DOCUMENT RESUME

ED'226 372 CS 207 382

AUTHOR Christenbury, Leila; Kelly, Patricia P.

TITLE Questioning: A Path to Critical Thinking. TRIP:
Theory & Research into Practice.
INSTITUTION ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication
0 Skills, Urbana, Ill.; National Council of Teachers of
English, Urbana, Ill.
SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.
PUB DATE 83
CONTRACT 400-78-0026
NOTE 4Gp.
AVAILABLE FROM National Council of Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyon
Rd., Urbana, IL 61801 (Stock No. 38047, $3.50
non-member, $3.00 member).
PUB TYPE Information Analyses ERIC Information Analysis
Products (071)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Classroom Communication; Classroom Techniques;
Cognitive Processes; *Critical Thinking; Educational
Research; Elementary Secondary Education; *English
Instruction; Language Arts; Learning Activities;
Learning Theories; Prior Learning; *Questioning
Techniques; Schemata (Cognition)

ABSTRACT
Intended to help upper elementary and secondary'
school teachers increase their students' critical thinking, this
booklet discusses the theory and techniques behind the use of
questioning to evoke prior knowledge and further inquiry. The first
portion of the booklet discusses the theory and research that
underlie the use of questioning, examining questioning hierarchies
and how they are used. The second portion of the booklet puts this
research into practice,. by introducing the questioning circle--a Venn
diagram of intersecting questions dealing with the subject matter,
personal reality (prior learning), and external reality. The
discussion adapts this structure to literature, language, and
composition instruction. Managing classroom interaction, such as what
.to do when students cannot, do not, or will not answer, ahd depling
with short or wrong answers are then explored, and suggestions for
encouraging student answers are supplied. The booklet concludes with
a discussion on helping students generate their own questions to
stimulate further critical thinking. (HTH)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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 U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER IERICI
tThus document has been reproduced as
wended horn the person or urgarezatron
orrotn.ittng rt
wag changes have been made tu ifnprove
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16 represent oiticol NIE

A Path to Critical Thinking

Leila Christenbury
Hollins College
Patricia P. Kelly
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

0,0
 ..

To Robert C. Small, Jr., with affection and grati'ude

NCTE Editorial Board: Marilyn Hanf Buckley, Thomas L. Clark, Jane-

Hornburger, Elisabeth McPherson, Zora Rashkis, John C. Maxwell, ex officio,
Paul O'Dea, ex officio

Consultant Reader: Jonathan Swift

Book Design:;Tom Kovacs for TGK Design

NCTE Stock Number 38047

Published 1983 by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication

Skills and the National Council of Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyog Road,
Urbana, Illinois 61801

This publication was prepared with funding from the Nadi:trial

a. Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Education, under
contract no. 400-78-0026. Contractors undertaking such projects
judg-
under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their
the manu-
ment in professional and technical matters. Prior to publication, of
script was submitted to the Editorial Board of the National Council
Teachers of English for critical review and determination of professional
of view or
competence. This publication has met such standards. Points
opinions, however, do not necessarily represent the official view or opinions
National Insti-
of either the National Council of Teachers of English or the ,
tute.of Education.

3
 ..,
a
a.'

Contents
#

Foreword vii

I. Theory and Research 1

Questioning Hierarchies 3
How to Use Questioning 8

2. Practice 12
The Questioning Circle 12
Managing Classroom Interaction 22
Helping Students Generate Questions 27
- \ Conclusion 33
_

S'

,.

e.

4
,
 Foreword

The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is a national

information system developed by the U.S. Office of Education and
now sponsored by the National Institute of Education (NIE). It pro-
vides ready access to descriptions of exemplary programs, reports on
research and development efforts, and [elated information useful in
developing effective educational programs.
Through its network of specialized centers or clearinghouses, each
of which is responsible for a particular educational area, ERIC ac
quires, evaluates, abstractsmd indexes current information and lists
that information in its reference publications.
The ERIC system has already made availablethrough the ERIC
Document Reproduction Servicea considerable body of data, in-
cluding all federally funded research reports since 1956. However, if
the findings of educational research are to be used by teachers, much
of the data must be translated into an essentially different context.
Rather than resting at the point of making research reports easily
accessible, NIE has directed the separate ERIC clearinghouses to
commission informatiop analysis papers in specific areas from recog-
nized authorities in those fields.
As with all federal educational information efforts, ERIC has as;a
primary goal bridging the gap between educational theory and class-
row practice. One method of achieving that gcal is the development
by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills
(ERIC 'RCS) of a series of booklets designed to meet concrete educa-
tional needs. Each booklet provides teachers with a review of the best
educational theory and research on' a limited topic followed by de;
scriptions of classroom activities that will assist teachers in putting
that theory into practice.
The idea is not unique. Several educational journals and many
comnwrcial textbooks offer similar aids. The ERIC RCS booklets arc,
however, noteworthy in their sharp focus on educational needs and
their pairing of sound academic theory with tested dassroom practice.
And they have been developed in response to the increasing number
of requests from teachers to provide this kind of service.
 I

Foreword
0
I
lopics for these booklets are recommended by the ERIC/RCS
National Advisory Board. Suggestions for topics are welcomed by the
Board and should be directed to. the Clearinghouse.
Bernard O'Donnell
Director, ERIC/RCS

, .,.

..o

.,

6
 1 Theory and Reseakh

At the heart of a rationale for questioning is the truth of the rather

paradoxical observation. "How do I know what I think until I hear
what I say?"
As odd as that quotation may al first appear, most of us can verify
the remark; in professional, informal, or even social conversation,
many of us hay e been startled to hear ourselves making a statement or
expressing an opinion that we did not know we actually believed
until ue heard ourselves speak. Talkingasking and answering ques-
tionsoften rey eals our thoughts and feelings to us as wdl as to
others. This experience, in turn, clarifies our views and focuses our
thinking.
As adults, we become accustomed to such minor epiphanies. As
teachers, howeyer, we can introduce students in our classes to oppor-
tunities for similar experiences. And the traditional, most structured
way to proyide such opportunities is through questioning, a path to
critical thinking.
Critical thinking is a broad term variously applied to many disci-
plines. In the context .of this discussion, critical thinking encourages
students.to take into account more than just content, more than just
their own experience, more than just the wisdom of the world and the
experience of otheis. Questions facilitate this intellectual process,
leading students to integiate all three areas into a harmonious, and
essentially individual, whole. Thus critical thinking is the student's
journey through ideas, not the teacher's journey, and the student's
destination, not the teacher's.
Questioning, of course, is not appropriate for all instructional
situations. It is fruitless to question students when they do not have
sufficient information or background to respond adequately. Second,
questioningts we will later explore, can actuzily inhibit student
learning rather than enhance it. Finally, questioning is only one of a
Yariety of useful strategies for effective language arts instruction.' Yet
in countless situations in the English classroom, questioning is un-
doubtedly a fayoredand often the most effectiveteaching and learn-
ing tool. Questioning can:

1
 41,

2 Christenbury and Kelly

Provide students with an opportunity to find out what they

think by hearing what they say. In responding to questions
:ibout literature or id6s, students often discover their opinions or
reactions. In responding to questions about writing, students
disco% er their ideas in prewriting or clarify their ideas in rev,i-
s ion. Questioning can stimulate faculties of critical thinking.
Allow students to explore topics and argue pomts of view.
Through questioning, students can pursue an aspect of a topic
that appeals to them or can logically defend a theory or belief
that they hold, thus sharpening thinking skills.
Allow students to function as experts. In a well-run classroom,
students as well as the teachel can question, probe, explore, and
in essence guide the discussion into specific Itreas.
Give students the opportunity to interact among themselves.
Given the proper setting, students canand willargue and
debate with one anothei. Student talk is useful and provides a
stimulus for learning as well as an impetus for further explora-
tion c)( topics.
Give the teacher immediate mformatton about student compre-
hension and learning. Through judicious questioning alid care-
ful attention to student answers, the teacher can determine if
students have comprehended an assignment, if they have com-
pleted it, or if they are ready to move on to another topic. Ques-
tioning, then, serves as an effective diagnostic tool.
Research on the use of questioning in the language arts classroom
has centered on tiv o am eas, leading comprehension and composition.
Research on reading coMprehension shows undisputed benefits from
asking questions. questions help students comprehend content, and
students who use questions learn more subject matter than students
who do not use questions.= As eat ly as 1917, educational psychologist
Edward L. Tlmrndike suggested that the use of questions and oral
exercises can improve reading comprehension. Studies conducted in
1929 and tn 1931, as well as more recent ones, suggest that "experi-
menter.constructed questions facilitate comprehension and recall of
textual materials."+ In addition, research indicates that when the
questions are given after the material and require the students to
construi t answers rather than choose from multiple-choice answers,
the benefits tend to be stronger.' Norman E. Wallen and Robert M. W.
Travers showed that students "will learn more efficiently" if they
"nmke the responses to be learned" rather than "observing another
make the response" or making "some related response."6 Thus, when
Theory and Research 3

students duet tlY ansys el questions. they alc leallung mole efficiently.
Finally, James R. Squile's (Asti %anon that students' r6sponses change
bile they read is i eleYan t to the subject of questioning. Students
ha% t mally lespouses to a text, through questioning, these multiple
lesponses,can be elicited and discussed.7
English teachers must be .ns ale that questioning reinforces lather
than teaches leading skills. As I 1.n old I.. Ile ber and Joan B. Nelson
point out. "leading skills ate unplit it in the application of questions
to text materials.''' Therefore, if a stucklit does not ha% e strong read-
ing skills, questioning per se %%ill not pro% ide those skills. I Ielber
commented in an earlier work(
If titteslimis are used to teach students how to teal material, they
are being misused. If they are being used to I einfol cc skills which
the students aheady have. tlie are being used well. Questions are
of doubtful %aloe otfb when thel, are used assunipmely. When
quesnons assume possession of skills not )et taught 01 letrned,
they are assuniptive.9

The restart 11 on quesnoning tet liniques in the al ea of ompositum

'14
yields sonic ey ident e that questioning is benefit ial. Mjnii Schwan/
liotes that questioning and talking "I edut e the. pit-y.6611g tension of
not klum mg %%hat to Ys'i ite about,'"O and Robert Zoellnei, in his
RH) lead artit le ralk-W1 nu.- suggests that students use question-
ing and lespontling as a hay of imploying composition." In Zoellnel's
study h St Udell as palled ys ull a second student to talk about the
composition before %%Hung and to I espond to tile whet student's
content questions..Students then it Yursed toles and I (Teaml tile ques-
tioning plocess. The 9 LIes t ion i Il .rntl ans%%el ing, um dIng to tuo
adaptois of /.oellper's method, supplied the "initial inatenal foi the
!cm ning tient c," ploy ided the %%lite! y% itil "immediate hell; and
reinfoninleilt.- and encouraged .1 Yariety of answers.12
Questioning. then, helps students discoYel theil n ideas, it giYes
students an oppol tunny to exploi e and argue and to shalpen t i itit al
think ng sk 9,6, It alloy% s students to function as expel ts and to 'menu t
among thenisel% es, It Oyes tilt teacher inyaluable infol Illation about
student ability and all hie% enicnt. Questioning also aids students in the
complellension of mint:tit, and it Lan t ()unto t liting anxiety or
genetal writing (lifficulties.

Questioning Hkrarchies
Almost eLer} text .11 tO. lc that includes a discussion of questioning
also includes an obligatory hierarchy. scale of importance, or cate-

9
4
S. Christenbury and Kelly

goraal schema of question t) pes: 'As in many fields of intellectiml

endeavor. certamn kinds of know kdgeand tfie answers to certain
kinds of questionsare considered superior to, more sophisticated
ihan, or requiring higher cognitive skills than certain others.
Following this prindple, most creators of questioning hierarchies
suggest that teachers ask questions at the lowest level of the scale and
then move up, spending the majority of questioning time in the upper
reaches of the questioning hierarch). If classroom interaction could
. be ,consincingly ranked in established catekories, then questioning
hierarchies, we feel, would be indispensable. pierarchies, however.
should be viewed as descriptiorl of cognitive processes rather than iW
prescriptions for .classroom questioning strategies. In fact, except at
the lowest or fauual level, numerous studies proved unsuccessful in
classifying quesiioning levels in acti!al classroom discussions.13
Because we do feel that questioning hierarchies, if used with judg-
ment, have-mime value, we present a few of the major ones, both
sequential and nonsequential, below. In the Practice section, however,
we offer our own questioning scFeina, the Questioning Circle. We
feel the Questioning Circle avoids some of the problems of question-
ing hierarchies and provides a more' practical approactfor the Eng:
lish teacher.
Seq iential Ilierarchies
Beniamin Bloom" Norris M. Sanders'5 Hilda Ta(m"
To know Memory Form concept
To comprehend Translation Interpret concept
To apply Interpretation Apply concept
To analyze ApPlication llarold Herber"
To synthesize Analysis Literal comprehension
To evaluate Synthesis Interpretative cdmpre-
Evaluation hension
Applied comprehension

Nonsequential Hierarchies
"A rthur Kaiser" Richard Smith" Ronald 7'. Hyman2°
Open Convergent Definitional
Closed Divergent Empirical
Suggestive Evaluative
Rhetorical Metaphysical

We believe that, mans such questioning hierarchies are essentially

arbitrary, as,is the advice that a teacher should ask only "A" type
questions at the beginning of a discussion or an assignment, gradually
move to "B" type questions, and then advance to "C" type questions.
Theory and Research,. 5

1Vhile sonic endc i d elm stunting is het t'SS.111 and .1 'mixture of

gut st pes thou c c I thost ts las alt tkillieth is esselit ha it seems
that thstussion and questioning ill tilt language arts classroom uee(l
not bt St) rigidly organized as some theorists and practitioners would
twirls. !Inlet ti. as this st vt llll indicates. not onl) are mans hierarchies
of quest itnas (no lapping and ottasumally even c ontradictory but the
vets evult ntc that'using the so-Lalled higher les erof questions actu-
al's results ill "Ingbil student lines cluent is disputed by some
researeh,studies.
-One hbvious chasm bat k to questioning Ineiare hies is their depeiti-
dclice mlii txtelisivt lists of questions lac paled by the teacher so that
eack categm S tn level is suffit lends "covered." In addition, even if
tun men %milling to ;ilepale questions fen eat h Lategors. sow (ate;
guilts ji e ttiibigtiuuis .tncl difficult to distinguish. For example. the
daft. I um c lit tu v. ii a,zalu,% mid interpretation is in ()bald) the pros ince
tsL tht semanticist. ne amilsre %%hen Sm C intelpret and we interpret
m hen mv anal s rt. %Olen does one funition stop and the other begin?
Wink mans of the 'authors of questioning hierarchies mould be the
hist to c.itttion against Using I hem rigidls Inans questioning sche-
mata have been abustsl and ham e betome preset iptions rathel than
suggcstions in gunIchnes. Inchsennnuant faith in any questioning
hierarchs IS foolish. wt fed, [01 IWO major reasons.
First. most Inelare hies imply that one category is superior to
another. vt their is no es ulence, for example, that the «)gnitive
sophistitation minim! to appls a tont ept is Mkt jiff to the abilit to
slit that t (pt stT ilk' Sant/L-1S hit'LlY (14 ) Di !kit 11141, zing a
tont tlit is suptnol Lii t ompichentling It (see iht Bloom taxonomy)
As a lesult, then is lite assulance that .1 student's mind n ILl be more
lc:Leptis, c to ont 'Alit of cmc stion .11 011t point III .1 thstltsSIO11 th.111 to
allothtl tVOt' 01 question at anothel point.
St-tont!, the Inclan Ines also suggest .111 onlo Is plogiession funn
out lest I to anodic I In all thsc ussions. plogiession that does not
almav 5 en( to in t lassitione. Students often "ping pong" flom one
Lategolv to anotho. Is It %%hulls unlike!) that in tl)e middle of a
supposcdly 'Inght i lc stl In.laturt discussion .1 student might return
to question an aspett of thy plot? Might a student begin 4 thSCUSS1011
In asking. 'Win thd he kt lwr do that to lum?" and then launch into
.an anal% sts its aluation? application? intelpietition?) befole the basic
tem all !net alchs has even been initiated? The aim% er, it seems. to
both questions "y eh." um objection to strn t implementa-
tion of questioning Inualclues is that they imply .1 lineal or sequen-
tial theorstof learning.'a theoty that we reject.
 .
ti Chrtnen bury and Kelly

In discussing tin n si in ilia of questioning. Robert J. Nash and

David. A. Slinn.m pont Out that then tripaitite.di% ision of factual,
C(nkepitiji. Mid tolitrAttial qUestiolls Shouhl be used only !Hirsch .
Flie effeowe quesnonei mines back and forth among the fac-
tual. (mu eptual and contextual mocks. Some educaims are
mote condonable starting with the factual. Odle whets like
to plunge right Into the iontextual. This does not,imply the
absente ol goal setting in the (uestioding process. Instead. we are
lecommending that goals be tentative. sell-dissolving when dis-
:rechted or real lied. and mutilate!) related to }citing people's real
c mere
Additionall. in sane questioning Moan-hies the at heinata ineltuk
a distinction bet neen open- ok di% elgolt questions and -t loud" or
comergent questions. It is clear that certain questions ("Why is. this a
great not cr.') Aim for far less discinery and diffelence of opinion
than otlois CR you could. what wouhl you change about this novel
and w !hi",. Olwn questions ask for new information. the solution to
tompIes oblene. the development of possCoilities. the expression of
opmion." Closed (pier:lions. however. askeor shoit. specifk
lion. check assumptions. !or e modems into ollernath es, and often
pilau eons ersation. Then is thiviotisly a place for well type of ques-
tion. It is imelesung to lupe that ow lecent tick ts that teacheis
and st tuknts %my tnaballly in then perception of open and dosed
questions. Stink Itts. ti genZ-ial. find 'closed questions restrktite atn1
thus frustrating. many teat heis. on the other hand. find open vies.
lions It usu.:twig. especially when confionted with student responses
based on 'hot au Despite these pi efeietwo. there isjittle justifica .
non kri totally confining classioom questioning to either the con-
vergent or divergent inot1e.
As noted Moir. one maJoi justification for extensive use of ques-
tioning hierarchic's is that so.called !uglier level questions iesult iti
"IngIon" 5-tudent aelnocinent._ many feel that students who answer
higher -miler questions tAttilsItt-1 will moic hequently exert ise higher-
oi.du thinking skills. Fin ts suintnaitted by Marli Andre .md
Thomas I 1. Ando son: :
1 ligh-level questionsquestion, is huh !Noire comprehen%ion of
the text and applicatum pruniplc.s and iontepts to new situ
notivseem to 1nompt mole thmongh sillily and ihns impiove
karning and len-mum:I
Robtn McKeow n. a sottoh went e teachel. also found that -student
attitinks are significantly .dfected by die loci or ipe of question..
sttukins encommt in du clasitoom and that highet loci questions

1 )
Theory end Research 7

seem- to make students change "their social attitudes to a greater_

extent.=b Yet a iecent title on the subject seems to cloud some of
the above findings. Philip U. Winne, looking at eighteen studies On
questioning and its effect on student achievement, found char there
could be no "sturdy conclusion" regarding the relation of higher-
order quetions and student achiesement." Winne's findings are con-
firmed by a study by William W. Wilen, who' found that students
did not show a prefelence for highel-les el questions and that those
studentt who prefened then teachers to ask low-level questions per-
fumed best on tests incorporating correspondingly low-loci ques-
tions. I'hus, Wden concluded, "teachers' use of higher, cognitise-level
questions is mole positive in theory than practice."28
'These studies lequile us to be cainious in assuming that,extensise
use of highel ordei questions will always It:stilt in increased \learning
and w ill always be fasured by students. There.are, nevertheles,other
nasons foi using such questionsthey may in fact reflect instruc-
tkonal of student needsbut there is no necessity to assume that such
questions w ill automatically result in certain lesels of achiesement or
that they w ill be more acceptable or interesting to can-lents.
What, then, can be purposed about the kinds of questions we
should ask in the languagrarts classroom?
r se a questioning schema, but don't let it u.se you. Know your
classio`oni, you' studentsmd your insnuctional goals. If a
schema (cm more than one) meets your requirements, then use it
oi theno. Wine out youi questions or keep a file card of ques-
tioning les els in floni. of you as you lead a discussion or con-
sume questions foi an assignment. Remember, howeser, that
questioning schemata are guidelines, not rules.
kollou, voter students' lead. If you want to talk about the imagery
of a poem bui the students are mole interested in the theme, do
not (Olt e the cons ersation in y our direction. You will find that
the discussion is moie fiuitful if students are fiist allowed
ss ithin limits, of coulseto discuss what interests them.
Be flexiblenvith your questions. Writing out esery thing you are
going to ask in a semblance of order may be useful, but don't
expect the discussion to follow y um list precisely. Don't let your
pi waled questions become an obstacle to change or modifica-
tion.
Don't alii ays play it safe. Many cautious teachers confine all of
their questions to the safe or puiely factual areas ("Who wrote-, '
It?" "Where is the dipthong in this word?" "What is the topic
8 Chnstenbury and Kelly

sentence in this palagt aph?").2" While these kinds of questions

e thefr.places, so do the open oi di%ergent questions that give
students, the opportunity to wnfront rqultiple answers or.inter-
pretations. Interestingly, some research shows that lower-ability
students benefit the most horn higher-order, open questions,
although most teachers tend to use lower-order questions with
such students.30

How to Use Questioning

Probably the most popular aiea of research on the stlategy of ques-

tioning is the subject of wait time. the time between a teacher's
question and a student's an.wer or between a teacher's first and second
questions. The time factor is crucial. a lack of sufficient wait time can
completely abort an oral discussion. Ronald T. Hyman notes:
Row e am! Lake in% estigated the amount of time teachers wait
when asking a question. They found that if students do not begin
a response is ithin one second, teachers usually repeat the (1uestion
or call upon anotlierinlent to respond: *ismafter -students-
respond, teachers wait slightly less than one second before react-
ing to the response, asking another question, or launching to a
new topic."
Ross e and Lake also found that when teachers increased their wait
t tine to a mere thice to fise seconds, the length of responses increased,
unsplicited but appropriate responses Mcreased, and "failure to re-
spond decreased."'2 Obs ions!), insufficient wait time creates a rather
frenetic atmosphere in which students feel they must quickly volun-
teer an answerany answer. Silence, something that many teachers
assume to be a sign of failure in discussion, can actually be a sign of a
-particularl} health} discussion and can indicate a teacher's use of
Judicious wait tiine while students are thinking. Silence is not always
an indication of ignorance, refusal, or intransigence. To the contrary,
it is often a necessary time to meditate, reflect, punctuate an idea,
breathe.
Researth has also been conducted on the frequency of questioning.
Sey mour Sarason found that elementai} teathers who thought they
were asking 12 to 20 quest ions (ler} half hour were actually asking 45
to 150." J. F. Dillon makes a salient point:
(Research) is either inconclusis e or fails to support the many
claims made for the efficacy of teacher questions. On.the other
hand, certain studies report undesirable effects. For example, high
rates of questioning may yield negative affective outcomes, en-
 Theory and Research 9

coinage student passiv ity and dependence and make the class
appeal as d It were an inquisition tattier than a reasonable
conversation.14

Certainly this seems true in Sarason's study. According to his figures,

it is possible that some elementary students were contronted with a
new question evely twelve seconds. In this kind of inquisitorial at-
mosphere, questioning can actually discourage class discussion and
can cause students to feel assailed and threatened.
In sununary, teachers use questions in the English classroom be-
cause questions help students learn and develop critical thinking
skills The kinds of questions we ask should not be rigidly determined
by any one hielarchy but should be varied and applopriate to the
subject matter and to student interests. When we ask questions, we
itighhould give students time to think about the answers, not bombard
them vy it h countless inquiries. Moments of silence and meditation
should punctuate the discussion.
If we could suggest a model fot the kind of questioning atmosphere
vy e have in mind, it w ould be akin to a conversation with friends. In
suc h «ins ersation, v% e talk as equals, encouraging others' comments,
allowing others to wander off onto .points_that_interest_them_and
pausing betw een ideas We do mu dominate or allow our friends to
dominate, we create a genuine give-and-take atmosphere, allowing
the con% ersationis in all human interchange, to swell, trail off, and
even fall silent. In such a climatetnd giv en a topie of inutual interest,
it is !raid to imagine questioning that would fail to arouse interest or
further lein ning.

Notes

1 Robert W Bov% man, Jr . "haluating Discuasion," Teadung and Learn-

ing 5, no. 3 (1981): 3.
Miehael Yost, Linda A% ila, and F.. B. Vexler, "Effea of Learning of Post-
Insuueuonal Responses tu Questions of Difkring Degrees of Complexity,"
Journal of Eduiational Psyi hobo 69 (August 1977). 399 (ERIC No.
EJ 174 718).
3 Marli Andre and Thomas II. Anderson, The Decelopment and Evaluation
of a Self-Questioning Study Technique, Technical Report No. 87 (Cam-
bridge. Mass Bolt, Beranek and Newman, 1978), 3 (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. El) 157 037).
4. Andre and Anderson. 3.
5. Andre and Anderson. 4.
6. Janet S Cross and John M Nagle, "Teachers Talk Too Muchl" English
Journal 58 (December 1969): 1362 (ERIC No. EJ 014 082).
 10
Christenbury and Kelly

7. Larry Andrews, "Responses to Literature: In Tennis, the Service Is Cru-

cial," English Journal 63 (February 1974): 46 (ERIC No. EJ 094 495).
8. Harold L. Herber and Joan B. Nelson, "Questioning Is Not the Answer,"
Journal of Reading 18 (April 1975): 512 (ERIC No. EJ 115 662).
9. Harold L. Herber, Teaching Reading in Content Areas, 2d ed. (Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 197-98.
10. Mimi Schwartz, "Talking Your Way into writing," English Journal 68
(October 1979): 42 (ERIC No. EJ 212 138),
11. Robert Zoe liner, "Talk-Write: A Behavioral Pedagogy for Composition,"
College English 30 (January 1969): 267-320 (ERIC No. EJ 001 136),
12. Vincent Wixon and Patty Stone, "Getting It Out, Getting It Down:
Adapting Zoe Ilner's Talk-Write," English Journal 66 (September 1977):
73.
13. Thomas Andre, "On Productive Knowledge and Levels of Questions,"
1977 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 159 211), 10.
14. Dan Donlan, "How to Play 29 Questions," Journal of Reading 21 (March
1978): 537 (ERIC No. EJ 175 486).
15. Jody Nyquist, "Instructional Discussion," 1975 (ERIC Document Repro-
duction Service No. ED 117 769), 10.
16. Donlan, 537.
17. Donlan, 537.
18._Arbstr_Kaiser, Questioning Techniques (La Verne, Calif.: El Camino
Press, 1979), 23-28.
19. Richard Smith, "Questions for Teacher-Creative Reading," The Reading
Teacher 22 (February 1969): 431 (ERIC No. EJ 001 543).
20. Ronald r. Hyman, Strategic Questioning (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Pren-
tice-Hall, 1979), 10.
21. Robert J. Nash and David A. Shiman, "The English Teacher as Ques-
tioner," English Journal 63 (December 1974): 44 (ERIC No. EJ 109 149).
22. Kaiser, 23.
23. Kaiser, 25.
24. James M. Spencer, "Questions Social Studies Students Ask," ESEA Title
IV-C Research Project of NortlisMontgomery Community School Corpor-
ation, November 1978 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 164
372), 24.
25. Andre and Anderson, 4.
26. Robin McKeown, "A Study of the Attitudinal Effects of Student Responses
to Two Levels of Social Science Questions," Theory and Research in
Social Education 11, no. 1 (1974): 75 (ERIC No. EJ I II 582).
27. Philip H. Winne, "Experiments Relating Teachers' Use of Higher Cogni-
tive Questions to Student Achievement," Review of Educational Research
49, no. 1 (1979): 46 (ERIC No. EJ 205 651).
, 28. William W. Wklen, "The Preferences of American History Students for the
Cognitive Levels of Teachers' Verbal Questioning Behavior and the Rela-
tionship of Preferences to Achievement," April 1977 (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 138 533), 1.

1
0
Theory and Research 11

29. Hyman, 33.

30. Judith Threadgill, "The Interaction of Learner Aptitude with Types of
Questions Accompanying a Written Lesson on Logical Implication," n.d.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 175 905), 13-14.
31, Hyman, 101.
32. Hyman, 101.
33. Nash and Shiman, 38.
34 J T Dillon, "Alternatives to Questioning," H:gh School Journal 62, no.
5 (1979): 217 (ERIC No. EJ 207 567).
 2 Practice, al

,
"Ask, don't tell" could serve well as the motto of those committed to
questioning. And, indeed, it is preferable to ask for information, en-
couraging students to generate ideas, than to expect students to be
passive repositories, automatic scribes of what teachers might say in
class. And while questioning is not the sole instructional methodol-
ogy, it remains a staple of the English language arts classroom.
Questioning, however, is more than simply phrasing a query; it
involves
asking questions in a logical format that is part of an overall
structure or plan
dealing creatively with, insufficient answers, no .answers, or in-
, \
correcra nsw ers
encouraging student answers
helping students to generate questions
While questioning can indeed become a path to critical thinking, if it
is mismanaged either in conceptualization (forming the questions) or
in practice (using the answers), then the process can become more a
rote exercise in asking and answering than a learning and exploring
\
venture.
This section will discuss the four aspects of questioning listed
above and will offer what we hope is useful, practical advice.

oThe Questioning Circle

The Questioning Circle, an alternative to sequential and hierarchical

schemata, is a model for developing instructional questions. ,We de-
fine the varying areas of questioning in the form of overlapping
circles, a representation that we feel more nearly approximates the
reality of the questioning process. Nonsequential and overlapping,
the Questioning Circle (Figure 1) provides a logical, yet flexible,
format for quotioning.

12
.e." 6
Practice 13

The schema is «unposed of three circles: the matter, personal

realityind external reality. The fir st circle, the matter, represents the
subject of discussion or questioning. The second circle, personal
reality, represents the indi%idual's experiences, alues, and ideat. The
third circle, external reality, is, for want of a better term, tne "wVd":
the experience, history md concept,s of other peoples and cultures.
We contend that conceptualizing the questioning process in the
form of these three ch cies is useful. While eiich circle represents a
different domain of cognition, the circles oyerlap-7as does knowledge
and are not ordered. Further, in the one alea where all three circles
intersect lies the union of the subject being explored, the indi%iduars
response and experienceind the experience of others. The inter-
s,cction of the three clicks, the area e teim dense, contains the most
sirgnificant khlgher-ordeo questions, but w fide the dense questions arc
richer than the others, it is clear from the model that when or how
students arri% e at the answers to these questions is left open.
If, how clel, there can be a suggested procedure for using the Ques-
tioning Circle, it would be that an instructional goal should include
not only questions in the three separate circles (the matter, personal
realit) , external reality but also questions Ill the areas whele the three
un les Intersect. III the duet: shaded al eascombining the matter with
pelsonal reality, personal reality sy MI external reality, and exteriF

The Personal
Matter t Reality

Exit., nal
Reality

Figure I. The Questioning Circle.

 Christenbury and Kelly
14

reality with the Immothe components collide, mingle, and ulti-

mately enrich each other. Finally, the area where all three circles
Intersect, the dense area,.represents the central, most important ques-
tions, the questions that subsume all three areas and whose answers
provide the deepest consideration of the issue.
The order of questions depends upon the material under considera-
tion. upon the teacherind upon the students. For example, the first
question in a series may be a question from a shaded area Mowed
by one from the dense area, followed by a question from a white area
of one of the three circles. It is also, we stress, quite possible to
ask a question from the dense area at any time in a discussion or
questioning process and, indeed, to ask such questions repeatedly
throughout the questioning process. Alternating questioning areas
thus causes the complex and central dense questions to be answered
with added perception, knowledge, and understading. Students, of
course, may also want to move back and forth ;Wrong the three
areaswhite, shaded, ant.' .lenseand to return a number of times to
consider a previous question from the dense area.
The Questioning Circle, lacking the defined abstractness of hier-
archies, is flexible. English teachers may find it particularly adaptable
for literature, language, and composition. For example, in literature,
the matter would be the text; personal realitfilii I dracetealter; aud
external reality that of the world and other literature. In language,
the
matter would be the concept or idea under study; personal reality that
the
of the speaker reader writer of language; and external reality
language as it is used outside the speaker 'reader 'writer's environment,
the world.
In composition, we must divide the circles further to account for
the different demands of prewriting and revision. In prewriting, the
personal
matter becomes the subject of the proposed composition;
reality would be that of the writer; -external reality would be the
revision stage, the matter
audience of the intended composition. In the
but the personal reality and external reality
becomes the rough draft,
remain dre same as in prewriting, i.e., the writer and the audience,
respectively. Table 1 summarizes the Questioning Circle's flexibility.
Illustrations 01 the use of the Questioning Circle in literture, lan-
guage, and composition follow.

Literature
The Questioning Circle adapts easily to the study of literature in the
English classroom. Indeed, it might- be interpreted as a piactical
illustration of Louise M. Rosenblatt's theory of personal responselo

.
Practice 15

Table 1

Components of the Questioning Circle

General The Matter Personal External
Terms Reality Reality
Literature The Text The Reader The World/Other
Literature
Language The Concept The Speaker/ The World
Reader/
Writer
Composition/ The Subject The Writer The Audience
Prewriting
Composition/ The Draft The Writer The Audience
Revision

literature (Literature as Exploration, New York: Noble and Noble,

1976). Using the Questioning Circle, the matter is the text; personal
reality is the reader; and external reality is both the world and other
literature. (See Figure 2.)
The adaptability of the Questioning Circle can be demonstrated
by using Mark Twain's novel The Adventures of Huckleberu Finn
and Robert Frost's poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening."
The questions are offered as suggestions for a class discussion or
written assignments, and although the dense questions are considered

Figure 2. Literature and the Questioning Circle.

,NN
0
A_
 -16
Christenbury and Kelly

.
the most complex, 'Ureic is no other sUggested order for the ques-
tionMg process.
The following questions apply to a single incident in Huckleberry
Finn, albeit an incident that is resonant with implications for dis-
cussions:
White Questions
The Matter: What does II ucl, say whep he decides not to turn Jim
in to the authorities?
Personal Reality: When would you support a friend when every-
one else thought he or she was wrong?
External Reality: What was the responsibility of persons finding
runaway slaves?
Shaded Questions
The Matter Personal Reality: In what situations might someone
be less than willing to take the consequences for his or her
actions?
Personal Reality External Reality: Given the social and political
circumstances, to what extent would you have done as Huck did?
The Matter, External Reality: What were the issues during that
time which caused both I luck's and Jira's actions to be viewed as
-wrong?-
Dense Question
The Matter Personal Reality, External Reality: When is it right
to go against the social and, or political structures of the time as
Huck did when he refused to turn Jim in to the authoriaes?

While the previous examples of questions pertaining to Huckle-

berry Finn address a singledthough highly significant, incident in
the novel, the following series of questions addresses the entire 'Poem
"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening":
White Questions
The Matter: Can you summarize what happens in the poem?
Personal Reality: Is there anything that happens in the poem that
has ever happened to you?
External Reality: How would you compare this poem to Frost's
"The Road Not Taken"?
Shaded Questions
The Matter, Personal Reality: To what extent does the person's
.' experience seem convincing to you?
The Matteri External Reality: 'What is the poem saying about life?
responsibility? duty?
External Reality/Personal Reality: When has responsibility con-
flicted with your personal needs?
9
 Practice 1 17

Dense Question
The matter Personal Reality External Reality: How do you think ..
most people makd a successful compromise,between duty and
personal happiness?
Des eloping questions for other works of literature is not difficult.
While a teacher may choose to write questions for each areawhite,
shaded, aml denseatul thus draw ideas together, it is evident that the
dense question subsumes facets of all other questions. A discussion or
questioning exerdse with that question as the focal point should
elicit the information that would ev'olve if the other questions were
asked separately .1s a facilitator, the teacher knows the components of
the question and can shift the discussionsto an important ,component
that has not been examined. Posing a dense question early in the
discussion permits students to respond from a variety of perspectives:
the text. personal experience as a reader, external reality of the world
and other literature. Thus students hay e a basis for responding even if
it is entitely personal. and the discussion builds on a variety of
.perspect ives.
There is another reason for using a dense question early in the
class discussion. If a -teacher using a -hierarchical schema carefully
on hestiates the questions from lower order to higher order and then
springs the "big question," the effect on students is often not a posi-
a Use one. To answer Jhe "big questioit." the class needs to repeat the
pound already cosered. to many students this hardly seems worth the
effort We suggest. therefore, that the dense question be used as the
basis for ongoing disc ussion hither than the culimnating question
used late in a questioning sequence
1low would a (liscussion based on the Questioning Circle and using
a dense question cad) in the conversation pioceed? We used the
widely anthologiied short story by Ey an Hunter. "On the Sidewalk
Bleeding." and generated the following questions:
White Questions
The Matter: Why do the boy and girl refuse to help Andy?
l'ersonal Reality: When have you helped someone in need?
External Reality. flow are gangs viewed by society as a whole?
Shaded Questions
The Matter Personal Reality: Under what circumstances would
you be hesitant to help someone in need?
The Matter External Realuy. How would the police in our town
view Andy?
Perso»al Reality External Reality: How do you view gang mem-
bers?
7

18"
Christenbury and Kelly

Dense Question
The Master, Personal Reality/ External Reality: If you were not a
gang member and found Andy stabbed and lying in the street,
why or why not would you help him?
Using these questions, a volunteer teacher discussed "On the Sidewalk
Bleeding" With his class for fifteen minutes. In the discussion, 60
percent of the student's contributed responses, and the amount of
student talk was about ten times that of teacher talk. More impor-
tantly, however, with the dense question as a focal point, the discus-
sion of the story was comprehensive and covered, througt specific
student responses, all of the shaded questions and, by implication, the
white questions as well. The teacher, despite reflective comments,
confined his inquiry to a single dense question, a question that led
students through the major points of the shgrt story.
We feel it is possible to replicate this successful discussion. The
teacher who uses the dense question, rich in its implications and
complex in its answer, can skillfully guide the discussion. The fol-
lowing transcript of the discussion of "On the Sidewalk Bleeding"
shows how the dense question focuses student attention on all areas.
Teacher: If you were not a gang member and found Andy stabbed
and lying in the street, why or why not would you help him?
Student I: You know, when you get into a satiation, you don't
know what you would do, but I think if I had been that girl or
that guy, I would have helped him because I couldn't have that
on my conscience.
Teacher: You would have helped?
Student 2: I don't think I would.
Student I: I would have no matter what. There's no doubt in my
mind.
Student 3: I would help no matter who they were.
Student 4: I would at least call the police. They said they were
afraid that the police would leak it out, but I don't see how they
could know.
Student 5: But the police at the ead goes. "a Royal," and thevift
says, "His nameis Andy," and the police says, "A Royal."
Student 6: Give him a name anyway.
Student 54,He didn't give much thought to him like anybody else.
Student 7: think it's sad because the cop, like all policemen
even, just didn't care. Like this was a human life.
Student g: I don't see how anyone could live. I would go bananas
wondering what ever happened to him or later read in the papers
somewhere about Andy, a Royal, knifed in an alley, and you
knew you could have helped, and he died.
Teacher: That would bother you? (Silence)
Pi _lice 19

Student 9: But I don't think Andy's gariend ever thought of him

as a Royal: that was just a group he was in. 8'he just thought of
him as Andy.
Student 6: Maybe like she knew when Ile first became a Royal, he
was really into it and proud of it.
Teacher: Why was he proud of it?
Student 6: He wanted to equate himself with a group, identify
with somebody. Like at first he was so hepped up on it that it,
would have been unlikely that he would have taken off his purple
silk jacket; for him to take it off, it must have meant that. he
didn't want to be that any more: he wasn't proud of it any more.
Student 4: Ile didn't feel that was much to live for or rather to die
forthe jacket wasn't much to die for.
Student 7: I think it's sad that all those regrets right before he
diedlots of things he hadn't done.
Looking at this excerpt, we see that the teacher initiates the dis-
cussion with the dense question, a question that obviously stirs stu-
dent interest, judging by the number of students who contribute to
that one item of discussion; During this discussion, different students
address issues that are questions front the shaded portion 'of the
Questioning Circle. While white questions are not included in this
discussion, it should be clear that students either knew the answers
(why the boy and girl refuse to help Andy is obvious) or were not at
this juncture interested in further exploration (how gangs are viewed
by seciety or revelation of personal experience helping others).
Much of the excerpted discussion, which is not "covered" by any of
the teacher-created questions, is ne% ertheless a useful consideration of
the implications of the short story and further entiches understanding.
Interestingly enough, the comments also relate to the dense question
of motivations for helping Andy.'

Language
The principles of the Questioning Circle can also be adapted to the
stud) of language in the English classroom. The matter is the idea or
concept of language, study; personal reality is that of the speaker,
reader tenter of language; external reality is that of the world and the
many different manifestations of language. (See Figure 3.)
To construct sample questions in the area of language, we might
choose the topic of dialect and generate the following questions:
White Questions
The Alatter: What other words name a porch?
Personal Reality: Do you use the word porch or some other word?

,0
 .
20. Chrisleribury and Kelly
k

External Reality: Do the people in our area use the word porch or
some other word? What about other areas?
Shaded Questions
-
The Matter, Personal Reality: Is your pronunciation of heart in
the dktionary?
The Matter External Reality: What are examples of variations in
pronunciations in other parts of the country? -
Personal Reality, External Reality: What are examples of your
word choices and pronunciations that are the same elsewhere in
the country? .

Dense Question
The Matter Personal Reality, Exterlal Reality: If word Choices
and pronunciations vary in certain regions, what can you 'con-
clude about language use in our country?
:
Again, the dense question is the one of most interest. As in the
sample literature discussion, it can be used throughout the question-
ing process.

Composition
The Questioning Circle must be subdivided for composition. In pre-
writing, the matter is the subject of the proposed composition. (See
Figure 4.) 4n revision, however, the matter is the draft to be revised.
(See Figure 5.) Personal reality, that of the writer, and external reality,
the audience, would be the same for both prewriting and revision.

A Speaker/

4
Concept Reader/
or Idea Writer

The
World

Figure 3. Linguage who. the Questioning Circle.

1) s
.... u,
 Practice 21
4 fe:
Unlike literature and language, where the-questions will vary*
according to the text or the concept under study, the questions offered
for composition can be adapted to any assignmenCt
Prewriting: White Questions
The Matter: What is my subject?
Personal Reality: What is my experience?
E,xternal Reality: Who is my audience?

Figure 4. Prewrinng and the Questioning Circle.

; I.
,
^ ,-
Fikeure 5. Revisidn and the Questioning Circle.

'N;:ss

.4
 Christenbury and Kelly
22

. Shaded Questions
The Matter/Personal Reality: What experience do I have, with
this subject?
Personal Reality/External Reality: How does my experiencerelate
to the experience of my audience?
-The M,auer/ Euternal Reahty: What would my audience think of
this subject?
-Dense Question
The Matter/ Personal Reahty/ External Reality: Which of iny ex- ,..,

penences can I present that will persuade/inform/amuse (which-

ever is appropriate) my audience?
Revision: White Questions
The Matter: The Draft
Personal Reality: The Writer
External Reality: The Reader
tJ
(Questions are not necessary-at this stage)
Shaded Questions
The Matter/ Personal Reality: In what ways does the draft say
what I want to say? '
Personal Reality/ External Reality: To what extent could the
reader understand my ideas? .
...

The Matter/ ENternal Reality: How thoroughly does a reader, un-

derstand the written draft?
Dense Question
The Matter, Personal Reahty, External Reality: What adjustments
have to be made to integrate my intentions with the reader's
perceptions?
' Once a teacher has devised dense questions covering the three areas
-of the matter, personal reality, and external reality, the questiohing
...f___ process_can be, simplified. The_dense questions will naturally encom,
pass other, less broad areas. The very small number of teacher-pre-
. pared questions actually liberates an instructor from a complicated,
sequenced list. Armed, so to speak, with only a very few, albeit highly
significant, questions, the teaches relies more on student comments
and on conversational direction and less on predetermined paths of
discussion.

Managing Classroom Interaction .

We would be less than honest if we did not detail what we see

as problems with the questioning process and with ,tlie overuse or
() , )
....; L.)
Practice 23

misuse of questions hist, as mentioned before, it has not been proved

in any study that questioning is the best teaching or learning strategy.
For certain subject matters, in certain classroom settings, with certain
types of student learners, questioning can work well. Undeniably,
questioning is the most popular teaching tool of the language arts
instructor. Yet it is foolish to ,use questioning in all situations or
in all settings because questioning has no proven superiority over
other methodological shategies. There are seveial reasons not to use
questioning:
Questions can be threatening to students. The posing of a ques-
tion (and the accompanying expectation of an answer) can put a
great amount of pressure on certain students in certain subject
areas. Under sonic circumstances, questions (...n in fact inhibit
learning and can fpster a tense classrc?om atmosphere. Some
students see questions as a punitive device; indeed, some teachers
question certain students more to establish order and discipline
than to advance learning.
Questions ian be threatenuig to teachers. The very act of asking
a specifu question requires that the teacher be able to judge the
relative "rightness" or "wrongness" of an answer. Indeed, in
some areas of instructioni response to a question requires that
a teachei rather skillfully use the answer in some creative man-
ner, linking it with another concept, turning the answe to the
attention of .1second studentind so forth. The process can be a
difficult one.
Questions may em mirage tear her dommanre. If all questions
conic from the teacher, then the teacher must be the arbiter of all
answers and classroom com (Ins. When all attention is centered
on tlu tea( her, questions m'ay militate against a student-centered,
student-conceined learning environment.
With these limitations in mind, we offei sonic piactical ads ice for
managing (lassioom interaction and cl..s.sroom questioning and
answering.'

What To Do When Students Can't Don't Won't Answer

When students ( annot answer a question, it could be because the
question as posed is unclear. Many times we find ourselves asking
vague questions, questions that (onfuse students. In a discussion of
Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman, we might ask, for example,
"What did Willy Loman do to his son Biff?" A restatement ("In what
ways did Willy shape Biff's salues?") clarifies the question. Another
 Christenbury and Kelly
24

probl CM we 111stigAtt. AS the multiple question, an inquiry that asks

two things at once, thus causing a student to hesitate over a response
("What are the things Will} lied about to his wife, and why did
she accept his lies?"). A solution would be to separate the two
questions. Also, we teacheis ma) ask a question that is simply too
difficult for our students at this point in the instruction or in their
developniental les el. An example of the latter, using the Questioning
Circle, is the expectation of a completeanswer to a dense question
early in a discussion oi assignment ("What do Willy's various lies tell
you about certain }allies in American society?"). Students might be
unable to answell certain questions because they have not been pre-
pared sufficiently. Unless thew is a specific negative chemistry work-
ing in a classroom, cm perhaps individual problems with a class, most
students' inability to answei a question lies with the question itself or
the level of the question.
Sometimes when students do not answer a question, it may be that
the} did not heal the question or did not understand it. Repeating the
question a second time or rephrasing it may be helpful. Both of these
tactics, hotvever, should be deferred'until the proper wait time has
elapsed. If you are unsure about the time clapsed, counting to yourself
before you rephrase or lepeat the question can be useful.
If students simply will not answer questions, there may exist a
classroom annosphele of hostility or fear. Students' responses of si-
lence may be dnected to the subject or the teaching strategy. In the
first case, teachers ma} try to refocus the subject. Horever, teachers
ma} be dealing with students for whom questions are not oppor-
tunities to explore but am c occasiOns of tension and anxiety. Changing
the methodolog} to one who e direct' questioning is avoided may be
the only solution with snch students.

Shor .4nswers Wrong Answers

1 eat tiers sometimes en«ninter pi oblems managing classroom inter-
actipn when students gne ei slioi t answers or totally wrong answers.
Oddl) enongh, tem hers may cause students to give brief answers.
Withynt being fully aware of it, many teachos may begin to speak
before a stndent has finished, dins e utting off the response. In addi-
tion, many teacheis bleak eye contact with the student responder,
whtch decreases the length of the student iesponse. Filially, some
teachers nnconsciinish nun awa} from student responders or turn
their backs on them. Even the act of placing part of the student's
answer on the boai dwhat we Ina} initially think is a reinforcement
of that answei can disnact student lesponders and cause them to
'
 Practice 25

stop talking. Common wnse is the I ule. students will ot continue

talking if they I I they ,ue losingor haye losttheir au lence. And
because the major ,mdience is often the teather, teacher behavior can
influence the length of student answers.
To lengthen sthdent answers, posim e reinforcement can be pro-
vided in more %%ay s than mere body language. Nodding, making pos-
itive verbal noisesisking a student to expand or clarify an answer
..4anay help. Statements such as "Can you give ui example?" or "I
don't understand, could you restate that?" um be useful. In the case
of exuemely brief answers, these strategies may encourage longer
responses. s
Wrong answers present a problem to most teachers because, frankly,
we do not like to be in the position of telling students they are in-
corre( t. Ne% erthdess. honesty is the best policy. If you give the out-
ward Impression that eve:1y student answer is right in varying degrees,
then you ale not being fair. "No, I don't think so" or "I'm not sure"
may be gentler ways of telling students they are in error. Also, when a
student lesponse IS ofsguided or inisuken, there is often alternative
evidente .nallable. For example, if a student feels that a minor charac-
ter is actually the hew of the novel, It is better to point out a specific
passage «mtratInt mg the contention and ask the student how the
passage I dates to his or hel point than to tell the student, "No, you're,
wrong." Alteinatively, oiw way to pleyent the problem of wrong
ansu ers is to a% old questions for which there are immutable, fixed
answ els. In this case, questions requirIng students to explore options
ot values or to weigh opinions are preferable.
One (aution Is in onlel. moving from a student's wrong answer,
without (omment, to another student who you think will supply
a cotrect answ ei (an create problems. Such a shift may make the
first student fed ignored and may in essence pla(e the correctly an-
swering student in the position of doing youi "duty work" I'm you.
You may want to ask a second student the same question previously
e the hist sttakm a lesponse and an
answ crud int emit t tly but y ou
acknowledgment.

Encouraging Student Answers

The epht indal t lassioom atmosphele probably has as much to do
with the en«mragement of student answ els as an) other factor. When
students fed that tlwy may take mks in the classroom, rnay possibly
answ c imorrectly and yet nvt face disapproval or ridicule, it is likely
that student answers w ill be hequent. Nevertheless, there are certain
'prompts" th,u can enwurage student .mswers and facilitate the
management of classroom interaction.
26 Christenbury and Kelly

Room arrangement. When students see only the back of others'

heads, it is difficult to encourage discussion or lively interchange
with anyone but the teacher. A circle or horseshoe arrangement
of desks can help this situation.
An unhurried atmosphere. Teachers who convey calmness can
do a great deal to encourage student answers. An unpressured
environment gives students an opportunity to think and answer.
Questions that are not presented in a challenging manner or in a
rapid-fire fashion can contribute to an unhurried atmosphete.
Delivery. Teachers need to begin questions with a question word
(who, what) and not with a student's name or a lengthy general
statement. Scanning the entire class as the question is delivered
may help to foster attentiveness.
Watt ttme. A pause after a question indicates, as it should, that
the question requires some thought, some deliberation, before
being answered. It gis es students a useful time to consider their
basis for response. Additionally, students will be more willing to
answer if they know that the teacher is willing to wait for them.
Behavior and body language. One way to encourage a student .to
continue a comment is to maintain eye contact. Conversely,
breaking eye contact will usually stop student comments. Head
nods and smiles also encourage student response, while the
res ersefrowns, head shakesdoes not. Finally, as with broken '
e L9ntact, turning away from students will discourage further
conununication. Turning towarg students and keeping the upper
body free of crossed arms (a hostile, "closed" position) encourage
students to continue talking.
Praise. Within limits, praise of student answers is an obv,ious
reinforcement tactic ':I agree" or "I think that was a perceptive
comment" can cause students to be encouraged regarding an-
swers. On the other hand, excessive praise can be binding and
can cause a student to be hesitant to contribute again. For
exampk, if you tell a student that an answer is "the most intel-
ligent, most mature I've ever had from a student," or some such
other well-meant but rather excessive praise, then the student
might be unwilling to try to equal the performance in another
discussion. Similarly, other 'students may not be willing to at-
tempt to match the comment.
Student behavior. Sometimes students react to comments or to
questions by facial expressions and body language rather than
by raised hands. It can encourage tudents to express themselves
Praciice 27

not by calling on them dilectly which may be seen as a threat

but by repeating their behavior to them, thus inviting them to
speak. For example, some teachers might say, "Sarah, y'ou're
frowning. Do you have sotaething to add?" Or, "Steve, I saw
you nod your head: Why?" The repetition of the student's be-
ha% iol gives the student an opportunity to explain the behavior
or, in some cases, to decline an explanation. In either case, the
teacher has attempted to elicit an answer and also has established
his or her careful observation of the class.
Student comments. When a student makes an especially good
point in class, use the incident as a positive factor in the class-
room en% ironment. For example, if a student has pointed out an
exception to a usage rule, the next time ah exception comes up
in the discussion, repeat the student's name and allude to the
pre% ions comment. Thus, students know that other student com-
ments are %aluedand rememberedand they may be more
willing to contribute answers. Likewise, asking students to relate
their tomments to,other student comments can encourage inter-
action and the generation of questions. For example, asking
Mary, who has just raised a good point, "How does your com-
ment relate to E% a's?" may encourage the two to interact.

Helping Students Generate Questions

An alto natn e to teacher-initiated questions that direct students to

respond from memoly ol experience is to let students generate ques-
tions. Such questions may be dilet ted to the teacher, to other students,
or to themsekes dining the process of trying to make sense of a
situation ol text. Sttidents naturally generate questions only when
they .art confronted with a new idea so intriguing that questions come
easily as a matter of course. While it is not always easy to create this
kind of situation in the tlassroom, the follow ing suggestions may
help to imike it possible:
Atmosphere. Students will not generate their own questions in
an a tmosphel e 1% here the act of asking a question is interpreted
as a failure to under,stund or even to pay attention. Obviously,
they must be in an atmosphere where they feel the exchange of
ideas is a healthy, nonthreatening one.
Small groups. In thelelatively nonthreatening atmosphere of a
small group, students might be more interested in generating
questions and better able to do so. Certainly, the limitations of
28 Chr:stenburv arid Kelly

,
laige group activity are reduced in the small group: the topic
can be more flexible, the time between student commentstan be
reduced, the tension can be lessened. In such a setting, students
may be more receptive to forming their own questions on a
specific topic or assignment.
Teacher statements. To provoke students into questioning, a
teacher may make a statement that is obviously absurd or may
present a contradiction in a declarative statement. Both strategies
may stimulate student questions.
Student tests and study questions. After students have studied a
work of literature or have been exposed to a concept or idea, they
can be asked to generate questions. The students, in turn, could
answer the questions or pose them to members of their group or
to the class as a whole. It is possible, with some teacher guid-
ance, 40 ha. e students construct partial or whole tests as well as
study guides and questions for review games.

We also offer some games and activities that may encourage stu-
dents to generate questions.

Solve the Situation (Logic)

Problems found in logic books (or student.created problems) can teach
students to generate appropriate questions and to synthesize informa-
tion frum other students questions. Many teachers find that students
really listen to each other's questions and the answers given and that
they become impatient when others ask questions already answered
(they want new information). If the logic problem remains unsolved,
students return the next day remembering the details and having
thought about the problem. Allot only five or ten minutes at the end
of class to answer questions about the situation. lt may take (lays to
solve, but the enthusiasm rernains!
Sample Problem Situation:
A husband and wife drive to work together each day. Their office is a
half-hour drive from their house, but each night they leave work at
5.00 and don't reach their house until 6:30. Why? (Answer: They live
and work in different time zones. The drive home still takes one half
hour, but when the) cross into the time zone of their house, they must
advance their watches by one hour.)
As students ask, questions, the teacher answers in any creative but
not misleading way. For example:
Practiie 29
,

Student: Do they drive a different road on the way hOme?

Teacher: No, they always take the same highway.
Student: Do they stop for dinner at a restaurant?
Teacher: No, they always eat dinner at home.
Student: Does it take them an hour to pick up their children from
the babysitter?
Teadier: No, the babysitter lives right across the street from their
house.

What's the Question? (Language,Aiterature)

While Solve the Situation begins with an answer and students gen-
erate questions in seeking a solution, in What's the Question a teacher
supplies a list of answers to which students create the questions.
Sometimes teachers may challenge students to generate as many ques-
tions as possible for each answer. For example:
Teacher. The answer to the questions is bat. Does anyone have
any questions?
Student. What is the implement used in baseball to hit the ball?,
Student: What is the broad stick used in cricket?
Student: What is a nocturnal flying mammal?
Student. What do people sometimes do with their eyes to show
surprise?
Student: What do people do with their eyes when they flirt?
Student: What is an ugly, nagging woman sometimes called?
Student: What is an abbreviation for battalion?

Picture Perfect (Communication)

This auiv it pros ides an opportunity to receive information, pass on
information, ask questions to clarify information, formulate spatial
relationshipsmd synthesize information. The teacher draws a simple
picture, such as the one in Figure 6. A surprising number of details
are present in the picture. The first student in each row studies the
details in the picture and returns it to the teacher. Those students then
turn to the students immediately behind them and describe the pic-
ture. The,receiving students, who have not seen the picture, can ask as
many questions as necessary to clarify or fill in the details of the
mental picture they are forming. When receiving students in each row
are satisfied that they nave the picture in mind, they turn and describe
the picture to the students immediately behind them. After the last
student in each row receis es a description and asks questions to gain
additional information, this student draws a picture based on that
30 Christenbury and Kelly

mental image. Ihe ts innel is the low v% hose plume is closest to the
original drawing.
The first exchange may be similar w the following:
Student giving the information. There is a one-story house with a
door, two windows, and a chimney.
Student receiving the in formation Where are the windows in
relation to the door?
Giving student. A rarge picture window is to the left of the doom;
a smaller window is to the right.
Receiving student: What type of windows are they?
Giving student: They have panes. The sum{ I one has four panes.
The large one has more, maybe six or eight.
Receiving student: Okay. Wheme is the chimney?
Giving student. The top of the chimney appears above the left
side of the roof edge. A tree is also at the left side of the house and
a child's wagon is sitting at the end of a walkway leading to the
nom door.
Receiving student: Okay. I think I see it.
A number of details have been lost. Should someone later in the
activity ask w hether there is smoke rising from the chimney, what the
height of the tree is in relation to the house, how the wagon is situ-
ated, or of what material the walkway or roof is constructed, the stu-
dent gn ing information would be unable to respond. In a follow-up
discussion, the class explores the communication process, the infor-
mation that was lost, and the questions that could have been asked to
elicit full details. In later practice with other pictures, students have

Figure 6 Sample Illustration for Pu tore Perfect.

Practice 31

the experience needed to improve their skills in asking and answering

questions involving finite nifopnation.

fiventy Questions (Literature)

A rendition of this children's game can help students learn how to
frame useful questions and to synthesize the information received from
all answers. Students are divided into two teams. In turn, students
from each team ask questions that can be answered "yes" or "no."
The- total number of questions for each team is ten. A team's score for
each gJme is ten minus the number of questions asked and any wrong
guesses. The team vs ith the highest score wins. Thescorekeeper can be
rotated among the students as can the person answering the questions.
The teacher or student begins by posing a problem, such as "I'm
thinking of a character from our reading this term." Problems from
literature might include auchors, characters, titles, or literary terms.
The following exchange is an example of a question, answer dia-
logue in iv hich Team Two would receive seven points (ten minus the
three exploratory questions, the question eliciting the correct answer
does not lose a point):
Answerer: I'm thinking of a character from our reading this term.
Team One: Is the character male?
Answerer: Yes.
Team Two: Is the Maracter in a novel?
Answerer: No.
Team One: In a play?
Answerer: Yes.
Team Two: Is the play Julius Caesar?
Answerer: Yes.
^ Team One: Is he one of the conspirators?
Ar swerer: Yes.
Team Two: Is it Brutus?
Answerer: No.
Team One: Does he have "a lean and hungry look"?'
Answerer: Yes.
Team Two: Is it Cassius?
Answerer: Yes.

Breaking the Code (Language)

The folios% ing sentence patterns contam consistent sy iithols for the
parts of speech:
32 Chrts7enbury and Kelly

1.00AC900
2. 0 A00.
3.00Q0V0A V
4.0V0A0V0
To break the code, students must ask themseh es, "How do English
sentences usually begin?" Then they look at all the sentences and
posit, "Is the square a noun?" and test the idea by substitution. Gram-
matically correct English sentences can be written for each pattern
when the ctide is broken. Likewise. students can develop their own
codes for others to solve.
Solution:
= article; D= noun; p= verb;
= adverb; = preposition; :V = adjective
Soeral questions must be asked in ordy to solve the code: If the
square is a noun, what kinds of word me before nouns? What then
could be the circle and upside-d vn triangle? Given the position of
verbs, which symbol could beo verb? If I substitute words for the
symbols I think I'y e soh ed, what seems to be,the function of the heart?

Journals (Literature, Composition)

Journals are an excellent place for students to record questions. prob-
ing questions, puzzling questions. or mind-stretching questions. Some
possible situations follow. p
I. Pretend there is someone who knows the answers to all ques-
tions. You are allowed to ask only three questions. What would
you ask?
2. Make up ten "crazy-seeing" questions, beginning with "What
if." For example: What if jellybeans grew on trees? (Alternative
questions inyolve "craz) -hearing" or "crazy-feeling" situations.)
3. People's actions are often confusing, hurtful. contradictoiy. or
o en funny . Write ten questions that reflect interactions with
others. For example: Why do we sometimes hurt the ones we
loy e most? Why is it 'that the checkout line I'm in is always the
slowest?
4. If we jumble literary' characters or authors, strange things might
occur. For example: 'What would change if Edgar Allan Poe had
written The St:Inlet Letter? What would happen if Jane Eyre

3j
 Practice .3$

walked into an Enwst Hemingway novel? Some questions might

serve as the basis for a class discussion of style, tone, character
development, or theme.

Conclusion

In classroom practice, questioning is a skill, a process, a strategy, an

attitude, an art. Although we have presented components of the ques-
tioning actclassroom envir nment, teaching strategies, response
techniques, and a qqestioning model--all must operate holistically.
One part used singly, in all likelihood, will have little effect on
students abilities to think critically. For instance, developing dense
questions based on the model will not solve the problem of teacher
behav iors that cut discussions short. Conversely, changing the class-
room ens ironment will not lead to critical thinking if are topics' for
d;Aussion do not offer the possibility of exploring more complex
subjects.
The Questioning Circle provides a conceptual framework for class-
room interaction. The model, while appropriately applied to Engliih
language arts in general, has particular implications for literature
studs . the model allows the student to respond from experience while
sun ing to integrate those personal responses with the universality of
I itera ture.
We have also presented some activities that will help students
develop their own questioning skills. These activities are offered only
as examples, serving primarily to demonstrate how to structure an
activ ity so that the emphasis is placed on student questions rather
than student answers. Too much dependence upon a stimuluslie-
sponse model, with teachers providing questions and students reacting
with answers, can cre,oe passivity and intellectual dependence. To
question, to think crimally and independently, students need the
opportunity to wnstruct their own inquiries, not merely to respond
to the inquiries of others.
While the balance of wacher-initimed and student-initiated ques-
tions is always an individual decision, we feel a mixture fs healthy,
fostering a classroom ens ironment where learning is stimulating and
where questions provide avenues for exploration, not merely measures
of retention. Considering the heas y use of questioning in the typical
Eng, language arts classroom, we owe it to ourselves and to our
studcnt. to examine our questioning techniquesto refine what we
ask, how we ask, what we do with responses, and how we motivate
students' critical thinking.
V.1
 Au thois

Leila Christenbury is Publications Editor at Hollins College, Virginia. She

has been an assistant professor of English at James Madison University
and at the University of Northern Iowa and has taught English at tile high
school level. Dr. Christenbury has been active in the National Council of
Teachers of English. the Conference on English Education, and the Vir-
ginia Association of Teachers of English. Her articles on the secondary
English curriculum, adolescent literature, and composition have appeared
in Enghsh Journal and Virginia English Bulletin, and she has been a
_contributor to several recent NCTE books.

Patricia P. Kelly is Assistant Professor of English at Virginitk Polytechnic.

Institute and State University and has taught high school English and
business education. Recent publications include articles on adolescent
literature, composition. and the English curriculum in English Journal
and Virginia English Bulletin and chapters in %:sts,veral NCTE books. Pro-
fessor Kelly has served as a curriculum consultant to school districts and as
director of the Southwest Virginia Writing Project. She has been an office
holder and convention participant in NCTE, the Virginia Association of
Teachers of English, the Virginia Conference on English Education, and
the Virginia Education Association.