Metal Cutting

Metal Cutting : Classification

Based on the position of tool
• Orthogonal Cutting (2-D)
• Oblique Cutting (3-D)
 Metal Cutting: Chip Formation
The separated material flows on the rake face of the tool called as chip.
The chip near the end of rake face is lifted away from the tool and the
resultant curvature of the chip is called chip curl
Metal Cutting: Chip Formation
Metal Cutting: Chip Formation
 Chip Formation: Shear Zones
There are three (3) main shear zones in the metal cutting
• Primary Shear zone: Present between work piece and chip region
• Secondary shear zone: Present between tool and chip
• Tertiary shear zone: Present between tool and work piece region
 Types of chip
• Continuous Chip
• Continuous Chip with BUE
• Serrated or segmented Chips
• Discontinuous chips
 Types of chips: Continuous Chip

Continuous Chips

Favorable Conditions
• Ductile Material
• High Speed
• Low feed and Depth of Cut
• High Back rake angle
Effects
• Good Surface Finish
• Less Power Consumption
• More Tool Life
Types of chips: Continuous Chips with BUE

Continuous Chips with BUE

Favorable Conditions
• Ductile Material
• Low Speed
• High Feed and Depth of Cut
Effects
• Poor Surface Finish
• More tool life
• Un-steady Cutting forces
• High Power Consumption
 Types of chips: Serrated Chips
• These are Semi continuous chips
with cyclical formation of low
and high shear strain zones
• Associated with Difficult to
Machine Materials
 Types of chips: Discontinuous Chips
Favorable Conditions
• Brittle Material
• Low speed
• High feed and depth of cut
• Low back rake Angle
Effects
• Surface finish is good
• More power consumption
• Less Tool Life
 Analysis of Orthogonal Cutting
Assumptions
• Tool is perfectly sharp and has no contact along the clearance face
• Surface where shearing is occurring is a plane
• Cutting edge is straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of
motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it
• The chip does not flow Either side or there is no side spread
• Uncut chip thickness is constant
• Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work
• A continuous chip is produced without any BUE
• Work moves with uniform velocity
• Width of cutting is constant (before cutting and after cutting)
Analysis of Orthogonal Cutting
 Cutting Tools
• Single Point Cutting Tool:
single point cutting tool (such as a lathe, shaper and planner and boring
tool) has only one cutting edge
• Multipoint Cutting Tool: multi-point cutting tool (such as milling cutter,
milling cutter, drill, reamer and broach) has a number of teeth or cutting
edges on its periphery.
 Cutting Tools: Types
1.Single Point Cutting tool: Tool having only a single cutting edge
Ex: Shaping Tool, Turning tool , Slotting tool.
2.Multi Point Cutting tool: Tool having more than two cutting edges
Ex- Milling , drilling and grinding tool
 Cutting Tools: Properties
• Hardness
• Cutting tool material must be 1 1/2 times harder than the material it is being used
to machine.

• Capable of maintaining a red hardness during machining operation

• Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp cutting edge
• Also referred to as hot hardness or hot strength

• Wear Resistance
• Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout the cutting operation
• Same as abrasive resistance

• Shock Resistance
• Able to take the cutting loads and forces

• Shape and Configuration

• Must be available for use in different sizes and shapes.
 Cutting Tools: Properties
• Toolbits generally made of
• High-speed steel

• Cast alloys (such as stellite)

• Cemented carbides

• Ceramics

• Cermets

• Cubic Boron Nitride

• Polycrystalline Diamond
 Cutting Tools: Geometry
• Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important
roles on their performances in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and
overall economy of machining
Cutting Tools: Concept of Rake Angle and Clearance Angle

• Rake Angle: Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference

plane.
• Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining.
• Rake angle may be positive, or negative or even zero
• Clearance Angle: Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface
from the finished surface.
• Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool
(flank) with the machined surface which causes loss of energy and
damages of both the tool and the job surface.
Cutting Tools: Concept of Rake Angle and Clearance Angle
 Cutting Tools: Geometry

• ASA System: Designation of tool nomenclature is purely geometrical

in nature and is not related to the mechanics of the process
• Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
• Normal Rake System (NRS)
Cutting Tools: Geometry
Cutting Tools: Geometry
Cutting Tools: Geometry
Cutting Tools: Geometry
 Cutting Tools: Tool Signature

The numerical code that describes all the key angles of a given cutting
tool. A tool signature may be used for HSS or carbide inserts.
• Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized
abbreviated system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature.
• It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut.
• It specifies the active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge.
 Cutting Tools: Tool Signature
Tool Signature
• The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting
tool can be stated in the following order:
• Example: Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8
1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
 Tool Geometry: Significance of Tool Angles
Rake Angles (Back and Side):
• If viewed from the side facing the end of the work piece, it is the angle
formed by the face of the tool and a line parallel to the floor
Rake angle can be Positive, Zero or Negative
When Rake angle is Large( +ve)
1) Low Cutting Forces
2) Low power consumption
3) Good Surface finish
3) Tool becomes weak (Because Wedge angle of tool gets reduced)
Small Rake angles are used for cutting hard materials while large angles are
used for cutting ductile and soft materials.
 Tool Geometry: Significance of Tool Angles
Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA):
• If viewed from above looking down on the cutting tool, it is the angle
formed by the side flank of the tool and a line perpendicular to the work
piece centerline.
• Prevents the sudden engagement of entire depth of cut when the tool
enters the work materials
• Affects tool life and surface finish
• Values varies from 0 to 90 degrees.
• When SCEA is Zero entire cutting edge is will engage at the same time with
workpiece
• Zero SCEA are used to produce square shoulders
• When SCEA is increased, the entry of the tool is smooth to start the cut.
The chip produced will be thinner wider which helps in better heat heat
transfer.
 Tool Geometry: Significance of Tool Angles
End Cutting Edge Angle
• If viewed from above looking down on the cutting tool, it is the angle
formed by the end flank of the tool and a line parallel to the work
piece centreline.
• TO relieve the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing the
machined surface.
• Small angle is preferred as large angle takes away material that
supports the cutting edge and hinders the conduction of heat away
from the point.
 Tool Geometry: Significance of Tool Angles
Relief Angles ( Side and End)
• End Relief Angle: If viewed from the side facing the end of the work
piece, it is the angle formed by the end flank of the tool and a vertical
line down to the floor.
• Side Relief Angle : If viewed behind the tool down the length of the
tool holder, it is the angle formed by the side flank of the tool and a
vertical line down to the floor.
• The relief angles are given to prevent the rubbing of flank of the tool
with the machined surface
• Small angles are preferred i.e 5 to 15 degrees
Merchants Theory

Ernst and Merchant did this scientific analysis for

the first time in 1941 and gives the following
relation in 1944
π β−α
ϕ= −
𝟒 𝟐
Merchants Circle Diagram
 Tool Wear :Modes
Defn: Gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operations is known as
tool wear.
MODES OF CUTTING TOOL FAILURES
 Fracture Failure
 Temperature Failure
 Gradual Wear

FRACTURE FAILURE:
• This mode of failure occurs due to mechanical breakage due to excessive
forces and shocks at the tool point causing it to fail suddenly by brittle
fracture.
• Also known as mechanical chipping.
• Such kind of tool failure is random and catastrophic in nature, results in
premature loss of tool and hence is extremely detrimental.
 Tool Wear :Modes
TEMPERATURE FAILURE:
• This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the tool material,
causing the material at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
• This type of failure also occurs rapidly, results in premature loss of tool and is
quite detrimental and unwanted.
• GRADUAL WEAR:
• Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in
cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn,
and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.
• Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool,
option of changing the tool before the final catastrophic loss of the cutting edge
occurs, with the associated economic advantage of that longer use.
• Note: failure by gradual wear cannot be prevented but can be slowed down to
enhance the service life of the tool.
 Tool Wear :Modes
• WEAR ZONES & TYPES OF GRADUAL WEAR
• Gradual wear occurs at three principal locations on a cutting tool.
Accordingly, three main types of tool wear can be distinguished,
• Crater wear (KT)
• Flank wear (VB)
• Corner wear
 Tool Wear :Crater Wear
Crater wear:
• It consists of a cavity or concave section on the tool face/rake face
formed and grows from the action of the chip sliding against the
surface.
• High stresses and temperatures characterize the tool–chip contact
interface, contributing to the wearing action.
• The crater can be measured either by its depth or its area.
• Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing the actual
rake angle of the cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier.
• At the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and
increases the possibility for tool breakage.
• This wear predominates at high speed. In general, crater wear is of a
relatively small concern.
 Tool Wear :Crater wear
The crater wear is mainly caused due to
• The presence of friction between the chip-tool interface,
• The abrasion action of microchips present at the chip-tool interface.
• The abrasive action of fragments of Built up Edge (BUE) at the chip-
tool interface and diffusion wear.
• The diffusion wears, due to the atomic attraction between the tool
and work the atoms of the tool, material will get diffused and
deposited over the work piece called diffusion wear.
 Tool Wear :Flank Wear
• It occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between
the machined surface of the work piece and the tool flank.
• Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear land
and is measured by the width of this wear land, VB.
• Flank wear affects to the great extend the mechanics of
cutting.
• It occurs because the original work surface is harder
and/or more abrasive than the internal material, which
could be caused by work hardening from cold drawing or
previous machining, sand particles in the surface from
casting, or other reasons. As a consequence of the harder
surface, wear is accelerated at this location.
• Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If
the amount of flank wear exceeds some critical value (VB
> 0.5~0.6 mm) then the excessive cutting force may
cause tool failure.
• This wear predominates at low speed.
 Tool Wear : Corner Wear
Corner wear/Nose wear
• It occurs on the tool corner.
• It can be considered as a part of the wear
land and respectively flank wear since there
is no distinguished boundary between the
corner wear and flank wear land.
• We consider corner wear as a separate wear
type because of its importance for the
precision of machining.
• Corner wear actually shortens the cutting
tool thus increasing gradually the dimension
of machined surface and introducing a
significant dimensional error in machining,
which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05
mm.
 Tool Life
• Defn: Tool life is generally defined by the span of actual uninterrupted
machining time through which the tool or tool-tip renders desired
service and satisfactory performance and after which the tool needs
replacement.
• The tool life represents useful life of the tool, expressed in time units
from start of the cut to some end point defined by failure criterion.
• A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to have
failed and hence reached the end of its useful life.
 Tool Life: Determination of Tool Life
TOOL LIFE DETERMINATION PROCESS:
• Tool wear is a time dependent process. As
cutting proceeds, the amount of tool wear
increases gradually.
• Rather than operating the tool until final
catastrophic failure an alternative way in
which a level of tool wear (flank wear at 0.3
to 0.6 mm shown by horizontal line on wear
curve) is set as safe limit.
• The safe limit is referred to as allowable
wear land (wear criterion), VB.
• The cutting time required for the cutting
tool to develop a flank wear land of width
VB is called tool life, T.
• When wear curves intersects that line, the
life of the corresponding tool is defined as Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool
ended and the tool is replaced. life
 Tool Life: Determination of Tool Life
• Tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by
the level of the machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity, feed
and depth of cut.
• Increased speed, feed, and depth of cut have a similar effect,
with speed being the most important of the three. Cutting
velocity affects maximum and depth of cut minimum.
• Harder work materials cause the wear rate (slope of the tool
wear curve) to increase.
• The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting
velocity keeping other conditions unaltered as indicated in Fig.
 Tool Life: Taylors Tool life Equation

• If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc. are

plotted against the corresponding
cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc.
as shown in Fig. a smooth curve like a
rectangular hyperbola is found to
appear.
• When F. W. Taylor plotted the same
figure taking both V and T in log-scale,
a more distinct linear relationship
appeared as schematically shown in
Fig.
 Tool Life: Taylors Tool life Equation
• With the slope, n and intercept, C,
Taylor derived the simple equation as
𝑛
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶
where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent
• The values of both ‘n’ and ‘C’ depend mainly
upon the tool-work materials and the cutting
environment (cutting fluid application).
• The value of C depends also on the limiting
value of VB undertaken (i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm,
0.6 mm etc.)
• Note that the magnitude of C is the cutting
speed at T = 1 min.
 Tool Life: Modified Taylors Tool life Equation
• In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting
velocity, V on tool life has been considered. But practically, the
variation in feed (f) and depth of cut (d) also play role on tool life to
some extent. Taking into account the effects of all those parameters,
the Taylor’s tool life equation has been modified as,

𝑇𝑛𝑑𝑥𝑓𝑦 = 𝐶
• Here d is the depth of cut and f is the feed in mm/rev
• The exponents x and y must be determined experimentally for each
cutting condition.
 Cutting Fluids
DEFINITION: A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is applied directly to the
machining operation to improve cutting performance.

PURPOSE:
• Act as lubricant: Reduce friction and wear by acting as a film and hence also
reduce welding tendency.
• Act as coolant: Cooling of cutting zone and hence increasing tool life & improving
dimensional stability, Reducing the temperature of the work piece for easier
handling
• Reduce forces and energy consumption.
• Flush away the chips from the cutting zone to avoid interference in cutting
• Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion (weakening and
depletion of surface by deposition of other matter like rust) & contamination by
the gases like SO2, O2, H2S, and NxOy present in the atmosphere
 Cutting Fluids: Essential Properties
For cooling:
• High specific heat (high heat absorbing capacity), thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer
• spreading and wetting ability
For lubrication:
• High lubricity without gumming (accumulation & sticking of dirt & dust) and foaming
• Wetting and spreading
• High film boiling point
• Friction reduction at extreme pressure and temperature
• Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the system
• less volatile (tendency of evaporation) and high flash point (temperature at which fluid vapor ignite by some
source)
• High resistance to bacterial growth
• Odorless and also preferably colorless
• Nontoxic in both liquid and gaseous stage
• Easily available and low cost.
• It should permit clear view of the work operation
 Cutting Fluids: Types of Cutting Fluids
1. Blast or compressed air only
• Grey cast iron use no cutting fluid in liquid form as graphite flakes in the
cast iron acts as a lubricant in itself by sliding over each other and
producing short discontinuous chips.
• In such cases only air blast is recommended for cooling and cleaning
2. Water Based Emulsion
• High heat carrying (high Specific heat) capacity
• Low viscosity makes it flow at high rates through the cutting fluid system
and also penetrates the cutting zones.
• Problem with water coolants is they corrode the work material very quickly
particularly at high temp
• Hence, other materials would be added to water to improve its wetting
characteristics, rust inhibitors and any other additives to improve
lubrication characteristics.
 Cutting Fluids: Types of Cutting Fluids
3. Straight Mineral Oils:
• These are pure mineral oils without any additives
• Their main function is lubrication and rust prevention
• Chemically stable and low cost
• Applications are limited to only some heavy duty machining
4. Mineral Oils with Additives
• These are the mineral oils with suitable additives which produce the desirable
characteristics for different machining situations.
• Many difficult to machine situations would be helped by the use of these cutting
fluids. These are generally termed as neat oils.
• The additives generally improves load carrying capacity.
• Fatty oils are generally used for improving load carrying capacity.
• EP (Extreme Pressure) additives are used for more difficult to machine situations
• EP Additives are basically chlorine, sulphur or combination of both. As result, the
anti-welding compound formed in the cutting zone are iron chloride or iron
sulphide
Cutting Fluids: Selection of Cutting Fluids

Self Study