Principles of Teaching I 3

Instructional, Personal, and Social Competencies

Preparation for Teaching

There are two types of teacher education, namely:

1. Pre-service education - It refers to the college education needed to become a teacher;
and
2. In-service education - It refers to any activity pursued by a teacher for professional
development, such as involvement in departmental meetings and group conferences
with principals and supervisors; attendance in seminars, workshops, professional
readings and discussions, school visitation, convention; membership in professional
organizations; and graduate studies.

Basic Areas in Teacher-tra ining Institutions

The basic areas include:

1. Subject matter or field of specialization;
2. General education taken during the first two years of college education; and
3. Professional education such as Principles of Teaching, The Teaching Profession,
Curriculum Development, Assessment of Student Learning, and Foundations of
Education.

The Four Pillars of Education (Delo rs, 1988)

The four pillars of education are developments expected to be the teacher's main goals for
his/her students. They are learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and
earning to be.
Learning to know is also learning how to learn, which means that students are expected to
learn the basic knowledge given in school, such as knowledge in science, math, English, etc.,
which can be useful in their future life.
Learning to do refers to the adaptation of students to any situational problems.
Learning to live together is learning to develop the understanding of other people and
appreciation of interdependence, such as carrying out join projects and learning to manage
conflict.
Learning to be means learning to develop one's personality with greater autonomy and
personal responsibility.
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Improved Instructional Practices: Discussion Procedures and Special
Techniques

Module 8: Improved Instructional Practices:

Discussion Procedures and Special
Techniques
1. Enumerate and discuss the different improved instructional practices that focus on
the learner as the center of learning;
2. Explain the different aspects of the discovery and process approach as a teaching­
learning process.
3. Explain the need for a greater range of student participation in the learning
experience;
4. Discuss integrative learning in relation to multiple intelligence; and
5. Discuss the principles and requirements of the programmed instruction (team­
teaching, simulation-teaching, and use of modules); discussion procedures; and
special techniques in teaching.

Improved instructional practices describe the methods which focus on the learner as the center of
learning. In other words, the learner's social, mental, and psychological needs are considered in
developing the instructional practices. Some examples of improved instructional practices are:
1. Integrative learning;
2. Discovery approach;
3. Process approach;
4. Conceptual approach;
5. Mastery learning;
6. Programmed instruction, e.g., team-teaching, simulation-teaching, and use of modules;
7. Discussion procedures, e.g., panel forum, symposium forum, debate forum, and round­
table conference; and
8. Special techniques in teaching-learning process.

Integrative Learning
Integrative learning is an educational technology that significantly enhances the performance and
learning achievement of teachers and learners from limitless expectations to limitless
expectancies (aspirations). It emphasizes the development of well-rounded individuals through
the consistent use of the eight intelligences enumerated as follows:
 Table4. THE EIGHT INTELLIGENCES

ABILITY/INCLINATION
TO(the
INTELLIGENCE EXAMPLES SENSITIVITY TO
professions of
learner can
indulge in the
future)

Verbal linguistics Sounds, meanings, Speaking, writing, Speak effectively

structures, and styles listening and reading (teacher or
of the language politician) or write
effectively
Qournalist, editor,
copywriter, or
novelist)
Logical-mathematical Patterns, numbers, Finding patterns, Numbers
causes and effects, making calculations, (accountants,
objectives, and formulating and statisticians, or
quantitative reasoning testing hypothesis, economists),
and using the reason effectively
scientific method and (engineers,
deductive and scientists, or
inductive reasoning computer
programmers)
Spatial Colors, shapes, visual Visual ideas, creating Create visually
puzzles, symmetry, mental images, (artist,
lines, and images noticing visual details, photographer,
drawing and sketching engineer, or
decorator) and
visualize accurately
(tour guide or scout
ranger)
Bodily-kinesthetic Touch, movement, Activities requiring Use of hands to fix
physical self and strength, speed, or create
athleticism flexibility, hand-eye (mechanic,
coordination and surgeon, carpenter,
balance sculptor, or mason)
and use the body
expressively
( dancer, actor or
athlete)
 Principles of Teaching I 3
Improved Instructional Practices: Discussion Procedures and Special
Techniques

Musical Tone, beat, tempo, Listening, singing, and Create music

melody, pitch and playing an instrument (songwriter,
sound composer, musician
or conductor) or
analyze
expressively
(dancer, actor or
athlete)
Interpersonal Body language, Noticing and Work with people
moods, voice and responding to people's (administrators,
feelings feelings and managers,
personalities consultants or
teachers) or help
people identify and
overcome
problems
(therapists or
psychologists)
Intrapersonal One's own strengths, Setting goals and Meditate, reflect,
weaknesses, goals and assessing personal exhibit self-
desires abilities and liabilities, discipline, maintain
and monitoring one's composure, and get
own thinking the most out of
oneself
Naturalist Natural objects, Identifying and Analyze ecological
plants, animals and classifying living and natural
ecological issues things and natural situations and data
objects (geologists, or
rangers), learn
from living things
(zoologists,
botanists, or
veterinarians),
work in natural
settings (hunters or
 environmentalists)

Discovery Approach
The discovery approach is an inductive method of guiding learners to organize and discuss ideas
and processes by themselves through:
1. Observation, comparison, abstraction, generalization, and application;
2. Self-discovery set-up for learners to explore a process or discover rules; and
3. Development of a pattern of thinking.

Types of self-discovery:
1. Guided discovery - the teacher gets bits of information through properly organized
questions leading to the eventual discovery of concepts and principles.
2. Pure discovery - it is an approach in which learners are expected to arrive at certain
concepts and principles with little or no guidance by the teacher, except for the
explanation of particular terms (laboratory). For example, while observing an aquarium
fish in polluted water, children are expected to record all observations in their diaries
or logbooks, analyze methods of inquiry through creative thinking, and evaluate and
make the necessary recommendations.

Process Approach
The process approach is the same as the discovery approach. It is usually used in science
instruction as an attempt to solve a particular problem. It allows learners to:
1. Understand the cause-and-effect relationship;
2. Attain the maximum potential for effective thinking and action;
3. Increase understanding of themselves and of their relationship with the universe;
4. Retain the enthusiasm of seeking more knowledge; and
5. Accept the challenge that society needs their best talents and wisdom.

Integrated Process Approach

The integrated process approach or the "new learning" is concerned with the development of well­
rounded personality of learners - psychologically, sociologically, and intellectually. Subjects like
Science and Math can be integrated with an end-view of developing values among learners. An
example is teaching addition of numbers integrated with colors. The numbers can be presented as
follows:
2+2=4
Values: the importance of addition in counting money; honesty in counting.
Steps in preparing an Integrated Process Approach
1. Observation - it involves sensory perception from simple to complex or empirical
observation.
The basic principles of mastery learning are as follows:
1. The learning unit is divided into its component tasks.
2. Learning tasks are properly sequenced.
3. Frequent diagnoses of learners' progress are done through formative tests.
4. Proper corrective tests are given to overcome individual or group weaknesses revealed
by the formative tests results.
5. Learners are given enough time to attain mastery learning.
6. Mastery of a learning task is judged by a predetermined standard, e.g., nine out of 10
students must have 99% to 100% correct answers.

Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction consists of planned learning patterns presented in a sequence to learners.
This is a step-by-step process which requires learners to learn by bits before going to another
step.
The following are principles of learning in programmed instruction:
1. Learning is best practiced by doing.
2. Learning is also best facilitated through psychological feedback.
3. Learning experiences provide many opportunities for learners to progress at their own
pace;
4. Learning experiences simulate the learners' immediate environment; hence, carrying
over of experiences from the school to the home is assured;

Examples of programmed instruction:

1. Team-teaching - it is an innovative approach that involves two or more teachers who
work cooperatively with the same group of learners for a certain period of time. In
team-teaching, all teachers must be involved in formulating objectives.
2. Simulation-teaching - it is a miniature representation of a large-scale system or
process. It is role-playing to certain degree. The only difference is that in simulation, the
individual plays himself/herself in the situation, while in role-playing; he/she performs
what he/she interprets to be the demand of the role.
3. Module - it is a self-learning device or kit consisting of a set of learning activities that
has to be accomplished by learners. The essential parts of the module are:
a. Statement of the purpose or rationale of the module;
b. The pretest which may show how prepared or unprepared learners are for the
module through testing;
c. Objectives which state what are expected of learners after finishing the module;
d. Instructional activities which serve as study guides that enable learners to meet
the objectives;
e. Post-tests which measure what learners have acquired from the module or if
they have mastered the learning objectives.
 Principles of Teaching I 7
Improved Instructional Practices: Discussion Procedures and Special
Techniques

Discussion Procedures
Discussion is an attempt to get away from the traditional method of teaching. It is used to
designate group classroom activities in which the teacher and learners cooperatively consider
certain topics or problems. Discussion procedures discussed in this chapter include the following:
1. Panel forum
2. Symposium forum
3. Debate forum
4. Round-table conference

Panel Forum
Panelforum is a direct, conversational, and interactive discussion among a small group of experts
or well-informed laypersons. The things that transpire in a panel forum are the following:
1. The persons involved normally discuss problems for the benefit of the audience.
2. They speak loud enough to present their view of points.
3. In the pre-discussion meeting, the chairman or leader emphasizes tactfully the purpose
and philosophy of the discussion. He/She considers the points and pieces of proof from
members of the panel. He/She prepares an outline to be approved before the planning
session adjourns. During the discussion, the leader's responsibilities are:
a. To keep the conversation moving from point to point; and
b. To see that each member has a chance to speak and to ask questions intended to
clarify points for the audience.
4. After the panel has established a pattern of discussion, the leader summarizes briefly
and invites comments or questions from the audience.

Symposium Forum
A symposium is more formal than a panel forum. It is essentially a public speaking program, while
the panel forum is conversational. In a symposium, persons with special competence deliver
uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of a subject, and these speeches are followed by a
forum period. The participants usually consist of the chairman or the moderator and two to four
speakers. The number of speakers depends on the number of significant sources of information to
be considered. However, one advantage of holding a symposium is its one-way communication.
Preparation for a symposium:
1. Deciding the purpose of the symposium
2. Choosing and framing the topics to arouse the interest of the audience
3. Choosing the speakers
4. Choosing the chairman
5. Briefing the chairman and the speakers on the objectives of the symposium and the
procedures to be followed, including the time allotted for each speaker.

Debate Forum
Another type of discussion is the debate which happens when people with different beliefs study
the same problem and arrives at different solutions. The participants in a debate prepare different
speeches for or against a proposition. The debaters must be approximately equal in prestige,
knowledge of the problem, and speaking skills. They should understand that the purpose of the
debate is to make an analysis of the problem and a fair presentation of the arguments for or
against it.

Round-table conference
The round-table conference is used to describe the type of program similar to a panel, but it is
usually composed of a small group of people seated face to face around a table without a large
audience. The number of members may range from six to eight. A discussion problem is selected
in which all members are interested. A leader must be chosen and must be willing to prepare for
the meeting. He/She must be respected by the group to ensure the members' full cooperation.
Most often, he/she is the source of information.

Special Techniques In The Teaching-Learning Process

Role-playing
Role-playing is the spontaneous acting out of problems or situations. It is important that the
actors understand the nature and the purpose of their respective assignments. They
usually portray a situation more candidly than merely describing. Hence, role-playing
creates interest and stimulates discussion.
Case Study Method
The case study method presents specific situations or problems to stimulate the discussion.
It implies extensive analysis and interpretation of a case selected to demonstrate a learning
outcome. During the discussion, the leader presents the facts of the problem and solution
as depicted in the case and then draws from the group the principles they feel the case
shows in terms of what should have been done. An evaluation should follow the
presentation.
Buzz
The buzz can be held successfully with familiar topics that need group opinion, evaluation,
planning or interaction. The chairperson may divide the group into small subgroups. It is
 Principles of Teaching I 9
Improved Instructional Practices: Discussion Procedures and Special
Techniques

useful when a large is to be followed by the question time. The chairperson must announce
that after the lecture period, each subgroup through a spokesperson can ask the speaker
certain questions.
Workshop
In a workshop, the planning committee studies, classifies, organizes, and puts in workable
form the problems submitted by the members.
Seminar
The seminar is held for the purpose of solving or attempting to solve a problem. The
discussion focuses on the issue, problem, situation, or proposition to arrive at an answer, a
solution or a policy. The seminar group is deliberative body looking for a solution to the
problem from the evidence based on the readings, experiences and minds of the
participants. It is greatly advantageous if a leader is an expert on the subject for then,
he/she can guide the participants fully and effectively without much effort.

REFERENCES:
Boiser, D.C. (2000). Strategies for Teaching, a Modular Approach. Quezon City: Rexbookstore, inc.

Co,puz, B.B and Salandanan, G. G. (2003). Principles and Strategies of Teaching. Quezon City;
Lorimar Publishing Company, Inc.

OTHER RESOURCES:

https://m.youtube.com./watch?v=gkLAz25KPI
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=xUBe47vx7-A\
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=etYQU3KoS8o
www.ibo.org Approaches to Learning: Literature Review PDF
https://www.into.ie Approaches to Teaching and Learning PDF
www.science.smith.edu Students' Approaches to Leaming PDF
 Principles of Teaching I 1
The Teacher and the Teaching Profession

Module 11: Theories of Learning

OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain the signiftcance of learning theories when applied to instruction;
2. Discuss how learning theories are used by teachers for predicting purposes;
3. Identify the learning theorists that support instructional models in basic
education;
4. Discuss the differences in learning theories, the assumptions underlying their
differences, and the ways these assumptions shape instructional planning; and
5. Realize that teachers become better instructional planners and more effective
teachers when they can classify their beliefs about learning.

Effective teaching is the product of systematic planning of instruction by curriculum

makers and teachers. To ensure effective teaching, educators today equip themselves with
the knowledge and skills in choosing appropriate approaches to instruction that are
anchored on the following learning theories that will guide teachers in the conduct of the
teaching-learning processes in the classroom.

Operant Conditioning
For BF Skinner (1953), a behavioral theorist, learning is a behavioral change. He developed
a learning theory popularly known as Skinner operant conditioning. This theory refers to
learning facilitated through reinforcement and is based on pleasure-pain view of human
behavior (Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metcalf, 1999). By and large, students tend to do a given
task again if they are rewarded or if the task itself is rewarding. On the other hand, they will
not perform the task or repeat th behavior if they are not rewarded.
Operant conditioning as a behaviorist theory emphasizes the importance of observable,
external events in learning and the role of reinforcement in influencing those events.
Behaviorists, in their studies, attempted to determine how external instructional
manipulations affect change in student behavior. The role of the teachers is to control the
environment through stimuli in the form of cues and reinforcements for appropriate
behavior (Kauchak & Eggen, 2001)
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura (1986), the leading proponent of the social learning theory, explained that
human learning is done by selectively observing and instilling into memory the behavior of
others. This theory holds that most of what humans learn come through the observation of
others (Arends, 2004). For Bandura, learning through observation involves three steps:
attention, retention, and production.
Social learning is also called observational learning, which maintains that students can
learn a lot by observing others. Bandura explained that for observational learning to be
effective, learners must attend to someone's behavior, retain what they observed,
reproduce the behavior they saw, and experience reinforcement or satisfaction as a
consequence (Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metcalf, 1999).

Cognitive Development Theory

The focus of Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory is the development of natural logic
from birth to adulthood. The basic assumption of his theory is that human intelligence and
biological organisms function in similar ways. Children's thoughts change qualitatively,
thereby making children of different ages possess different views of the world (Muji &
Reynolds, 2005). Piaget further stated that as children grow and mature, they go through
four (4) stages of cognitive development (i.e. sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete
operational, formal operational) which occur in q continuing process from birth to post­
adolescence. Mental development begins with the first stage and, without skipping a stage,
progresses developmentally through each succeeding stage (Kellough, 2003).

Constructivism
This theory emerged when educators observed that the students were learning in isolation
and had no background skills and information. The trend resulted in the inability of the
students to apply their learned skills to real-life situations (Gredler, 1997). Constructivism
is a recent development in cognitive psychology. It focuses its attention on the central role
that learners play in creating or constructing new knowledge.
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (1962), considered as the two original constructivists,
maintained that human learn by activity, constructing from their simultaneously embedded
experiences. Likewise, Richardson (1977) pointed out that constructivism is designed and
sequenced to encourage learners to use their own experiences to actively construct
meaning that makes sense to them rather than to acquire understanding through exposure
to a format exclusively organized by their teachers. In the cognitive approach, students
cover some of the learning activities and assessments are often rooted in authentic
situations; and much learning occurs in groups (Moore, 2005). This approach to teaching
recognizes learning as an active process.
 Principles of Teaching I 3
The Teacher and the Teaching Profession

Socio-cultural Theory
This theory is based on the early works of Vygotsky (1978), a Russian cognitive
psychologist. Socio-cultural theory is a cognitive view of learning that emphasizes student
participation in learning communities. It explains how very complex forms of learning can
be facilitated through cognitive apprenticeship, wherein learners not only learn alongside
an expert, but also learn why they are doing something in a certain way. Asking "why" is
the cognitive aspect of cognitive apprenticeship (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001). To the socio­
cultural theorists, learners are novices under the supervision of one or more mentors.
Vygotsky likewise believed that social interaction with others spur the construction of new
ideas, thereby enhancing the learners' intellectual development (Arends, 2004)
Vygotsky was able to identify the optimal level of instruction for each student as the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). For Vygotsky, each student's ZPD is based on the level at
which the student can no longer solve problems on his / her own, but must be supported
by a teacher or a more knowledgeable peer. For the teacher to provide instruction for each
student at the optimal level (ZPD), he/she has to use reflective actions to gain an
understanding of the student's needs (Eby, Herrell, & Hicks, 2001).
Vygotsky also suggested scaffolding, the instructional support that teachers can provide to
enhance learning. Typical examples of scaffolding are breaking down complex skills into
subskills, asking questions, presenting examples, modeling the steps in solving problems,
and providing prompts and cues (Eggen and Kauchak, 2001).

Schema Theory
This is a cognitive view of knowledge wherein the information people store in their
memories consists of networks of organized and interconnected ideas (Piaget, 1970).
According to the schema theory, the organized structure and schemata (abstract bodies of
information) that a learner brings to fore in learning new content determine how the
learning tasks are interpreted and what the learner understands from them (McNeil
&Wiles, 1990). The theory expounds that each subset of knowledge is stored in a schema,
an outline of organized network of knowledge about a single concept or subject. Young
children develop schemata made up of visual or other sensory images, and as language
increases, verbal imagery replaces the sensory images (Anderson, 1989). Thus, the schema
theory helps explain why some students are able to retrieve knowledge better than others.
Children whose schema are richly detailed and well organized into patterns and
hierarchies are much more likely to be able to retrieve useful information on request than
children whose schemata are vague and sparse (Eby and Martin, 2001).
Attribution Theory
This theory was developed by Bernard Weiner (1992), a cognitivist theorist. His theory
proposed that the major determinants of motivation are not the innate needs or
experiences of individual, but how their successes and failures are perceived and
interpreted (Arends, 2004). Likewise, the attribution theory views the students and
their beliefs about success as the primary sources of motivation (McNeil & Wiles, 1990).
According to Weiner (1992), students attribute their successes or failures to ability, effort,
luck, and the difficulty of the learning tasks.
Studies revealed that students with high achievement motivation tend to associate their
successes with their abilities and their failures with lack of effort. Conversely, students with
low achievement motivation tend to attribute their successes to luck and their failures to
lack of ability. There are ways in which teachers can change students' perceptions of
themselves and the things around them. By and large, students can be taught to attribute
their successes and failures to internal causes, such as effort, rather than to external forces,
like luck. Simply put, the attribution theory emphasizes the way individuals perceive and
interpret the causes of their successes and failures (Arends, 2004).

Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner (1993), a leading psychologist, proposed the theory of multiple
intelligences. The team of researchers explains that people have nine (9) distinct
intellectual capacities that are used to approach problems and create products: linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
naturalistic, and existentialist. Garner affirmed that most people have several of these
intelligences although some of the intelligences they possess may manifest more strongly
than others.

Moral Development Theory

The leading proponents of these theory were jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg (1961).
Piaget's developmental research dealt on how people reason about matters of right and
wrong. He expounded that children begin to understand that the needs of others must be
taken into account when making moral judgments (Martorella, 1994). Following the same
line of thinking, Kohlberg (1966) organized a moral development theory related to the
growth of moral reasoning. This theory was based on the assumption that the rate of moral
development varies, with some individual acquiring at a relatively high level of moral
reasoning early in life.