COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB FINAL

NAME: Malik Faiz ur Rehman REG NO. = FA20 BCS 069

SECTION: B1 DATE=

MARKS: (50) TIME:2.5hr

QUESTION N0. 01:
Verify OHM’S LAW for the following PARALLEL CIRCUIT. Set R1 = Registration Number in OHM/K
OHM. (10)

VOLTAGE (Volts) Current Resistance=Voltage/Current

5 0.082464 60.63
 10 0.164928 60.63

15 0.247391 60.63

20 0.329855 60.63

Fill table and make graph using excel.

• Simulation with any one voltage source, with circuit current shown. (5)
• Graph on Excel (5)

QUESTION N0. 02: (20)

Simulate the circuit using MULTISIM. Calculate original I(L) and V(L) from the circuit given below then
reduce the circuit according to NORTON theorem and verify the current and voltage value. Also replace R(L)
= registration number in OHMS and Fill table

• Screenshot-1 of original circuit on Multisim with R(L) equal to your registration number (2.5) •
Screenshot-2 Calculation for I(N) on Multisim (5)
• Screenshot-3 Calculation for R(N) on Multisim (2.5)
• Screenshot-4 Reduced circuit with current source, R(N) and R(L) in parallel on Multisim (5) •
Table (5)
All currents and voltages values should be clearly seen in screenshots
 Source Voltage Measurements in NORTON Measurements in
Original Circuit Equivalent values NORTON
Equivalent Circuit

48V V(L) I(L) I(Norton) R(Norton) V(L) I(L)

16.696 0.241975 3.206 5.634 16.699 0.242016

QUESTION N0. 03: (10)

Simulate the following circuit on Multisim with resistor value= REGISTRATION NUMBER in OHM/K
OHM. Rest of values according to circuit given below.(10)

• Circuit Diagram (5)

• Oscilloscope output (5)
QUESTION N0. 04: (10)
Submit your complete Lab reports in pdf form single file.
Apparatus or Circuit Components:
 ► Resistors
► DC Voltage source
► Voltmeter
► Ammeter
► Conductors (wires)
► Ground

Why do we need a Combination Circuit?

► In an electric circuit, the different components are connected either in
series or in parallel to produce different resistive networks.
Sometimes, in the same circuit, resistors can be connected in both
parallel and series, across different loops to produce a more
complex resistive network. These circuits are known as mixed
resistor circuits.
► In the end, however, the total resistance should be known. It is
important to know how to do this because resistors never exist
in isolation.

Resistors in Series:
► A circuit is said to be connected in series when the same amount
of current flows through the resistors.
► In such circuits, the voltage across each resistor is different. In a
series connection.
► if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs, then the entire circuit
is turned off.
Derivation or mathematical expression of
resistances in Series combination:
Let R1,R2 and R3 be the resistances connected in series, I be the
current flowing through the circuit, i.e, passing through each resistance,
and V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across R1, R2 and R3
respectively. Then, from Ohm’s law:
V1=IR1, V2=IR2 and V3=IR3………..(1)
If, V is the potential difference across the combination of resistance
then, V=V1+V2+V3……(2)
If, R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, then
V=IR…….(3) Using Eqs. (1) and (3) we can write,
IR= V=V1+V2+V3
=IR1+IR2+IR3
And IR=I(R1+R2+R3)
And R=R1+R2+R3
Therefore, when the resistance are combined in series, the
equivalent resistance is higher than each individual resistance.
The total resistance is given as:
R total=R1+R2+………….+Rn
Circuit diagram:
Table:
Sr. Resistance Voltage Current
No (Ohm) (V) (mA)
1. 1000 3.91 3.908
2. 2000 7.82 3.908
3. 69 0.269795 3.908

Apparatus or Circuit Components:

► Resistors
► DC Voltage source
► Voltmeter
 ► Ammeter
► Conductors (wires)
► Ground

Why do we need a Combination Circuit?

► In an electric circuit, the different components are connected either in
series or in parallel to produce different resistive networks.
Sometimes, in the same circuit, resistors can be connected in both
parallel and series, across different loops to produce a more complex
resistive network. These circuits are known as mixed resistor circuits.
► In the end, however, the total resistance should be known. It is
important to know how to do this because resistors never exist in
isolation.

Resistors in Parallel:
➢ A circuit is said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is the
same across the resistors.
➢ In such circuits, the current is branched out and recombines when
branches meet at a common point.
➢ A resistor or any other component can be connected or disconnected
easily without affecting other elements in a parallel circuit.

Derivation or mathematical expression of Parallel

combination:
Let, V be the potential difference across the two points A and B then, from
Ohm’s law;
Current passing through R1I1= V/R1 ……(1)
Current passing through R2I2= V/R2 ……(2)
Current passing through R3I3= V/R3 ……(3)
If R is the equivalent resistance, then from Ohm’s law, the total
current flowing through the circuit is given by:
I=V/R……(4)
And I=I1+I2+I3……(5)
Substituting the values of I,I1,I2 and I3 in equation(5);
V/R=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3……(6)
Cancelling common V term, one gets
1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistance is less
than each of all the individual resistances.
Circuit Diagram:
Table:
Sr. Resistance Voltage Current
No (Ohm) (V) (mA)
1. 069 12 173.913
2. 1000 12 12
3. 2000 12 6

Properties of series circuit:

• Here, we have three resistor (labeled R1, R2, and R3) connected in a
long chain from one terminal of the battery to the other. (it should be
noted that the subscript labeling those little number to the lower-right
of the letter “R” are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They
serve only to identify one resistor from another.)
• The defining characteristic of a series is that there is only one path for
current to flow. In this circuit, the current flow in a clockwise direction,
from point 1 to point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back around to 1.

Properties of parallel circuit:

• Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one
continuous path for current to flow. There’s one path from 1 to 2 to 7
to 8 and back to again 1. There’s another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 6 to 7 to
8 and back to 1 again. And then there’s a third path from 1 to 2 to 3 to
4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to again 1. Each individual path
(through R1, R2, and R3) is called a branch.
• The defining characteristic of a parallel is that all component are
 connected between the same set of electrically common points.
Looking at the schematic program, we see that points 1,2,3, and 4
are electrically common. So are points 8,7,6, and 5. Note that all the
resistor, as well as the battery are connected between these two set
of points.
• And of course, the complexity doesn’t stop at simple series and parallel
either 1.We can have circuits that are a combination of series and
parallel, too.

Properties of series- parallel circuit:

• In this circuit, we have two loops for the current to flow through: one
form 1 to 2 to 5 to 6 and back to 1 again, and another from 1 to 2 to 3
to 4 to 5 to 6 and back to 1 again. Notice how both current paths pass
through R1(from point 1 to point 2). In this configuration, we’d say that
R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, while R1 is in series with the
parallel combination of R2 and R3.

Simple circuits to be implemented.

A Combination circuit:

Multisim Circuit:
V/I Characteristics of typical Ge And Si diode:
➢ The cut in voltage: voltage for germanium (Ge) diode is about
0.3V. ➢ While for silicon (Si) diode is as about 0.7V.
➢ The potential at which current starts increasing exponentially is
called offset potential, threshold potential or firing potential of a diode.

The V/I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction

diode is shown in the below figure. The horizontal line in the below
represents the amount of voltage applied across the p-n junction diode
whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in the p-n
junction diode.
Forward Biased V-I characteristic of P-N diode:
➢ When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to
be forward biased.
➢ With increase of the source voltage Vs from zero value, initially
diode current is zero.
➢ From Vs=0 to cut in voltage, the forward current is very small. Cut in
voltage is also known as threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. ➢
Beyond cut-in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly and diode said to
conduct.

Reverse Biased V-I characteristics of P-N diode:

➢ When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode said to be
reverse biased. In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current
leakage current, of the order of microamperes or milliamperes flow. The
leakage current is almost independent of the reverse voltage until this
voltage reach breakdown voltage at this reverse breakdown, voltage
remains almost constant but reverse current becomes quite high limited
only by the external circuit resistance. A large reverse break down
voltage
associated with high reverse current, leads to excessive power loss
that may be destroy the diode.

Multisim circuit:
 For Forward Biased:

For Reverse Biased:

Explanation:
Introduction:
➢ Rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC).
➢ The process is called rectification
➢ Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-phase).
➢ Output can be made fixed or variable
Applications:
➢ DC welder
➢ DC motor drive
➢ Battery charger
➢ DC power supply

Rectifier Circuits:
➢ Single-phase rectifiers
• Half-wave rectification
• Full-wave rectification
➢ Three-phase rectifiers
• Three-phase, half-wave circuit
• Three-phase, full-wave circuit

Single-phase rectifiers:
Half-Wave Rectification:
• Single diode rectifier is connected across an alternating voltage
source.
• Since the diode only conducts when the anode is positive with
respect to the cathode, current will flow only during the positive half
cycle of the input voltage.

Single-phase rectifier:
Half-Wave Rectification:
 • The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is very large
and consequently difficult to filter.

Half wave Rectifier:

Output frequency of HWR:
• Output frequency of HWR is equal to input frequency.
• This means when input AC completes one cycle, rectified wave
also completes one cycle.

fout = fin

Single-phase rectifiers:
Half-Wave Rectification:
 The
waveforms for source voltage Vs and output voltage Vo. • The output
voltage varies between the peak voltage Vm and zero in each cycle. This
variation is called “ripple”, and the corresponding voltage is called the
peak-to-peak ripple voltage, Vp-p.

Cont.
• During the positive half cycle of the source, the ideal diode is forward
biased and operates as a closed switch.
• The source voltage is directly connected across the load. During
the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and acts as
an open switch.
• The source voltage is disconnected from the load. As no current
flows through the loads, the load voltage Vo is zero.
• Both the load voltage and current are of one polarity and hence
said to be rectified.

Multisim Circuit:
Explanation:
Classification of Full Wave Rectifier:
The full wave rectifier can be further divided mainly into following types: 1.

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
1.Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier:
➢ In the center tapped full wave rectifier two diodes were used. ➢
These are connected to the center tapped secondary winding of the
transformer.
➢ The positive terminal of two diodes is connected to the two ends of
the transformer.
➢ Center tap divides the total secondary voltage into equal parts. ➢
The center tap is usually considered as the ground point or the zero
voltage reference point.
2.Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:
➢ Full wave bridge rectifier four diodes are arranged in the form of a
bridge. ➢ This configuration provides same polarity output with either
polarity. ➢ The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not
require a special center tapped transformer.
➢ The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side.
Full Wave Rectifier:
A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a
pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses
two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while the other
conducts during the other half cycle of the applied ac voltage.
Disadvantages:
➢ It is difficult to locate the center tap on the secondary winding. ➢ The
DC output is small as each diode utilizes only one half of the
transformer’s secondary voltages.
➢ The diodes used have high peak inverse voltage.
➢ Full wave rectifier requires more diodes i.e two for center tap rectifier
and four for bridge rectifier.
➢ When a small voltage is required to be rectified this full wave rectifier
circuit is not suitable.
Advantages:
➢ Ripple frequency is two times the input frequency.
➢ The output and efficiency of center tap full wave rectifier are high
because AC supply delivers power during both the halves.
➢ For the same secondary voltage bridge rectifier has double
output. Conclusion:
To design and simulate a Full Wave Rectifier circuit with working theory
and the analysis for the full bridge rectifier circuit. The full wave rectifier
allows us to convert almost all the incoming AC power to DC.
Diagram:
Multisim Circuit:
 ► Thevenin’s Theorem states that any complicated network across its
load terminals can be substituted by a voltage source with one
resistance in series.
► This theorem helps in the study of the variation of current in a
particular branch when the resistance of the branch is varied while
the remaining network remains the same.
► Where the voltage source being the open-circuited voltage across
the open-circuited load terminals and the resistance being the
internal resistance of the source
► In other words, the current flowing through a resistor connected
across any two terminals of a network by an equivalent circuit having
a voltage source Eth in series with a resistor Rth.
► Where Eth is the open-circuit voltage between the required two
terminals called the Thevenin voltage
► the Rth is the equivalent resistance of t
► the network as seen from the two-terminal with all other
sources replaced by their internal resistances called Thevenin
resistance.
Apparatus:
• Resistor (fixed and variable)
• Multimeter
• Jumper Wires
• Breadboard
• DC supply
Procedure:
➢ Measure four resistors and construct a series circuit as shown
below. A precaution for minimizing the source resistance effect is to
use a high value resistor which is connected to positive battery
terminal.

➢ The specific set of points is 1 and 2 with respect to which, the

circuit has to be Thevenized.
➢ Measure and note V12 and I12 for different values of source voltage.
➢ Remove resistance RL from the circuit and measure VAB for different
values of source voltage (used in point 3 above) as shown below. This
voltage is the Thevenin voltage Vth.
➢ Turn off source supply and place a short circuit across the
voltage source as shown below. Measure the resistance R12
which is the Thevenin resistance Rth.

➢ Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit and connect RL between

two points 1 and 2 as shown below with source voltage adjusted to
values of Vth. Rth value will be obtained using a variable
resistance.
 ➢ Measure V12 and I12 and compare with the results obtained in 3 above.
Measurements and Calculations
Sr. Source Measurement Thevenin Thevenin Measurement
No. Voltage in Original Voltage Resistan Thevenin
(volts) Circuit Vth ce Rth Equivalent Circuit
(Volts) (ohm)
V12 I12 V12 I12
(volt) (Amp.) (volt) (Amp.)

1. 5 3.165 0.045872 3.333 3.667 3.165 0.045872

2. 10 6.33 0.091743 6.667 3.667 6.33 0.091743
3. 15 9.495 0.137615 10 3.667 9.495 0.137615

► Norton’s theorem is another useful tool to analyze electric circuits like

using the Thevenin’s Theorem, which reduces linear, active circuits
and complex networks into a simple equivalent circuit.
► The main difference between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s
theorem is that, Thevenin’s theorem provides an equivalent voltage
source and an equivalent series resistance, while Norton’s theorem
provides an equivalent Current source and an equivalent parallel
resistance.

Apparatus:
• Resistor (fixed and variable)
• Multimeter
• Jumper Wires
• Breadboard
• DC supply
Procedure:
➢ Measure four resistors and construct a series circuit as shown
below. ➢ The specific set of points is A and B with respect to which,
the Norton equivalent circuit has to be drawn.
➢ Measure and note VAB and IAB for different values of source voltage.
➢ Remove resistance RL and replace it with a short circuit and measure
current through terminals A and B for different values of source
voltage as shown below. This current is the Norton current In.

➢ Turn off supply and place a short circuit across the voltage source as
shown below. Measure the resistance which is Norton equivalent
resistance Rn.

➢ The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below:

 ➢ As a current source with a parallel resistance can be converted to an
equivalent voltage source in series with a source resistance, the
same circuit can be redrawn as shown below:

➢ Measure VAB and IAB in the circuit drawn in point 6 above and
compare with the results obtained in 2 above.

Measurements and Calculations:

Sr. Source Measurement Norton Equivalent Values Measurement in
No. Voltage in Original Norton
(volts) Circuit Equivalent
Circuit
VAB IAB In Rn Vn=(In)( VAB IAB
(volt) (mA) (mA) (ohm) Rn) (volt) (mA)
(Volts)
1. 5 2.604 37.736 425.532 6.714 2857.021 2.604 37.736
2. 10 5.208 75.472 851.064 6.714 5714.043 5.208 75.472
3. 15 7.811 113.208 0.001277 6.714 0.008573 7.811 113.208

❖ A capacitor is charged when we supply a voltage with current running

through the capacitor, in the process the capacitor accumulates charges
and is called charged.
❖ A charged capacitor can then be discharged by draining the current
through it’s two terminals or connecting some load through it’s terminals.
Consider a circuit consisting of Resistor (R Ohms), Capacitor (C
Farads), a Voltage Source (V voltage).

Charging of capacitor:
In the above circuit let the capacitor is fully discharged or does not
contains any charge and the switch is connected to point B as shown in
figure:

The general graph of voltage across a capacitor as it is charged is shown in

the figure below:
Time constant:
The Time Constant is the product of C (Capacitance) & R (Resistance) in a
circuit consisting of capacitor and resistor.
Capacitor discharging:
When a capacitor is charged we can discharge it or use the electrical
power/energy stored in it by joining the two terminals of the capacitor by a
load as shown in the figure below:

Duty Cycle:
A duty cycle or power cycle is the fraction of one period in which a signal or
system is active. Duty cycle is commonly expressed as a percentage or a
ratio. A period is a time it takes for a signal to complete an on-and-off
cycle.
MULTISIM CIRCUIT:

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

KVL states that:

“The Algebraic Sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero.”

Apparatus:
• Resistors
 • Multimeter
• Jumper wires
• Breadboard
Procedure:
a) Simple Series Circuit:
• Take three resistors and construct a series circuit as shown

below:

Identify points between which voltage can be measured.

• In the given drawing, these are 1-2,1-3,1-4,2-3,2-4 and 3-4. • The
measured voltages are indicated as V12, V13, V14 , V23, V24 and V34. • The
subscript of each voltage signifies that the first digit represents the
point which is assumed to be positive and the second point represent
the point which is assumed negative with respect to the first point. • The
voltages between all of these points will be measured with red probe
connected to the first point in the subscript and black probe connected to
second point.
• The voltages may also be measured by interchanging the probe position
between any two points.
• The voltages in this case are V21, V31, V41, V32, V42, and V43.It will be
interesting to note that V21=-V12, V31=-V13 and so on.
• For measurement of above voltages, follow step 6.
• Measure and note all these voltages.
• There can be many equations for KVL within this loop, these
are: • V41+V12+V23+V34=0
• V41+V12+V24=0
• V41+V13+V34=0
• V41+V14=0
• V42+V23+V34=0
 • V42+V24=0
• V43+V34=0
• V14+V43+V32+V21=0
• V14+V43+V31=0
• V14+V42+V21=0
• V14+V41=0
• V13+V32+V21=0
• V13+V31=0
• V12+V21=0

b) Multiple Loop Circuit:

➢ Take four resistors and construct a multiple mesh loop circuit as
shown below:

➢ Identify closed loop. In the given the circuit, there are three closed
loops namely 4-1-2-4,4-2-3-4 and 4-1-2-3-4.
➢ The voltages in the first loop (while trasversing the loop from point 4
in the clockwise direction, containing droops across all elements) are
V41, V12 and V24.Measure and note these values. Take the sum and
verify KVL.
➢ The voltages in the second loop (while trasversing the loop from point
4 in the clockwise direction, containing drops across all elements) are
V42, V23, and V34.Measure and note these values. Take the sum and
verify KVL.
➢ The voltage in the third loop (while trasversing the loop from point 4 in
the clockwise direction, containing droops across all elements) are
V41, V12, V23, and V34.Measure and note these values. Take the sum
and verify KVL.
c)Unknown Voltage Calculation:
 ➢ Take four resistors and construct a circuit as shown

below:

➢ The purpose is to calculate the voltage V23(=-V32).

➢ If we assume that an element of infinite resistance is connected
between node 2 and 3, then two loops will be formed namely, 1-3-2-1
(or 1-2-3- 1) and 2-3-4-2 (or 2-4-3-2).
➢ The voltages in the first loop shall be V13, V32, V21 and KVL
application will give us the equation V13+V32+V21 =0 from which
V32=-V13- V21.Measure these voltages and calculate: V32(=-V32).
Measure V32 and verify your calculation.
➢ The voltages in the second loop shall be V23, V34,V42 and KVL
application will give us the equation V23+V34+V42 =0 from which
V23=-V34-
V42.Measure these voltages and calculate: V23(=-V32).Measure V23
and verify your calculation.
Measurement and Calculations:

a) Simple Series Circuit:

Measured Voltages:

• V12 = 2.667 V, V13 = 08 V, V14 = 12 V, V23 = 5.33 V, V24 = 9.33 V, V34 = 4

V
• V21= -2.667V, V31= -08V, V41 = -12V, V32 = -5.33V, V42 = -9.33 V, V43 =
-04 V
Verification of Equations:
• V41+V12+V23+V34 = -12+2.667+5.33+04 = 0
• V41+V12+V24 = -12+2.667+9.33 = 0
 • V41+V13+V34 = -12+08+04 = 0
• V41+V14 = -12+12 = 0
• V42+V23+V34 = -9.33+5.33+04 = 0
• V42+V24 = -9.33+9.33 = 0
• V43+V34 = -04+04 = 0
• V14+V43+V32+V21 = 12-5.52-0.56-5.92 = 0 Pic
• V14+V43+V31 = 12-6.08-5.92 = 0 Pic
• V14+V42+V21 = 12-9.33-2.667 = 0
• V14+V41 = 12-12 = 0
• V13+V32+V21 = 08-5.33-2.667 = 0
• V13+V31 = 08-08 = 0
• V12+V21 = 2.667-2.667 = 0

b) Multiple Loop Circuit:

Loop 1 (4-1-2-4)
• V41 = +12 V V12 = -06 V V24 = -06 V
• V41+V12+V24 = +12-06-06 = 0

Loop 2 (4-2-3-4)
• V42 = +06 V V23 = -4.5 V V34 = -1.5 V
• V42+V23+V34 = +06-4.5-1.5 = 0

Loop 3 (4-1-2-3-4) Pics

• V41 = 12 V V12 = - 2.068V V23 = - 0.195599 V V34 = - 9.737 V

• V41+V12+V23+V34 = +12-2.068-0.195599-9.737 = 0

c) Unknown Voltage Calculation:

Loop 1 (1-3-2-1) Pic

 • V13 = -9.769 V V21 = +5.342 V

• V32 = -V13-V21 = +9.769-5.342 = +4.428 V

Loop 2 (2-3-4-2) Pic
• V34 = -0.76854 V V42 = +9.931 V

• V 23 = -V34-V42 = +0.76854 -9.931 = -9.16246V

Screenshots:
Simple Series Circuit:

Equation # 8:

Equation # 9:
Multiple Loops Circuit:
Loop # 3:

Finding Unknown Voltage:

Loop # 1:
Loop # 2: