THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO

THERMAL MANAGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Executive Summary............................................................................................................................. 1
2. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Modes of Heat Transfer............................................................................................................. 2
Conduction............................................................................................................................................ 2
Convection..............................................................................................................................................2
Radiation................................................................................................................................................ 3
Thermal Impedance............................................................................................................................. 3

2.2 Cooling Devices............................................................................................................................. 4

Heat Sinks...............................................................................................................................................4
Fans........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Peltier Devices...................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................ 4

3. Thermal Management in Practice............................................................................................. 5

3.1 Fans................................................................................................................................................. 5
Fan Types.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Bearings................................................................................................................................................ 5
Fan Selection........................................................................................................................................ 7
System Profiling................................................................................................................................... 7
Setting Temperature Limits..................................................................................................................7
Calculating Airflow............................................................................................................................... 8
Active Control...................................................................................................................................... 10
CUI Devices Fan Solutions.................................................................................................................11
Fan Filters and Guards....................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter Summary............................................................................................................................... 11

3.2. Heat Sinks..................................................................................................................................12

Principle of Operation....................................................................................................................... 12
Do I Need a Heat Sink?...................................................................................................................... 12
Thermal Impedance Calculations.................................................................................................... 13
Thermal Impedance of TIM.............................................................................................................. 14
Heat Sink Selection............................................................................................................................ 15
Heat Sink Types.................................................................................................................................. 16
Clips and Fasteners............................................................................................................................ 16
Chapter Summary.............................................................................................................................. 16

3.3. Peltier Modules......................................................................................................................... 17

What is a Peltier Thermoelectric Module?...................................................................................... 17
Benefits............................................................................................................................................... 18
Selecting a Peltier Module................................................................................................................ 18
Understanding Heat Transfer........................................................................................................... 18
Temperature Difference................................................................................................................... 19
Temperature of Hot Side.................................................................................................................. 19
Surface Area....................................................................................................................................... 19
Operating Current.............................................................................................................................. 20
Operating Voltage.............................................................................................................................. 20
System Specifications........................................................................................................................ 20
Dynamic Voltage Control.................................................................................................................. 22
Improving Reliability of Peltier Modules......................................................................................... 22
Thermal Pads......................................................................................................................................25
Chapter Summary..............................................................................................................................25
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT )
4. Online Calculation Tools............................................................................................................... 26
Thermal Conversion Calculator........................................................................................................26
Heat Sink Calculator...........................................................................................................................27
Thermal Impedance (Sink-toAmbient) Calculator..........................................................................27
Junction Temperature Calculator..................................................................................................... 28
Power Dissipated Calculator............................................................................................................. 29
Airflow Conversion Calculator.......................................................................................................... 30

Glossary......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Defeat Heat with Thermal Management Parts from CUI Devices......................... 33
Axial Fans............................................................................................................................................ 33
Centrifugal Fans (Blowers)................................................................................................................ 33
Heat Sinks........................................................................................................................................... 34
Peltier Devices.................................................................................................................................... 34
Thermal Accessories.......................................................................................................................... 35
Custom Solutions and Engineering Resources.............................................................................. 35
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 1

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Despite vast improvements in recent times, electronic components do not work
with 100% efficiency. Some of the power provided to them is inevitably wasted,
usually in the form of heat. While the amount of heat produced by individual com-
ponents has decreased significantly, they now occupy less space which makes it
possible to pack additional components onto printed circuit boards, which in turn
are housed in ever-shrinking enclosures. Also operating at much faster speeds,
their individual contributions combine to create a thermal nightmare for the
electronic designer. As a result, it has never been more important for engineers
to understand the fundamental principles of heat transfer and how to design an
appropriate thermal management solution to manage it. Failure to do so may lead
to components overheating, which can cause irreparable damage.

Conduction is the movement of heat between a hot and cold body without any physical
movement and is the most efficient form of heat transfer. Convection, which is the movement
of heat from a hot to a cold region by the movement of air, can occur naturally or by artificial
means. While convection is less efficient than conduction, the two modes can be combined
as a part of an effective cooling solution. Radiation is the movement of heat in the form of
an electromagnetic wave, but it is not an efficient cooling mechanism in most scenarios. The
thermal impedance of a material is its resistance to heat flow. A material with a low thermal
impedance is a good conductor and vice versa.

When it comes to thermal management components, fans, heat sinks, and Peltier devices
are the most common and well-recognized. Fans consist of a rotor that spins on a bearing to
provide forced airflow in higher power applications that cannot be cooled by the natural con-
vection of air. They are categorized by airflow direction (axial or centrifugal) and come with
several bearing options. Fan selection involves system profiling and the calculation of airflow
and cooling requirements. Some fans provide additional control features to improve their
efficiency and reliability while reducing audible noise.

Not all applications require cooling but for those that do, heat sinks are a simple and yet highly
effective thermal management tool. Their function is based on the physical principle that
increased surface area improves heat conduction. They ensure that electronic components
operate within their rated temperature range, even at worst-case conditions. Determining the
size and type of heat sink requires an understanding of the contributions to the total thermal
impedance between the silicon junction of a component and the surrounding ambient air.
This also includes a knowledge of the function and nature of the role of thermal compounds
as well as the ability to interpret and apply multiple parameters specified in the datasheets
provided by heat sink manufacturers.

Systems housed in small, sealed environments cannot use forced-air cooling solutions. For
these applications, the Peltier module provides a viable alternative. Using an electrical current
to transfer heat from its cool side to be dissipated on its hot side, a thermoelectric module
has advantages over fans and heat sinks, including cooling below ambient temperatures.
Determining the control voltage and operating current needed to achieve a certain level of
cooling requires an understanding of parameters specified on Peltier module datasheets.

This guide provides a detailed introduction to the topic of thermal management in electronics
and why it is important, as well as covering the basics of how to choose the right solution for a
design and what parameters should be explored during the selection process.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 2

2. INTRODUCTION
No electronic device is 100% efficient, which means that heat is an inescapable by-product of
their operation. Bound by upper and lower limits, the clearly defined temperature range within
which devices are specified to function is commonly referred to as the Safe Operating Area
(SOA). Operating temperatures that deviate outside of this range may cause unpredictable
behavior and degraded performance. While some devices can safely withstand small, transient
deviations outside of their SOA, this is not guaranteed. Bigger and longer-term temperature
deviations increase the probability of sporadic behavior. In some instances, extreme tempera-
tures can cause changes to become permanent, or may even cause total device failure. While
excessively low temperatures can be harmful, this book will focus on the negative effects of
high temperatures and how to mitigate them. Although temperature control is unnecessary
for many applications, it is advisable to address this possibility at the start of the design cycle
so that it does not become an issue at a later stage when it may be more difficult to address.
A clear understanding of the fundamentals of how heat is created, moved, and removed is ess-
ential for creating reliable and effective thermal management solutions. In the first chapter,
we will review the theory and terminology of heat transfer and the basic operation of com-
monly used cooling devices, laying the foundation for a more detailed examination of these
topics in later sections.

2.1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

The three common modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. While
different combinations of all three are used to cool electronic components, their implementa-
tion and effectiveness vary greatly.

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects in physical contact, where
the cooler object draws energy away from the hotter one (Figure 1). This is the most effective
method of energy transfer as it requires the least amount of surface area to transfer the
largest amount of energy.

Figure 1:
Conduction is
Heat the transfer of
energy through
physical contact

Convection
Convection uses the movement of air to redistribute heat (Figure 2). When cool air passes by a
warm body, it draws heat away from the body and rises. More cool air then flows in to replace
the risen air and it is this continuous process that reduces the temperature of the body. Air
movement can be passive (using only natural airflow, or forced) where a fan speeds up airflow
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 3

to increase the transfer of thermal energy. Although convection is less efficient than conduc-
tion, it is still commonly used as the final stage within a thermal management system.

Convection Heat
Figure 2:
Convection is
the movement
of heat due
to the natural
tendency of
Hot hot air to rise

Radiation
Radiation is the emission of energy, away from a body, in the form of an electromagnetic
wave. The interaction and movement of charged particles in matter generate coupled electric
and magnetic fields, converting the thermal kinetic energy into electromagnetic energy that
propagates from the source (e.g. the sun). Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does
not require a medium for heat transfer. However, because it is less effective, it is only consid-
ered in the thermal calculations for applications that are required to operate in a vacuum.

Figure 3:
Radiation is the
transfer of heat
through the
electromagnetic
waves created
when hot
particles vibrate

Thermal Impedance
An important concept used to quantify the effectiveness of heat transfer between bodies of
different sizes, shapes, and materials is thermal impedance. The lower the thermal impedance
of a body, the greater its ability to transfer heat. Using the values for ambient temperature
and thermal impedance it is possible to calculate exactly how much power a body can produce
before reaching certain temperatures, enabling the design of an appropriate thermal manage-
ment solution.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 4

2.2 COOLING DEVICES

Combining cost-effectiveness with high-efficiency, heat sinks, fans, and Peltier modules are
the three most popular options used to cool electronic devices. While they can be used
separately, their effectiveness is greatly enhanced when they are integrated collectively into
a composite cooling solution.

Heat Sinks
A heat sink is made from a material with a lower thermal impedance than the electronic
device to which it is attached and performs its cooling function by increasing the surface area
available for air convection. They are silent, passive, inexpensive components that come in
a variety of shapes and sizes and are highly reliable. While larger heat sinks provide better
cooling, their increased volume can be problematic in some applications. Alternatively, pairing
a smaller heat sink with a cooling fan can be equally or more effective than a larger, passive
heat sink.

Fans
Fans (or blowers) work by moving warm air away from the surface of a heat sink or device and
quickly replacing it with fresh, cooler air in a continuous process that is more efficient than
normal convection. Fans are available in a variety of form factors and operating voltages. The
airflow produced is typically measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM) and is determined by
the shape and size of the fan. Some fans provide variable speed control that can be used in
feedback systems to actively adjust the CFM. While they have the advantage of reducing the
size of the heat sink required and are relatively inexpensive, fans have the disadvantage of
being active devices that require power. Also, the fact that they use moving parts makes them
noisy and subject to mechanical failure.

Peltier Devices
Peltier devices are semiconductor components that use the Peltier effect to transfer heat
from one side of a module to another. The cool side is attached to the electronic device
requiring cooling and heat is actively moved away from this side to the hot side of the Peltier
module. They can be actively controlled to provide precise temperature regulation and can
even cool to below ambient temperature – a feat unattainable using fans and heat sinks alone.
The cooling function of a Peltier module is based on semiconductor principles that require no
moving parts. This means they are robust, flexible, and less prone to failure. However, being
active devices that require external power, they have the disadvantage of adding heat and
cost to the overall system. They also use more power than a fan or a standalone heat sink. For
these reasons they are not ideal for use in all situations – however, they are useful to meet the
cooling requirements of more demanding applications.

Chapter Summary
Electronic devices generate heat, which moves from a hot to a cold region by means of
conduction, convection, and radiation. The heat movement of a material is quantified by its
thermal impedance. Heat sinks, fans, and Peltier modules are cooling devices commonly used
in applications that require temperature control. Cost, size, reliability, power consumption,
and noise are the design factors that must be traded off in arriving at the appropriate thermal
management solution.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 5

3. THERMAL MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE

3.1 FANS
For many low power electronic systems, conductive cooling using heat sinks is sufficient.
However, for applications exceeding 25 Watts that operate in a confined enclosure, forced
air cooling is required to prevent overheating. At its simplest, a fan consists of a rotor that
spins on a bearing to displace air, but making the appropriate choice of fan for an application
warrants further consideration. In this chapter, we review the principles of fan operation and
construction. We will also use a practical example to show how to select the correct type of
fan for an application, while considering some additional control features that improve fan
performance and reliability.

Fan Types
Fans are categorized by how they draw in and expel air, the two most common types being
axial and centrifugal. Axial fans draw in air from one side and expel it in the same plane on
the opposite side. In centrifugal fans, the air drawn in is expelled in a different direction. This
style of fan, which is also known as a blower, is used to compress air that is output at right
angles relative to the input. Axial fans are mainly used in low static pressure systems that
require a higher level of airflow, while centrifugal fans produce lower levels of airflow in
systems with high static pressure. They also differ in how much audible noise they produce
with axial fans being quieter than centrifugal. The amount of audible noise a fan produces is
proportional to its airflow, so in applications where this is a concern, careful enclosure design
is required to minimize the amount of cooling needed. Apart from audible noise, the dc motor
in both types of fan produces electrical noise. This unwanted electromagnetic interference
(EMI) can affect the operation of sensitive electronic components but can be effectively
suppressed using ferrite beads, shielding, or filtering. The features of each type of fan are
summarized in Table 1.

Fan Type Airflow Application Type Noise

Table 1:
Axial Higher Low Static Pressure Quieter Summary of
fan types
Centrifugal Lower High Static Pressure Louder

Bearings
When selecting a fan for an application, another important consideration is the type of bearing
used in its construction. Sleeve and ball bearings are the most common.

Sleeve bearings (Figure 1) are simpler and lower cost, operating as consistently as ball bearing
fans at low temperatures. However, at variable or high temperatures, they can degrade more
quickly. This results in wobble, noise, and friction-related issues. These problems are magni-
fied in portable applications, where equipment is operated at different angles.

Impeller Rotor Magnet Flux Motor Stator Magnet

Figure 1:
Sleeve bearing

Washer Oil Ring Shaft Bearing

 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 6

Ball bearings (Figure 2) do not suffer from the problems of uneven wear and friction associated
with sleeve bearings, meaning they have a much longer operating life. They can also be
operated at any angle, making them suitable for use in portable applications. However, they
are less robust (vulnerable to sudden impacts), more complex, and costlier than sleeve
bearings.

Impeller Rotor Motor Stator Ball Bearing Magnet

Figure 2:
Ball bearing

Magnet Flux Retainer Shaft Spring

The third type of bearing, developed by CUI Devices, is called the omniCOOL™ system (Figure
3). This is an advanced sleeve bearing design incorporating a magnetic structure that enables
rotor-balancing to minimize tilt, wobble, friction, and allows for operation at any angle. With a
specially hardened sleeve to provide additional heat resistance, the omniCOOL system is a
more reliable and cost-effective design than traditional bearing technologies.

Impeller Magnet Motor omniCOOL

Rotor Flux Stator Bearing Magnet

Figure 3:
omniCOOL™
System Bearing

omniCOOL omniCOOL Supporting Shaft

Magnet Magnet Cap
Flux Plate
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 7

Fan Selection
After weighing the pros and cons of the various bearing types, choosing the most appropriate
fan for an application is a multi-step procedure as follows:

System Profiling
The first step is to understand where and how heat is generated in a system. Referred to as
“system profiling”, data is gathered by placing multiple temperature sensors at different locations
around a printed circuit board (PCB), within the system enclosure. It is also necessary to measure
the drop in air pressure between the enclosure inlet and outlet (known as the system impedance)
before calculating the airflow required from a fan, and hence, the size and type of fan required.
This can be done using pressure sensors to measure the pressure drop or by placing the system
in an air chamber. For larger applications, such as data centers, system modeling is performed
using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package (Figure 4) to provide an accurate
profile of the cooling requirements

Figure 4:
System profiling
using CFD
software

Setting Temperature Limits

The next step is to determine how much the internal temperature of the system can change
without increasing the risk of failure for one or more components. The operating temperature
of the “most critical” component sets the maximum allowable ambient temperature, while the
total power dissipated in the system is calculated from the cumulative contribution of individual
components such as power transistors, microprocessors, amplifiers, and communication
interfaces. It is important to know this figure since increased power consumption translates to
increased heat dissipation. During system operation, the temperature of the air surrounding
the electronic components continues to rise until it reaches a level that inhibits further heat
removal. At this point, it becomes necessary to replace the heated air with fresh ambient air
using forced air cooling.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 8

Calculating Airflow
Having determined the maximum allowable temperature, the level of airflow required to ensure
that the system temperature never exceeds this value must now be calculated. For completeness,
the theory underlying these calculations is detailed below, however, CUI Devices provides an
online airflow calculator to accelerate this process, by eliminating the need for manual calculations.

Moving air cools a body by absorbing heat and transferring it for dissipation elsewhere. The
amount of energy transferred depends on the mass, specific heat capacity, and temperature
change of the moving air. The following equation describes this relationship:

Q = [q/ (ρ * Cp * ΔT)] * k

where:

Q = airflow
q = heat dissipated
ρ = air density
Cp = specific heat capacity of the air
ΔT = temperature rise of the air
k = constant value, dependent upon the units used in the other parameters

The specific heat capacity of dry air is 0.24 Btu/lb °F (1 kJ/kg °C) and the density of dry air at
sea level, at 68°F (20°C) is 0.075 lbs/ft3 (1.20 kg/m3). Substituting these values into the above
equation simplifies it to:

Qf = 1.8q/ΔTC (CFM)

Qm = 0.05q/ΔTC (CMM)

While these equations provide an initial estimate for the required airflow, they assume ide-
al conditions (i.e. a system with no back pressure and zero system impedance operating
at sea level). However, the calculated figure offers a useful starting point for fan selection.
Fan manufacturers commonly specify the airflow performance of their products in Cu-
bic Feet per Minute (CFM) or Cubic Meters per Minute (CMM) of airflow delivered versus
static pressure. Static pressure is measured in either inches (Inch H2O) or millimeters of
water (mm H2O). For example, Figure 5 shows the typical airflow vs. static pressure per-
formance curve for a dual ball bearing, 120 mm2 axial fan (CUI Devices CFM-120 series).
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 9

(Inch H2O)

(mm H2O)
0.50 14.00
Figure 5:
12.00 Performance
0.40 curve of
STATIC PRESSURE

10.00 CFM-120 fan

0.30
8.00

0.20 6.00

4.00
0.10
2.00

0.00 0.00
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 (CFM)

0.00 0.74 1.49 2.23 2.98 3.72 (CMM)

AIR FLOW

Next, the actual system impedance (previously characterized by system profiling) is overlaid on
the fan performance graph and the point at which the curves intersect is the required system
operating point (Figure 6).
(Inch H2O)

(mm H2O)

0.50 14.00
Figure 6:
12.00 Using system
0.40 impedance to
STATIC PRESSURE

10.00 determine fan

operating point
0.30
8.00
System Impedance
Curve

0.20 6.00

4.00
0.10 Operating Point

2.00

0.00 0.00
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 (CFM)

0.00 0.74 1.49 2.23 2.98 3.72 (CMM)

AIR FLOW
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 10

In systems where the airflow cannot be measured, an alternative approach is to specify the fan
operating point to be above the idealized figure calculated from the equations. For example,
if the required airflow is determined to be 50 CFM (in ideal conditions), a logical approach is to
specify a fan with an airflow capacity up to 100 CFM. Operating the fan at 75 CFM provides
50% overhead (enough in most applications) while retaining some spare capacity for increased
airflow if operating conditions dictate.

During the design stage, careful board layout and placement of critical components within the
enclosure help to minimize system impedance, consequently reducing the power and size of the
cooling fan needed. To minimize system impedance, it is critical for air inlets and outlets to be
kept free from obstruction while consideration should also be given to the potential impact of
air filters. It is also important to note that the density of air falls with altitude. Systems operating
above sea level require much more airflow to maintain the same level of cooling. In such app-
lications, it is necessar y to revisit the calculations and use the figure for air density at the
maximum system operating altitude.

Active Control
Rack-mount enclosures typically use axial fans due to their combination of small size, low power,
and high airflow. To help further reduce power consumption, many fans also include additional
control features that improve operating efficiency. We have shown how to calculate the minimum
airflow rate required to cool a system housed within an enclosure. This allows for the specification
of a fan with the capacity to deliver adequate cooling in worst-case conditions (i.e. a system that
is constantly operating at full capacity in the most demanding environment). Realistically, this
worst-case scenario is unlikely to occur very often, if at all; therefore, continuously operating a
fan based on this assumption is inefficient and reduces its operating lifetime.

Consequently, a more practical approach is to monitor the temperature within the enclosure
and only switch on a fan when it is required, leaving it switched off when not in use. While this
increases the lifespan of the fan and reduces audible noise, it has the potential to introduce
the problem of thermal lag (temperature undershoot and overshoot). This can cause another
fault condition to occur if a fan is unable to start due to an obstruction. To address this possibility,
modern dc axial fans include a standard protection feature called “auto restart”. If the fan motor
is prevented from rotating, this feature automatically cuts the supply current driving the motor
to prevent burnout.

Rotation detection, which doubles as a lock sensor, is an additional control feature included in
some fans. During normal operation, the sensor output signal is set to a logic high, but if the fan
motor stops, the signal is driven low. For fans requiring a more sophisticated level of control,
a pulse width modulation (PWM) scheme can be used. The duty cycle (on/off ratio) of the PWM
input signal determines the rotational speed of the fan, which is measured using a tachometer.
The PWM and tachometer signals (Figure 7) are provided as input to a microcontroller which
uses an algorithm to continuously adapt fan operation in response to changes in system condi-
tions, further improving operational efficiency.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 11

Figure 7:
VoH Using a PULL UP VOLTAG
tachometer
VoL to detect PULL UP
T1 T2 T3 T4 the +
rotational
DC FAN speed
T
sensor SEN
One Rotation
lc = 10 mA max

T1-4 = (1/4)T -
N = Fan Rotational Speed (min-1)

CUI Devices Fan Solutions

CUI Devices’ provides a portfolio of products that includes dc axial fans and centrifugal blowers
with ball bearing, sleeve bearing, and omniCOOL system bearing designs. Auto-restart protection
is included as a standard feature on all products while rotation detection, tachometer signal,
and PWM control features are optionally available. These fans and blowers have rated speeds
between 1700 to 13000 RPM, with noise levels from 10.7 up to 69.9 dBA and static pressures
from 0.04 up to 5.22-inch H2O. Available in frame sizes between 25 mm and 120 mm, they provide
airflow levels of up to 200 CFM, making them suitable for use in a multitude of electronic systems
that require forced air cooling.

Fan Filters and Guards

An unintentional negative consequence of forced airflow cooling is the potential for increasing
the presence of foreign objects and unwanted environmental particles that negatively impact
fan and equipment performance. A blocked fan that is prevented from rotating can quickly
burn out, leading to system overheating. Fans operating in dusty or polluted environments may
require the use of additional filtering and/or guards.

Chapter Summary
As component density increases and enclosures shrink in modern electronic systems, heat
sinks cannot always handle the cooling of PCBs alone. Forced air cooling, provided by fans and
blowers, is the most common method to prevent overheating. Fans are categorized by airflow
direction (axial or centrifugal) as well as bearing type. Selecting the best fan for an application
involves system profiling, determining cooling requirements, and performing airflow calculations
that can then be used to identify the most appropriate type and size of fan. Additional fan control
features are also available that help to increase efficiency and reduce audible noise while
maximizing reliability.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 12

3.2. HEAT SINKS

Some electronic systems are simply too small to accommodate a fan for cooling while others
cannot economically justify using one. In such scenarios, a heat sink may still be able to provide
the required level of cooling. In this chapter, we review the principle operation of heat sinks,
show how to determine if one is required, and if so, the steps to follow to select the most
appropriate heat sink for a design’s specific operating conditions.

Principle of Operation
Heat sinks operate on the basic physical principle that the amount of heat transferred from a
hot to a cool region is proportional to the surface area available for heat conduction. They
are used to conduct heat away from a critical electronic component so that it always operates
within its rated operating temperature range, the safe operating area (SOA). The conducted
heat is then removed from the heat sink by natural or forced air convection. While it may be
tempting to choose a large heat sink to improve the thermal performance of a system, if a heat
sink is comparable in size, or bigger than the component it is intended to protect, its function
can become counterproductive. Indeed, some systems may not require any form of additional
thermal cooling. In these cases, it is important for circuit designers to determine if a heat sink is
required and if so, how to select the smallest heat sink that can provide a safe level of thermal
protection, even in worst-case operating conditions.

Do I Need a Heat Sink?

Consider a theoretical application that uses a transistor enclosed in a TO-220 package (Figure 1).
Power dissipation caused by switching and other conduction losses are determined to be 2.78
Watts and the maximum expected ambient operating temperature of the application is 50°C.
Does this transistor need a heat sink?

Thermal
Interface
Material Figure 1:
Front and side
Heat Sink of a TO-220
packaged
Base Plate
(Case) transistor with
mounted heat
Encapsulant sink

Silicon Die/
Junction

Wire Bonds

PCB

Leads
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 13

Answering this question requires a clear understanding of the thermal impedance pathways
that prevent dissipation of the 2.78 Watts of heat into the surrounding air. Transistor datasheets
typically specify a “junction-to-ambient” thermal impedance, denoted by the symbol Rθ J-A and
expressed in units of °C/W. This figure describes how much the transistor junction temperature
climbs above the temperature of the surrounding ambient air, for every Watt of power that the
transistor dissipates. For example, the datasheet for the transistor used in this application
specifies a junction-to-ambient thermal impedance of 62°C/W. The device dissipates 2.78 W,
therefore the rise in junction temperature above the ambient level is:

2.78 W x 62°C = 172°C

The worst-case operating temperature is 50°C. Therefore, the maximum temperature the silicon
junction of the transistor will reach is:

50°C + 172°C = 222°C

This figure exceeds the transistor’s rated operating temperature of 125°C and, if achieved, could
cause irreversible damage or even destroy the device. Thus, a heat sink is required to sufficiently
lower the junction-to-ambient thermal impedance. This will allow heat to be conducted away
and maintain the operating temperature of the device within its rated SOA.

Thermal Impedance Calculations

The next step is to determine how low the thermal impedance pathway must be. The highest
temperature at which the transistor is specified to safely operate is 125°C and the worst-case
ambient temperature is 50°C. Therefore, the largest allowable temperature rise is:

125°C - 50°C = 75°C

The power dissipated by the package is 2.78 W, so the maximum allowable thermal impedance is:

75°C ÷ 2.78 W = 27°C/W

This means that the sum of each component of thermal impedance in the pathway between the
silicon junction of the transistor to the surrounding ambient air (Figure 2) must be lower than this
value. The individual impedances in this pathway include:
• Junction-to-case
• Case-to-sink
• Sink-to-ambient

Thermal Thermal Thermal

Impedance Impedance Impedance
“Junction-to-C “Case-to- “Sink-to-
Figure 2:
ase” Sink” Ambient” Thermal imped-
ances between
RΘ J-C RΘ C-S RΘ S-A
the silicon
junction of the
transistor and
ambient air

Junction Case Heat Sink Ambient Air

2.78 W
125˚C (max) 50˚C (max)
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 14

The “junction-to-case” thermal impedance is denoted by the symbol Rθ J-C and is used to quantify
the amount of heat transferred from the silicon junction of the transistor to the surface of the
package in which it is housed. Manufacturers typically list this impedance on the device datasheet,
alongside the figure for junction-to-ambient impedance. The junction-to-case thermal impedance
for the transistor used in this application is specified as 0.5°C/W.

The “case-to-sink” thermal impedance is denoted by the symbol Rθ C-S and is used to quantify
the amount of heat transferred from the surface of the device package to the surface of the
heat sink. It is important to note that the surface of the TO-220 package is not perfectly smooth
(Figure 3), so to ensure that the package and the base of the heat sink are in close thermal
contact, it is recommended to use a thermal interface material (TIM), commonly referred to as a
“thermal compound” to seal the boundary between them. This enhances heat transfer between
the TO-220 case and the heat sink but has the undesirable effect of introducing a small amount
of thermal impedance that must also be accounted for in the calculations.

Figure 3:
Heat Sink Heat Sink A thermal com-
Base Base pound ensures
the package and
TO-220 TO-220 heat sink are in
thermal contact

Thermal
Air Gaps Interface
Material

Thermal Impedance of TIM

The conductivity, area, and thickness of application are factors that impact the value of a TIM’s
thermal resistance. The value for the conductivity of a TIM is expressed in units of Watts per
Meters-Celsius (W/(m °C)). Note that while some datasheets use the Kelvin scale instead of Celsius,
this is not significant because 1 unit on the Kelvin scale is equivalent to 1°C and the calculations
are only concerned with the relative change in temperature, not absolute values. In this example,
a thin layer of the TIM has been applied to the metal tab area of the TO-220 case in the following
manner:

TIM’s area of application: = 112 mm2 = 0.000112 m2

TIM’s thickness of application: = 0.04 mm = 0.00004 m

The thermal conductivity of the TIM used in this application is 0.79 W/(m °C) allowing its thermal
impedance to be calculated as follows (note that area and thickness are expressed in metric units):

Rθ C-S = (Thickness / Area) / (Conductivity)

Rθ C-S = (0.00004 / 0.000112) / (0.79)

Rθ C-S = 0.45°C/W
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 15

Heat Sink Selection

The “sink-to-ambient” thermal impedance, denoted by the symbol Rθ S-A, is the final impedance
in the thermal pathway between the silicon junction and the surrounding ambient air. This value
is not constant and depends on the ambient airflow and the magnitude of temperature rise.
Heat sink manufacturers typically represent this information in a graphical format (Figure 4) to
illustrate the amount of heat that can be transferred from the heat sink to the ambient air for
different conditions of airflow and changes in temperature.

100
Mounting Surface Temperature

90
Without Airflow
Figure 4:
Rise Above Ambient (˚C)

80 200 LFM Typical heat

70 sink perfor-
400 LFM
60 mance graph

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Heat Dissipated (W)

Our example application is assumed to operate in conditions of natural convection without the
use of fans to provide additional airflow. This graph allows the calculation of the final thermal
impedance (sink-to-ambient) for the required heat sink. The rise in surface temperature (above
ambient) and the amount of heat dissipated are used to determine the thermal impedance at
the required operating point as follows:

Heat dissipated = 2.78 W

Rise in surface temperature = 53°C.

Sink-to-ambient thermal impedance = 53°C / 2.78 W = 19.1°C/W.

From previous calculations, the maximum impedance allowed between the junction and
ambient air is 27°C/W i.e.

Rθ J-C + Rθ C-S + Rθ S-A = 27°C/W

From previous calculations, Rθ J-C = 0.5°C/W and Rθ C-S = 0.45°C/W

Hence

Rθ S-A = 27°C/W - 0.5°C/W - 0.45°C/W = 26.05°C/W

 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 16

The thermal impedance of 19.1°C/W taken from the heat sink data presented in Figure 4 is well
below this value. This ensures an even cooler silicon junction temperature within the TO-220
package and provides extra margin in the thermal design. The maximum junction operating
temperature of the junction is estimated as follows:

T ambient + Watts x (Rθ J-C + Rθ C-S + Rθ S-A) = 50 + 2.78 x (0.5 + 0.45 + 19.1) = 105.7°C

Heat Sink Types

Extruded heat sinks are usually made from aluminum. They are easy to manufacture to custom
specifications, with low or high performance, at a relatively low cost. Their main drawback is
that their minimum and maximum dimensions are determined by the extrusion widths used in
the manufacturing process.

Stamped heat sinks are usually made from copper or aluminum and have metal fins that are
stamped and soldered onto a metal base. These are mainly used in low-power applications.
Their main advantage is that they are easy to manufacture, making them low cost but they
exhibit lower thermal performance.

CUI Devices provides a range of extruded and stamped heat sinks in a variety of shapes and
sizes. They are compatible with multiple transistor package types, including the TO-218, TO-220,
TO-252, and TO-263. Manufactured in either aluminum or copper, their thermal resistance is
measured under four different conditions. This simplifies the process of selecting the extrusion
or stamping most appropriate for a natural convection or forced air cooled system.

Clips and Fasteners

It is important that heat sinks always remain securely attached to the component they are being
used to cool. In the event of a heat sink becoming loose and detached, a component can quickly
overheat, causing damage to or destroying equipment. To prevent this from happening, it is
important to use a fastener or clip that matches the form factor of the selected heat sink.

Chapter Summary
Heat sinks are a simple but highly effective thermal management tool, operating on the
straightforward physical principle that increased surface area allows for greater conduction
of heat away from critical electronic components. They ensure that these parts operate within
their rated temperature range, even at worst-case conditions. It is important for circuit designers
to be able to calculate if an application requires a heat sink and if so, the minimum size of heat
sink needed. This requires an understanding of the contributions to the total thermal impedance
between a silicon junction and the surrounding ambient air, a knowledge of the function and
nature of the role of TIMs, and the ability to interpret and apply the multiple parameters specified
in the datasheets provided by heat sink manufacturers.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 17

3.3. PELTIER MODULES

In some closed electronic systems with no vents, forced air convection using fans is not a viable
cooling option. For these systems, thermoelectric cooling modules provide an alternative thermal
management solution. In this chapter, we describe the structure and operation of the Peltier
thermoelectric module and the benefits it provides. We also explain the procedure to follow
when selecting a module to meet the thermal specification for an application, while discussing
the features of an innovative construction method that greatly improves module reliability and
thermal performance.

What is a Peltier Thermoelectric Module?

The thermocouple operates on the physical principle, discovered by Thomas Seebeck in the 19th
century, that a flow of electrical current occurs when a temperature difference exists between
two electrical conductors made from different materials. The magnitude of the current flow is
proportional to the temperature difference, allowing a temperature scale to be calibrated. The
less acclaimed Peltier effect (named after scientist Jean Peltier who later discovered it) is simply
the consequence of the Seebeck effect, whereby the application of an electrical current to two
different conducting materials causes the movement of heat between them. This discovery had
little practical application until the development of semiconductors in the 20th century allowed
small, efficient Peltier modules to be manufactured.

A Peltier thermoelectric module consists of P-type and N-Type Bismuth Telluride semiconductor
pellets. These are separated by ceramic substrates which are metalized to allow the conduction
of heat from the “cool” to the “hot” side of the module when connected to a dc voltage source.
Within the module, the pellets are connected electrically in series, but they combine to transfer
heat in a parallel manner (Figure 1).

Ceramic
Substrate
Figure 1:
The structure
of a Peltier
module
illustrating
multiple
P-Type semiconductor
Semiconductor pellets
Conductor Pellets
Tabs

N-Type
Semiconductor
Negative (-) Positive (+) Pellets

The application of a dc voltage causes a flow of positive and negative charge carriers in opposite
directions within the module, moving heat from the “cool” side, and transferring it to the surface
of the opposite “hot” side to be released (Figure 2). The polarity of the voltage source determines
the direction of heat flow, allowing cooling to take place on either side of the module, as required.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 18

Peltier Module

Figure 2:
Flow of charge
carriers causing
heat transfer
in N-Type and
P-type Bismuth
Telluride semi-
conductor

Radiator Fins

Benefits
Apart from providing a viable cooling solution in closed systems, Peltier modules provide
several other advantages. They allow the temperature to be set precisely and changed quickly.
Each module design has a defined voltage/temperature profile that allows the amount of
heat absorption to be easily calculated. When combined with a feedback control circuit, tight
temperature control (to within fractions of a degree) is possible.

They are very light and space-efficient (modules with a height profile as low as 1.95 mm are
available) making them ideal for small form factor, portable applications. Constructed from
solid-state semiconductor material with no moving parts makes them highly robust, with an
operating lifetime of up to 100,000 hours when maintaining a constant temperature difference.
This is significantly longer than fans, which are constructed using bearings that are prone to
failure due to mechanical wear.

The other major advantage of Peltier modules over other thermal management solutions is that
they provide the ability to cool an electronic component to below ambient temperature, a feat
that is not possible using fans or standalone heat sinks. Unlike refrigerants, they do not use gases
that damage the environment. Finally, by simply changing the direction of current flow, they
can be used to pump heat into an application if required and they can even be used to generate
electricity from processes producing waste heat.

Selecting a Peltier Module

There are several factors to consider when selecting a Peltier module to provide cooling for an
application.

Understanding Heat Transfer

For a Peltier module, heat transfer is denoted by the symbol Q and specified in Watts. This
figure represents the heat generated by the body to be cooled and also represents the amount
of heat the module transfers to the ambient environment. It is important to note that a Peltier
module does not absorb heat, it merely transfers heat from the cool to the hot side, from where
it is then dissipated.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 19

Temperature Difference
The temperature difference (denoted as ΔT) specified on a Peltier module’s datasheet is measured
on the outside surface of the module’s two ceramic plates. However, during the design process,
it is also important to consider any difference in temperature that exists between the surface
plates of the module and other areas in the cooling system. There are five regions in which
differences in temperature can occur (Figure 3).

Heat Flow
Direction Figure 3:
Five regions of
temperature
variation in a
cooling system
Heat Source 1) Heat Source

Thermal Interface Material (TIM)

2) Peltier Module Cold Side

Peltier Module

3) Peltier Module Hot Side

Thermal Interface Material (TIM)
4) Heat Sink Hot Side
Heat Sink

5) Heat Sink Cold Side

Ambient Temperature

Temperature of Hot Side

The performance characteristics of a Peltier module change in response to its operating
temperature. The datasheet may specif y module performance at several discrete operating
temperatures (e.g., 27°C and 50°C). For systems operating at other temperatures, use the data
for the closest temperature specified on the datasheet.

Surface Area
If the surface area of the Peltier module does not exactly match the surface area of the body
being cooled, then a low thermal impedance “heat spreader” (Figure 4) can be used to maximize
the heat transfer of the module. These are typically manufactured from aluminum or copper.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 20

Heat Flow
Direction
Figure 4:
Using a heat
spreader to
maximize heat
1) Heat Source transfer

2) Heat Spreader

3) Peltier Module

4) Heat Sink

Operating Current
It is easier to control the temperature change provided by a Peltier module using a current
source, rather than a voltage source. For this reason, the operating current is specified on the
datasheet for a module.

Operating Voltage
The range of voltage over which a current source operates is referred to as its “compliance” and
is also typically included on a module datasheet.

System Specifications
The following are the specifications for an example application that requires cooling:

Module Heat transfer: 20 W

Module temperature difference: 20°C

Hot side of module: 30°C

Surface area of the body to be cooled: 30 mm x 30 mm

The performance curves for the CP603315H Peltier module, which is proposed for use in this
application is shown in Figure 5
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 21

Input Voltage (V) 16

6A
Figure 5:
4.8 A
Performance
3.6 A
characteristics
2.4 A
8 of CP603315H
5 4
1.2 A module

0
6A
4.8 A
Heat Pumped, Q(W)

40 3.6 A

2.4 A

20 1 3
1.2 A

0 2

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

ΔT = Th -Tc (ºC)

Although it may initially appear to be a single graph, it contains two separate scales:

—the upper half specifies input voltage (V) on the y-axis, versus temperature change (ΔT)
on the x-axis. The corresponding curves of the module’s operating current also appear on
this graph with values between 1.2 A and 6 A.

—the lower half specifies heat transfer (Q) in Watts on the y-axis versus temperature change (ΔT)
on the x-axis. This graph also contains the same operating current curves from 1.2 A to 6 A.

The design procedure is as follows:

1. On the lower graph, draw a horizontal line from 20 W on the y-axis, since this is the specified
amount of heat that the module must transfer. This is indicated by the purple line.

2. Next, also on the lower graph, draw a vertical line from 20°C on the x-axis, since this is the
specified temperature differential that exists across the module. This is indicated by the red
line, which extends to intersect with the upper graph.

3. Estimate the required operating current for the module by interpolating the value of the
operating current at the point where the purple and red lines intersect. This point lies between
the 2.4 A and 3.6 A operating current curves and is indicated in orange at 2.7 A.

4. In the upper half of the graph, mark the point where the red vertical line intersects with
an operating current of 2.7 A. Interpolate between the 2.4 A and 3.6 A curves to estimate
the location of 2.7 A on the graph.

5. From this point, draw a horizontal line. The point of intersection between this line and the
y-axis of the upper graph is the required input voltage to meet the compliance requirement
of the 2.7 A current source. In this case, the required input voltage is 7.5 V.

It is important to note that a Peltier module consumes power while transferring heat from the
cold to the hot side. The power consumed is described by the following equation:

Power (W) = Voltage (V) * Current (A)

 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 22

In this example application, the power consumed by the module is 20.25 W (7.5 V x 2.7 A). This
also appears as heat, meaning the total heat that must be dissipated by a heat sink at the hot
side of the module is 40.25 W (20 + 20.25).

Dynamic Voltage Control

In the previous application, the Peltier module delivered a constant level of cooling, for a fixed
temperature difference between its hot and cold sides, which required a fixed control voltage. In
some applications, the temperature of the cool side must remain constant even though the
temperature of the hot side may change. This requires adapting the control voltage to deliver
the required amount of cooling in response to the temperature difference at a given point in
time. These applications use a thermal sensor to continuously monitor the temperature of the
body being cooled. A thermocouple, an infra-red sensor, or a solid-state temperature sensor
provide a choice of options to perform this task.

Using a feedback control loop, temperature readings of the cool side are compared to the desired
temperature setting and the control voltage on the Peltier module is dynamically increased or
decreased to respond to any difference. Control loops typically use a Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) scheme to adjust the voltage controlling the module (Figure 6). An external PWM controller
is required because the output voltage of many power supplies is not adjustable over a large
range. The output of the PWM stage also requires additional filtering, to ensure that the ripple
on the module control voltage does not exceed 5%. This is important, as larger ripple voltages
reduce the performance of the module and induce electrical noise in the body being cooled.
Noise is undesirable as it is detrimental to the performance of many electronic components.
Thankfully, the design of the thermal control loop is not overly demanding as temperature
changes occur slowly, so a fast loop response time is not necessary. However, the design must
be able to accommodate changes in the polarity of the control voltage, if the system is needed
to both cool and heat the object.

Heat Sink
Figure 6:
Using a PWM
PWM with
Voltage Source output filter Peltier Module stage to control
the voltage of a
Peltier module
Object to be
temperature controlled

Thermal Monitor

Improving Reliability of Peltier Modules

Thermal fatigue is a common failure mechanism in many conventionally manufactured thermo-
electric modules. This weakens the solder bonds between the copper electrical interconnects
and the P/N semiconducting materials. It also impacts the solder and sinter bonds between the
metal interconnect and the ceramic substrate (Figure 7). These bonding techniques have the
advantage of creating strong mechanical, thermal, and electrical bonds. However, they suffer from
the disadvantage of being inflexible, which means, after repeated heating and cooling cycles,
their performance degrades slowly and leads to eventual failure.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 23

Figure 7:
Conventionally
manufactured
Peltier module

An alternative Peltier module construction technique, the arcTEC™ structure (Figure 8), developed
by CUI Devices, is designed to mitigate the negative effects of thermal fatigue. In this structure,
a thermally conductive resin replaces the solder bond between the ceramic substrate and the
copper electrical interconnect. This resin has elastic properties that allow the bond to expand
and contract in response to heating and cooling. This creates a better thermal connection while
lowering the stress on the mechanical bond, meaning its performance does not degrade over time.

Figure 8:
CUI Devices’
thermoelectric
module with
arcTEC structure

Another important feature of this structure is that it uses a different type of solder, SbSn
(Antimony/ Tin), compared to the BiSn (Bismuth/ Tin) solder normally used when joining P/N
semiconductors to copper interconnects. This has a much higher melting point of 235°C,
compared to 138°C for BiSn, which provides it with better shear strength and higher resistance
to thermal fatigue (Figure 9).
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 24

Figure 9:
Improved
reliability of
arcTEC
structure vs
standard
construction

Apart from improved reliability, thermoelectric modules built using the arcTEC structure provide
better thermal performance (Figure 10) than modules built using conventional construction
methods (Figure 11). This is because the P/N semiconductors are made from blocks of silicon
that are up to 2.7 times bigger than those normally used in other products. Larger blocks of
silicon allow for faster, more uniform cooling across the surface of the ceramic substrate than
conventional modules.

Figure 10:
Thermal image
showing surface
heat distri-
bution for a
conventional
Peltier module

Figure 11:
IR image
showing heat
distribution
across the
surface of
module
constructed
using arcTEC
structure
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 25

Thermal Pads
Composite cooling solutions that combine the use of heat sinks and Peltier modules can benefit
from the use of a thermal pad. These have high thermal conductivity, are shaped to fit the
profile of the thermoelectric module and help to reduce the thermal impedance at the interface
between the cooler and the heat sink.

Chapter Summary
Systems housed in small, sealed environments cannot use forced-air cooling solutions. For
these applications, the Peltier module provides a viable alternative. Using an electrical current
to transfer heat from its cool side to be dissipated on its hot side, a thermoelectric module
has several benefits including a small form factor, precise temperature control, the ability to
cool below ambient, and a longer lifespan than fans as it has no moving parts. Determining the
control voltage and operating current needed to achieve a certain level of cooling requires an
understanding of parameters specified on Peltier module datasheets. Systems that experience
continuous temperature variation require the use of feedback control systems to dynamically
adjust module cooling. Lastly, the repeated heating and cooling experienced by Peltier modules
can cause thermal stress that reduces the lifespan of conventional devices. Thankfully, CUI Devices’
arcTEC structure allows for the construction of Peltier modules that exhibit greater reliability,
longer life cycles, and more even heat distribution to provide a superior cooling solution.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 26

4. ONLINE CALCULATION TOOLS

The task of designing a suitable thermal management system can be demanding and time-
consuming, requiring multiple mathematical calculations. Specifying a fan requires equations
that involve the velocity and volume of airflow, while specif ying a heat sink uses equations
where thermal resistance, temperature, and power dissipation are variables. The task is further
complicated by the fact that the variables can be specified in different units of measurement by
an application user. To simplify this task, CUI Devices has developed several online calculation
tools to assist designers in quickly and accurately specifying the exact cooling requirement of a
system. CUI Devices’ full suite of calculators can be accessed via the Resource Library.

Thermal Conversion Calculator

A thermal conversion calculator converts between regularly used units for thermal resistance,
specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal conductance (Figure 1). Enter the value to be
converted into the white box, then click the “Calculate” button to see the equivalent values in
other scales.

Figure 1:
Online thermal
conversion
calculator
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 27

Heat Sink Calculator

This online resource consists of three calculator tools that greatly accelerate the process of heat
sink selection.

Thermal Impedance (Sink-to-Ambient) Calculator

Input the values for junction temperature (TJ) in °C, power dissipated (P) in Watts, thermal
impedance junction-to-case (RJ-C) and case-to-sink (RC-S) in °C/Watt, and ambient temperature
(TA) in °C, then click on “Calculate” to quickly determine the thermal impedance sink-to-ambient
(RS-A) in °C/W (Figure 2).

Figure 2:
Thermal
impedance
sink-to-ambient
calculator
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 28

Junction Temperature Calculator

Input the values for power dissipated (P) in Watts, thermal impedance junction-to-case (RJ-C),
case-to-sink (RC-S), and sink-to-ambient (RS-A) in °C/ W, and ambient temperature (TA) in °C,
then click on “Calculate” to quickly determine the junction temperature (TJ) in °C (Figure 3).

Figure 3:
Junction
temperature
calculator
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 29

Power Dissipated Calculator

Input the values for junction temperature(TJ) in °C, thermal impedance junction-to-case (RJ-C),
case-to-sink (RC-S), and sink-to-ambient (RS-A) in °C/W, and ambient temperature (TA) in °C, then
click on “Calculate” to quickly determine the power dissipated (P) in Watts (Figure 4).

Figure 4:
Power
dissipated
calculator

A convenient Celsius to Fahrenheit calculator is also included (Figure 5).

Figure 5:
Celsius to
Fahrenheit
calculator
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 30

Airflow Conversion Calculator

Use this calculator to calculate the airflow in a duct of a defined shape or volume. Simply enter
the value for air velocity (or volume) and the dimensions (or volume) of the duct in your preferred
choice of units, then click “Calculate” to see the velocity and volume of airflow in a variety of
other measurement units.

Figure 6:
Airflow
conversion
calculator
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 31

GLOSSARY

Active A cooling device that uses an additional external power source is called
an active device.

Axial Fan A fan that causes air to flow parallel to the shaft about which the blades
rotate.

Bearing The supporting part of a structure that is usually designed to allow the
structure to move freely.

Centrifugal Fan A fan (also referred to as a blower) that outputs air at 90 degrees to the
input.

Conduction The flow of heat from a hot to a cold region within a body without
movement of the material within the body. Metals are good conductors
of heat.

Convection The flow of heat from a hot to a cold region within a fluid (liquid or gas) by
the movement of molecules within the fluid.

Extrusion A manufacturing process that creates a device with a defined cross-

sectional profile.

Fan An active cooling device with blades attached to a rotor used for forced-air
convection cooling.

Heat Sink A passive component with a low thermal impedance that conducts heat
away from a hot electronic component, to be subsequently removed by
natural or forced convection.

Impeller A rotor that increases the pressure and flow of a fluid.

Junction Temperature The highest specified operating temperature of an electronic component.

Magnetic Flux The magnitude of a magnetic field per unit area.

Passive A cooling device that does not require an additional external power
supply is called a passive device (e.g., heat sink).

Peltier Module An active cooling device that converts electrical energy into thermal
energy for cooling purposes.

Power Dissipation The process by which heat is produced as an unwanted consequence of

the flow of electric current.

PWM Pulse width modulation. A modulation scheme that uses the on/off time
ratio of a pulsed electrical signal to control the speed of rotation of a motor.

Radiation The flow of heat from a hot to a cold region by the emission of electro
magnetic waves. Unlike conduction or convection, no medium is required.
Radiation is the least efficient cooling mechanism.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 32

Stamping A manufacturing process to press metal into a variety of different shapes

(e.g., heat sinks).

Specific Heat The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance
by 1 degree.

Tachometer A device that measures the speed of a rotating shaft.

Thermocouple A thermoelectric device that converts heat energy into electrical energy,
allowing the temperature to be measured.

Thermoelectric The conversion of heat energy into electrical energy and vice versa.

Thermal Conductivity The ability of a material to conduct heat, measured in Watts per meter
Kelvin.

Thermal Impedance The sum of the thermal resistance of a material and that of its thermal
contacts.

Thermal Resistance The ability of a material to resist the flow of heat. Good conductors have
low thermal impedance while insulators have high thermal impedance,
measure in degrees Kelvin per Watt.

TIM Thermal interface material also referred to as a thermal compound.

A substance used to create a close thermal connection between two
bodies by eliminating air gaps between them.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 33

DEFEAT HEAT WITH THERMAL MANAGEMENT PARTS FROM

CUI DEVICES
CUI Devices provides a comprehensive portfolio of cooling products that can be used as standalone
components or as a part of a comprehensive thermal management solution. We also offer
custom solutions to address the cooling requirements of systems with unique temperature
specifications and provides a library of useful engineering resources.

Axial Fans

CUI Devices provides a wide variety of axial fans. For maximum application flexibility, they are
available in multiple constructions, including standard ball and sleeve bearing as well as CUI
Devices’ proprietary omniCOOL™ system bearing design that greatly improves reliability while
reducing fan noise. With frame sizes ranging from 25 mm to 120 mm and airflow volumes
between 1.35 CFM to 200 CFM, cooling options are available for all types of electronic systems,
from those housed in space-limited enclosures to those with the most demanding cooling
requirements. All of the most commonly used centrical supply voltages are catered for (5, 12,
24, and 48 Vdc). For applications requiring higher levels of safety and control, the portfolio also
includes models with tachometer signal, rotation detector, and PWM control, while all include
auto restart as standard. These products are ideal for use in telecommunications equipment,
medical devices, industrial applications, and general-purpose IT products.

Centrifugal Fans (Blowers)

CUI Devices offers several centrifugal blowers in frame sizes ranging from 50 mm to 120 mm.
Designed to meet the more demanding cooling requirements of industrial and telecommunications
equipment, models that operate from 12 V or 24 V with variable speed control, while providing
airflow between 2.6 CFM and 54.7 CFM are available.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 34

Heat Sinks

CUI Devices’ heat sinks are manufactured using a variety of production methods (stamping,
extrusion, die casting, and forging), to ensure that our product offering is suitable for use in the
lowest to the highest power circuit board designs. They have been designed for compatibility
with TO-218, TO-220, TO-252, and TO-263 transistor packages. Available in a variety of standard
form factors, these aluminum and copper heat sinks are specified for thermal resistance under
four different operating conditions. This allows quick selection of the most appropriate extrusion
or stamping product for use in natural or forced air convection systems.

Peltier Devices

CUI Devices offers a broad selection of single and multi-stage Peltier modules and Peltier cool-
ing units. These thermoelectric devices are perfect to address the cooling requirements of high
density, high power systems, in diverse application areas ranging from medical to industrial.
They can also be used to provide refrigeration and cooling in sealed environments that cannot
facilitate forced air convection. They vary in size from 3.4 mm to 70 mm with profiles down to
1.95 mm, allowing them to be used in space-limited enclosures. CUI Devices’ portfolio includes
models with current ratings between 0.7 A and 20 A that can provide a temperature difference
(ΔTmax) from 70 to 105°C between the hot and cold side of the module. Several models are
further constructed using the proprietary arcTEC™ structure that provides higher performance in
applications that require enhanced reliability and a longer product life cycle.
 The Complete Guide To Thermal Management 35

Thermal Accessories
Foreign objects can quickly cause a cooling fan to become blocked and burn out, while the
increased airflow caused by the fan itself can lead to a buildup of dust particles within a system
enclosure. To mitigate against these happening, CUI Devices provides a wide selection fan
guards and filters which are constructed from PA707 or steel wire with a nickel chrome finish
and are designed to complement their range of dc fans.

CUI Devices also provides a select range of heat sink clips that can be used to ensure heat sinks
remain securely fastened throughout the life cycle of a product. This is particularly important
for portable and mobile equipment.

The performance of a composite cooling solution, using a heat sink in combination with a
thermoelectric cooler, can be further improved by using one of CUI Devices’ thermal pads to
maximize the thermal conductivity at their interface. Constructed from a choice of non-silicone
or silicone elastomers, the pads are shaped to provide easy adhesion to CUI Devices’ range of
Peltier modules. With the added benefit of also providing electrical isolation, they come with
thermal conductivity ratings ranging from 1.0 to 6.0 W/m*K.

Custom Solutions and Engineering Resources

In addition to our standard portfolio of cooling products, CUI Devices offers the customization
of their thermal management products to individual system specifications and the ability to
integrate a combination of standard or customized products into a comprehensive thermal
management solution. Resources including a CAD model library, thermal management blogs,
datasheets, calculators, and a parametric search tool are provided on the CUI Devices website to
assist with and accelerate the design of thermal management systems.