OHM’S LAW

Aim

To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.

Apparatus

A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) V and an ammeter (0-3) A of appropriate range, a battery (battery
eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions,
pressure) of the conductor remains the same. If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be
the potential difference across its ends, then according to, Ohm’s Law,

R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.

In S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current I in ampere, the resistance R is
measured in ohm.

Circuit diagram

Procedure

 Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
 Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
  Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards
the +ve terminal of the battery.
 Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
 Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are working
properly.
 Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the
resistance coil or the resistance wire.
 Note down the value of potential difference V” from voltmeter and current I from ammeter.
 Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions
readings and not in fraction.
 Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
 Take at least five sets of independent observations.
 Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length
by the metre scale.
 Record your observations.

Observations

Length of the resistance wire l = ……….

Range of the given ammeter = ……….

Range of the given voltmeter = ……….

Least count of ammeter = ……….

Least count of voltmeter = ……….

Zero error in ammeter = ……….

Zero error in voltmeter = ……….

Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

S. No Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Resistance R = V/I Mean

(A) (V) (Ω) (Ω)

Calculations

1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.

2. Plot a graph between potential difference V (column 36) and current I (column 26), taking V along X-
axis and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
Result

Resistance per cm of the wire is …….. Ω cm-1.

The graph between V and I is a straight line.

Precautions

 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

 Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their
ends by rubbing with sand paper.
 Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
 A low resistance rheostat should be used.
 The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance
(otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of error

 The instrument screws may be loose.

 Thick connecting wires may not be available.
 Rheostat may have high resistance.
 Metre Bridge - The Resistivity (Specific Resistance) of its Material .
Aim

To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific
resistance) of its material.

Apparatus

A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance
box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre scale, a set square, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of metre
bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

(ii) Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is given by

where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

Circuit diagram
Procedure

For Resistance

 Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.

 Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between C
and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop:
 Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
 Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
 Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
 Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite
directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault
in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
 Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero
deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
 Choose an appropriate value of 12 from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e.,between 45 cm to 55 cm).
 Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know length AD = l.
 Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of 12 in steps.
 Record your observations.

For Specific Resistance

 Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length
by using a metre scale.
 Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places, in two mutually perpendicular
directions at each place with the help of screw gauge.
 Record your observations as given in tables.

Observations

1.Length of given wire L = cm.

1. Length of given wire L = cm.

2. Table for unknown resistance (X)

3. Least count of the screw gauge

4. Table for diameter (D) of the wire

Calculations
Result

1. The value of unknown resistance X =………

2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire =………
3. Percentage error =……….

Precautions

 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

 All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
 Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
 The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
 Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
 Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
 At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
 The wire should not make a loop.

Sources of error

 The instrument screws may be loose.

 The plugs may not be clean.
 The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.
Metre Bridge- Combination (Series) of Resistances
Aim

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus

A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box,

a jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and
connecting wires.

Theory

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre bridge
wire from zero end upto balance point.

Circuit diagram

Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.

2. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (If r1 and r2 are not known.)

3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap of metre bridge and find
the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations.

4. Record your observations as follows.

Observations

Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (X)

Calculations

1. Calculation for r1 only, r2 r2only, r1 and r2 in series.

Same as in Experiment 1.

2. Calculation for verification of laws Experimental value of Rs = ……

Theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2 = ……

Difference (if any) = ……

Result

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are same. Hence, law of
resistances in series is verified.
Precautions

The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends by
rubbing with sand paper.

Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.

A low resistance rheostat should be used.

The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise its
resistance will increase).

Potentiometer - Comparison of EMF

Aim

To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer.

Apparatus

Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a galvanometer, a battery (or
battery eliminator), a rheostat of low resistance, a resistance box, a one way key, a two way key, a
jockey, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

where, E1 and E2 are the e.m.f. of two given cells and l1 and l2 are the corresponding balancing lengths
on potentiometer wire.

Circuit diagram
Procedure

Arrange the apparatus as shown in circuit diagram figure.

Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand paper.

Measure the e.m.f. (E) of the battery and the e.m.fs. (E1 and E2 ) of the cells. See that E > E1 and also E
> E2 .

Connect the positive pole of the battery (a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the zero end (P) of the
potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat
to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.

Connect the positive poles of the cells E1 and E2 to the terminal at the zero end (P) and the negative
poles to the terminals a and b of the two way key.

Connect the common terminal c of the two-way key through a galvanometer (G) and a resistance box
(R.B.) to the jockey J.

Take maximum current from the battery making rheostat resistance zero.

Insert the plug in the one-way key (K) in circuit and also in between the terminals a and c of the two-way
key.

Take out a 2,000 ohms plug from the resistance box (R.B.).

Press the jockey at the zero end and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer.
Press the jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire. If the direction of deflection is opposite to
that in the first case, the connections are correct. (If the deflection is in the same direction then either
connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery is less).

Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wires till you obtain a point where galvanometer shows
no deflection.

Put the 2000 ohms plug back in the resistance box and obtain the null point position accurately, using a
set square.

Note the length l1 of the wire for the cell E1 Also note the current as indicated by the ammeter.

Disconnect the cell E1 by removing the plug from gap ac of two-way key and connect the cell E2 by
inserting plug into gap be of two-way key.

Take out a 2000 ohms plug from resistance box R.B. and slide the jockey along potentiometer wire so as
to obtain no deflection position.

Put the 2000 ohms plug back in the resistance box and obtain accurate position of null point for second
cell E2 .

Note the length l2 of wire in this position for the cell E2 . However, make sure that ammeter reading is
same as in step 14.

Repeat the observations alternately for each cell again for the same value of current.

Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtain at least three sets of observations in a similar
way.

Record your observations as given below

Observations
Calculations

For each observation find mean l1 and mean l2 and record in column 3c and 4c.

Find E1/E2 for each set, by dividing mean l1 (column 3c) by mean l2 (column 4c).

Find mean E1/E2 .

Result

Precautions

The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.

The positive poles of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should, all be connected to the terminal at the
zero of the wires.

The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.

The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation. If necessary, adjust the
rheostat for this purpose.

The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f.’s of the either of the two cells.

Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from resistance box before the jockey is moved
along the wire.

Sources of error

The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material density throughout its length.

End resistances may not be zero.

Potentiometer - Internal Resistance of a Cell
Aim

To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.

Apparatus

A potentiometer, a battery (or battery eliminator), two one-way keys, a rheostat of low resistance, a
galvanometer, a high resistance box, a fractional resistance box, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a cell (say
Leclanche cell), a jockey, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

The internal resistance of a cell is given by

where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without shunt and with shunt, respectively, and R is the shunt
resistance in parallel with the given cell.

Circuit diagram
Procedure

Make the connections accordingly, as shown in circuit diagram.

Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections according to the
circuit diagram.

Tight the plugs of the resistance box.

Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f. of the battery is more than that of the given
cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained (E’ > E).

Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.

To test the correctness of the connections. (Insert the plug in the key K1 and note the ammeter reading.
Take out 2000 Ω resistance plug from the resistance box. Place the jockey first at the end P of the wire
and then at the end Q. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite directions in the two cases, the
connections are correct).

Without inserting the plug in the key K2 adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the fourth
wire of potentiometer.

Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in its position in resistance box and by slightly adjusting the jockey near
the previously obtained position of null point, obtain the null point position accurately, using a set
square.

Measure the balancing length l1 between this point and the end P of the wire.

Take out the 2000 ohms plug again from the resistance box R.B. Introduce the plugs in key K1, as well as
in key K2. Take out a small resistance (1-5 Ω) from the resistance box R connected in parallel with the
cell.

Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.

Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in R.B. and if necessary make further adjustment for sharp null
point.

Measure the balancing length l1 from end P.

Remove the plug keys at K1 and K2. Wait for sometime and for the same value of current (as shown by
the ammeter), repeat the steps 7 to 13.

Repeat the observations for different values of R repeating each observation twice.

Record your observations as given below.

Observations

Range of voltmeter =………

Least count of voltmeter = ………

E.M.F. of battery (or battery eleminator) = ………

E.M.F. of cell = ………

Table for Lengths

S.No Resistance (R) Balancin Balancin Difference in Balacing

g length g length length (l1 - l2)
without with
shunt shunt(l2)
(l1)in cm in cm

Calculations

(For each set of observation find mean and l2 and write in column 3c and 3f.

Calculate value of r for each set and write it in column 5.

Take mean of values of r recorded in column 5.)

Result

The internal resistance of the given cell is………

Precautions

The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.

For one set of observation the ammeter reading should remain constant.

Current should be passed for short time only, while finding the null point.

Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point lies on last wire of the potentiometer.

Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.

Jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.

Half-deflection Method
Aim

To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω)
resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given
range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

Circuit diagram

Procedure

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.

Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.
Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.

Note the deflection. Let it be θ.

Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the
galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., θ/2.

Note the value of resistance S.

Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every time.

(b) Figure of merit

Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of
the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the cell. Let it be E.

Make connections as in circuit diagram.

Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.

Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.

Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.

Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2, 4, 6, 8, volts from
battery eliminator.

Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observations and Calculations

Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

Table for figure of merit

Result

Resistance of given galvanometer = …….. Ω

Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/dn.

Precautions

All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.

Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit (otherwise for
small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged).

Sources of error

The screws of the instruments may be loose.

The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.

The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Focal Length of a Concave mirror

Aim

To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.

Apparatus

An optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement),
concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle and a half
metre scale.

Theory

Ray Diagram
Procedure

To determine rough focal length

Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.

Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building.

Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the mirror
forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.

Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will he equal to the rough focal
length of the mirror.

To set the mirror

Place fixed upright near zero end of the optical bench and the two other uprights (with lateral
movement) near the other end.

Clamp the holder with mirror in the fixed upright keeping mirror face towards other end of the bench
and surface perpendicular to its length.

Make mirror surface vertical using levelling screws of the optical bench. (In final adjustment, the
principal axis of the mirror must be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench),

Note the position of the index mark on the base of mirror upright.

To set the object needle

Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in second upright.

Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the obtained
rough focal length of the mirror.

Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the pole of the mirror.
With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted
and enlarged image of the needle will be seen Tip of the image must he in the middle of the mirror (If
image is not seen, move object needle upright away from the mirror).

Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the image needle

Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third upright and move the upright near the other end
of the optical bench.

Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen
with right open eye.

Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated . The image tip and the image needle tip have
parallax.

Remove the parallax as described [Section 7.08 (6)]. The parallax becomes removed tip to tip.

Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upright.

Record all the positions of the index marks in the table against observation 2.

To determine index correction

Find index correction for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the object needle and also for
distance between pole of mirror and tip of the image needle as described. [Section 7.10 (c)]

Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1. Repeat the
experiment.

Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2) in steps of 1 cm to get
observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment.

Record all the observations as given ahead.

[Note. Order of observations, is kept, 3,2,1,4,5 and 6 to ensure that object always lies between distance
f and 2f, even when found rough focal length may be too rough.]

Observations
Table for u,v and 1/u,1/v

Calculations

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along x’-axis and u along Y’-axis.
According to sign conventions, in this case u and v both are negative. Plot the various points for different
sets of values of u and v from’ the observation table. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola
as shown in figure.

Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting ∠Y’ OX’) and meeting the curve at
point A. Draw AB and AD perpendicular on X’- and Y’-axes respectively. The values of u and v will be
same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must be (2 f, 2 f) because for a concave mirror u and v
are equal only when the object is placed at the centre of curvature.

Hence, u = v = R = 2 f

Explanation
Explanation
(iii) Another u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X’-axis and v along Y’-
axis. Mark the points at distances u1, u2, u3,…….. etc. along the OX’-axis

and the corresponding points at distances v1, v2, v3,…….. etc. along the OY’-axis for different sets

of observations from the table.

Draw straight lines joining u1 with v1, u2 with v2, u3 with v3 etc. These lines will intersect at a point K as
shown in figure below. Draw KL and KM perpendiculars on X’- and Y’-axes respectively.

Explanation
also satisfied by extreme sets (f,∞) and (∞,f) of u and v values. The straight lines corresponding to
extreme sets intersect at a point (K) having co-ordinates (f. f). If set (u1 v1), (u2, v2),

satisfy the mirror formula then straight lines corresponding to these sets will also pass through the point
K(f.f).

Note. It will be better to choose any four suitable sets of (u, v) values from the observation table. All the
six sets of observations may complicate the graph.

Result

Precautions

Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the optical bench.

The uprights should be vertical.

Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of the needle O.

To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.

Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as that of pole of the concave mirror.

Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

The uprights may not be the vertical.

Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Focal Length of a Convex Mirror, Using a Convex Lens
Aim

To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.

Apparatus

An optical bench with four uprights (two fixed uprights in middle, two outer uprights with lateral
movement), convex lens (20 cm focal length), convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror holder, two optical
needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle, and a half metre scale.

A Short Description about the Arrangement

As a convex mirror always forms a virtual image, its focal length cannot be found directly as for a
concave mirror. For this purpose, indirect method is used, as described below.

An auxiliary convex lens L is introduced between the convex mirror M and object needle O as shown in
ray diagram (a). Keeping the object needle at distance about 1.5 times rough focal length of convex lens,
the position of convex mirror behind convex lens is so adjusted that a real and inverted image of object
needle O, is formed at O itself. Under such condition, the light rays are incident normally over the
convex mirror to retrace their path. In the absence of convex mirror, these rays would have met at
centre of curvature C of the convex mirror. The distance PC gives the radius of curvature R of the mirror.

To locate the position of C, convex mirror is removed (without disturbing the object needle O and
convex lens L). An image needle I is put behind the convex lens and moved to a position at which there is
no parallax between tip of inverted image of O needle and tip of I needle. Position of image needle I
gives position of centre of curvature C of the mirror M ray diagram (b)]
Procedure

To determine rough focal length of convex lens

Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.

Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building.

Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the mirror
forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.

Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will he equal to the rough focal
length of the mirror.

To set the lens

Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.

Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.

Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.

To set the object needle

Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer laterally move-able upright near zero
end.

Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the obtained
rough focal length of the lens.

Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the optical centre of the
lens.

Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the convex mirror

Clamp the holder with convex mirror in second fixed upright near the lens upright, keeping reflecting
surface of the mirror towards lens.

Adjust the height of the mirror to make its pole lie on horizontal line through the optical centre of the
lens. /

Make the mirror surface vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench (the principal axes
of mirror and lens must coincide.)

Move towards zero end of the optical bench (where object needle is mounted).

Closing left eye, keep open right eye about 30 cm away from the tip of the object needle.

See the inverted image of the object needle (formed by reflection from the convex mirror).

Keep the eye in a position at which the tips of the inverted image and the object needle are seen
simultaneously.

Adjust the height of the needle so that the two tips are seen in one line with right open eye.

Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The tips have parallax.

Move the convex mirror back and forth till tip to tip parallax is removed.

Note the position of the index mark on the base of the convex mirror upright.

To set the image needle

Remove the convex mirror, keeping upright in its position.

With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted
and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the middle of the lens.

Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near the other end of the optical
bench.

Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen
with right open eye.

Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image needle tip have
parallax.
Remove the parallax tip to tip.

Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.

Record the position of the index marks in the table against observation 2.

To determine index correction

Find index correction for distance between pole of convex mirror and tip of the image needle as
described.

To get more observations

Move object needle upright towards lens by 2 cm to get observation 1. Repeat the experiment.

Move object needle upright away from lens (from position of observation 2) by 2 cm to get observation
3. Repeat the experiment.

Record all the observations as given ahead.

Observations

Result

The focal length of the given convex mirror = ………. cm.

Precautions
Principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the optical bench.

All the uprights should be vertical.

The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror and centre of the lens should be at the same height.

While removing the parallax, the eye should be kept at a minimum distance of 30 cm from the needle.

Tip to tip parallax should be removed.

Index correction should be applied between the image needle I and back surface of the convex mirror.

The convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens.

For one set of observation, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the’ positions of
the lens and needle O uprights should not be changed.

Sources of error

The uprights may not be the vertical.

Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Focal length of lens may not be small.

Focal Length of a Convex Lens

Aim

To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

Apparatus

An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement), a
convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre
scale.

Theory

The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

f = focal length of convex lens

u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens

v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.

Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f comes
positive.
Ray diagram

Procedure

To determine rough focal length

Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.

Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building.

Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the mirror
forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.

Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough focal
length of the mirror.

To set the lens

Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.

Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.

Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.

To set the object needle

Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer laterally move¬able upright near
zero end.

Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cms) nearly 1.5 times the obtained
rough focal length of the lens.

Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the optical centre of the
lens.

Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle

With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted
and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the middle of the lens.

Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near the other end of the optical
bench.

Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen
with right open eye.

Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image needle tip have
parallax.

Remove the parallax tip to tip.

Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.

Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the object needle and the
image needle in the table against observation 2.

To determine index correction

Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the object needle and
also for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the image needle as described.

To get more observations

Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1. Repeat the
experiment.

Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2) in steps of 1 cm to get
observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment.

Record all the observations as given ahead.

Observations

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm

Actual length of the knitting needle x=…….cm

Observed distance between the object needle and the lens

when knitting needle is placed between them y =…….cm

Observed distance between the image needle and the

lens when knitting needle is placed between them z =…….cm

Index correction for the object distance u, x -y =…….cm

Index correction for the image distance v, x-z =…….cm

Calculations

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods:

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X’-axis and v along Y-axis.
According to sign conventions, in this case, u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various points for
different sets of values of u and v from observation table second quadrant. The graph comes out to be a
rectangular hyperbola as shown in graph between u and v.

Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting ∠YOX’) and meeting the curve at
point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X’- and Y-axes, respectively.

The values of u and v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must
Explanation

Same as for concave mirror:

(iii) Another u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along

X’-axis and v along Y-axis. Mark the points at distances u1, u2, u3,…… etc. along the OX’-axis

and the corresponding points at distances v1, v2, v3,…… etc. along OY- axis for different sets of
observations from the table.

Draw straight lines joining u1 with v1; u2 with v2; u3 with v3;……. etc. These lines will intersect at point K
as shown in the following graph.

Draw KL and KM perpendiculars on X’- and Y-axes, respectively

Explanation

Note. It will be better to choose any four suitable sets of (a, v) from the observation table. All the six sets
of observations may complicate the graph.

Result

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

Precautions
Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.

Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the
needle.

The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.

Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

The uprights may not be the vertical.

Parallax removal may not be perfect.

PRISM – Angle of minimum Deviation

Aim

To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus

Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.

Theory

The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram
Procedure

Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape.

Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.

Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3,… on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of about 5 cm.

Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3,… on points Q1, Q2, Q3,… as shown in diagram.

Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… making angles of 35°, 40°, … 60° (write value of the angles on
the paper) respectively with the normals.

Mark one comer of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all the observations.

Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q1 in the middle of AB.

Mark the boundary of the prism.

Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance between the pins should
be 10 mm or more.

Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.

Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.

Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open right eye sees pins P4 and P3
and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.

Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.

Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3,… for i = 40°,…, 60°.

To measure D in different cases

Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays S1T1,S2T2,S3T3,……

Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3, … inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays R1Q1,
R2Q2, R3Q3,… at points F1, F2, F3,…

Measure angles K1F1S1,K2F2S2,K3F3S3,…….. These give angle of deviation D1,D2,D3,….

Write values of these angles on the paper.

To measure A

Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.

Record your observations.

Observations

Angle of prism ‘A’ =……

Calculations

Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along X-axis and ∠D
along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of single of minimum deviation Dm corresponding to the
lowest point of the graph.
Result

i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first decreases,
attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.

Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..

Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ……….

Precautions

The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

The pins should be fixed vertical.

The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm

Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.

The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

Pin pricks may be thick.

Measurement of angles may be wrong.

p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias

Aim

To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse

bias.

Apparatus

A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, one
0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way
key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

Theory

Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a
battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward
biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then
rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward
bias voltage, at which the forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.

Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high
voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then
junction is said to be reverse biased.

When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow, which remains
almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse
current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs
(suddenly large current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown
voltage may^tarts from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the
depletion layer.
Procedure

For forward-bias

Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).

Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the key K. Voltmeter V
and milli-ammeter mA will give zero reading.

Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias voltage (VF) of

0. 1 V. Current remains zero.

Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero, (It is due to junction
potential barrier of 0.3 V).

Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.

Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current increases first slowly and then
rapidly, till VF becomes 0.7 V.

Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “forward break-down” stage.

If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the forward current does not change much.
Now take out the key at once.

Record your observations as given ahead.

For reverse-bias

Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).

Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert the key K Voltmeter V
and micro-ammeter μA will give zero reading.

Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, a feebly reverse
current starts flowing.

Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly till VR becomes 20 V. Note
the current.

Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break-down” stage. Note the
current and take out the key at once.

Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations

For forward-bias

Range of voltmeter = …..V

Least count of voltmeter = …..V

Zero error of voltmeter = …..V

Range of milli-ammeter = …..mA

Least count of milli-ammeter = …..mA

Zero error of milli-ammeter = …..mA

For reverse-bias

Range of voltmeter = …..V

Least count of voltmeter = …..V

Zero error of voltmeter = …..V

Range of micro-ammeter = …..μA

Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μA

Zero error of micro-ammeter = …..

Calculations

For forward-bias

Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF (column 2) and forward current IF (column 3) taking VF
along X-axis and IF along Y-axis.

This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction diode.

For reverse-bias

Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR (column 2) and reverse current IR (column 3) taking VR
along X-axis and IR along Y-axis.

This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.

Result

Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohms

Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 106 ohms.

Precautions

All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.

Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error

The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

Zener diode – I-V Characteristic Curve

Aim

To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage.

Apparatus

A Zener diode (with small reverse breakdown voltage of about 6 volts), [i.e., Vz = 6 V], a ten volt battery,
a high resistance rheostat, two 0-10 V voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 20 Ω. resistance, one way
key, connecting wires.

Theory

Zener Diode. It is a semiconductor diode, in which the n-type and the p-type sections are heavily doped,
i.e., they have more percentage of impurity atoms. This heavy doping results in a low value of reverse
breakdown voltage (BVR). This value can be controlled during manufacture.

The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener diode, is called Zener voltage (Vz). The reverse current that
results after the breakdown, is called Zener current (Iz).
At breakdown, increase of VI increases II by large amount, so that V0 = VI– RI II becomes constant. This
constant value of V0 which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is called Zener voltage.

Procedure

Arrange apparatus as shown in circuit diagram.

Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

Note least count and zero error of voltmeters and milli-ammeter. (micro-ammeter)

Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the key K. Voltmeters
and milli-ammeter will give zero reading.

Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply some reverse bias voltage (VI). Milli-ammeter
reading remains zero. Voltmeters give equal readings.

[i.e.,V0 =VI ... II = 0 (eqn. 2)]

As VI is further increased, II starts flowing. Then V0 becomes less than VINote the values of Vp II and V0.

Go on increasing VI in small steps of 0.5 V. Note corresponding values of II and V0 which will be found to
have increased.

As VI is made more and more, II and V0 are found to increase. Values are noted.
At one stage, as VI is increased further, II increases by large amount and V0 does not increase. This is
reverse breakdown situation.

As VI is increased further, only II is found to increase, V0 becomes constant. Note values of VI, II and V0.

Increase V1 to a value of 10 V, noting corresponding values.

Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations

Calculations

Plot a graph between input voltage VI (column 2) and input current (column 3), taking VI along X-axis
and II along Y-axis.
Result

The reverse’ breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is _______

Precautions

All connection should be neat, clean and tight.

Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
ACTIVITY -1

Aim

To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a power
source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.

Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery . eliminator),
three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic covering,a fuse wire.

Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory

Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit, all
appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with each
appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes
fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air
conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the
earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time

P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..

where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.

To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little higher rating,
10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a suitable value
MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source.
Procedure

Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively and connect each set
of B-S in parallel with each other.

Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltage from 0 to
10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).

Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).

Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.

Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.

Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.

Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.

ACTIVITY - 2

Aim

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram

Procedure

Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in diagram and
then in series with the battery.

Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.

Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.

Connect the switch in series with the battery.

Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

Utility

It is used for measuring an unknown resistance

ACTIVITY – 3

Aim

To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one way key.
D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

Theory
An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner that on
closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

Procedure

Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.

Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.

Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery eliminator.

Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).

One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator.

Correct circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order)

ACTIVITY – 4

Aim

To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus

Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory

When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the normal since
refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and
incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction takes place from denser to
rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is called emergent ray.

From the following diagram

i)The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

ii)The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a distance d = t sec r sin (i
– r).

Procedure

Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.

Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary ABCD.

Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal. PQ will
represent an incident ray.
Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between themselves.

See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more apart)
such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight line.

Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray. Join QR
to represent refracted ray.

Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i. Produce PQ
forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d.

Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.

Conclusions

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.

The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

ACTIVITY – 5

Aim

To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.

Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory

For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glow.

A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See figure (UM 3482 IC Tone
Generator)]

A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased. (Infact
there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.

A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or reverse
biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially
but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.

The components to be identified are shown in figure.

Procedure

If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC (integrated circuit).

If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.

If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.

To differentiate proceed as ahead.

Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The probe metal ends are
inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as common and P (or + ve).

If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching the two ends of the
device to the two other metal ends of probes.

If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is no
light emission, the item is a diode.

If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-versed and there is
light emission, the item is a LED.

If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a resistor.

If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a
capacitor.

ACTIVITY – 6

Aim

To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on an LDR.

Apparatus

Light source, light dependent resistors (L.D.R.s) of different variety, a multimeter (or meter bridge), a
source of intense light (a lamp bulb with battery eliminator) and a convex lens.

Light Dependent Resistor

The light dependent resistance are the devices for detecting and measuring electromagnetic waves
(light etc.). Its working is based upon the principle of variation of the photoconductivity when radiation
is incident upon it and absorbed by it.
A light dependent resistor is prepared from cadmium sulphide. Its resistance depends upon the intensity
and duration of light incident on it.

A good quality LDR shows a resistance variation from 1 MΩ in complete darkness to about 10 Ω in full
day light. The intensity of light decreases inversely with increase the square of distance.

Procedure

Turn the selector switch and set it on R for the measurement of resistance, in multimeter.

Plug the metallic ends of black probe in terminal marked common in multimeter and that of red in
terminal marked as P (or +). Short the other metallic ends and adjust the ‘R adjusting’ to get full scale
deflection reading at zero ohm in the meter.

Touch the metallic probes to the two metal ends of the L.D.R. [Fig. (a)] and read the value of resistance
when (a) the source is kept at a distance of 2 cm, fixing the source of light in a stand and keeping the
L.D.R. vertically below it.

(i) Moving the source to 4 cm distance from the L.D.R. and

(ii) Moving the source to 6,8 and 10 cm from L.D.R. and repeating observation three more times.
Conclusion

When the distance between light source and L.D.R. increases the resistance of L.D.R. decreases.

Precautions

No stray light should fall on the L.D.R. It is better to work in a dark room.

Connect L.D.R. carefully to the voltage source.