Usage - Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). 

Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its
verb must also be plural.

In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways:  

                        nouns ADD an s to the singular form,

                                                    BUT

                        verbs REMOVE an s from the singular form.

                

Here are nine subject-verb agreement rules.

1.  A phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change the number of

the subject.

                Examples:

                       

          

2.  Indefinite pronouns as subjects

     Singular indefinite pronoun subjects take singular verbs.

   

            

    Plural indefinite pronoun subjects take plural verbs.

   PLURAL:  several, few, both, many

                      

                

    Some indefinite pronouns may be either singular or plural:

with uncountable, use singular; with countable, use plural.

   EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL:  some, any, none, all, most

                                

                Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

                

                                

                Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

                           

          

3.  Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.

                      

             

4.  With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb agrees with the subject
nearer to it.

                

          In the above example, the plural verb are agrees with the nearer
subject actors.

                

            In this example, the singular verb is agrees with the nearer

subject director.

                

5.  Inverted Subjects must agree with the verb.   

                
                

          

6.  Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural,

depending on meaning.

                

            In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the verb is singular.

       

                

            In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore,
the verb is plural.

       

                                  

7.  Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) are

always singular.

                

      

8.  Plural form subjects

 Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular

verb. (e.g. news, measles, mumps, physics, etc.)
                

             

 Plural form subjects with singular or plural meaning take a singular or

plural verb, depending on meaning.  (e.g. politics, economics, etc.)

                

    In this example, politics is a single topic; therefore, the sentence has a singular
verb.

                

    In this example, politics refers to the many aspects of the situation; therefore, the
sentence has a plural verb.

          

 Plural form subjects with a plural meaning take a plural

verb. (e.g.  scissors, trousers)

                

                                      

            Note:  In this example, the subject of the sentence is pair; therefore, the verb
must agree with it.  (Because scissors is the object of the preposition, scissors does
not affect the number of the verb.)

                
9.  With subject and subjective complement of different number, the verb
always agrees with the subject.

                

                

10-A. With one of those ________ who, use a plural verb.

     

     The above example implies that others besides Hannah like to read comic
books.  Therefore, the plural verb is the correct form to use. 

10-B.  With the only one  of those ________who, use a singular verb.

     The above example implies that no one else except for Hannah likes to read
comic books.  Therefore, the singular verb is the correct for to use.

                   
11-A.  With the number of _______, use a singular verb.
              

        
       

11-B.  With a number  of _______, use a plural verb.

              

12.  With every ______ and many a ________, use a singular verb.

              

 
   

                
Definitions and Examples of Basic Sentence Elements
The Mastering the Mechanics webinar series also describes required sentence
elements and varying sentence types. Please see these archived webinars for
more information.
 
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink,
regular font = prepositional phrase
 
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It
contains a subject and a verb and is a complete idea.

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be

attached to an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a
subordinate clause.

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…

Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action.

Determine the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does.
Determine the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or
what happened?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula
or a linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the
complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "good.")

Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action.
Determine the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did
what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for,
behind, until, after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A
prepositional phrase answers one of many questions. Here are a few examples:
“Where? When? In what way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an

exclamation point).
o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also
called an independent clause.
o He obtained his degree.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object
and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink,
regular font =prepositional phrase
Here are a few examples:

 She wrote.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.  These two
independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating
conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular
font; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference

list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference
list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was
still much to learn.

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the
independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause.
If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is
not a comma separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent
clause = blue, italics
Here are a few examples:

 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on

her methods section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a
dependent clause.

 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his

readers to follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a
dependent clause.

 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with
an independent clause.
  Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence
variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains
at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular
font; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue,
italics

 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on

her methods section even though she finished her methods course last
semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange
them chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for
organization. 
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many
hours, and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it
was clear, concise, and objective.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for

more sentence variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so
that the reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

Sentence Fragments

Fragments are simply grammatically incomplete sentences—they are

phrases and dependent clauses. We talked about phrases and clauses a
bit in Text: Parts of a Sentence. These are grammatical structures that
cannot stand on their own: they need to be connected to an independent
clause to work in writing. So how can we tell the difference between a
sentence and a sentence fragment? And how can we fix fragments when
they already exist?

As you learn about fragments, keep in mind that length is not very helpful
when determining if a sentence is a fragment or not. Both of the items
below are fragments:

 Before you go.

 Ensuring his own survival with his extensive cache of supplies (food,
water, rope, tarps, knives, and a first aid kit).
Let’s dive in and see just what makes these both fragments.

Common Causes of Fragments

Part of the reason we write in fragments is because we often speak that
way. However, there is a difference between writing and speech, and it is
important to write in full sentences. Additionally, fragments often come
about in writing because a fragment may already seem too long.

Non-finite verbs (gerunds, participles, and infinitives) can often trip people

up as well. Since non-finite verbs don’t act like verbs, we don’t count them
as verbs when we’re deciding if we have a phrase or a clause. Let’s look at
a few examples of these:

 Running away from my mother.

 To ensure your safety and security.
 Beaten down since day one.

Even though all of the above have non-finite verbs, they’re phrases, not
clauses. In order for these to be clauses, they would need an additional
verb that acts as a verb in the sentence.

Words like since, when, and because turn an independent clause into a

dependent clause. For example “I was a little girl in 1995” is an
independent clause, but “Because I was a little girl in 1995” is a dependent
clause. This class of word includes the following:
after although as as far as as if

as though because before even if even though

in order that since so so that than

until when whenever where whereas

Relative pronouns, like that and which, do the same type of thing as those

listed above.

Coordinating conjunctions (our FANBOYS) can also cause problems. If you

start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, make sure that it is
followed a complete clause, not just a phrase!
As you’re identifying fragments, keep in mind that command sentences
are not fragments, despite not having a subject. Commands are the only
grammatically correct sentences that lack a subject:
 Drop and give me fifty!
 Count how many times the word fragrant is used during commercial
breaks.

Fixing Sentence Fragments

Let’s take a look at a couple of examples:

1. Ivana appeared at the committee meeting last week. And made a

convincing presentation of her ideas about the new product.
2. The committee considered her ideas for a new marketing strategy
quite powerful. The best ideas that they had heard in years.
3. She spent a full month evaluating his computer-based instructional
materials. Which she eventually sent to her supervisor with the
strongest of recommendations.

Let’s look at the phrase “And made a convincing presentation of her ideas
about the new product” in example one. It’s just that: a phrase. There is no
subject in this phrase, so the easiest fix is to simply delete the period and
combine the two statements:

Ivana appeared at the committee meeting last week and made a

convincing presentation of her ideas about the new product.

Let’s look at example two. The phrase “the best ideas they had heard in
years” is simply a phrase—there is no verb contained in the phrase. By
adding “they were” to the beginning of this phrase, we have turned the
fragment into an independent clause, which can now stand on its own:

The committee considered her ideas for a new marketing strategy quite
powerful; they were the best ideas that they had heard in years.

What about example three? Let’s look at the clause “Which she eventually

sent to her supervisor with the strongest of recommendations.” This is
a dependent clause; the word which signals this fact. If we change “which
she eventually” to “eventually, she,” we also turn the dependent clause into
an independent clause.

She spent a full month evaluating his computer-based instructional

materials. Eventually, she sent the evaluation to her supervisor with the
strongest of recommendations.
 PRACTICE

Identify the fragments in the sentences below. Why are they fragments? What are
some possible solutions?
1. The corporation wants to begin a new marketing push in educational
software. Although, the more conservative executives of the firm are
skeptical.
2. Include several different sections in your proposal. For example, a
discussion of your personnel and their qualifications, your
expectations concerning the schedule of the project, and a cost
breakdown.
3. The research team has completely reorganized the workload. Making
sure that members work in areas of their own expertise and that no
member is assigned proportionately too much work.

Run-on Sentences

Run-on sentences occur when two or more independent clauses are

improperly joined. (We talked about clauses in Text: Parts of a
Sentence.) One type of run-on that you’ve probably heard of is the comma
splice, in which two independent clauses are joined by a comma without a
coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, etc.).

Let’s look at a few examples of run-on sentences:

 Choosing a topic for a paper can be the hardest part but it gets a lot
easier after that.
 Sometimes, books do not have the most complete information, it is a
good idea then to look for articles in specialized periodicals.

All three of these have two independent clauses. Each clause should be
separated from another with a period, a semicolon, or a comma and a
coordinating conjunction:

 Choosing a topic for a paper can be the hardest part, but it gets a lot
easier after that.
 Sometimes, books do not have the most complete information; it is a
good idea then to look for articles in specialized periodicals.
Note: Caution should be exercised when defining a run-on sentence as a sentence
that just goes on and on. A run-on sentence is a sentence that goes on and
on and isn’t correctly punctuated. Not every long sentence is a run-on sentence. For
example, look at this quote from The Great Gastby:
Its vanished trees, the trees that had made way for Gatsby’s house, had once
pandered in whispers to the last and greatest of all human dreams; for a transitory
enchanted moment man must have held his breath in the presence of this continent,
compelled into an aesthetic contemplation he neither understood nor desired, face to
face for the last time in history with something commensurate to his capacity for
wonder.
If you look at the punctuation, you’ll see that this quote is a single sentence. F.
Scott Fitzgerald used commas and semicolons is such a way that, despite its great
length, it’s grammatically sound, as well. Length is no guarantee of a run-on
sentence.

Common Causes of Run-Ons

We often write run-on sentences because we sense that the sentences
involved are closely related and dividing them with a period just doesn’t
seem right. We may also write them because the parts seem to short to
need any division, like in “She loves skiing but he doesn’t.” However, “She
loves skiing” and “he doesn’t” are both independent clauses, so they need
to be divided by a comma and a coordinating conjunction—not just a
coordinating conjunction by itself.

Another common cause of run-on sentences is mistaking adverbial

conjunctions for coordinating conjunctions. For example if we were to write,
“She loved skiing, however he didn’t,” we would have produced a comma
splice. The correct sentence would be “She loved skiing; however, he
didn’t.”

Fixing Run-On Sentences
Before you can fix a run-on sentence, you’ll need to identify the problem.
When you write, carefully look at each part of every sentence. Are the parts
independent clauses, or are they dependent clauses or phrases?
Remember, only independent clauses can stand on their own. This also
means they have to stand on their own; they can’t run together without
correct punctuation.

Let’s take a look at a few run-on sentences and their revisions:

1. Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not

transfer, however, I do have at least some hours the University will
accept.
 2. The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel they tend to
be more susceptible to rust.
3. Some people were highly educated professionals, others were from
small villages in underdeveloped countries.
Let’s start with the first sentence. This is a comma-splice sentence.
The adverbial conjunction however is being treated like a coordinating
conjunction. There are two easy fixes to this problem. The first is to turn the
comma before however into a period. If this feels like too hard of a stop
between ideas, you can change the comma into a semicolon instead.
 Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not
transfer. However, I do have at least some hours the University will
accept.
 Most of the hours I’ve earned toward my associate’s degree do not
transfer; however, I do have at least some hours the University will
accept.

The second sentence is a run-on as well. “The opposite is true of stronger

types of stainless steel” and “they tend to be more susceptible to rust.” are
both independent clauses. The two clauses are very closely related, and
the second clarifies the information provided in the first. The best solution is
to insert a colon between the two clauses:

The opposite is true of stronger types of stainless steel: they tend to be

more susceptible to rust.

What about the last example? Once again we have two independent
clauses. The two clauses provide contrasting information. Adding a
conjunction could help the reader move from one kind of information to
another. However, you may want that sharp contrast. Here are two revision
options:

 Some people were highly educated professionals, while others were

from small villages in underdeveloped countries.
 Some people were highly educated professionals. Others were from
small villages in underdeveloped countries.
PRACTICE

Identify the run-on sentences in the following paragraph. Type a corrected version of
the paragraph in the text frame below:
I had the craziest dream the other night. My cousin Jacob and I were on the run from
the law. Apparently we were wizards and the law was cracking down on magic. So,
we obviously had to go into hiding but I lost track of Jacob and then I got picked up
by a cop. But I was able to convince him that the government was corrupt and that
he should take me to my escape boat.

Definition of Parallelism

Parallelism is the repetition of grammatical elements in writing and

speaking. Parallelism influences the grammatical structure of
sentences but can also impact the meaning of thoughts and ideas
being presented. When writers utilize parallelism as a figure of
speech, this literary device extends beyond just a technique of
grammatical sentence structure. It may feature repetition of a word
or phrase for emphasis, or it can be used as a literary device to
create a parallel position between opposite ideas through
grammatical elements as a means of emphasizing contrast.

Parallelism takes many forms in literature, such

as anaphora, antithesis, asyndeton, epistrophe, etc. Parallelism is a
literary device in itself, but it is also a category under which
other figures of speech fall, such as those mentioned previously.
Therefore, these other literary devices and figures of speech are
specific types of parallelism.

One of the most well-known examples of parallelism is featured in

Neil Armstrong’s statement, made as he stepped on the moon:
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” The
structure of the two noun phrases in this sentence is similar due to
the repeated use of “one.” This engages the audience’s attention
and emphasizes the contrast between “small step for man” and
“giant leap for mankind.” The significance of the event and meaning
of Armstrong’s statement is enhanced through his use of
parallelism.
Common Examples of Parallelism

Many common phrases feature parallelism through repetition of

words, structure, or other grammatical elements. This calls attention
to the wording and can emphasize the phrase’s meaning. Here are
some common examples of parallelism:
  he that will cheat at play, will cheat you any way
 stupid is as stupid does
 cousins by chance; friends by choice
 luck is the idol of the idle
 no pain, no gain
 in for a penny, in for a pound
 you get what you get
 where there is smoke, there is fire
 when the going gets tough, the tough get going
 it takes one to know one
 have money in your head, not in your heart
 I think, therefore I am
 don’t marry someone you can life with; marry someone you
can’t live without
 today a reader, tomorrow a leader
 fool me once, shame on you; fool me twice, shame on me
Examples of Parallelism in the Bible

Parallelism is found throughout the Bible, particularly in

psalm verses and proverbs. One use of this literary device in
Biblical poetry and phrasing is to create synonymous lines in which
an idea is presented and then repeated by being rephrased with
parallelism to reinforce or emphasize the meaning. Here are some
examples of parallelism in the Bible:

 In the way of righteousness is life / And in its pathway there is

no death (Prov. 12:28)
 i am the rose of Sharon / And the lily of the valleys (Song 2:1)
 As the deer pants for the water brooks / So pants my soul for
You, O God (Ps. 42:1)
 Hatred stirs up strife / But love covers all sins (Prov. 10:12)
 For the Lord knows the way of the righteous / But the way of
the ungodly shall perish (Ps, 1:6)
 The earth is the Lord’s and everything in it / the world, and all
who live in it (Ps. 24)
Famous Examples of Parallelism

Parallelism is also found in many famous examples of

poetry, prose, drama, speeches, and quotations to create an
intentional effect for the reader. Here are some famous examples of
parallelism:

 Not everything that is faced can be changed; but nothing can

be changed until it is faced. (James Baldwin)
 Clap along if you feel like a room without a roof / Clap along if
you feel like happiness is the truth (lyrics by Pharrell Williams)
 … and that government of the people, by the people, for the
people shall not perish from the earth. (Abraham Lincoln)
 Then practice losing farther, losing faster: places, and names,
and where it was you meant to travel. None of these will bring
disaster. (Elizabeth Bishop)
 It is easier for a father to have children than for children to
have a real father. (Pope John XXIII)
 Be who you are and say what you feel, because those who
mind don’t matter, and those who matter don’t mind. (Bernard
M. Baruch)
 You deserve to need me, not to have me. (Augusten
Burroughs)
 Follow love and it will flee; flee love and it will follow. (proverb)
 To err is Human, to forgive, divine. (Alexander Pope)
 But the sad truth is that the truth is sad, and that what you
want does not matter. (Lemony Snicket)
Difference Between Parallelism and Repetition

It can be difficult to distinguish between parallelism and repetition.

They are similar literary devices in the sense that their function is
based on something being repeated for effect. However, repetition
specifically features the intentional use of a word or phrase, two or
more times in close proximity of each other. Parallelism can involve
the repetition of words or phrases, but it also must reflect repetition
of grammatical and/or structural elements. In fact, the only
requirement for parallelism as a literary device is the repetition of
grammatical elements and/or structure in a written work–apart from
strictly word or phrase repetition.
A good example to demonstrate the difference between parallelism
and repetition is a soliloquy spoken by the
title character in Macbeth by William Shakespeare. The line,
“Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow” features word repetition.
It also features parallelism due to the grammatical structure of the
phrasing, utilizing “and” as a conjunction. This grammatical
similarity enhances the rhythm of the phrase and emphasizes the
concept and meaning of “tomorrow” as an ongoing, repeating
aggregate of time and experience.

There is another line in Macbeth’s soliloquy that features repetition,

but not parallelism: “Out, out, brief candle!” In this line, the word
“out” is repeated twice, but there is no indication of a repeating
grammatical element. Though the effect of this repetition is to
emphasize the word “out” in terms of extinguishing the candle,
which represents death, there is less of a poetic nature to the line
than the repetition and parallelism of the “tomorrow” phrase.
Therefore, as literary devices, repetition emphasizes a word or
phrase and can certainly reinforce its meaning; however,
parallelism often adds even deeper meaning through repetition of
grammatical structure.
Writing Parallelism

Overall, as a literary device, parallelism functions as a means of

creating a harmonious flow and rhythm with words and phrases.
This is effective for readers in that parallelism can capture a
reader’s attention and enhance the structure of writing to make the
literary work more meaningful. Parallelism is also an effective way
for writers to set up relationships between two or more things or
ideas, through comparison or contrast.

It’s important that writers use parallelism sparingly in order for it to

be effective. Too much repetition of grammatical elements can
distract and/or fatigue a reader. For example, this well-known
proverb features parallelism: Give a man a fish, and he eats for a
day. Teach a man to fish, and he eats for a life time. It’s effective in
that the repetition of sentence structure emphasizes the meaning
and perceived truth of the proverb for the reader. However, if the
proverb were to continue this repetitive structure, it would lose
effectiveness: Give a man a fish, and he eats for a day. Teach a
man to fish, and he eats for a life time. Teach a man to sell fish,
and he eats steaks. Give a man a chain of seafood restaurants,
and he eats whatever he wants. The continued parallelism
undermines the initial meaning of the proverb.

Here are some ways that writers benefit from incorporating

parallelism into their work:
Create Sense of Rhythm

Writers can create a sense of rhythm in their works with parallelism.

Repeating grammatical elements such as words, sounds, noun
or verb phrases, helps to pace writing for the reader. This adds to
the artistic and/or poetic value of language in a literary work, while
allowing the writer to reinforce or elaborate on a particular idea.
Create Sense of Relationship

Parallelism allows writers to create a sense of relationship between

words, phrases, and sentences, which then establishes
relationships between things and ideas. This can be done through
comparison or contrast, either within a single sentence or a group of
sentences. By repeating grammatical elements, writers can draw
the reader’s focus towards similarities and differences in expression
and therefore enhance meaning.
 Examples of Parallelism in Literature

Parallelism is an effective literary device when used properly. Here

are some examples of parallelism and how it adds to the
significance of well-known literary works:
Example 1: Pygmalion (George Bernard Shaw)

If you can’t appreciate what you’ve got, you’d better get what you
can appreciate.

In this line from his famous play, Shaw utilizes parallelism to set
forth a contrast of ideas by inverting the wording of the phrases but
maintaining their grammatical structure. The effect for the
reader/audience due to parallelism as a literary device in this line is
the connection between what someone has and what they
appreciate. Professor Higgins, the speaker of the line, is calling
Eliza’s attention to the choice she is facing: she can either
appreciate what she has in him as a companion, or she can pursue
someone else.

This choice between contrasting ideas in this line is underscored by

Shaw’s use of parallelism in the expression of it. This adds meaning
to the situation Eliza is facing in the play, but also calls upon the
reader/audience to consider the choice they would make in her
stead. In addition, the reader/audience is also confronted with the
potential contrast between appreciating what they have or pursuing
what they would appreciate.
Example 2: The Things They Carried (Tim O’Brien)

To generalize about war is like generalizing about peace. Almost

everything is true. Almost nothing is true.

In O’Brien’s story about soldiers in Vietnam, he uses parallelism to

create a relationship between war and peace, though they seem to
be opposing concepts. In this passage, O’Brien warns against
generalizing about either war or peace as the outcome ends up the
same–that almost everything is true and almost nothing is true. The
repetition of grammatical structure in these three sentences
enhances the relationship between war and peace by creating the
sense that, in general, they are more alike than opposite. This
causes the reader to reflect on how this relationship between war
and peace is possible.

O’Brien’s use of parallelism in this passage also creates a

relationship between words and their meanings. When spoken in
generalities, words such as war and peace lose their meanings.
With this loss of meaning, the truth is lost as well. This parallel
relationship between the meaning of words and the truth indicates
to the reader that there is no meaning or truth to generalities when it
comes to war or peace.
Example 3: How Cruel Is the Story of Eve (Stevie Smith)

Put up to barter,
The tender feelings
Buy her a husband to rule her
Fool her to marry a master
She must or rue it
The Lord said it.

In her poem, Smith utilizes parallelism to create a sharp sense of

rhythm to instill empathy in the reader for Eve and her story. The
grammatical structure of the poetic lines creates the sense of a list
being presented to the reader of Eve’s judgments and punishments.
The parallel pacing of the stanza’s structure, in addition to
the connotations and repetitive sounds of the words (“rule,” “fool,”
“rue”), create a rhythm that is almost like a whip. This expands and
reinforces the theme for the reader that Eve is a victim of her story
and her fate as a woman.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the
word it modifies / describes. 

Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous,
or confusing.  Furthermore, they can be downright illogical. 

   Example

         

The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch.

Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more

sensible place in the sentence, generally next to the word it modifies. 

   Example

        
Now it is the watch that is gold.

There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and
almost always distort the intended meaning.

     Example 1

        

  Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.

     Corrected

        

     Example 2

        

   Corrected

       

Sentences like these are common in everyday speech and ordinarily cause their
listeners no trouble.  However, they are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have
NO place in your writing.

2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

     For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change
the sentence's meaning.

    Just means only John was picked, no one else:

        

    Just means that John was picked now:

        

  Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else:

        

   

Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness
depends upon what the writer has in mind.

Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a

sentence whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.

     This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:

         

     To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.

        

           
Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost.  They are often
misplaced and cause an unintended meaning.

    This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money:

          
                         

      Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.

          

Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not
cause listeners difficulty.  However, such sentences are quite imprecise and,
therefore,  should have NO place in your writing.  

Now click on the link below to complete Exercise 1.

 Link to Exercise 1

3. Misplaced phrases  may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a

meaning that does not make sense.

   

The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that  modify the wrong

nouns. 

To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are
supposed to modify. 

    Example 1 (a buyer with leather seats?)

        

  Corrected
        

   Example 2 (a corner smoking pipes?)

            

    Corrected

        

    

    Example 3 (a house made of barbed wire?)

        

     Corrected

        

Click on the link below to complete Exercise 2.

Link to Exercise 2

4.  Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a

meaning that does not make sense.
The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that  modify the wrong
nouns. 

To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are
supposed to modify. 

    Example 1 ( a buttered woman?)

        

    Corrected

        

    Example 2 (a hamper that Ralph wore?)

        

    Corrected

        

Be careful!  In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two

possible meanings.

    Example
  

Problem:  Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on

Monday?)  

  Correction #1  (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)

    

  Correction #2  (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)

    

  Click on the link below to complete Exercise 3.

Link to Exercise 3

DANGLING MODIFIERS                                 

 A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to
the word or words it modifies  (i.e. is placed next to).

    Two notes about dangling modifiers:

 Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply

moving it to a different place in a sentence.
 In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence,
although it can also come at the end.

Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to
specify anything to which the modifier can refer.  

    Example  1
        

This sentence does not specify who is looking toward the west.  In fact, there is

nothing at all in the sentence to which the modifying phrase looking toward the
west can logically refer.  Since the modifier, looking toward the west,  is sitting next
to the funnel shaped cloud, the sentence suggests that the cloud is doing the
looking.  

Example 2

        

This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!

At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun

substitute.  

    Example 1

          
Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence
suggests that the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a
possible walker - Jim - is mentioned later.

    Example 2

        

Since having been fixed the night before is placed next to Priscilla, the sentence
means that Priscilla was fixed the night before.  
  As the above examples show, dangling modifiers result in inaccurate and
sometimes ludicrous statements.               

How to correct dangling modifiers

Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.

Correction Method #1

1. Leave the modifier as it is.

2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually
modified.  
3. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies.

  Thus, this dangling modifier

        

  may be corrected to

        

  Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method, this dangling modifier

                         
  may be corrected to

      

  Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst.  

Click on the link below to complete Exercise 4.

Link to Exercise 4

Correction Method #2

1. Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject

and verb.
2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

  Thus, the dangling modifier

             

may be corrected to

            

  Now the sentence means that I  (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother
enrolled in medical school.

Using the same method, the dangling modifier

        

may be corrected to 

          

  Now the sentence means that the car (not Priscilla!) was fixed.