing numbers of customers
are getting the message that Chipotle and other alternatives are superior to traditional fast food.
Chipotle’s rivals spend, on average, 5 per cent of revenues on advertising. Chipotle spends just 1.75
per cent, with the budget split equally across local, traditional and brand-building activity. What is so
distinctive about Chipotle’s communications is that they are rooted in storytelling. Unlike their competi-
tors who focus on deals, product features and their corporate brand, Chipotle’s work is based around its
values and mission to change the way people think about and eat fast food.
The brand launched an animated story called ‘back-to-the-start’ in 2011. The film tells about the way
the food system has been hijacked by commercial and political interests. It depicts a farmer, perhaps
Old McDonald, and the emotional journey he followed once his humane family farm was converted into a
horrific factory-style farm. Eventually he sees his error and moves back towards a more sustainable farm-
ing approach. The film is supported by a haunting version of Coldplay’s ‘The Scientist’, sung by country
singer Willie Nelson. At the end of the film, people could download the song on iTunes, with the proceeds
benefiting the Chipotle Cultivate Foundation. This is dedicated to creating a sustainable, healthy and
equitable food future.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 125

In 2013 Chipotle released The Scarecrow. This award-winning film is again an animated statement,
but this time about the world of industrial food production. The film features the Crow Foods factory,
whose employees are scarecrows, all of whom have lost their farm jobs and are forced into supporting the
processed-food system. The film depicts the horror of factory-fed chickens and cows being pumped with
additives. The animation ends with the Scarecrow breaking free to open his own fresh food restaurant
and the opportunity for viewers to download a free game about farming. Moderate achievement at the
game leads to a coupon for free food at Chipotle.

Source: Champagne (2013); Johnson (2014); McGrath (2014); Nudd (2013); Solomon (2014).

How does this campaign demonstrate how marketing communications can be used to change
Question: 
attitudes?

Make brief notes outlining other ways in which attitudes towards fast food restaurants might
Task: 
be changed.

HMCW Interpretation 3: Shaping relationships

So far in this chapter the way marketing communications might work has been consid­
ered in terms of progressing the buying process, and by changing or influencing attitudes.
Here we explore ideas that marketing communications works by influencing relation­
ships. To do this, we shall look first at ideas about the relationship lifecycle, and then
consider how marketing communications can support an audience’s preferred mode of
exchange. The context for this approach is the buyer–seller relationship.

The customer relationship lifecycle

Customer relationships can be considered in terms of a series of relationship–­development
phases: customer acquisition, development, retention and decline. Collectively these are
referred to as the customer lifecycle. The duration and intensity of each relationship phase
in the lifecycle will inevitably vary and it should be remembered that this representation
is essentially idealistic. A customer relationship cycle is represented in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 The customer relationship cycle

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 126 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Marketing communications plays an important role throughout all stages of the cus­
tomer lifecycle. Indeed, marketing communications should be used to engage with audi­
ences according to each audience’s relational needs, whether transactional and remote,
or collaborative and close.

Customer acquisition
The acquisition phase is characterised by three main events: search, initiation and famil­
iarisation (see Table 4.2).
The logical sequence of acquisition activities moves from search and verification
through the establishment of credentials. The length of this initiation period will depend
partly on the importance of the buying decision and the complexity of the products,
and partly upon the nature of the introduction. If the parties are introduced by an
established and trusted source, certain initiation rites can be shortened.
Once a transaction occurs, buyers and sellers start to become more familiar with
each other and gradually begin to reveal more information about themselves. The seller
receives payment, delivery and handling information about the buyer, and as a result is
able to prepare customised outputs. The buyer is able to review the seller’s products and
experience the service quality of the seller.
During the acquisition phase, marketing communications needs to be geared towards
creating awareness and providing access to the brand. Included within this period will be
the need to help potential customers become familiar with the brand and to help them
increase their understanding of the key attributes, possible benefits from use and to know
how the brand is different from and represents value that is superior to the competition.
Indeed, marketing communications has to work during this phase because it needs to
fulfil a number of different roles and it needs to be targeted at precise audiences. Perhaps
the overriding task is to create a set of brand values that are relevant and which represent
significant value for the target audience. In DRIP terms, differentiation and informa­
tion will be important and, in terms of the communications mix, advertising and direct
marking in the B2C market and personal selling and direct marketing in the B2B market.

Customer development
The development phase is characterised by a seller attempting to reduce buyer risk and
enhancing credibility. This is achieved by encouraging cross-selling. This involves a buyer
consuming other products, increasing the volume of purchases, engaging buyers with
other added-value services, and by varying delivery times and quantities. The buyer’s
acquiescence is dependent upon their specific needs and the degree to which the buyer
wishes to become more involved with the supplier. Indeed, it is during this phase that
the buyer is able to determine whether or not it is worth developing deeper relationships
with the seller.

Table 4.2 Customer acquisition events

Acquisition event Explanation

Search Buyers and sellers search for a suitable pairing.

Initiation Both parties seek out information about the other before any transaction
occurs.

Familiarisation The successful completion of the first transaction enables both parties to
start revealing more information about themselves.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 127

The main goals during the development phase are for the seller to reduce buyer-
perceived risk and to enhance their own credibility. In order to reduce risk, a number of
messages will need to be presented though marketing communications. The selection of
these elements will depend upon the forms of risk that are present either in the market
sector or within individual customers. Marketing communications needs to engage by
communicating messages concerning warranties and guarantees, finance schemes, third-
party endorsements and satisfied customers, independent testing and favourable product
performance reports, awards and the attainment of quality standards, membership of
trade associations, delighted customers, growth and market share, new products and
alliances and partnerships, all of which seek to reduce risk and improve credibility.
In DRIP terms, information and persuasion will be important, and in terms of the
communications mix, public relations, sales promotion and direct marking in the B2C
market and personal selling, public relations and direct marketing in the B2B market.

Customer retention
The retention phase is the most profitable, where the greatest level of relationship value
is experienced. The retention phase will generally last as long as both the buyer and
seller are able to meet their individual and joint goals. If the relationship becomes more
involved, greater levels of trust and commitment between the partners will allow for
increased cross-buying and product experimentation and, for B2B relationships, joint
projects and product development. However, the very essence of relationship marketing
is for organisations to identify a portfolio of customers with whom they wish to develop
a range of relationships. This requires the ability to measure levels of retention and also
to determine when resources are to be moved from acquisition to retention and back
to acquisition.
The length of the retention phase will reflect the degree to which the marketing com­
munications is truly interactional and based on dialogue. Messages need to be relational
and reinforcing. Incentive schemes are used extensively in consumer markets as a way
of retaining customers and minimising customer loss (or churn, defection or attrition).
They are also used to cross-sell products and services and increase a customer’s commit­
ment and involvement with the brand. Through the use of an integrated programme of
communications, value can be enhanced for both parties and relational exchanges are
more likely to be maintained. In business markets, personal contact and key account
management are crucial to maintaining interaction, understanding and mutual support.
Electronic communications have the potential to automate many routine transactions
and allow for increased focus on one-to-one communications.
In DRIP terms, reinforcement and information will be important and, in terms of the
communications mix, sales promotion and direct marking in the B2C market and per­
sonal selling (and key accounts), public relations and direct marketing in the B2B market.

Customer decline
Customer decline is concerned with the closure of a relationship. Termination may
occur suddenly as a result of a serious problem or episode between the parties. The more
likely process is that the buying organisation decides to reduce its reliance on the seller
because its needs have changed, or an alternative supplier who offers superior value
has been found. The buyer either formally notifies the established supplier or begins to
reduce the frequency and duration of contact and moves business to other, competitive
organisations.
The termination process, therefore, may be sharp and sudden, or slow and protracted.
Marketing communications plays a minor role in the former but is more significant in
the latter. During an extended termination, marketing communications, especially direct

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 128 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

marketing in the form of telemarketing and email, can be used to deliver orders and
profits. These forms of communications are beneficial, because they allow for continued
personal messages but do not incur the heavy costs associated with field selling (B2B)
or advertising (B2C).
In DRIP terms, reinforcement and persuasion will be important and, in terms of the
communications mix, direct marketing in both markets and sales promotion in the B2C
market will be significant.
This cycle of customer attraction (acquisition), development, retention and decline
provides a customer- rather than a product-orientated approach to explaining how mar­
keting communications might work. The car manufacturer Audi developed the Audi
Customer Journey. This is used to chart the ownership cycle and then to superimpose
optimised brand communications for each owner. This approach is reflected in Audi’s
loyalty rate, which has grown consistently since the ‘Journey’ was introduced.

Scholars’ paper 4.3 Relationship-based communications

Gronroos, C. (2004) The relationship marketing process: communication, interac-

tion, dialogue, value, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 19(2), 99–113.

This is a classic paper and one that all students of marketing communications should
experience first-hand. Gronroos considers relationship marketing as a process and
then explores ideas about planned and integrated marketing communications. He
observes that, if the interaction and planned communications processes are suc-
cessfully integrated and geared towards customers’ value processes, a relationship
dialogue may emerge. There are a large number of interesting issues in this paper.

Influencing value exchanges

In Chapter 1 the notion of transactional and collaborative exchanges was established. It
is within this framework that ideas about how engagement might be established through
a relationship marketing perspective are now considered.
A useful way of considering these types of exchanges is to see them at either end of
a continuum, as set out in Figure 4.3. At one end of the continuum are transactional

Figure 4.3 A continuum of value-orientated exchanges

Source: Adapted from Day (2000).

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 129

exchanges. These are characterised by short-term, commodity- or price-oriented

exchanges, between buyers and sellers coming together for one-off exchanges inde­
pendent of any other or subsequent exchanges. Both parties are motivated mainly by
self-interest. Movement along the continuum represents increasingly valued relation­
ships. Interactions between parties are closer, more frequent and stronger. The focus
moves from initial attraction, to retention and to mutual understanding of each other’s
needs.
At the other end of the continuum is what Day (2000) refers to as collaborative
exchanges. These are characterised by a long-term orientation, where there is complete
integration of systems and processes and the relationship is motivated by partnership
and mutual support. Trust and commitment underpin these relationships, and these
variables become increasingly important as collaborative exchanges become established.
These two positions represent extremes. In the middle there are a range of exchanges
where the interaction between customers and sellers is based around the provision and
consumption of perceived value. The quality, duration and level of interdependence
between buyers and sellers can vary considerably. The reasons for this variance are many
and wide-ranging, but at the core are perceptions of shared values and the strength and
permanence of any relationship that might exist.
Perceived value may take many forms and be rooted in a variety of attributes, combined
in different ways to meet segment needs. However, the context in which an exchange
occurs between a buyer and a seller provides a strong reflection of the nature of their
relationship. If the exchange is focused on the product (and the price) then the exchange
is considered to be essentially transactional. If the exchange is focused around the needs
of customers and sellers, the exchange is considered to be collaborative. The differences
between transactional and collaborative exchanges are set out in Table 4.3 and provide
an important starting point in understanding the nature of relationship marketing.
Relationship marketing can be characterised by the frequency and intensity of the
exchanges between buyers and sellers. As these exchanges become more frequent and
more intense, so the strength of the relationship between buyer and seller improves. It
is this that provided the infrastructure for a perspective on marketing which is based on
relationships (Rowe and Barnes, 1998), rather than the objects of a transaction: namely,
products and services. Using this relationship framework, it is possible to superimpose
ways in which marketing communications might be considered to work.

Table 4.3 The characteristics of transactional and collaborative exchanges

Attribute Transactional exchange Collaborative exchange

Length of Short-term – abrupt end Long-term – a continuous

relationship process

Relational Conflicts of goals, Conflicts of interest, deferred

expectations immediate payment, payment, future problems
no future problems (there is expected to be overcome by
no future) joint commitment

Communications Low frequency of Frequent communications,

communications, formal, informal, personal, interactive
mass-media communications communications

Cooperation No joint cooperation Joint cooperative projects

Responsibilities Distinct responsibilities, Shared responsibilities,

defined obligations shared obligations

Source: From Essentials of Marketing Communications, Pearson Education (Fill, C. 2011) table 8.1, p. 190.

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 130 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Transactional exchanges, where the relationship has little value for the buyer, and
possibly the seller, are best supported with communications that do not seek to build
a relationship but are generally orientated towards engaging through the provision of
product and price (attribute-based) information. Communications are essentially a mon­
ologue as the buyer does not wish to respond, so the one-way or linear model of com­
munications predominates. The communications might coincide with purchase cycles
but are generally infrequent and regularised. These communications are one-sided, so an
asymmetric pattern of communications emerges as they are driven by the seller. In many
cases the identity of the buyer is unknown, so it is not possible to personalise messages
and media channels and the largely informational messages are delivered through mass-
communications media. These communications are formal and direct.
Collaborative exchanges, on the other hand, reflect the strong bond that exists
between a buyer and a seller. Marketing communications, therefore, should seek to
engage buyers by maintaining or strengthening the relationship. This means that commu­
nications patterns are irregular, informal, frequent and indirect. This is because buyers
and sellers, working collaboratively, seek to provide mutual value. It means there are
frequent interactions, often through dialogue, as one party responds to the other when
discussing and resolving issues and challenges. The communications flow is symmetrical,
messages are indirect and personalised as the identities are known. See Figure 4.4 for a
visual interpretation of this spectrum and Table 4.4 for an explanation of the terms used.
Key to these ideas is the notion of dialogue. The adoption of dialogue as the basis
for communications changes an organisation’s perspective of its audiences and signals
a transition from transactional relationships. Being willing and able to enter into a dia­
logue indicates that there is a new emphasis on the relationships organisations hold with
their stakeholders. Kent and Taylor (2002) argue that there are five main features of a
dialogical orientation. These are presented in Table 4.5.
It can be seen in Table 4.5 that many aspects of dialogue require interaction as a pre­
cursor. In other words, for dialogue to occur there must first be interaction and it is the
development and depth of the interaction that leads to meaningful dialogue.
However, a word of caution is necessary as not everyone believes relationship market­
ing is an outright success. For example, Rapacz et al. (2008: 22) suggest that relationship
marketing has become ‘stuck in a rut’. They argue that audits of the relationship market­
ing practices used to support many leading brands indicate that relationship marketing is
not working. The goal, Rapacz et al. suggest, should be commitment to the brand rather
than the relationship itself. They refer to the over-promise of one-to-one marketing, the
difficulties and inefficiencies associated with databases and CRM technology, and to
issues concerning loyalty programmes. The result of their critique is that they advocate

Figure 4.4 Achieving engagement through relationships

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 131

Table 4.4 Elements of relational marketing communications

Elements Explanation Transactional Collaborative

exchanges exchanges

Content The extent to which the content of the message is intended to Direct Indirect
change behaviour (direct) or attitudes and beliefs (indirect)

Formality The extent to which communications are structured and Formal Informal
routinised (formal) or spontaneous and irregular (informal)

Individuality The extent to which recipients are identified by name Impersonal Personal

Frequency How often do communications events occur? Infrequent Frequent

Audience The size of the target audience for a communications event Mass Personal

Interaction The level of feedback allowed or expected Monologue Dialogue

Source: Based on Mohr and Nevin (1990).

Table 4.5 The five features of a dialogical orientation

Role Explanation

Mutuality The recognition of the presence of organisational stakeholder relationships

Propinquity The temporality and spontaneity of organisation–stakeholder interactions

Empathy Support for stakeholder interests and their goals

Risk Willingness to interact with others on their terms

Commitment The extent to which an organisation actually interprets, listens to and

practises dialogical communications
Source: Kent and Taylor (2002). Used with permission.

the use of a variety of marketing communications techniques to generate increased brand

commitment. They use the Jack Daniels brand to make their point about good practice,
highlighting communications that, if disciplined, entertaining, benefit-oriented and mul­
tifaceted, serve to bring greater commitment to a brand. See Exhibit 4.3.

Exhibit 4.3 Jack Daniels uses storytelling to personalise the brand

Source: 2015 Arnold Worldwide.

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 132 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Viewpoint 4.3 Building relationships through celebrities

F*ck Cancer, a Canadian based non-profit organisation, offer their Generation Y target market the oppor-
tunity to host events in separate nightclubs in the USA and Canada. The aim is to provide community
support for those who have been affected, directly or indirectly, with the disease. Entry to a venue is
through a T-shirt with the company title printed on it. These are available in eight different colours, each
representative of different coloured cancer ribbons.
F*ck Cancer is well known among Generation Y both for its events as well as the numerous endorse-
ments it has received from various celebrities, including Stephen Amell, star of the CW television series,
and for playing comic book superhero, the Green Arrow.
Traditionally endorsements are received in the form of celebrity event appearances or free of charge
music sets from famous DJs. This digital campaign, however, featured Stephen Amell as a focus for
developing relationships and to raise funds.
A significant aspect of F*ck Cancer’s marketing communications strategy is the relational dimension.
For instance, the collaboration with Stephen Amell resulted from F*ck Cancer asking him to help their
cause after seeing a picture he had uploaded to Twitter of himself and his mother, soon after they had
received news that she was in remission.
On 9 September 2014, Amell announced, through a self-taken video posted on his Facebook page, that
he was crowdsourcing a print for a T-shirt which F*ck Cancer would sell via Represent, the charity retail
website. Viewers were invited to suggest print ideas through his video post’s thread on Facebook, and
the most popular print would be used and sold to raise money for F*ck Cancer. The goal was to sell 500
T-shirts and raise US$10,000 in 3 weeks. Within 3 months, including a relaunch, over 62,000 products
had been sold raising over US$1 million.
After the campaign, the company compiled a video thanking Stephen Amell for his support and contri-
bution. In addition, they also featured several T-shirt purchasers from across the world who also thanked
and commended him for his care and support.
The media have acclaimed Amell as a real-life hero for his involvement in the campaign, and celebrities
such as Supernatural’s Jared Padalecki and Micha Collins have spoken about Stephen Amell’s influence
and inspiration to their support for philanthropic activities.
This campaign developed a community’s relationships by helping people share mutual experiences
and understanding. With the aid of celebrity referent power, F*ck Cancer was able to engage audiences
by conveying messages of empathy and trust, and show that cancer can affect anyone, regardless of
age, social standing or occupation.

Source: Amell (2014a, 2014b, 2015); F*ck Cancer (2015); Dixon (2014); Greenbaum et al. (2015); Prudom (2015).

This Viewpoint was written by Tarek Temrawi when he was an Advertising student at the University
of Northampton.

Question: Discuss the ways in which the F*ck Cancer campaign worked by developing relationships.

Find two other campaigns in the for-profit sector and list three elements that demonstrate
Task: 
the development of relationships.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 133

The notion that relationships will improve as they evolve across a continuum is not
accepted by all. The expectation that relationships can be enhanced through the appli­
cation of marketing programmes is not one that is always experienced in practice. For
example, Palmer (2007) believes that the continuum perspective is too simplistic and
unrealistic. Better to consider the prevailing contextual conditions as the key dynamics
that shape relationships, which inevitably wax and wane over time.
Rao and Perry (2002), cited by Palmer, suggest that relationship development can be
considered in terms of stages theory or states theory. Stages theory reflects the notion
of incremental development (along the continuum), while states theory suggests that
relationship development does not conform to the processional interpretation, because
of the complexity and sheer unpredictability of relationship dynamics.
Palmer offers a compromise, namely a ‘stages-within-a-state’ interpretation. He draws
on the work of Anderson and Narus (1999) and Canning and Hammer-Lloyd (2002) to
make his point. There may be some validity in this view but the notion that all exchanges
reflect a degree of relational commitment (Macneil, 1983) should not be ignored.
Ideas about how marketing communications works must be founded, in part, on the
notion and significance of the level of interaction and dialogue that the organisation and
its stakeholders desire. One-way communications, as reflected in traditional, planned,
mass-media-based communications, still play a significant role, especially for audiences
who prefer transactional exchanges. Two-way communications based on interaction
with audiences who desire continuing contact, or dialogue for those who desire a d ­ eeper,
more meaningful relationship, will form an increasingly important aspect of marketing
communications strategy in the future.

HMCW Interpretation 4: Developing significant value

Marketing communications involves utilising a set of tools and media to convey mes­
sages to, with and among audiences. Depending upon the context in which a message
is created, delivered and interpreted, a brand and the individual have an opportunity
to interact. Marketing communications messages normally pass individuals unob­
served. Those that are remembered contain particular characteristics (Brown, 1991;
Fletcher, 1994). These would appear to be that the offering must be different or new,
that the way the content (of a message) is executed is different or interesting, and that
it proclaims something that is personally significant to the recipient in their current
context.
The term ‘significance’ means that the content is meaningful, relevant (e.g. the indi­
vidual is actually looking to buy a new car or breakfast cereals tomorrow or is planning
to gather information on a new project), and is perceived to be suitably credible. These
three characteristics can be tracked from the concept of ad likeability (Chapter 11),
which many researchers believe is the only meaningful indicator of the effectiveness of
an advertisement.
To be successful, therefore, it is necessary for marketing communications messages to:
● present an offering that is new to the receiver;
● be interesting and stimulating;
● be personally significant.
The object referred to in the first element refers to both products and services (or an
offering that is substantially different from others in the category) and to organisations
as brands. The net effect of all these characteristics might be that any one message may
be significantly valuable to an individual.
Content that announces new brands or new attributes may convey information that
is perceived to be significantly different. As a result, individuals may be intrigued and
interested enough to want to try the brand at the next purchase opportunity. For these

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 134 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

people there is a high level of personal relevance derived from the message, and attitude
change can be induced to convince them that it is right to make a purchase. For them the
message is significantly valuable and as a result may well generate a purchase decision,
which will, from a market perspective, drive a discernible sales increase.
However, the vast majority of marketing communications are about offerings that
are not new or that are unable to proclaim or offer anything substantially different. The
content of these messages is either ignored or, if interest is aroused, certain parts of the
message are filed away in memory for use at a later date. The question is: if parts are
filed away, which parts are filed and why and how are they retrieved?
Marketing communications can provide a rationale or explanation for why individu­
als (cognitive processors) have bought a brand and why they should continue buying it.
Normally, advertising alone does not persuade, it simply reminds and reassures individu­
als. To put it another way, individuals use advertising and public relations to remind
themselves of preferred brands or to reassure themselves of their previous (and hence
correct) purchase behaviour. Sales promotions, personal selling and direct marketing are
then used by organisations to help consumers behave in particular ways.
Consumers, particularly in fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) markets, practise
repertoire buying based on habit, security, speed of decision-making and, to some extent,
self-expression. The brands present in any single individual repertoire normally provide
interest and satisfaction. Indeed, advertising needs to ensure that the brand remains in
the repertoire or is sufficiently interesting to the individual that it is included in a future
repertoire. Just consider the variety of messages used by mobile phone operators. These
are continually updated and refreshed using particular themes, all of which are intended
to be visually and cognitively engaging.
We know that messages have two main elements, an informational and an emo­
tional component, and that each message should balance these elements according to
the prevailing context of the target audience. Marketing communications that delivers
significant value therefore can be considered to have either informational content or
emotional content that is of value.

Significant value – informational content

Messages that consistently deliver relevant and meaningful content are considered to
have a positive and cumulative influence on purchase decision-making. This under­
standing has given rise to the contemporary practice called ‘content marketing’. The
Content Marketing Institute advises that the purpose is to attract and retain customers
by consistently ‘creating and curating relevant and valuable content with the intention
of changing or enhancing consumer behavior’ (CMI, 2015), and that its focus is on
owned, not paid-for, media. Content marketing is concerned with delivering information
that consistently informs and boosts an audience’s knowledge. The rise in popularity of
customer magazines is a reflection of the growth in content marketing (see Viewpoint 
18.2 for an example of content marketing and owned media).
The importance of content in a message should not be underestimated. Content
enables positioning and provides a means by which individuals perceive value. For
example, Netflix used to be a platform through which people could watch television
programmes and films. This model was easily imitated by others. The solution was
to create original content that was only available through Netflix, such as Orange is
the New Black and House of Cards. The result was that people chose Netflix over its
competitors because the content represented significant value (Clark, 2015). House
of Cards was so successful that Netflix gained two million new subscribers (Falconi,
2015). Sky pursues a similar strategy, generating original television shows, such as
Game of Thrones and Fortitude, that are only available through the Sky Atlantic
channel.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 135

Figure 4.5 The creative magnifier

Source: From Brown (1991) Used with kind permission.

Significant value – emotional content

Messages, in particular advertising messages that are interesting, immediately relevant
or interpreted as possessing a deep set of personal meanings (all subsequently referred
to as ‘likeable’ (see Chapter 11)), are stored in long-term memory.
Research shows repeatedly that only parts of an advertisement are ever remembered
– those parts that are of intrinsic value to the recipient and are sometimes referred to
as ‘the take-out’. Brown (1991) refers to this selectivity as the creative magnifier effect.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the effect that parts of a message might have on the way a message
is remembered.
The implication of this is that messages work best through the creation of emotional
interest and likeable moments, from which extracts are taken by individuals and stored
away in memory. However, it might also be reasonable to suggest that the other tools of
the mix are also capable of enabling individuals to take extracts. For example, the size
of a sales promotion offer, or the tone of a sales presentation, the professionalism of a
direct mail piece or the immediacy of an online promotion might all give due reason for
an individual to generate a take-out. Interest is generated through fresh, relevant ideas
where the brand and the messages are linked together in a meaningful and relevant way.
This in turn allows for future associations to be made, linking brands and marketing
communications messages in a positive and experiential way.
Marketing communications is used to trigger emotionally based brand associations
and experiences for people, not only when seated in front of a television, or with a tablet
or laptop, or when reading a magazine, text or mobile messages, but also when faced
with purchase decisions. Of all low-value FMCG decisions 70 per cent are said to be
made at the point of purchase. All forms of marketing communications, but principally
advertising, can be used to generate brand associations, which in turn are used to trig­
ger advertising messages or, rather, ‘likeable’ extracts. The other tools of the mix can
benefit from the prior use of advertising to create awareness so that the call-to-action
brought about through below-the-line communications can occur naturally, unhindered
by brand confusion or uncertainty.

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 136 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

Viewpoint 4.4 Monkey business drives significant value

The Brooke Bond tea brand, PG Tips, used chimpanzees in what

was one of the longest running ad campaigns, 45 years. The
chimpanzees were used to bring humour to a brand of tea and
in doing so helped consumers associate the brand with fun. The
chimps were used to parody James Bond, removal men trying to
get a piano downstairs, Tour de France cyclists and even house-
wives doing the ironing, and they all (pretended) to drink their
favourite cup of tea. After their introduction PG became the
number one brand and sales fluctuated according to whether
the ads featuring the chimps were on air.
Cadbury launched an ad for its Dairy Milk brand that featured
a man in a gorilla suit playing the drums to the Phil Collins hit ‘In
the Air Tonight’. The ad caught the public’s imagination, if only
because there was no reason for a gorilla to play the drums,
there was no connection between Cadbury and a gorilla (at the
time), and the ad said nothing about Dairy Milk apart from a shot
of the brand name at the end. The ad was relatively inexpensive
to produce and was released through a spoof real film produc- Exhibit 4.4 PG Tips used
tion company, ‘A Glass and a Half Full Productions’. chimpanzees as
The ad featured in a pre-ad teaser campaign in television list- an integral part of
their advertising
ings that resembled a film. The Glass and a Half Full Productions
Source: Alamy
website helped to sustain dialogue with fans while 90-second Images/Heritage
spots during the Rugby World Cup and Big Brother Finals deliv- Image Partnership
ered the ad to huge audiences. Ltd.
The ad is still regarded as a masterpiece of creativity, one
that resonated with the nation. Sales rose 7 per cent by the end
of October in value terms, and weekly sales were up 9 per cent year on year during the period ‘gorilla’ was
on air. The ad generated the highest recognition scores ever recorded by Hall & Partners.
In both of these campaigns the chimps/gorilla represented significant value because they stood out
from the ads and were the key elements that people remembered. The ads went viral, word-of-mouth
conversations and media coverage about the chimps/gorilla soared.

Sources: Benady (2013); Blackstock (2002); Campaign (2007); Carter (2008).

Question: How should the ‘Gorilla’ ad be evaluated, and how would you measure its success?

Gorillas feature in other ways for some other brands. Find two other campaigns that feature
Task: 
gorillas.

This last point is of particular importance, because advertising alone may not be suf­
ficient or appropriate to trigger complete recall of brand and communications experi­
ences. The brand, its packaging, sales promotion, interactive media, point of purchase,
and outdoor media all have an important role to play in providing consistency and
interest and prompting recall and recognition. Integrated marketing communications
is important, not just for message take-out or likeable extracts, but also for triggering
recall and recognition and stimulating relevant brand associations.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 137

Content delivered through pertinent and relevant information, or as a result of what

individuals take out emotionally from an advertisement, represents significant value.
Marketing communications, therefore, can be considered to work by delivering either
significant information or emotional take-outs that are relevant and meaningful.

HMCW Interpretation 5: Cognitive processing

Reference has already been made to whether buyers actively or passively process informa­
tion. In an attempt to understand how information is used, cognitive processing tries to
determine ‘how external information is transformed into meanings or patterns of thought
and how these meanings are combined to form judgments’ (Olsen and Peter, 1987).
By assessing the thoughts (cognitive processes) that occur to people as they read, view
or hear a message, an understanding of their interpretation of a message can be gained,
which is useful in campaign development and evaluation (Greenwald, 1968; Wright,
1973). These thoughts are usually measured by asking consumers to write down or ver­
bally report the thoughts they have in response to such a message. Thoughts are believed
to be a reflection of the cognitive processes or responses that receivers experience and
they help shape or reject communications.
Researchers have identified three types of cognitive response and have determined how
these relate to attitudes and intentions. Figure 4.6 shows these three types of response,

Figure 4.6 A model of cognitive processing

Source: Lutz et al. (1983).

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 138 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

but readers should appreciate that these types are not discrete; they overlap each other
and blend together, often invisibly.

Product/message thoughts
These are thoughts that are directed to the product or communications. Much attention
has been focused on the thoughts that are related to the message content. Two particular
types of response have been considered: counter-arguments and support arguments.
A counter-argument occurs when the receiver disagrees with the content of a message.
According to Belch and Belch (2004):

The likelihood of counter-argument is greater when the message makes claims that
oppose the beliefs or perceptions held by the receiver. Not surprisingly, the greater the
degree of counter-argument, the less likely the message will be accepted. Conversely,
support-arguments reflect acceptance and concurrence with a message. Support-argu-
ments, therefore, are positively related to message acceptance.

Advertisements and general communications should encourage the generation of sup­

port arguments.

Source-oriented thoughts
A further set of cognitive responses is aimed at the source of the communications. This
concept is closely allied to that of source credibility, where, if the source of the message
is seen as annoying or untrustworthy, there is a lower probability of message acceptance.
Such a situation is referred to as source derogation, the converse as a source bolster. Those
responsible for communications should ensure, during the context analysis (see Chapter 5),
that receivers experience bolster effects to improve the likelihood of message acceptance.

Message-execution thoughts
This relates to the thoughts an individual may have about the overall design and impact
of the message. Many of the thoughts that receivers have are not always product-related
but are related emotionally to the message itself. Understanding these feelings and emo­
tions is important because of their impact upon attitudes towards the message, most
often an advertisement, and the offering.

Attitudes towards the message

It is clear that people make judgements about the quality of commercial communica­
tions. These include advertisements, their creativity, the tone and style in which they or
the website, promotion or direct mail piece have been executed. As a result of their expe­
riences, perceptions and the degree to which they like a message, people form an attitude
towards the message itself. From this base an important stream of thought has developed
about cognitive processing. Lutz’s work led to the attitude-towards-the-ad concept which
has become an important foundation for much of the related marketing communications
literature. As Goldsmith and Lafferty (2002: 319) argue, there is a substantial amount
of research that clearly indicates that advertising that promotes a ‘positive emotional
response of liking an ad is positively related to subsequent brand-related cognitions
(knowledge), brand attitudes and purchase intentions’. Similar work by Chen and Wells
(1999) shows that this attitude-towards-the-ad concept applies equally well with various
digital media and e-commerce in particular. They refer to an attitude-towards-the-site
concept and similar ideas developed by Bruner and Kumar (2000) conclude that the more

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 139

a website is liked, so attitudes improve towards the brand and purchase intentions. A
word of caution, however, is required. Rossiter and Percy (2013) dismiss the attitude-
to-the-ad concept as an irrelevant mediator of advertising effectiveness.
Despite this view the overwhelming evidence makes it seem highly reasonable there­
fore to conclude that attitudes-towards-the-message (and delivery mechanism) impact
on brand attitudes, which in turn influence consumers’ propensity to purchase. It is also
known that an increasing proportion of advertisements attempt to appeal to feelings
and emotions, simply because many researchers believe that attitudes towards both the
advertisement and the product should be encouraged and are positively correlated with
purchase intention. Similarly, time and effort are invested in the design of sales promo­
tion instruments, increasing attention is given to the design of packaging in terms of a
pack’s communications effectiveness, and care is taken about the wording in advertorials
and press releases. Perhaps above all else, more and more effort is being made to research
and develop websites with the goal of designing them so that they are strategically com­
patible, user-friendly and functional, or to put it another way – liked.

Low Attention Processing

Just as a word of caution was offered with regard to the continuum of marketing
relationships, so an alternative view needs to be mentioned with regard to cognitive
processing. The cognitive processing model assumes that people attend to and process
information in a logical rational way. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Information Pro­
cessing (IP)’ model, the approach assumes that messages are processed and stored in
memory, and later retrieved and updated (see Chapter 3 for more information on this
topic). This processing approach is related to both informational and emotional mes­
sages. The latter were considered to be a consequence of people’s thoughts and that by
understanding what we think then we can understand everything (Heath and Hyder,
2005). Unfortunately psychologists such as Zajonc (1980) and Damasio (2000) upset
this thinking, because their research showed that this was the wrong way round and
that it was feelings and emotions (affect) that shaped our thoughts, at all times. This
meant that advertising might be effective through mere exposure, rather than having to
attend to, and cognitively process, a message.
In 2001 Heath published his ‘Low Attention Processing Model’, previously referred to
as the Low Involvement Processing Model. The core characteristics of the Low Attention
Processing (LAP) Model are summarised by Heath and Hyder in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Core characteristics of the Low Attention Processing Model

Characteristic Explanation

Intuitive choice Intuitive decision-making is more common than considered choice,

so emotions will be more influential.

Information Intuitive decision-making dampens information seeking and minimises

acquisition the need to attend to ads.

Passive and implicit Brand information is acquired through low level of attention by passive
learning learning and implicit learning.

Enduring associations Associations are developed and reinforced through time and linked to
the brand through passive learning. These associations can activate
emotional markers, which in turn influence decision-making.

Semi-automatic Learning occurs semi-automatically, regardless of the level of

attention paid.

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 140 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

The prevailing view is that messages need only be seen, that is attended to, just once
or twice. This is known as high-attention processing (HAP). What the LAP model says
is that advertising can exploit low-attention processing when an individual is able to see the
ad several times. The argument, based around empirical research, is that advertising mes­
sages can be processed with low attention levels. Typically people watch television passively
(Krugman, 1965) and today many multitask with other media, so their attention to ads
can be extremely low. As a result, people may not have any conscious recall of ‘receiving’ a
message yet make decisions based on the emotions and the associations made at a low level
of consciousness. According to Heath and Feldwick (2008), ad messages do not necessarily
need to create impact and they do not need to deliver a proposition or functional benefit.
What is important is that a creative ‘influences emotions and brand relationships’ (p. 45).
If this view is accepted then cognitive processing does not explain how marketing
communications works, or at least diminishes the power of the conventional view that
advertising works through information processing.

Cognitive styles
Unsurprisingly, individuals do not share the same way of processing information.
Referred to as brain lateralisation theory, various studies have demonstrated that the
left side of the brain tends to specialise in rational, analytic and sequential information
processing. The right side specialises in visual, intuitive and simultaneous information
processing (Armstrong, 1999).
The term ‘cognitive styles’ is given to the different ways people receive, organise and
process information (Messick, 1972). In effect, ‘cognitive styles’, refers to the differences
in the way groups of people consistently ‘perceive, think, solve problems, learn, take
decisions and relate to others’ (Witkin et al., 1977). The dominant style is stable through
time and contexts, and importantly is independent of an individual’s level of intelligence
(Vinitzky and Mazursky, 2011).
Understanding cognitive styles is important for many disciplines because they influ­
ence the way individuals behave. In marketing, insight into cognitive styles is important
particularly for multinational organisations. This is because matching advertising for­
mats to consumers’ style (analytical versus imagery) improves advertising performance
(Thompson and Hamilton, 2006). Comparative style ads were shown to be more effec­
tive when consumers used analytical processing, whereas non-comparative ads were
more effective when consumers used imagery processing (Armstrong et al., 2012). For
example, research cited by Cuia et al. (2013: 17) has found that that East Asians empha­
sise right-brain processing as more receptive to transformational or symbolic advertis­
ing. Westerners tend to emphasise left-brain processing and as a result informational
advertising is more effective (Chan, 1996).
The principles of cognitive style have been distilled into a ‘thinking and feeling’ dimen­
sion and used to shape advertising strategy. These are explored in Chapter 11 on adver­
tising strategy.

Conclusion
In this chapter five different interpretations about how marketing communications might
work have been considered. None of them are completely wrong or completely right.
Indeed, it is safe to conclude that marketing communications works in different ways
in different contexts and that traces of several of these interpretations can be found in
most campaigns.

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 141

For example, the sequential interpretation includes the principle of attitude change,
while some would argue that cognitive processing underpins all of these approaches.
Some of these approaches evolved in the pre-digital era and, therefore, it might be unsafe
to suggest that they are equally applicable or relevant today. For example, it could be
argued that marketing communications needs to include more emphasis on listening to
audiences, customers and tribes in social networks, yet this aspect is not explicit in any
of the models presented here.

Scholars’ paper 4.4 Modelling B2B communications

Gilliland, D.I. and Johnston, W.J. (1997) Towards a model of marketing communica-
tions effects, Industrial Marketing Management, 26, 15–29.

This paper provides a useful counterbalance to the wealth of consumer-orientated

papers about marketing communications. As the title describes, the authors develop
a well-respected model that explains how marketing communications works in a busi-
ness-to-business context.

Key points
● Marketing communications should be used to complement an organisation’s market­
ing, business and corporate strategies. Such harmonisation serves to reinforce core
messages, reflect the mission and provide a means of using resources efficiently yet at
the same time to provide reinforcement for the whole business strategy.
● The primary role of marketing communications is to engage audiences by either driv­
ing a response to the message itself, or encouraging a response to the brand itself,
referred to as a call-to-action.
● There are five main ways in which marketing communications can be considered to
work. These are the sequential buying process, attitude change, shaping relationships,
developing significant value, and cognitive processing.
● The sequential approach assumes that marketing communications needs to take con­
sumers through the decision-making process in a series of logical steps.
● Attitude change has been regarded by many as the main way to influence audiences
through marketing communications. Marketing communications can be used to focus
one of the three elements of the attitudinal construct: that is, the cognitive, affective
or conative component.
● Relationship marketing can be characterised by the frequency and intensity of the
exchanges between buyers and sellers. As these exchanges become more frequent and
more intense, so the strength of the relationship between a consumer and a brand
improves.
● These customer relationships can be considered in terms of a series of relationship–
development phases: customer acquisition, development, retention and decline. Col­
lectively these are referred to as the customer lifecycle. The duration and intensity of
each relationship phase in the lifecycle vary. Marketing communications works by
influencing customers according to the stage they have reached in the lifecycle.

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 142 Part 1  •  Introduction to Marketing Communications

● Marketing communications is used to trigger brand associations and experiences for

people.
● Those messages that are remembered contain particular characteristics. These are that
the product must be different or new, that the way the message is executed is different
or interesting, and that the message proclaims something that is personally significant
to the individual in their current context.
● The term ‘significance’ means that the message is meaningful, relevant, and is per­
ceived to be suitably credible. This is based on the concept of ad likeability, which
many researchers believe is the only meaningful indicator of ad effectiveness. The net
effect of all these characteristics might be that any one message may be significantly
valuable to an individual.
● The cognitive processing model assumes that people attend to and process informa­
tion in a logical rational way. Three types of cognitive response and how these relate
to attitudes and intentions have been determined. These are attitudes towards the
product, attitudes towards the message and attitudes towards the ad and its execution.
● There is a substantial amount of research that indicates that marketing communica­
tions (advertising) which promotes a ‘positive emotional response of liking an ad is
positively related to subsequent brand-related cognitions (knowledge), brand attitudes
and purchase intentions’.
● Marketing communications works because liking an ad is positively related to sub­
sequent brand-related cognitions (knowledge), brand attitudes, and purchase inten­
tions. Attitude-towards-the-ad concept applies equally well with interactive media,
e-commerce (attitude-towards-the-site), sales promotion and personal selling.

Review questions
McCain case questions
1. How does McCain use marketing communications to change attitudes towards Ready
Baked Jackets?
2. To what extent is McCain’s marketing communications influenced by transactional or
collaborative exchange-based relationships?
3. Interpret the launch of Ready Baked Jackets in terms of the concept of significant
value.
4. Discuss ways in which in which McCain seeks to engage audiences.
5. Explain how McCain’s use of media might be said to complement ideas about attitude
development.
General questions
1. Sketch the customer relationship lifecycle and show how marketing communications
can be used to influence each of the stages.
2. Describe the creative magnifier effect. Why is it important?
3. Cognitive processing consists of three main elements. Name them.
4. Write brief notes outlining the difference between three sequential models and
evaluate the ways in which they are considered to work.
5. Why might cognitive processing not be an entirely acceptable approach?

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 Chapter 4  •  How marketing communications might work 143

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