1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
1.1 Physics and Its Relationship to Other Branches of Science
The systematic development of the study of physics started with the studies made by
Galileo, Kepler and Newton some three centuries ago when they tried to understand mechanical
motions of objects. This continued to include researches in electrical and magnetic forces and the
nature of light.

Physics is concerned with the basic laws of nature. It deals with the study of matter and
energy and their relationship. It is generally divided into two broad areas: classical and modern.
Classical physics includes mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, light and
sound waves, and optics. Modern Physics includes atomic physics, nuclear physics, photons and
quantum physics and other latest theories and discoveries.

Astronomy, geology and meteorology depend on fundamental principles in physics to

explain the meaning of observations and to come up with correct predictions. Chemistry uses
modern atomic theory to predict atomic structures and interactions. Living things are composed
of matter wherein transformation of energies occurs. Biology therefore must consider physics as
an integral part. The latest technology that we have now is biotechnology, which came next after
information technology. This deals with cloning, genetic engineering, genetically modified
plants and organism, and DNA tests.

1.2 Importance of Physics in Technology

Science and technology are related, but they are not the same. Physics as a science
attempts to understand nature and its laws. Such inquiry gives birth to knowledge. Technology
uses this knowledge to make life easier and more enjoyable.
Perhaps as a child, one of the things you looked for in a playground was a set of monkeybars.
The monkeybars were designed to support your weight as you joyfully moved from one frame to
another. The physics principles of forces tell us how these monkeybars work.

Buildings, too, must support a great deal of weight. In fact, physics explains the structure
of monkeybars and buildings in the same way. The technology of both structures makes use of
the same principles – those of forces.

Then, see how technology could grow. If we can build a one-story house, why not add a
second story, or a third and or a fourth? This addition could continue and before long way we
could have a skyscraper. This technology is growing, step by step. Each step is a little bigger and
a little more complex. But it still uses the physics principles – those of forces.
Same thing happens with raft, buoy life preserver, cork, foam and the likes that float in
water. Raft is designed to support weight from sinking in the water. The physics principles of
buoyancy tell us how these rafts float in the water.
2
 Marine vessels which is as big as Superferry, navy destroyer, aircraft carrier, cargo
vessel, and even submarine, and balloons support a deal of weight and external forces. Marine
vessels and balloons float in water and air respectively; physics explains why those things float
in the said fluids by buoyancy principles.

Experiments in laboratories around the world are exploring the atom, its nucleus and the
electron. Still more are exploring the galaxy and beyond. Each experiment brings anew
knowledge which can be used for technology – ships, cars, planes, satellites, televisions, long
distance communication, computers – in medicine, agriculture, industry entertainment, sports,
transportation and communications. Indeed, physics and technology are partners for progress.

1.3 Scope and Branches of Physics

Physics has commonly been divided into mechanics, heat, sound, optics, electricity and
magnetism, and modern physics.

a. Mechanics is the oldest and the most basic branch of physics. It deals with such ideas
as inertia, motion, force, and energy. Mechanics includes the properties and laws of
both solids and fluids, of point masses, and of continuous matter.

b. The subject of heat includes the principles of temperature measurement, that is, the
effects of temperature on the properties of materials, heat flow, and thermodynamics
– the study of transformation involving heat and work.

c. The study of sound is concerned with vibrations and waves and with their recording,
transmission, and perception, as in music and speech.

d. Optics is concerned with the nature and propagation of light, including the refraction
that occurs when light passes through prisms and lenses. Of importance also are
discussions of the separation of white light into its constituent colors, the nature of
spectra, and the wave aspects of light such as interference, diffraction, and
polarization.

e. Electricity and magnetism deal with still other aspects of matter and space in which the
key concepts are electric charge and current.

f. Modern Physics deals with relativistic mechanics, quantum mechanics, atomic, nuclear
and high-energy physics and other latest discoveries.

1.4 Scope of Mechanics

The subject of mechanics occupies a unique position in the physical science because it is
fundamental to so many fields of study. In its broadest sense, mechanics may be defined as the
science, which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the action
of forces.
3

The topics of mechanics, which interest physicist and astronomers (and to some extent,
electrical engineers and navigators) are particle mechanics, celestial mechanics, quantum
mechanics, and relativistic mechanics. To Engineers, the important areas of mechanics are the
mechanics of solids and of fluids and their concomitant, continuum mechanics. A visual outline
of how these topics are inter-related is shown in Figure 1.1. In this textbook, we consider only
the mechanics of rigid bodies, which is divided into two parts: statics and dynamics. In statics,
we consider the effects and distribution of forces on rigid bodies, which are and remain at rest. In
dynamics, we consider the various motions of rigid bodies and the correlation of these motions
with the forces causing them.

1.5 Guides to Solving Problems

One of the first things a student should acquire is the ability to organize his work in a neat
and orderly fashion. Properly arranged work not only helps to eliminate personal errors but also
permits easy checking by another person – a frequent occurrence in engineering offices. To aid
the student achieve orderly work habits the following suggestions are offered:

a. After identifying the problem, start by constructing a neat diagram of the data and
dimensions may be added without affecting its legibility. A freehand sketch is usually
acceptable, although the use of a straightedge is preferred and will take little additional
time. Some students use different-colored pencils to distinguish between known and
unknown quantities.

b. State as concisely as possible what data are GIVEN and what information is REQUIRED.
Students who fail to realize what is required often find themselves in the position of
obtaining the right answer to the wrong question.

c. Errors are frequently caused by mental substitution in equations and subsequent failure to
include the term in the equation. For this reason, write out the equation that you intend to
use before substituting in it. This will also make the process apparent to any person who
may check it. If an equation is not used, write a short note indicating the principle used or
the operation performed. This short statement of theory – be it equation, principle, or
operation – may be put at the left side of the sheet and the numerical work placed in line
with it at the right of the page. In this textbook, whenever an equation or principle is used
in the solution of a problem, it is stated at the left of the page in brackets and is followed
by the solution in the same line. You cannot be urged too strongly to use this “theory
solution” technique when solving problems.

Experience has also shown that many students have difficulty in obtaining
accurate numerical results even though they have correctly applied the principles. To
indicate the way to more accurate computation, the illustrative problems in every topic in
this textbook discuss the technique of solution as well as the application of principles.
4 Mechanics of fluids

MECHANICS

Mechanics of Solids
solids
 Rigid bodies Deformable bodies Ideal Fluids Viscous Fluids Compressible fluids

Strength of Materials Theory of Elasticity Theory of plasticity

Dynamics
Statics

Kinematics Kinetics

Figure 1.1: Abbreviated outline of engineering mechanics.

1.6 Measurement
Measurement – (in simple cases) means comparing a thing with a standard to see how
many times as big it is. In other cases, counting and statistical analysis may be necessary part of
measurement.

Most of the measurements and calculations in PHYSICS are concerned with different
kinds of quantities, e.g., length, velocity, volume, mass, and energy. Every measurement
includes both a number and a unit. The unit simultaneously identifies the kind of dimension and
the magnitude of the reference quantity used as a basis for comparison. Many units are
commonly used for the dimension of length, e.g., inch, yard, mile, centimeter, meter, kilometer,
and so on. The number obviously indicates how many of the reference units are contained in the
quantity being measured. Thus the statement that the length of a room is 20 ft means that the
length of the room is 20 times the length of the foot, which in this case is the unit of length
chosen for comparison.

Physical quantities have in addition to magnitude are important property of dimension. A

number alone is meaningless in Physics unless the tag of dimension is attached. For instance, the
statement V=100 is entirely useless unless the proper units of velocity are specified.
5

1.7 Use and Misuse of Units

The units must be regarded as a necessary part of the complete specification of physical
quantity. It is foolish to separate the number of a measure from its unit, as it is to separate a
laboratory reagent bottle from its label. When Physical quantities are subjected to mathematical
operation, the units must be carried along with the numbers and must undergo the same
operations as the numbers. Quantities cannot be added or subtracted directly unless they have not
only the same dimensions but also the same units.

Fundamental Physical Quantities:

a. Length
 b. Mass/Force
c. Time
d. Temperature – not use in mechanics
e. Electric current – not use in mechanics

Derived units for other Physical Quantities – product or quotient of basic

units: 1. Pressure = force/length square
2. Speed = length /time
3. Density = mass/cubic length
4. Work or energy = force length
5. Power = force-length/time

1.8 Systems of Units

A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all kinds of quantities are
called systems of units (table 1).

a. Meter-Kilogram-Second (mks) system – a subset of SI units, is called absolute systems of

units since the kilogram is defined in a way that it has nothing to do with the gravitational
field of the earth or any other planet. It is mass (inertia), not weight, that is used.
b. Centimeter-Gram-Second (cgs) system – differs from the mks system only in using the
centimeter and the gram, which are submultiples of the meter and the kilogram. It is a subset
of SI and it, too, is an absolute system of units.
c. Foot-pound-second (fps) system – is another system used in English-speaking countries.

Table 1
System of Units
system length time force mass

Mks(metric) Meter, m Second, sec Newton, N Kilogram, Kg

Cgs(metric) Centimeter, cm Second, sec dyne gram

Fps (English) Feet, ft. Second, sec Pound, lb. Slugs*

* In the British system the mass was originally defined in terms of pound force. A mass
of 1 slug is equivalent to a weight of 32.17 pounds.
6

The metric system is a decimal system, i.e., units are a certain power of 10 larger or
smaller than other units describing the same physical property. Table 2 indicates the prefixes in
the metric system and their relative sizes.

Table 2
Multiplication and Division Factors for SI Units
 Prefix Symbol Power Equivalent

Peta P 1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000 Quadrillion

Tera T 1012 = 1,000,000,000,000 Trillion

Giga G 109 = 1,000,000,000 Billion

Mega M 106 = 1,000,000 Million

Kilo k 103 = 1,000 Thousand

Hecto h 102 = 1,00 Hundred

Deca da 101 = 10 Ten

- - 100 = 1 One

Deci d 10-1= 0.1 Tenth

Centi c 10-2= 0.01 Hundredth

Milli m 10-3= 0.001 Thousandth

Micr μ 10-6= 0.000001 Millionth

o

Nano n 10-9= 0.000000001 Billionth

Pico p 10-12= 0.000000000001 Trillionth

Femto f 10-15= 0.000000000000001 Quadrillionth

Table 3:
Common Derived Quantities* and symbols
Derived symbols Metric British
Quantity
MKS CGS FPS

∙ Area A m2 cm2 ft2

∙ Volume V m3 cm3 ft3

∙ Speed or velocity v m/s cm/s ft/s

∙ Acceleration a m/s2 cm/s2 ft/s2

∙ Density ρ kg/m3 g/cm3 lb/ft3

 ∙ Force or weight F or W kg-m/s2 or Newton dyne Pound (lb.)

*Derived Quantities are products or quotients of basic units.

The whole set is known as the SI (System International) system of units. The SI system
of measurement is now used worldwide.
7

1.9 Conversion of Units

Occasionally it is necessary to convert a term from one system of units to another to
make an equation dimensionally correct. The conversion is accomplished by multiplying the
given term by unity where unity is a ratio of units (of the same kind but different in size)
containing the required units and those given.

For example, convert a velocity of 60 miles per hour to units of feet per second. Begin by
writing

ν = 60 miles/hour

To express ν in feet per second, multiply the right side by the following, each of which
has a value of unity.

ν = 60 miles/hour. (5280ft/mile) (Hour/3600 sec)

Canceling out like units, we have

ν = 60 x 5280/3600 = 88 ft/sec.

The ratio 5280/3600 is the conversion factor by which miles per hour must be multiplied
to yield feet per second. It is not necessary to remember conversion factors once the method is
mastered.

Length Conversion
Illustrative problems #1.

Convert 3 meters to feet.

Begin by writing L = 3 m

To express L in feet, multiply the right side by a ratio of which it has a value of unity.

L = 3 m (3.28 ft/m) then, canceling out like units

 L = 3 x 3.28 ft = 9.84 ft.

3.28 is the conversion factor by which meter must be multiplied to yield a unit of feet.
(See Table 4)
8

Table 4:
Conversion equivalents:
Angle 1 radian = 57.30
1 revolution (rev) = 2πrad = 3600
10 =60’ =3600”

Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm

1 ft = 12 inches
1 m = 3.28 feet
1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches
1 statute mile = 1,609 m = 5280 ft
1 nautical mile = 1,853 m = 1.1508 statute mile = 6076.1 ft

Time 1 hr. = 60 min

1 min = 60 sec
1 day = 24 hr

Mass 1 kg =1000g = 35.27 oz =2.205 lb.

(“1kg = 2.205 lb.” means that a kg is a mass that weighs 2.205
lb. This equivalent is approximate. It is dependent on the value
of g (acceleration due to gravity) and is only meaningful only
for terrestrial measurement

Force 1 N = 1x105dyne = 0.2248 lb. = 102 g force = 0.102 kg force

(“1g force = 980.7 dynes” means that a gram mass
experiences a force of 980.7 dyne in the earth’s gravitational
field). 1 Ton = 2000 lb
0
Temperature C = 5/9 (0F-32) Degrees Centigrade
0
F = 9/5 0C + 32 Degrees Fahrenheit
K = 0C + 273.15 Kelvin (not read as Degrees Kelvin) 0R
= 0F + 460 Degrees Rankine

Energy, 1 Joule = 1 N-m

work, heat = 0.7376 Ft-lb.
= 9.481x10-4 BTU
= 1x107ergs
= 3.725x10-7 Hp-hr.

Pressure 1 atm (atmosphere) = 10.132x10+4 N/m2 or Pascal or

Pa = 29.92 in. Hg.
= 760 mm.Hg
= 14.7 lb/in2(psi)
 Power 1 HP = 746 Watts
1 Kw = 1.34 HP

Illustrative Problem #2.

Convert 3 meters to feet.

Begin by writing L = 3 m

To express L in feet, multiply the right side by a ratio of which it has a value of unity.

L = 3 m (3.28 ft/m)

Canceling out like units

L = 3 x 3.28 ft = 9.84 ft.

3.28 is the conversion factor by which meter must be multiplied to yield a unit of

feet. Illustrative Problem #3.

Convert 6000 ft to Nautical Mile.

L = 6000 ft

L = 6000 ft (1 Naut.mi/6076.1 ft) = 0.9875 Naut. Mile

The ratio (1/6076.1) is the conversion factor by which feet must be

multiplied to yield a unit of Naut. Mile.

Illustrative Problem #4.

How many decameter in one kilometer?

L=1 km.

Convert kilometer to meter, then meter to decameter.

L = 1 km (1000m/1km) (1decameter/10m)
L = 100 decameter

Therefore, there are 100 decameter in 1 kilometer.

10
Illustrative Problem #5.

How many μm in 1 cm?

Convert cm to m, then m to μm.

L = 1 cm (1 m/100 cm)(1,000,000 μm/m)

L = 10,000 μm.

Therefore, there are 10,000 μm in 1 cm.

Time Conversion
Illustrative Problem #1.

Convert 90 minute to hr.

T = 90 min. (1 Hr. /60 min.)

T = 1.5 Hr.

Illustrative Problem #2.

Express 2.135 hr. in terms of hr, min., and sec.

T = 2.135 hr.

T = 2 hr. + 0.135 hr.

Convert 0.135 Hr to minutes by multiplying it by 60 min./hr/

Thus, 0.135 hr. (60 min./hr) = 8.1 min.

Considering 8.1 minutes is a total sum of 8-min+0.1 min, convert 0.1 min. to

sec. 0.1 min (60 sec/min) = 6 sec.

Therefore, by combining the number of hr, min, and sec, this yields

2.135 = 2 hrs 8 minutes and 6 seconds

11

Mass, Force and/or Weight Conversion

Illustrative Problem #1.

 Convert 10 lb. to kg, to N, to dyne, to oz.

F = 10 lb.

10 lb. (kg/2,205 lb.) = 4.535 kg

10 lb. (N/0.2248 lb.) = 44.484 N

10 lb. (1x105dyne/0.2248 lb.) = 4448398.6 dyne

10 lb (35.27 oz./22.05 lb) = 160 oz.

Temperature Conversion

Illustrative problems #1.

Convert 100 0C to 0F.

Substitute Tc = 100 0C from TF = 9/5 TC + 32

TF = 9/5 (100) + 32 = 212 0F

Illustrative Problem #2.

Express 37 0C in 0F, 0R and Kelvin

Convert TC to 0F, then 0 F to 0R

Substitute TC = 37 0C from TF = 9/5 TC + 32 to determine its value in terms of 0F.
Thus,

TF = 9/5 (37) + 32 = 98.6 0F.

Substitute TF = 98.6 0F form TR = TF + 460 to yield temperature scale in 0R.

TR = 98 .6 0F + 460 = 558.6 0R

Add 273.15 to TC to yield temperature scale in Kelvin. Thus,

TK = TC + 273.15 = 37 = 273 15 = 310.15 K

12

Pressure Conversion
Illustrative Problem #1.

Express 20 psi in Pascal, inches of Hg, mm.Hg, atm

P = 20 psi (10.132x104Pa/14.7 psi) = 137,850.34 Pa or 13.8x104Pa

 P = 20 psi (29.92 in. Hg/14.7 psi) = 40.7 in. Hg.

P = 20 psi (760 mm. Hg/14.7 psi) = 1034 mm. Hg

P = 20 psi (1 atm/14.7 psi) = 1.36 atm.

Illustrative Problem #2.

Express 15.5476 x 104Pascal to atm, mm.Hg, in.Hg, and psi

P = 15.5476 x 104Pascal (

) = 1.53 atm

P = 15.5476 x 104Pascal (
) = 1166 mm.Hg.

P = 15.5476 x 104Pascal (
) = 45.91 in. Hg.

P = 15.5476 x 104Pascal (
) = 22.56 psi
13

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise problems:

Length/Distance Conversion
1. Express 100 meters in kilometer, centimeter, and millimeter.

2. Express 60 nautical miles in feet, and in kilometer

 3. Add the following and express the answer in centimeter: 1.5 km, 1.5 m, 1.5 mm and
1.5 dm
14
15

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise problems:

Time Conversion
1. Express 16200 seconds in hr, in minutes and combination of hr and minute. 2.

Add the following and express in seconds: 1.5hour. 45 minutes, 700seconds 3.

How many hours from 1200H of June 12 to 2300H of June 15 of the same year?

16
17

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
 Exercise problems:

Mass, Force and/or Weight Conversion

1. Express 1000 lb. in kg, in N, tons and dyne.

2. Express 2500 kg. in lbs., tons, and dyne.

3. Express 2.5 Tons to lbs, and kg.

18
19

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise problems:

Temperature Conversion
1. Convert 558.6 0R, in F, Kelvin and 0C.
 2. Change –5 0C to Kelvin scale, to 0F and 0R

3. At what temperature reading have the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale the same in
numerical value?
20
21

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise problems:

Pressure Conversion

1. Express 1.15 atm in psi, Pascal, in. Hg, mm. Hg.

2. Express 30 inches of Mercury to atm, Pascal, mm. Hg, psi

 3. Express 15.376x104Pascal to atm, in. Hg, mm. Hg., psi
22

Chapter 2

VECTOR ANALYSIS
2.1Definition of Terms
a. Scalar Quantities.
❖ Quantities which can be completely specified by a number and a unit (magnitude)
❖ Scalar quantities obey the ordinary rules in addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.

Example: mass, time, temperature, energy and speed

b. Vector Quantities.
❖ A physical quantity, which requires both magnitude and direction in order to be
specified completely.
❖ The direction is as important as the magnitude when describing vector quantities

Example: velocity, displacement, force, acceleration, momentum and torque.

c. Resultant.
❖ A single vector quantity that would have the same effect as the sum of the entire
original vectors together.

d. Displacement.
❖ A vector quantity that indicates change of position with specified distance and
direction with respect to a reference point.

2.2 Presentation of Vectors

When a ship’s captain moves from port side to star board side of the ship, the captain
undergoes a change of position, or a displacement. But how does the captain goes from port side
to the starboard side? The captain might walks 10 meters. But this does not completely describe
how the captain goes from one side to another. It gives us information how far he walks, but
leaves out a necessary piece of information – the direction in which the captain goes from port to
star board side.

Therefore, a displacement is a quantity that requires both magnitude and direction. To

completely describe any change of position, magnitude and direction are always specified.
Consequently, this leads us to the concept of vectors.

Let us assume that we have two points in space called A and B. A particle moves from
point A to B. The total distance covered by the particle can be represented by drawing a directed
line segment connecting the two points as shown in Figure 4.1. Point A is called the initial point
and point B is called the terminal or end point. AB denotes the length from point A to point B.
 23

The notation AB represents a vector of length AB and the direction is from A to B. The
arrowhead is placed at the terminal point to represent the direction of the line segment. A vector
is any physical quantity, which represents both magnitude and direction. The length of the arrow
is the magnitude of the vector of a chosen scale, and the direction of the arrowhead indicates the
direction of the vector.

Y B Terminal Point

A Initial Point
OX

Figure 4.1: Directed line segment AB. Point A is the initial point and B is the
terminal point

Illustrative problem #1.

Draw a vector that represents a displacement of 100 miles along the east

direction Solution:

To represent a displacement of 100 miles east, use a scale of 1 cm for every 20miles. The
length of the vector AB is 5 cm and directed east as shown in figure 4.2

(West) (East)
AB
5 cm

Figure 4.2 Representation of vector AB (scale 1cm: 20 Mi.)

Two vectors are said to be equal when they have the same magnitude and direction as
shown in Figure 4.3: Vector AB is equal to vector CD.

AB CD

Figure 4.3: Vector AB is equal to vector CD

24

2.3 Vectors in Same Direction (Vector Addition)

 Vector addition obeys the same operation as in adding of numbers if and only if vectors
are in same direction.

Illustrative Problem #1.

A ship moves for 100 meters toward east and continues to move for another 40 meters in
same direction. Find the resultant displacement. See Figure 4.4.

1 cm A B

100 m 40 m

(Scale 1 cm: 20 m)
R = 140 m

Figure 4.4: Sum of two parallel vectors in the same direction.

Solution:
a. Draw vector A=100 m; scale 1 cm: 20 m east.
b. Draw vector B=40 m; scale 1 cm: 20 m east from the head of vector A c. Draw the
resultant displacement, R form the tail of vector A to the head of vector B.

Illustrative problem #2.

A boat moves at 12 miles per hour with the river in which the current is 4 miles per hour.
Find the resultant velocity of the boat. See Figure 4.5
Boat River current Va = 12 MPH Vb = 4 MPH

Figure 4.5: A boat moving with the water current

Solution: (Figure 4.6)

a. Draw vector A at scale 1 cm : 2 Mi./hr
b. Draw the resultant displacement, R from the tail of A to the head of B.
c. Draw vector B at scale 1 cm: 2 Mi./ hr form the head of vector A.
25

A = 12 MPH B=4MPH
 R = 16 MPH

Figure 4.6: Sum of two parallel vectors in same direction.

2.4 Vectors in Opposite Direction (Vector Subtraction)

Vector subtraction obeys the same operation as in subtracting of numbers if and only if
vectors are in opposite direction.

Illustrative problem #1.

A Coast Guard rescue helicopter is moving upward due to its main rotor unbalanced lift
of 15,000 lb. The weight*of the helicopter is 14500 lb. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant. See Figure 4.7
Lift = 15,000 lb.

Weight = 14,500 lb.

Figure 4.7: A lift against the weight of a helicopter.

Solution: see Figure 4.8

a. Draw vector A = 7.5 cm (scale 1 cm.: 2000 lb.) upward for 15000 lb. lift. b. Draw
vector B = 7.25 cm (scale 1 cm: 2000 lb.) downward for 14500 lb. weight from the head
of A.
c. Draw the resultant R from the tail of A (1st vector) to the head of B (last vector).

*
Weight direction is always downward toward the center of the earth.
26

A = 15,000 lb.

Resultant, R = A – B
R = 15000 lb. – 14500 lb.
 R = 500 lb. (upward)

B = 14500 lb.

R = 500 lb.

Figure 4.8: Resultant = Lift – Weight.

Illustrative problem #2.

A boat moves at 12 Mi./Hr. against a river current of 4 Mi./Hr as shown in Figure 4.9.
Find the magnitude of the resultant.
Boat River current Va = 12 MPH Vb = 4 MPH

Figure 4.9: Boat moving against the river current.

Solution: (see Figure 4.10)

a. Draw vector A = 6 cm (scale 1 cm: 2 MPH) going to the right.
b. Draw vector B = 2 cm (scale 1 cm: 2 MPH) going to the left from the head of vector
B.
c. Draw the resultant R from tail of A (1st vector) to the end of B (last vector).

AR=A–B
B R = 12 MPH – 4 MPH R R = 8 MPH

Figure 4.10: Difference of two parallel vectors in opposite direction.

27

2.5 Two Vectors at Right Angle

Two Vectors at right angle can be analyzed by using the Pythagorean Theorem. The
Pythagorean Theorem states that the sum of the squares of the short sides of a right triangle is
equal to the square of its hypotenuse. For the triangle of Figure 4.11

a2 + b2 = c2
 Hence we can always express the length of any of the sides of a right triangle in terms of
the length of the other sides:

a= √ b=√ c= √

Another useful relationship is that the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is 180 0.
Since one of the angles in a right triangle is 900, the sum of other two parts must be 900. Thus, in
Figure 4.11

φ θ + φ = 90O
Sin θ = a/c
c
Cos θ = b/c
a
Tan θ = a/b
θ
b
Figure 4.11: Right Triangle

To find the resultant R of two vectors A and B that are perpendicular to each other, apply
the Pythagorean Theorem as
R=√
and the angle θ between R and A as shown in Figure 4.12 may be found from

Tan θ = A/B or θ = Tan-1 A/B

RA

θ
B

Figure 4.12: Right

28

Illustrative Problem #1.

A tug boat sails eastward for 5 km. and then northward for 10 km. How far is she from
her starting point? If she had sailed directly to her destination, in what direction would she have
headed?

Solution:

From Figure 4.13, the length of the resultant vector R corresponds to a distance of 11.2
 km. Finish

RAWE

S
θ

Start B

Figure 4.13

R=√=√

R = 11.2 km.

The direction θ in which the tugboat headed is found from:

θ = Tan –1 A/B = Tan-110/5

θ = 63 026’ 06” North of East

29

Illustrative Problem #2.

A boat moving at 12 km/hr. is crossing a river in which the current is flowing at 4km/hr.
In what direction should the boat be headed if it is to reach a point on the other side of the river
directly opposite its starting point?

Solution:

a. Draw vector A representing velocity of the river at scale 1 cm: 2 km/hr as shown in
Figure 4.14.

A=4KPH

R B = 12 KPH
Figure 4.14

b. Draw vector B representing the velocity of the boat from the head of vector A so that
it (boat) is directly opposite of tail of A.
c. Resultant R is 900 with vector A.
d. From Cos θ = adj./hyp.

Cos θ = adjacent /hypotenuse

θ = Cos –14/13

θ = 70.530
30
31

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Questions

Topic: Vector Analysis

1. W hat is the difference between speed and velocity?

2. How does a vector differ from a scalar?

3. Is it possible to get a zero resultant of two or more vectors? If so, what does it

indicate? 4. Why is knowledge on vector important in Physics?

 5. Draw two vectors of different magnitude in (a) the same direction, (b) opposite direction.
32
33

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problem

Topic: Vector Analysis: Pythagorean Theorem

1. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 28 cm long, and the length of one of the short sides is 23
cm. Find the length of the other side.

2. A man drives 5 mi. to the north and then 10 mi. to the east. What are the magnitude and
direction of his displacement from the starting point?

3. A boat is headed north at a speed of 8 mi./h. A strong wind is blowing whose pressure on the
boats superstructure causes it to move sideways to the west at a speed of 2 mi./h. What is the
boat’s velocity relative to the earth’ surface?
34
35

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problem

Topic: Vector Analysis:

1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force produced by a vertically upward force
of 40 lb. and a horizontal force of 30 lb.

2. Find the vertical and horizontal components of a 50-lb force that is directed 50O above the
horizontal.

3. A boat moving at 10 mi./hr is crossing a river in which the current is flowing at 2.5 mi./hr. In
what direction should the boat head if it is to reach a point on the other side of the river
directly opposite its starting point?
36
37

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems:

Topic: Pythagorean Theorem

1. Find the magnitude and direction of the following 2 concurrent forces as shown in Figure
4.21, 4.22 and 4.23.

F2 = 200 lbs F2 = 250lbs. F2 = 300 lbs.

 F1 = 200 lbs F1 = 250lbs. F1 = 300 lbs. Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23
38
39

2.6 Two Vectors at Angle ≠ 90O

Cosine Law. In the case in which A in Figure 4.12 is not at right angle to B (see Figure
4.15), a new set of relationship exist. The Pythagorean Theorem now expands into a new form
called the Law of Cosines which appears as follows:

a2= b2+ c2– 2 bc Cos A

b2= a2+ c2– 2 ac Cos B
c2= a2+ b2– 2 ab Cos C

c
a

AbC

Figure 4.15 : A triangle not containing a right angle.

Sine Law. The law of cosine will enable us to find the value of the the side c, but we
need also to determine the sense (direction) of this side, it is necessary to determine the angle A.
The angle can be found by using the Law of Sines, which relates the side of a triangle to the
angle opposite each side:

Illustrative Problem #1.

Two concurrent forces* 1of F1 = 8 lbs. and F2 = 5 lbs. (Figure 4.16) make an angle of
600 with each other. What is their vector sum?

F2 = 5 lbs.

600
F1 = 8 lbs.

Figure 4.16
Solution:

Using a convenient scale, draw vector F1 8 cm. long (1 cm: 1 lb.). See Figure
4.17.Beginning at the end of F1, draw vector F2 5 cm long so that there is a 600angle between the
direction of F1 and that of F2. There is, of course, a 1200angle between the line segments.
* Concurrent forces are forces that are acting at a common point.
40

Complete the triangle by drawing the resultant R from the tail of F1 (first vector) to the head of
F2 (2nd vector). Applying the law of Cosine, we have

R=√
Consider 1200(instead of 600) as the opposite angle of R from the triangle shown in Figure 4.17.

R=√ ( )( )

R = 11.4 lbs.

F2 = 5 lbs. R

600 1200 θ

F1 = 8 lbs.

Figure 4.17

The angle θ (direction of R) may be found from Sine Law.

Sin θ =
Sin θ = 0.38,

θ = Sin-10.38,

θ = 220 (direction of resultant R - upward to the left)

Illustrative Problem #2.

A tugboat is headed north at a speed of 8 MPH. A tidal current flows in the direction 30 0
South of East at a speed of 5 MPH. What is the tugboat’s velocity (Resultant) relative to the
earth surface? Find also its direction.
41

Solution:

1. The first step is to establish a suitable set of coordinate axes, such as shown in Figure
4.18a.

N
300
600 V2 = 5 MPH
V1 = 8 MPH
V1= 8 MPH
R

θ
α
WE
300

S V2 = 5 MPH

Figure 4.18a Figure 4.18b

2. Draw vector V1 (scale 1 cm: 2 MPH) 4 cm to the North (Figure 4.18b). At the end of
V1, Draw vector V2 2.5 cm (scale 1 cm: 2 MPH) in the direction 30 0South of East.
There is of course 600angle between V1 and V2 and these represents the angle opposite
of the resultant R. Applying the Law of Cosine, we have

R=√

R = √ ( )( )

R = 7 MPH

The angle θ (East of North), direction of R, may be found from Sine Law. From Figure 4.18b,
θ
θ = 38012’48” E of N
or
α = 510
Sin θ = 47’12” N of E
42

Parallelogram Method♣. The resultant R of two forces is a diagonal of the

parallelogram whose initial sides are the vectors of these two forces. The diagonal to be used is
that which emanates from the intersection of the initial sides.
If their vectors placed tip-to-tip represent the two forces, their resultant is the vector
directed from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the second vector.
The parallelogram formed by two vectors P and Q is divided by their resultant R into two
congruent triangles as evident in Figure 4.19a. If the triangle ABC were drawn alone as in
Figure 4.19b, the vector joining the tail of P to the tip Q have the same magnitude and direction
as the resultant R defined by the parallelogram law or parallelogram method♣. It is also evident
that the triangle ADC in Figure 4.19c may also be used to determine R.

B
R
DP

Q
A

Figure 4.19a

CC Q
BP
R
PDR
Q
A A Figure 4.19b Figure 4.19c

♣
Parallelogram method is approximation because there is no mathematical analysis involved.
43

Illustrative Problem #1:

A bulk carrier is headed south at a speed of 10 MPH. A tidal current flows in the
direction 750East of North (or North 750East) a speed of 6 MPH. Find the approximate speed and
direction of the bulk carrier.

Solution: Let V1 is the speed of the vessel.

V2 is the speed of the tidal current.
 1. Step 1. Draw vector V1 (scale 1 cm: 2 MPH) 5 cm to the South as shown in Figure
4.20.
2. Draw vector V2 (scale 1 cm: 2MPH) 3 cm from the tail of V1 in the direction North
750East.
3. Draw the parallelogram whose initial sides are vectors V1 and V2.
4. Draw the diagonal (resultant R) of the parallelogram that emanates from the
intersection of the initial sides.
5. Measure the resultant R by

N
750
using ruler. R = 5 cm. V2
W E 6. Since scale is 1 cm: 2 MPH,

R = 5 cm 2MPH/1cm R

R = 10 MPH (approximate)♣ θ

7. Direction of R can be obtained by

Using protractor. V1

θ = South 340 East (approximate)♣

S

Figure 4.20

♣
Approximation. In parallelogram method, there is no mathematical analysis involved and there is no formula used in
the process. Measurement in this method is not precise; it is approximation.
44
45

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise problem

Topic: Two Vectors at Ө ≠ 90O

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the following concurrent
forces as shown in Figure 4.24 and 4.25.
F1 = 30 lbs. F2 = 40 lbs. Ө = 200
Ө = 1600
F2 = 40 lbs. F1 = 30 lbs.

Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25

46
47

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems

Topic: Two Vectors at Ө ≠ 90O

1. A ferry boat is headed east at a speed of 35 knots. Find the magnitude and the direction of the
resultant speed of the boat relative to the earth if a tidal current of 5 knots flows in the
direction East 200 North.

2. Two compressive forces are acting on a fixed body as shown in the Figure 4.26. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces.

F1 = 300 lbs.
300

F2 = 400 lbs.

Figure 4.26
48
49

2.7 Three or more Vectors Acting at Common Point

Component Method
Procedures in adding two or more vectors A, B and C by component

method: 1. Resolve the initial vectors into components in X, Y, and Z direction.

2. Add the components in the X-direction to give RX, add the components in Y direction
to give RY, and add components in the Z-direction to give RZ.

a. RX = AX + BX + CX
b. RY = AY + BY + CY
c. RZ = AZ + BZ + CZ

3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of resultant from its components RX, RY and RZ.

R=√

If the vectors being added all lies in the same plane, only two components need be
considered.

Consider now Figure 4.27 in which force F acts upon the given body. The effect of the
force is to move the body rightward and upward. Choosing these directions as the positive
directions X and Y reference axes, we project the force F upon them to obtain the perpendicular
components FX and FY. More precisely we should draw parallels to the X and Y-axes to obtain
parallelogram, but when the reference axes are perpendicular, the projected length of the force
yields the same components. The relations between these components and F is determined by the
basic definitions of Sine and Cosine of the angle θx between F and X-axis, i.e., Sin θx = FY/F
and Cos θx = FX/F which are usually rewritten in the following form:

FX = F Cos θx (+) Y-axis Free vector of FX

FY = F Sin θx
F
θx

FY Free vector of Fy

O
FX (+) X-axis

Figure 4.27
50
 The component FX and FY are considered positive if they act in the positive directions of
the X and Y-axes and negative if directed negatively.

The axis used to obtain rectangular components of a vector need not necessarily be
vertical and horizontal. For example, Figure 4.28 shows a piece of block being pulled up an
inclined plane by a force F, represented by its components FX and FY parallel and perpendicular
to the surface of the plane, respectively.

X-axis
Y-axis
FF

θθθ

WY
Figure 4.28a

W (weight)

Figure 4.28b

WY = Component of weight W normal♠to the plane = W Cos θ WX =

Component of weight W parallel to the plane = W Sin θ

Illustrative Problem #1.

Determine the X and Y components of the force F in Figure 4.29.

Solution: +Y FY F = 200 lbs.

Since F is directed upward to the right, its

components act in these directions as shown. With FX respect to the positive directions of
the reference θ = 300 axes, the sign of FY is positive and that of FX is +X also positive.

FX = F Cos θ = 200 Cos 300 = 173.2 lbs. Figure 4.29 FY = F Sin θ = 200 Sin
300= 100 lbs.

Although the signs of the components are sufficient to denote their direction, it is a good practice
to interpret these signs by directional arrows following the absolute values.

♠
Normal means perpendicular and it has a symbol of ⊥.
51

Illustrative Problem #2.

Referring to Figure 4.30, determine the components of force F along X-Y axes parallel
and normal to the incline.

FX

F=361 lbs.
XY

β2
3θ=β+∝
θ =Tan –12/3 + Tan –13/4
3 θ θ =700 33’36”
FY
4
∝

Figure 4.30

Solution:

Resolve F into components, i.e.,

FX = F Cos θ = 361 lbs. Cos 700 33’ 36” = 120.15 lbs.

FY = F Sin θ = 361 lbs. Sin 70033’ 36” = 340.42 lbs.

Where: FX is parallel with the incline.

FY is normal to the incline.

Illustrative Problem # 3: PX = 300 lbs.

The drum of lubricant on the 300incline P

in Figure 4.31 is acted upon by a force P
inclined at 200 with the horizontal. If P 200
is resolved into components parallel
and normal to the incline and the value θ
of the parallel component PX is 300 lbs.,
compute the value of the normal PY X
component PY and that of P. Y

300
.
Figure 4.31
52

Solution:
 Determine the angle θ between P and the incline. θ = 200+ 300= 500

Since PX = 300 lbs. and Solving for PY:

PX = P Cos θ
PY = P Sin θ
0
Equating the 2 PXs, we have PY = 466.72 Sin 50

P Cos θ = 300 lbs. PY = 357.53 lbs.

P = 300 lbs./ Cos 500

Then P = 466.72 lbs.

Illustrative Problem # 4:

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the four concurrent forces
acting on the body shown in Figure 4.32.

Y-axis
A = 224 lbs. B = 300 lbs.

2
√1
θA θB = 300
X-axis
0
θD = 60 θC
5

slope = 12/5
12

√
D = 200 lbs.

C = 390 lbs.

Figure 4.32
53

Solution:

Step 1. Resolve the initial vectors into components in X and Y direction.

AX = A Cos θA . Since the slopeΨof force A is ½ (see figure 4.32), Tan θA = ½.

Then Cos θA = 2/√

Sin θA = 1/√
 Therefore AX = A Cos θA = A 2/√
AX = 224 lbs. ( 2/√ )
AX = -200.4 lbs. = 200.4 lbs.

AX, being the leftward x-component of A, is considered negative because force A is directed
upward to the left.

BX = B Cos θB = 300 lbs. Cos 300= +259.8 lbs. = 259.8

CX = C Cos θC = 390 ( 5/√ )= + 150 lbs. = 150 lbs.

Dx = D Cos θD= 200 Cos 600= - 100 lbs. = 100 lbs.

AY = A Sin θA = 224 lbs. ( 1/√ ) = +100 lbs. = 100 lbs.

BY = B Sin θB = 300 Sin 300= + 150 lbs. = 150 lbs.

CY = C SinθC = 390 lbs. ( 12/ √ ) = - 360 lbs. = 360 lbs.

DY = D Sin θD = 200 lbs. Sin 600= - 173.2 lbs. = 173.2 lbs.

Step 2.Add the components in the x-direction to give Rx.

Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx + Dx

Rx = -200.4 lbs.+ 259.8 lbs. + 150 lbs. – 100 lbs.

Rx = +109.4Lbs. = 109.4 lbs.

Since we come up with positive value, Rx is directed rightward (→).

Step 3. Add the components in the Y-direction to give RY.

Ψ
Slope of a line, m = (dy/dx). Therefore, the slope of force A, m=y/x=1/2. Also, slope, m=Tan θ where θ is the angle
of inclination.
54

RY = AY + BY + CY + DY
RY = 100 Lbs. + 150 lbs. – 360 lbs. – 173.2 lbs.
RY = -283.2 lbs. = 283.2 lbs.

Since we come up with negative value, RY is directed downward (↓).

Step 3. Compute the magnitude of the resultant R.

R=√ = √ ( )
 R = 303.6 lbs.

Step 4. Plot the RX and RY (Figure4.33) and compute the direction θR of the resultant.

Y-axis From Tan θR = RY/RX

Rx = 109.4 lbs. θ = Tan –1( 283.2 lbs./109.4 lbs.)

X-axis θ = 68052’ 43” downward with
θR respect to positive x-axis.
Ry = 283.2 lbs.

R
Figure 4.33

Illustrative Problem #3.

Find the components of the car’s weight parallel and normal to the incline attached to a
Roll on-Roll off (RO-RO) vessel as shown in Figure 4.34.

FX
W = 4000 lbs.

200

200 FY

Figure 4.34
RORO
55

Solution:

The weight W of the car is the gravitational force with which the earth attracts it, and this
weight always acts vertically downward as shown in Figure 4.34.
Because W is vertical and FY is perpendicular to the incline, the angle 200between W and
FY is the same as the angle 200between the road and the horizontal. Hence

FX = W Sin 200 = 4000 lbs. Sin 200= 1368 lbs.

FY = W Cos 200= 4000 lbs. Cos 200= 3758.77 lbs.
Polygon or Graphical Method
A vector is an arrowed line whose length is proportional to a certain vector quantity and
whose direction indicates the direction of the quantity.
To add vector B to vector A, draw B so that its tail is at the head of A. The vector sum A
+ B is the vector R that joins the tail of A and the head of B (Figure 4.35). Usually R is called
the resultant of A and B. The order in which A and B are added is significant, so that A + B = B
+ A (Figure 4.35 and 4.36)

BR
A+=A

Figure 4.35: A + B = R

+A=BA
BR

Figure 4.36: B + A = R

Exactly the same procedure is followed when more than two vectors of the same kind
are to be added. The vectors are strung together head to tail (being careful to preserve their
correct lengths and directions), and the resultant R is the vector drawn from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the last. The order in which the vectors are added does not matter (Figure
4.37).
56

AABCR
DD ==
RCB
B D A C R = A+B+C+D R=C+B+A+D Figure 4.37: R = A+B+C+D =

B+C+D=A

Illustrative Problem #4.

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant R by polygon method as shown in
Figure 4.38 (same as Figure 4.32).

+ Y-axis
 A = 224 lbs. B = 300 lbs.
2
1 300
+X-axis
600 5

D = 200 lbs. 12

C = 390 lbs

Figure 4.38
Solution:
1. Step 1. Draw vector A (scale 1mm: 10lbs.) with a length of 22.4 mm. Its direction is upward
(slope = ½) with respect to negative X-axis (see Figure 4.39).
2. Step 2. Connect vector B from head of A with a length of 30 mm, 300 upward with respect
to positive x-axis.
3. Step 3. Connect vector C from the head of B with a length of 39 mm downward (slope =
12/5) with respect to positive X-axis.
4. Step 4. Connect vector D from head of C with a length of 20 mm, 600downward with
respect to negative X-axis.
5. Step 5. Since vector A is the first vector and D is the last, draw a line segment R from the
tail of the tail of the first vector to the head of the last.
57

B By a convenient scale, 5 R = 30 mm or
300 R = 300 lbs.
2
C 12
A 1 By using a protractor,
θ
1STVector R θ = 700 Downward with 600 respect to positive D Last X-axis
Vector

Figure 4.39: R = A + B + C + D
58
59

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems

Topic: Component Method and Polygon or Graphical Method

1. The body shown in Figure 4.40 is acted on by 3 forces. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant.
2. The force system shown in Figure 4.41 has a resultant of 200 lbs. pointing up along the Y
axis. Compute the values of F and θ required to give this resultant.
3. Repeat Problem #2 if the resultant is 300 lbs. down to the right at 600 with the X-axis.

YY
F1=250lbs. F2=400lbs.
RF

600 300
XθX
500 lbs. 300

F3=200lbs. 240 lbs. Figure 4.40 Figure 4.41

60
61

Chapter 3

1ST CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM

3.1Definition of Terms
EQUILIBRIUM. The condition of a body where it does not change its linear or rotational
motion under the influence of a force or set of forces.
CONCURRENT FORCES. Two or more co-planar forces acting simultaneously on a body
where all lines of action intersect at a common point. See Figure 5.1a and 5.1b.
RESULTANT. A single force, which is equivalent to the sum of the given set of forces.
EQUILIBRANT. A single force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
resultant of two or more forces, that are unbalanced and which has the effect of placing the
body in equilibrium
COMPRESSION. (or compressive force) A force is acting toward a point or a body.(🡺 )
TENSION. A force acts away from a point.( 🡺)

Common point Truss

F2
F5 F F
F3 tension

compression

F4 line of force F (a) (b)

 Figure 5.1: Forces acting at a common point.
62

3.2 First Condition of Equilibrium

When a body is at rest or is moving uniformly, we say that it is in equilibrium, or the net
force acting on the body is zero. If all forces acting upon the body intersect at a common point
and their vector sum is zero, it has no tendency to change either translational or rotational
motion. We find this illustrated in the trusses of buildings, bridges, foundations of buildings and
operations automobiles, airplane, ships and missiles.

3.3 Equation of Equilibrium for The 1st Condition:

a. The sum of all forces on the object acting along X-axis is zero.

∑*Fx = 0 or 0 = Fx1 + Fx2 + Fx3 + Fx4 + Fx5 +…..+ Fxn

b. The sum of all forces on the object acting along Y-axis is zero.

∑FY=0 or 0=FY1 + FY2 + FY3 + FY4 + FY5 + …… + FYn

Illustrative Problem #1:

In an emergency situation, a ship’s crew weighing 400N sits in a swing as shown in

Figure 5.2 to fix a certain problem. With what force should he pull on a horizontal rope to keep
the swing at 700 with the horizontal? Find the tension in each rope of the swing.

2 ropes of 700 700 Tx1

the swing
Rope
T1 TY1 T1
T2 T2

W = 400 N W = 400 N

Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3: Free Body Diagram, FBD

*
The symbol ∑ (Greek sigma) indicates a summation process.
63
Solution: T1= 400 N / Sin 700 T1 = 425.67 N (for two ropes
1. Draw the force diagram or free body of the swing) diagram (Figure 5.3) of the three
forces in Thus, tension in each rope = 425.67 / 2 equilibrium. Tension for each rope
= 212.84 N
2. Resolve T1 in Figure 5.3 into components: From ∑Fx = 0, 0 = TX1 – T2 or Tx1 = T1
Cos θ (positive) T2 = TX1 = T1 Cos θ
TY1 = T1 Sin θ (positive) T2 = 425.67 Cos 700= 145.59 N←

From ∑FY = 0, 0 = TY1 – W or T2 FBOY

W = TY1 then TY1 = W = 400 N Figure 5.4a: T2 = FPULL of the boy

From TY1 = T1 Sin θ; T1 = TY1 / Sin θ From Figure 5.4a, Tension T2 equals to the pull of
the boy, Thus FPULL = 145.59 N →

W can also solve the problem by polygon method or triangle method*(Figure 5.4.b).

1. Draw vector W downward (scale 1 cm.: 100 N).

2. Draw vector T2 from the head of vector W.
3. Connect T1 700 with respect to vector T2. The head of T1 must touch the tail of W.

200

W = 400 lbs.
T1
700

T2

Figure 5.4b

By means of Sine Law:

T2= 400 lbs. Sin 200/ Sin 700

T2 = 145.59 lbs.

*
Triangle method is good only for 3-force system.
64

By Pythagorean Theorem:

T1 = √
 T 1= √

T1 = 426.67 lbs.

Illustrative Problem #2.

A 300-lb tool box is held at rest on a smooth incline by a force P making an angle θ with
the incline as shown in Figure 5.5. Determine the value of P if θ = 450.

YXYX
PX
P
P
θ=450
0
45
W = 300 lbs. WX 600
300
300

W = 300 lbs. W = 300 lbs.

Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6: FBD of Fig.5.5 Solution:

Draw the free body diagram (Figure 5.6) and Px = P Cos 450 of Figure
5.5.
P = Px / Cos 450
From: ∑Fx = 0
P = 150 lbs. / Cos 450
0 = Px – Wx
P = 212 lbs.
or Px = Wx

where Wx = W Sin 300= W Cos 600

Wx = 300 lbs. Sin 300

Wx = 150 lbs.
65

Illustrative Problem #3.

Find T1 and T2 as shown in Figure 5.7.

Y T2 Y T2 T 1 T 1
300 500800 X Wx

Wy 600
X
W = 1000 lbs. W = 1000 lbs.

Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8: Rotated axes of Fig. 5.7 Solution:

Rotate the axes 300counterclockwise so that T2 makes (500+ 300) 800 with
+X-axis (Figure 5.8), and weight W makes 600 with the +X-axis.

From ∑FY = 0 where: T2Y = T2 Sin 800 0 = T2Y – WY WY = W Sin 600

T2Y = WY Thus T2 Sin 800= W Sin 600 T2 = W Sin 600/ Sin 800

T2 = 1000 lbs. Sin 600/ Sin 800

T2 = 879.39 lbs.

T1 = T2X + WX

Where: T2X = T2 Cos 800 and WX = W Cos 600

Then: T1 = 879.39 lbs. Cos 800+ 1000 lbs. Cos 600

T1 = 652.7 lbs.
66
67

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems

Topic: 1st Condition of Equilibrium

1. A body weighing 100 kg. is hanging at the end of a rope 4 meters long. What horizontal force
is needed to move the body a horizontal distance of 2 m. as shown in Figure 5.9

2. Find Tensions T1 and T2 as shown in Figure 5.10. T2 is horizontal.

T1

4m

θ 500 T2
F
2m
100 kg W = 1000 N

Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10

68
69

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems

Topic: 1st Condition of Equilibrium

1. A 300-lb box is held at rest on a smooth incline by a force P making an angle of θ with the
incline as shown in the Figure 5.11. If P is 212 lbs., determine θ.
2. The pull P and a 200-lb. weight passing over a frictionless pulley support the 300-lb
sphere in Figure 5.12. If α = 300, compute the value of P and θ.
3. In Figure 5.12, if P is known to be 160 lbs., determine the value of α and θ that maintains
equilibrium.

αθP
P

θ 300 200 Lbs LBSlbs.

300 lbs.

Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12

70
71

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problem

Topic: 1st Condition of Equilibrium

The forces on the gusset plate of a joint in a bridge truss act as shown in Figure 5.13. Determine
the value of P to maintain equilibrium of the joint.

4000 lbs.

450 P
150
 600

F 3000 lbs.

Figure 5.13
72
73

Name: ______________________________________ Score: _______________

Section: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Exercise Problems

Topic: 1st Condition of Equilibrium

Cords are looped around a small spacer separating two cylinders each weighing 400 lbs. and
pass, as shown in Figure 5.14, over frictionless pulleys to weights of 200 lbs. and 600 lbs.
Determine the angle θ and the normal reaction N between the cylinders and the smooth
horizontal surface.

Total W = 800
lbs.

200 lbs. Figure 5.14 N

600 lbs.
θ
74
75

Chapter 4

CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM (Moment & Torque)

4.1Second Condition of Equilibrium:

This is a condition of equilibrium that eliminates the possibility of a change in its
rotational motion.

Consider the arrangement in which two opposing forces equal in magnitude act on a
block as shown in Figure 5.14a.

Line of action F
↻
FF
F
(a) (b)

Figure 5.14 (a) Forces, which are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
produce equilibrium when they have a common line of action.
(b) Forces do not produce equilibrium when they do not have the same line of
action.

It is obvious that if the block in Figure 5.14a is originally at rest it will remain at rest
even it is under the action of these two forces. The vector sum of these two forces is zero. Now,
suppose that the forces are applied as in Figure 5.14b, the vector sum of the forces is again zero;
yet it is plain that under the action of these two forces, the block will rotate. In fact, when the
vector sum of the applied forces is equal to zero, we can be sure only that the body as a whole
will have no change in its linear motion; we can not be sure that there will be no change in its
rotary motion. The example in Figure 5.14b indicates that this second condition is concerned
with the placement of the forces, as well as their magnitudes and directions. We will find out the
effect of co-planar forces that are not concurrent (forces not acting at a common point) acting
on a body will cause a rotational motion.

4.2 Torque, τ (Greek letter Tau):

The torque τ exerted by a force on a body is a measure of its effectiveness in turning the
body about a certain pivot point. The moment arm of a force F about a pivot point O is a
perpendicular distance L between the line of action of the force and O (Figure 5.15). The torque
τ exerted by the force about O has the magnitude of

τ = FL (N-m or Ft – lb.)

Torque = Force x Length

76

O
O
O

L
F L 900
 LF

F
OO
L=0
F

Figure 5.15

The torque exerted by a force is also known as the moment of force. A force whose line
of action passes through point O produces no torque about point O because its moment arm L is
zero.

A torque that tends to cause a clockwise rotation when it is viewed from a given
direction is considered positive; a torque that tends to cause a counterclockwise rotation is
considered negative. See Figure 5.16.

LFLF

↺↻
(a) τ = - FL (b) τ = + FL

Figure 5.16 a. (-) Counterclockwise rotation

b. (+) Clockwise rotation

4.3 Total Torque, τT

The total torque is the sum of the torques acting on the body about a pivot point. The total
torque of a body may be written as
n
= F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn
τ =∑
77

The total torque in Figure 5.17a may be written as

τT = -F1L1 + F2L2 – F3L3

Torque F1L1 and F3L3 are negative because this tends to rotate the body about its pivot
point in a counterclockwise rotation. (See Figure 5.16a) and F2L2 is positive because this tends
to rotate the body about its pivot point in clockwise rotation (see Figure 5.16b).

F1 = 10 lbs.
 L1 = 4 ft. 2 ft F3 = 20 lbs.
L3

L2 = 3 ft.
Pivot point F2 = 30 lbs.

Figure 5.17a

Illustrative Problem.

Find the total torque in Figure 5.17a.

Solution:
n
τT = Σ FiLi = F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn
i=1

or τT = -F1L1 + F2L2 – F3L3

= - 10 lbs. 4ft. + 30 lbs. 3 ft. – 20 lbs. 2ft.

τT = +10 ft.-lb. ↻

Since we come up with positive torque, the forces cause a clockwise rotation (Figure
5.16b) about its pivot point.

4.4 Equation for 2nd Condition of Equilibrium

A body is in equilibrium when no net torque acts on a rigid body. Such a body remains in
its initial rotational state, either not spinning at all or spinning at a constant rate. The condition
for the rotational equilibrium of a body therefore be written

∑τ = 0 or ∑τ = F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn = 0 where ∑τ refers to the sum of

the torque acting on the body about any point.

78

In investigating the rotational equilibrium of a body, any convenient point may be used as
the pivot point for calculating torque; if the sum of the torque on a body in translational
equilibrium is zero about some point, it is also zero about any other point.

Illustrative Problem # 1:

The rocker arm is shown in Figure 5.17a. F3 is 20 lbs. but it causes a torque of 10 ft.-lbs.
in clockwise rotation. Find the magnitude of F3 in Figure 5.17b, which is the replica of Figure
5.17a, in order to hold the rocker arm in rotational equilibrium.
F1 = 10 lbs.

L1 = 4 ft. L3=2 ft F3 (unknown)

L2 = 3 ft.
Pivot point F2 = 30 lbs.

Figure 5.17b

Solution:

Substitute all the given data in equation of rotational equilibrium.

↻ + ∑τ = F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn = 0

0 = -F1L1 + F2L2 - F3L3

F3L3 = -F1L1 + F2L2

F3 =

F3=

F3 = 25 lbs. This is the upward force, which is necessary to hold the

rocker arm in equilibrium.
79

Illustrative problem # 2:

A uniform bar 9ft. long and weighing 5 lbs. is supported by a fulcrum 3 ft. from the left
end as shown in Figure 5.18. If a 12-lb load is hung from the left end, what downward pull at the
right end is necessary to hold the bar in equilibrium? With what force does the fulcrum push up
against the bar?

L1= 3 ft. L2= 6 ft.

A

F1 =12 lbs. W = 5 lbs. F2

LW
1.5ft. 4.5ft.
R

Figure 5.18
Solution:
Considering that the bar is uniform, its weight is located at its center or 4.5 ft. from both
ends.
Assume + ↻ moment positive about point A.

From + ↻ ∑τA = F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn = 0

Then 0 = F1L1+ WLW + F2L2

Where L1 = moment arm of F1 from point A

L2 = moment arm of F2 from Point A
LW = moment arm of W from point A

0 = - 12 lbs. 3 ft. + 5 lbs. 1.5 ft. + F2 (6 ft)

F2 = ()()
= +4.75
F2 = 4.75 lbs . This is the downward force needed to hold the bar in equilibrium. We
assume that in Figure 5.18, the unknown F3 is downward but we come up with positive answer,
thus, F3 is really downward.

In order to hold the bar in equilibrium or to have a zero displacement, the total sum of
vertical forces applied on it is zero. Assume upward force is positive, then

∑Fv = 0 ( ) thus R – F1 – W – F2 = 0
R = F1 + W + F2 = 12 lbs. + 5 lbs. + 4.75 lbs. = 21.75lbs. 🡹
80

Note: Bear in mind that if you come up with a negative answer, your assumed force
direction is not correct and the right one is just its opposite.

Illustrative Problem # 3:

A 5 and 8-kg mass are fastened at both end of 2-m long uniform bar as shown in Figure
5.19. . The bar itself weighs 6 kg. Where could a single force R be applied to balance the system,
and how great (magnitude) would it (R) have to be?

F1 = 5 kg. F2 = 8kg.

1m 1m
C
AB

W=6kg.

xy
R
 Figure 5.19

1st Solution:

Considering the bar is uniform, its weight is located at the center of the beam (1m from
both ends).

In order to hold the bar in equilibrium, the total sum of vertical forces applied or exerted
on the bar should be zero.

Thus, ∑Fv = 0 + then R – F1 – W - F2 = 0

or R = F1 + W + F2 = 5 kg. + 6 kg. + 8 kg.

R = 19 kg.

Since we come up with a positive R, the assumed direction is correct. Otherwise, take its
opposite.

Assume clockwise moment about point A.

↻ +∑τ = 0 ,thus F1L1 + F2L2 + F3L3 + … + FnLn = 0

or ↻ + ∑MA = 0 , thus W (1m) + F2 (2m) - R x = 0 Where: 1m =

moment arm of W = distance of W from point A