OBJECTIVE OF THE WORKSHOP

Familiarize participants with the main concepts involved in linguistic approaches, so that they are able to
identify the processes concerning second language acquisition and to relate them to their teaching
practice.

Length: 2 hours.

Participants: In-service English teachers in Basic Education in D. F.

CONTENTS

1. Linguistic approaches
1.1 Structuralism
1.2 Functionalism
1.3 Transformational-Generative Grammar
1.4 Language definition within the NEPBE

2. First language acquisition (L1)

2.1 Terminology
2.2 Theories of language acquisition

3. Second language acquisition (L2)

3.1 Terminology
3.2 Language and the brain
3.3 Factors that influence acquisition
3.4 Learning approaches of L1 and L2

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1. LINGUISTIC APPROACHES

Activity 1.1
Put the following dialogue in order (1-10).
_____ Au revoir!
_____ Je vais très bien.
_____ Je m’appelle Marie.
_____ Enchanté!
_____ Comment tu t’appelles?
_____ Bonjour! Je vais bien. Merci. Et toi?
_____ Enchanté!
_____ Je m’appelle François. Et toi?
_____ Au revoir!
_____ Bonjour! Comment allez-vous?

The concept we have about language has implications in the methodology and teaching
strategies that we adopt as teachers. The study of language started formally in the early XX
century. Since then, different theories have been proposed to understand its structure and
function.

1.1 Structuralism
Linguistics started to be studied as a science by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist.
Among his numerous contributions we can mention the following:

 Language is a system that functions according to rules established conventionally by speakers.

 The linguistic sign is the most elemental unit of language, and it is composed by an acoustic
aspect (signified) and a semantic component (signifier).
 There is a distinction between ‘parole’ (the use of language) and ‘langue’ (the theoretical system).

This approach implied that language teaching was centered on grammatical aspects, and in
learning formal linguistic elements and rules. Only by means of this knowledge, speakers are
able to use language correctly. Along with these studies, there was research in psychology,
especially within the behaviorist approach.

1.2 Functionalism
In the early decades of the XX century, linguists studied and compared different languages to
analyze the relation between the linguistic form and meaning. Emphasis was given to the actual
use of language to communicate, and to organize our thought. The research studies in this
approach are heterogeneous; however, we can mention the following contributions:
 Description of the elements of communication (Jakobson).
 Language Functions (Referential, Emotive, Connative, Phatic, Metalinguistic, Poetic).
 Establishment of phonology as a linguistic area.
 Speakers’ culture is reflected in linguistic forms and uses.

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1.3 Transformational-Generative Grammar
This is considered the most influential linguistic theory, and it was developed by the North
American researcher Noam Chomsky. He proposed that language could not be explained only
by observable facts. This evidence was incomplete for analysis, and he emphasized a mentalist
approach.

Although it has been modified through different stages, the following are considered the most
significant contributions made by Chomsky:

 Language cannot be learned only by habit formation.

 Language is an innate faculty for all human beings (Language Acquisition Device), which contains
a common underlying grammar of all languages (Universal Grammar).
 Development of a theory with emphasis on semantics and syntax that can be analyzed
scientifically (Deep and Superficial Structure).
 Outline of Principles (linguistic rules) common to all languages, and Parameters (exceptions)
proper to some languages.
 Speakers have a linguistic competence (knowledge of the language) that is used in their
linguisticperformance (use of the language in specific situations).

Activity 1.2
What do you consider are the most important contributions of each approach?

1.4 Language definition within the NEPBE

The NEPBE states the following concept of language:

Language is a communicative, cognitive, and reflective activity through which we

express, exchange, and defend our ideas; we establish and keep interpersonal relations
and gain access to information; we participate in knowledge building, organize our
thoughts, and reflect on our own discursive and intellectual creation.
(NEPBE Curricular Foundations, 2011:71)

Activity 1.3
What is your concept of language? What does the language definition of the NEPBE imply for your
teaching approach?

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2. FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (L1)

Activity 1.4
Are all children able to acquire a language?

2.1 Terminology
It has been described that languages can be acquired or learned, according to the context in
which these processes occur.

 Language acquisition. It is an unconscious process that takes place through natural exposure
and meaningful interaction in the target language.
 Language learning. It is a conscious process that takes place through formal instruction of the
target language.

Nevertheless, several researchers use both terms with no difference when they refer to universal
processes.

2.2 Theories of language acquisition

The first language, mother tongue or native language (L1) is the one that is acquired in early
childhood within a speaking community. Different theories have been proposed to explain
essential factors and processes in first language acquisition.

A) Innatism. According to this approach, all children acquire their L1 automatically, even if
they do not have access to enough stimuli. In addition, children are not required to be
explained formal aspects of the language in order to acquire and use it.

B) Behaviorism. According to this approach, language is acquired due to the stimuli

present in the environment, and to which children respond. For example, an adult uses a
word that refers to an object. This action provokes a particular response. Through the
repetition of this process, children get to know the meaning of a word, and to use a
linguistic stimulus to obtain a response. Although this approach has been considered
controversial, it emphasizes important imitative components of the learning process.

C) Cognitive Theory. Language is seen as another component of cognitive development,

since children acquire it along with notions of abstract thinking, categorization and
concepts.

D) Theory of Social Interaction. According to this approach, children acquire language by

means of others’ mediation, and not only through mental processing of adults’ language.
In addition, language acquisition develops from children’s communicative needs
according to their context.

Taking into account the different approaches as a whole, language can be seen as a
biologically based process that requires of social, cognitive and affective processes
throughout developmental stages.

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 Activity 1.5
 What is the importance of the concepts of learning and acquisition?
 Give examples from your teaching practice of each of the theories of acquisition
mentioned above.

3. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (L2)

Activity 1.6
Decide if the following statements are True or False, and explain why.

1. Children can learn a second language more quickly and easily than adults. _____

2. Students automatically learn another language when immersed in an environment

where everyone speaks that language. _____

3. All students learn a second language in the same way. _____

4. Students acquire a second language once they can speak. _____

5. Students need to learn grammar and vocabulary before they can speak. _____

Half of the world’s population uses two languages at least in everyday communication, and in all
countries there are conditions for bilingualism. With the purpose of optimizing L2 teaching, it is
important to understand the processes and factors involved.

3.1 Terminology
There are several terms used to refer to additional languages to the L1:
 Second Language. It is the official language of a speech community, used mainly in
education, work and media. It is the language that other minority groups of speakers
must learn in order to communicate.
 Foreign Language. It is the language that is not part of the immediate social and
communicative context, but that is studied or learned because of educational, cultural or
working purposes.
 Target Language. It is the language that a non-native speaker is in the process of
learning.
 Additional Language. It is any language different from the native language.

The distinction among the different terms has been controversial, due to the new and diverse
contexts of learning and use of languages.

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 Activity 1.7
How is English characterized in the NEPBE?
What does this imply for our teaching practice?

3.2 Language and the brain

The influence of sciences such as psychology and neurolinguistics has been of great benefit to
understand the organization of language in the brain. In a general view, language is processed
by most speakers in the left hemisphere; however, different areas are interconnected in
language processing and language production.

One of the most important contributions in this area is the concept of lateralization. This refers to
the phenomenon by which the brain decreases its plasticity or recovery capacities. According to
Eric Lenneberg, there is a Critical Period in which language can be acquired in a natural and
regular form. After this period, the acquisition of a first language is rarely achieved. Different
case studies have been investigated in which children, who have been deprived of human
contact and linguistic exposure, have not been able to develop linguistic abilities.

Activity 1.8
Does the concept of lateralization have implications for learning a second language?

3.3 Factors that influence acquisition

Activity 1.9
Are there successful language learners? What psychological or biological factors influence
language acquisition?

Studies carried out in the 1970’s, contributed with data and theories regarding how personal and
individual characteristics of speakers influence language learning. However, it has been pointed
out that these factors alone do not determine a successful language learner.

A) Age. According to neuropsychological theories, it has been claimed that children have
more advantages in language acquisition of an L2 in contrast with adults, taking into
account the following aspects:
 More brain plasticity
 Less inhibitions
 Less social identity

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 However, it has also been considered that adults have cognitive advantages regarding
more reflective capacities, pragmatic abilities and a wider and deeper knowledge of the
language and of the world. That is why we can consider that each stage of development
encompasses different characteristics that can benefit language acquisition.

B) Aptitude. This characteristic refers to the belief that there is a natural or innate talent for
acquiring an L2. In general, it has been described that students can show aptitudes for
different linguistic areas, for example: the ability to recognize and differentiate sounds,
the ability to recognize linguistic structures, functions and rules, or the ability to recover
and activate linguistic knowledge.

C) Motivation. This factor has been recognized and studied due to its importance and
effects on language learning. The two main types of motivation are:

 Integrative Motivation: Intention to learn an L2 in order to communicate and interact

within the L2 speaking community.
 Instrumental motivation. Intention to learn an L2 in order to carry out a working,
commercial or educational activity.

Even though this dichotomy is not always easy to define, considering the complexity of
contexts in which an L2 is learned, it has been useful to understand the relationship
between the learning purposes and the learning outcomes.

D) Personality. The research done in this area has been correlated with the presence of
certain characteristics and the level of performance in the L2. Among the most common
researched personality traits are the following:

 Anxiety. This trait has been usually correlated with a low performance in L2, because it is
associated with self-confidence and risk-taking. This should be taken into account in the
design of classroom activities. For example, oral production and individual activities can
create more anxiety for students in contrast with teamwork activities or written tasks.
 Extrovert personality. For a long time it was thought that extrovert students were more
successful in their learning. However, so far it has not been possible to correlate these
elements meaningfully. In general terms, it has been found that certain characteristics
such as empathy; creativity and tolerance to ambiguity can contribute positively to
language learning.

E) Learning strategies. This refers to the students’ preferred cognitive style, in terms of
processes such as organization and recovery of information. The following styles have
been identified:

 Field dependent – Field independent: Tendency to analyze information globally or to

isolate its elements.
 Inductive – Deductive. Tendency to generalize patterns and rules from concrete
examples, or the tendency to prove what it is already established by means of examples
and deductions.

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It is important to emphasize that these concepts represent a continuum instead of closed
categories. In addition, a cognitive style may depend on previous learning experiences, and it
can change through time in different periods.

3.4 Learning approaches of L1 and L2

The following approaches to second language learning have been proposed taking into account
the factors mentioned above and the influence of the L1.

Activity 1.10
Do you think that making mistakes is part of the process of learning a second language? Why do
students make the following mistakes?
1. Tijers, mochil, cuadern
2. Avisation
3. Mouses
4. ¿What’s your name?
5. House blue.
6. He goed.

A) Contrastive Analysis. In the 1970’s Robert Lado developed an approach influenced by

structuralist and behaviorist views which considered the importance of students’ L1. One
of the concepts that has been more influential is transference in two forms:

 Positive Transference: Two languages share similar characteristics allowing a correct

transference from the L1 to the L2.
 Interference: The structure of the L1 is used inappropriately in the L2. This is due to the
fact that the linguistic characteristics of the two languages are different.

B) Error Analysis. The proposal developed by S. Pit Corder emphasized that error analysis
should take into account other aspects, besides students’ L1, such as language
processing:
 Speakers can make two types of errors, those due to the context and external factors
(mistakes), and those due to the lack of knowledge of linguistic rules and usage (errors).
 Errors can be caused by influence of the L1 (interlingual) or other factors within the L2
(intralingual).

These categories are of great importance because they imply stages of development in
language learning, and they emphasize students’ creativity and use of strategies in their
learning process.

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C) Interlanguage. In this approach, proposed by Larry Selinker, language learning is
described as a continuous process influenced by speakers’ L1 and cognitive
characteristics. Interlanguage is defined as an intermediate system between the native
and the target language which follows patters of development. The main concepts
proposed are the following:

 Linguistic transference from L1 to L2 is confirmed, although learning strategies are also

transference within the L2.
 Overgeneralization is a term used to describe the tendency to apply rules learned in the
L2 as general or universal rules.
 Fossilization is a term used to describe a stage in which a stage of interlanguage
becomes permanent and it is not restructured. In this case learning seems to cease or
stop.

D) Natural Order. The purpose of this approach was to establish an acquisition order of
linguistic elements in the L2, without taking into account the characteristics of the L1. For
example, through this research, it has been proposed that:

 Morphemes like the verb to be and the suffix –ing are usually acquired in early stages.
 Morphemes such as the possessive ‘s and the third person inflection (-s/-es) in English
are usually acquired until later stages.

The importance of these studies is that they reflect the complexity of learning a grammar
item.

E) Krashen’s Model. Stephen Krashen, who had a great influence from Noam Chomsky,
proposed the following hypotheses:

 The concept learning refers to a conscious and formal process, while acquisition refers to
an unconscious and innate process.
 Speakers use their own knowledge as a Monitor in order to correct and/or improve their
speech.
 Second language acquisition is possible when a speaker is exposed to comprehensible
and sufficient input.
 Acquisition can be affected when there are factors that inhibit speakers’ performance and
increase their affective filter.

Activity 1.11
How do the concepts from this section impact your planning and teaching practice?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

CORDER, S. P.Error Analysis and Interlanguage.Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985. www.sepdf.gob

ELLIS, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985.

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.Oxford University Press,

Oxford. 2000.

SEP. Acuerdo Número 592. Por el que se establece la articulación de la Educación

Básica.México, 2011.

SEP. Plan de Estudios 2011. México, 2011.

SEP. Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica. Segunda Lengua: Inglés.

Fundamentos Curriculares. Preescolar. Primaria. Secundaria. México, 2011.

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