IBRAHIM FIBERS LTD

POLYESTER PLANT

INTERNEE REPORT| IFL | 2019

 IBRAHIM FIBERS LTD

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 4

RAW MATERIA LS ...................................................................................................................................... 4

PTA (Pure Terephthalic Acid)..................................................................................................................... 4

PROPERTIES OF PTA.................................................................................................................................. 4
TRANSPORTA TION OF PTA ....................................................................................................................... 5

AVOID TRIPPING....................................................................................................................................... 5

WHY NITROGEN ............................................................................................................................ 5

CHARGING AND CONVEYING OF PTA ........................................................................................................ 5

EQUIPMENTS............................................................................................................................................ 6

USES OF PTA............................................................................................................................................. 9

HAZARDS OF PTA ...................................................................................................................................... 9

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 9

FIRST AID ...................................................................................................................................... 9

MEG (Mono Ethylene Glycol) .............................................................................................................................. 10

PROPERTIES .......................................................................................................................................................... 10

TRANSPORTA TION OF MEG ................................................................................................................................ 10

USES OF MEG ....................................................................................................................................................... 11

HAZARDS OF MEG ................................................................................................................................................ 11

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 11

FIRST AID .............................................................................................................................................................. 12

IMPORTANT NOTES ............................................................................................................................................. 12

MAIN PROCESS .................................................................................................................................................... 12

PASTE PREPARATION ........................................................................................................................................... 12

ESTERIFICATION STAGE-1 .................................................................................................................................... 14

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM ................................................................................................................................... 15

ESTERIFICATION STAGE-2 .................................................................................................................................... 16

PRE-POLYMERIZATION-1 ..................................................................................................................................... 17

PRE-POLYMERIZATION- 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 18

ADDITIVES ............................................................................................................................................................. 21

TITANIUM DIOXIDE .............................................................................................................................................. 23

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HTM SECTION..........................................................................................................................................26

SANO THERM ..........................................................................................................................................26

DOW THE RM...........................................................................................................................................26

HTM LOOPS............................................................................................................................................. 27
FURNACE.................................................................................................................................................28

EQUIPMENTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 30

IMPORTANT NOTES ............................................................................................................................................. 31

REACTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 34

UTILITY SECTION .................................................................................................................................................. 36

CHILLER ................................................................................................................................................................. 36

NITROGEN GENERATION .........................................................................................................................42

COOLING TOWERS...................................................................................................................................45

WATER TREATMENT .................................................................................................................... 47

COMPRESSORS ....................................................................................................................................... 48

GAS TURB INE ........................................................................................................................................................ 51

SPINNING/QUENCHING SECTION ............................................................................................................ 54

SPINNING ............................................................................................................................................... 54

QUENCHING ............................................................................................................................................55

FIBER LINES ............................................................................................................................................ 58

AUXILIARY SECTION ................................................................................................................................ 64

TEXTILE LAB ............................................................................................................................................ 66

COAL FIRED POWER PLANT………………………………………………………………………………………………………....71

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INTRODUCTION
IBRAHIM FIBERS POLYSTER PLANT is for continuous production of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). It is
spread over an area of more than 100 acres of land with a capacity to produce 390,600 tons per annum of
Polyester Staple Fiber (PSF) or chips (textile grade). Plant capacity is 1200 tons per day but now a days plant
is running on under capacity of 1050 tons per day. Plant equipped with "Distributed control system (DCS)"
using SRX process controllers providing a foundation for real time, efficient and accurate control and also
monitoring of the process of entire plant through Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). The PROVOX
plus data provides access to historical process data for monitoring and analyzing process conditions.
Intelligent alarm techniques help enhanced operator control capability to evaluate changing conditions and
to respond quickly to any process changes.

RAW MATERIALS

PTA(Pure Terephthalic Acid)

MEG (Mono Ethylene Glycol)

PTA (Pure Terephthalic Acid)

Pure Terephthalic Acid is an organic compound, with oxalic group attached on each side of the benzene
ring. It is a petroleum product in powdered form.

PROPERTIES OF PTA

FORMULA

COLOR White
PHYSICAL FORM Powdered
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 166.14
PARTICLE SIZE 70-140 microns
MOISTURE CONTENT < 0.2 wt%
FLASH POINT 260 ◦C
IMPURITIES (in ppm) 4-CBA, Acetic acid, Mo, Cr, Ni, Fe, Ti, Mn, Co

PH 2.16
SUBLIMATION POINT 402◦C

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AUTO IGNITION 495◦C

TRANSPORTATION OF PTA
IBRAHIM FIBERS LIMITED gets PTA from two brands.

1. Lotte, Karachi
2. Siam Mitsui, Thailand

PTA From Lotte, Karachi.

 PTA IFL gets from Lotte comes in bags. At plant site bags are off loaded firstly in open yard having
capacity of 10,000 bags storage and from there, staked in warehouse having capacity of 6500 bags
to be stacked.
 Each bag capacity of 1100kg or 1.1 tons.
 PTA from this brand is comparatively preferable because it causes less tripping or no tripping at all.

PTA From Siam Mitsui, Thailand.

 PTA imported from Siam comes in containers. Each container has capacity of 22000kg or 22tons.
 PTA from this brand causes tripping when treated for IFL-3.

AVOID TRIPPING
To avoid tripping, 7-10 bars of Nitrogen is being compressed to make high pressure and then fluidization
process occurs by making Nitrogen and PTA slurry.

WHY NITROGEN
PTA is an explosive material it is necessary to use material which does not react with it and cause
combustion. Nitrogen is not combustible gas that is why it is used.

CHARGING AND CONVEYING OF PTA

From the storage yard, PTA bags or containers are charged on charging station. From PITS it falls on rotary
feeder and compressed line of nitrogen is used to pneumatically charge it to main silos and then it is
conveyed to Day silo. From where PTA is taken continuously for process.

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EQUIPMENTS
SILO

At plant site (IFL). Five main silos are being used. One for IFL-1, Two for IFL-2 and Two for IFL-3.

In silo PTA is entered from the top and nitrogen is added from the bottom. PTA then falls on the rotary
feeder where again nitrogen (from compressors) is used to flow PTA and move it to day silo.

SILO SPECIFICATIONS:

NUMBER CAPACITY(𝒎𝟑 )
1204-V01 4.5
1204-X57 1.9
1214-X57 1.9
1204-T01 500
1204-T11 500
1204-T12 500
1214-T11 500
1214-T12 500
1413-T01 50
1717-T01 150
1817-T01 200

COMPRESSOR

Compressor are used to increase pressure of nitrogen. As gases are compressible it reduces volume.

Compressor used in this section are of single stage screw type.

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COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATIONS

Compressor Capacity Motor Suction Discharge Discharge Oil Oil 1.8

Name Overload Pressure Pressure Temp SP Temp Pressure Bar
SP SP SP SP
Hi
Low
1204-K02 13.7m3/min 72 amp 0 bar 4.6 Bar 185°C 75°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar

1204-K05 13.7m3/min 72 amp 0 bar 4.6 Bar 185°C 75°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar
1204-K11 30.5m3/min 180 amp 0 bar 4.6 Bar 260°C 100°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar
1204-K12 30.5m3/min 180 amp 0 bar 4.6 Bar 260°C 100°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar

1214-K11 45.1m3/min ____ 0 bar 4.6 Bar 250°C 100°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar
1214-K12 45.1m3/min ____ 0 bar 4.6 Bar 250°C 100°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar

1214-K13 45.1m3/min ____ 0 bar 4.6 Bar 250°C 100°C 4.6 Bar 1.8
Bar

COOLER
Coolers only change temperature instead of changing phase as in condensers. Coolers are attached at the
discharge of compressors because increase in pressure increases temperature. To maintain temperature we
use coolers. Two types of coolers are used in this section.

1. Counter-current flow for IFL-1 and 3

2. Parallel flow for IFL-2

Counter current is more efficient because of more heat transfer.

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COOLER SPECIFICATIONS

Cooler Name Associated H2O Flow Cooling Cooling Nitrogen Nitrogen

Compressor rate H2O in H2O out Temp Trip Pressure SP
Temp Temp SP SP
1204-E01 1204-K01 3400 kg/hr 25°C 50°C 55°C 2.3 Bar
1204-E02 1204-K02 3400 kg/hr 25°C 54°C 55°C 2.3 Bar
1204-E05 1204-K05 3400 kg/hr 25°C 56°C 55°C 2.3 Bar

1204-E11 1204-K11 6m3/hr 25°C 56°C 65°C 2.7 Bar

1204-E12 1204-K12 6m3/hr 25°C 52°C 60°C 2.7 Bar

1214-E11 1214-K11 11 t/hr 25°C 47°C 51°C 2.6 Bar

1214-E12 1214-K12 11 t/hr 25°C 47°C 51°C 2.6 Bar
1214-E13 1214-K13 11 t/hr 25°C 47°C 51°C 2.6 Bar

1204 E01, E02, E05

Parameters: Shell Side Tube Side

Design Pressure: 10 bar 2 bar
Design Temperature: 60 oC 200 oC
Volume 11.55 L 14.52 L
Medium Water N2

1204 E11, E12

Parameters: Shell Side Tube Side

Design Pressure: 10 bar 4.2 bar
Design Temperature: -10~80 oC -10~280 oC
Volume 30 L 36 L
Medium Water N2

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1214 E1, E12, E13

Parameters: Shell Side Tube Side

Design Pressure: 10 bar 4.2 bar
Design Temperature: -10~80 oC -10~280 oC
Volume 73 L 56 L
Medium Water N2

USES OF PTA
 For the production of polyester fiber, PET bottle resin and polyester film.
 Coating resins for use in the formulation of general metal, appliances, automotive, industrial
maintenance, coil coating.
 It can be used in pharmaceutical industry as a raw material for certain drugs.
 It is used as filter in some military smoke grenades.
 PTA is also used in the paint as a carrier.

HAZARDS OF PTA
 When breath in it can irritate the nose, throat and lungs cause coughing wheezing and shortness
of breath.
 Contact can irritate the skin and eyes.
 Repeated exposure to PTA may affect the kidneys.
 Poisonous gas may produce are produced in case of fire

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 It may burn but does not readily ignite. So, use dry chemical, H2O spray, and CO2, alcohol or
polymer foam extinguisher.
 If PTA is spilled then remove all ignition sources.
 Store in tightly closed containers in cool and ventilated area.
 Wear protective work clothing. Such as, safety goggles as PTA is powdered material.

FIRST AID
 Immediately flush in large amount of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting
upper and lower lids.
 Remove contaminated clothing, wash contaminated skin with soap and water.

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 Remove the person from exposure. Begin rescue breathing (using universal precautions)
if breathing has stopped and CPR, if heart action has stopped.

MEG (Mono Ethylene Glycol)

MEG is an organic compound with phenol group attached to it. It is a crude oil refinery product in liquid
form. At plant site (IFL) MEG total storage capacity is 12000 tons.

PROPERTIES

FORMULA C2H6O2

NATURE Hygroscopic
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 62.07
COLOR colorless, transparent liquid
MOISTURE CONTENT <0.1 W t%
IMPURITIES Aldehyde, Iron, Chloride, Sulphate, Diethylene
Glycol in ppm
BOILING POINT 197.6ᵒC
FLASH POINT 134.0ᵒC
PH 6.2
AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE 398°C

TRANSPORTATION OF MEG
MEG is imported from two major sources.

1. Sabic, Saudi Arabia.

2. Equate of Kuwait.

MEG is transported from these countries by ships, from where it is off-loaded MEG storage terminals of IFL
at Port Qasim, Karachi. From where. MEG is sent to IFL plant site on MEG tankers having capacity of 40
tons. Vessels on the tankers are made of stainless steel. Each tankers has two chambers (20 tons). Tankers
are unloaded at plant site. There are two MEG storage tanks (1110-T01/T02 each having capacity of 2000
tons).

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PROCESS FLOW SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MEG LOADING

BUTTER FLY
TANKER
VALVE

CENTRIFUGAL DISCHARGE
STRAINER FLOWMETER
PUMP VALVE

STORAGE
PUMP MAIN PROCESS
TANK

USES OF MEG
 MEG is use in the manufacture of polyester (PET) resins, films and fibers.
 In the production of anti-freezers.
 90% MEG is used in radiators of cars as coolants.
 It can also be used as aircraft anti-icer and deicers and solvents.

HAZARDS OF MEG
 It is Harmful if swallowed.
 It may cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Do not breathe mist, vapors, spray.
 Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
 Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product.

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FIRST AID
 If skin contact occurs, remove contaminated clothing and wash skin with running water.
If irritation occurs seek medical advice.
 If in eyes, wash out immediately with water. In all cases of eye contamination it is a
sensible precaution to seek medical advice.
 Rinse mouth with water. If swallowed, give a glass of water to drink. If vomiting occurs
give further water. Seek immediate medical assistance.

IMPORTANT NOTES
 Flash point of petrol is −43 °C and auto ignition temperature 280 °C
 Bunker fuel oil is used in furnace.
 860kg PTA +340kg MEG is used to produce 1 ton PET.
 4-CBA should be less than 25ppm in PTA as it effects the color of polyester.
 PTA handling as compared to MEG is difficult.
 3 types of polyester grades, textile or staple grade, plastic grade, carpet grade.
 Difference between filters and strainers are of pore size. Filter should be of 10
microns.
 In winters density of PTA increases and tripping in compressor increases.

MAIN PROCESS

1. Paste preparation.
2. Esterification reactor 1 (ES-1)
3. Esterification reactor 2 (ES-2)
4. Pre-polymerization (PP)
5. Disc Ring Reactor (DRR)

PASTE PREPARATION
In this unit, raw materials PTA and MEG is mixed properly in a paste tank under standard conditions. At plant
site, the tank is insulated so, the temperature is nearer to 55◦C. Raw materials are mixed in a defined ratio
given as,
𝐸
= 1.12
𝑇

By equation, 2 moles of MEG and 1 mole of PTA is required along with Antimony Triacetate catalyst to
produce 1 PET. But in this process we are not giving 2 moles of MEG because the remaining MEG is taken
from the MEG produced in the secondary reaction occurring with esterification. Catalyst is added to control
mole ratio of EG and also to initiate polymerization.

PTA is continuously entering in the paste preparation vessel by a Schenk system. Schenk system measures
PTA by load of PTA falling on the rotating wheel. MEG is fed with catalyst solution by spray

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nozzles in vent line of paste vessel. Four additions in paste tank i.e Fresh MEG, Recovered EG, under pressure
recovered EG and catalyst EG. Control system controls the mole ratio of EG solution according to the
quantity of PTA being added to the vessel. After suspending the paste by agitator the paste is pumped into
Esterification reactor 1 (EG-1) by positive displacement screw type pumps. Two pumps are used just in case
of tripping of one the other pump continue the process or both pumps can work on closed cycle.

Currently operating parameters for paste preparation are:

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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ESTERIFICATION STAGE-1
At stage-1 esterification, PTA reacts with MEG under high temperature and pressure to produce monomers
of DGT (Diethylene-Glycol-Terephthalate) and split of water and polycondensation reaction is initiated.

REACTION

Reaction occurs in CSTR which contains 11 coils and 4 blades agitator. The tank is heated internally with
primary heating media Sanotherm in liquid form. An external jacket contains Dowtherm vapors which is
secondary heating media and don’t let any solid deposition on the wall of reactor. The product obtained
from the bottom of ES-1 is divided into two streams. These streams contain semi dull and bright filaments
depending upon the percentage of TDO added.

Vapors removed from the top of reactor contains SEG (spent ethylene glycol) and water. These vapors
then enter in distillation column where EG is separated from water. EG removed is further used as EGR
and water from distillation column moves toward condensers where it changes temperature and it is
used as reflux. Two level transmitters are installed in reactor, displacer level (operates on the basis of
buoyancy effect) and bubbler level (operates on the basis of resistance).

Currently operating parameters for EG-1 are:

TEMPERATURE OF REACTOR 258ᵒC

CAPACITY 50𝑚3
FLOWRATE 180 ton/hr
SET POINT OF DISPLACER 43%
SETPOINT OF BUBBLER 90%
PRESSURE 0.4 bar
DISCHARGE PRESSURE By gravity
ACID NO. 45 – 61
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT 200ᵒC
ES-1 LEVEL 55%
DOW THERM TEMP. 284ᵒC
SANO THERM TEMP. 266◦C
RATE OF REACTION 90 – 92%
DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION 4

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AGITATOR TYPE 4 blades, 45 pitched angle

AGITATOR SPEED 90%
PRODUCT DENSITY 1.162 ton/𝑚3
SEG STREAM FLOWRATE 1900-200 kg/hr
ES-1 EVAPORATOR CAPACITY 166𝑚 3
RESIDENCE TIME 3.2hr

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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ESTERIFICATION STAGE-2
At stage 2, the discharge of ES-1 is divided into two streams (14 and 15) with the help of gate valves. The
product coming from ES-1 is supplied to ES-2 by pumps. 1307-P02 for stream 14 and 1307-P04 for stream
15 and 1307-P03 is standby which can be used for both streams. Both streams enter in two different ES-2
which are working on same phenomena.

Both reactors are increasing the thickness of material. Difference between both streams is the percentage
of TDO added. Usually stream 14 (semi-dull) is treated with 10% TDO and stream 15(bright) with 3% TDO
but currently both streams are working on 10% TDO.

Working procedure of ES-2 is similar to ES-1 but here the concentration of material increases up to 97%.
Water vapors removing from the top of distillation column after passing through condensers are used for
reflux at very low amount and most of the water moves towards waste because being acidic in nature.

Heat is supplied to reactor by evaporator-2 by using Dow therm and heat is supplied to evaporator by
sano therm.

Currently operating parameters for EG-2 are:

TEMPERATURE OF REACTOR 256ᵒC

PRESSURE 0.14bar
VOLUME OF REACTOR 11.8𝑚 3
ES-2 LEVEL 45%
RATE OF REACTION 97%
DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION 7
PRODUCT DENSITY 1.41 ton/𝑚 3
ACID NO. 16-25%
EVAPORATOR TEMP. 270ᵒC

ES-2 EVAPORATOR CAPACITY 51𝑚3

SANO THERM TEMP. 329ᵒC
DOW THERM TEMP 284ᵒC
RESIDENCE TIME 1.18hr

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

PROCESS COLUMN
INTRODUCTION
The vapors from ES-1 and ES-2 contain a mixture of ethylene glycol and water vapors.These vapors are separated in a distillation
column which is called Process Column at IFL. The purpose of separating EG and water vapors is to save EG from waste. Distillation is a
process of separation of two species on the basis of difference in volatility. The higher volatile specie is collected at top and condensed
and the less volatile specie is collected from bottom as liquid. The distillation operation depends on many parameters. Like nature of
species. If the mixture is azeotropic or there is a very high difference in boiling points then distillation operation might vary. Distillation
is carried out in a vertical column fitted with trays and also called as tray column. In tray column the feed is fed to a specific tray and a
number of trays are above and below that tray. The number of trays depends on many parameters like; condition of feed,
concentration of top product, concentration of bottom product, reflux ratio, etc.

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Number of trays can be calculated by two methods

• McCabe Thiele Method
• Lewis Method
Parts of Distillation Column:
Parts of distillation column are as follow:
• Tray Column
• Condenser
• Re boiler
• Feed Preheater
• Feed Pump, Bottom Line Product, Top Product Pump, etc.
Difficulties in distillation:
Adverse vapor flow conditions can cause:
• Foaming
• Entrainment
• Weeping/dumping
• Flooding
Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapor or gas. Although it provides high interfacial liquid-
vapor contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad that the
foam mixes with liquid on the tray above. Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on physical properties of the
liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is always
reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above and is again caused by high vapor flow rates. It is
detrimental because tray efficiency is reduced: lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher
volatility. It could also contaminate high purity distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding.
Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapor is insufficient to hold up the liquid on
the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid
on all trays will crash (dump) through to the base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column will have to be re-
started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.
Flooding
Flooding is brought about by excessive vapor flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the vapor up the column. The
increased pressure from excessive vapor also backs up the liquid in the down comer, causing an increase in liquid holdup
on the plate above. Depending on the degree of flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may be severely
reduced. Flooding is detected by sharp increases in column differential pressure and significant decrease in separation
efficiency
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TYPES OF TRAYS USED IN TRAY COLUMNS

Different types of plates/trays are used in tray columns for gas/liquid contact. Some of them are as follows:
• Bubble cap tray
• Sieve tray/perforated plates
• Valve trays
Bubble Cap Trays
A bubble cap tray has riser or chimney fitted over each hole, and a cap that covers the riser. The cap is mounted so that
there is a space between riser and cap to allow the passage of vapour. Vapour rises through the chimney and is directed
downward by the cap, finally discharging through slots in the cap, and finally bubbling through the liquid on the tray.

Sieve Trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapour passes straight upward through the liquid on the plate.
The arrangement, number and size of the holes are design-parameters.

Valve Trays
In valve trays, perforations are covered by liftable caps. Vapour flow lifts the caps, thus self-creating a flow area for the
passage of vapor. The lifting cap directs the vapor to flow horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing than is
possible in sieve trays.

Process Description:
Process column is a tray column with 16 trays and feed is introduced on plate at bottom. Bubble and cap trays are used
and feed enters in vapor form at about 250 o C. The average temperature of plate 5, 7 and 9 is maintained at 150 o C.
Reflux ratio is changed depending upon the temperature of these plates.
Reflux is introduced on the top plate and moves downward. The liquid flows from weirs into down comers to the lower
plates. The vapors rise upward from the bubble and cap arrangement and come in contact with the liquid. The lower
volatile specie condenses and higher volatile specie vaporizes in result of that. The vapors on a plate and liquid are in
equilibrium. This is how the concentration of higher volatile component increases as we move from bottom to top.
From top the vapors are collected and taken out of the system. These vapors are condensed in a condenser and a part of
these vapors is introduced back to the column as reflux. The purpose of introducing reflux is to achieve purity. The liquid
which don’t vaporize anywhere flows to lower plates and finally to the reboiler. Here the reboiler is simply a coil in the
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bottom of the column.e in separation efficiency.

Pre-Polymerization:
Product from ES-2 is the fed to PP with the help of pressure difference. PP is heated by both liquid (sanotherm) and
vapor (dowtherm) heating system. Sanotherm is supplied in coil and Dowtherm covers the jacket. Vacuum is controlled
by jet system. Polycondensation reaction takes place and EG vapors split off in the form of vapors. Spray Condenser is
used to condensate the vapors via cold EG circulation.

Chemical reaction is as follow:

PP level 35%
Vacuum 18mbar
Temperature 260 C
̊
Agitator speed 89.3%

Pre-polymer is fed to final- polycondensation with the help of pre-polymer feed pumps. Two pre-polymer filters are
installed between pre-polycondensation and final polycondensation to remove agglomerates out of the pre-polymer.

DRR (Disc Ring Reactor)

DRR contains cage of rings attached to the shaft on the inner side of the reactor which continuously cuts the
material It is a horizontal reactor whose primary purpose is to achieve desired intrinsic viscosity up to 0.620.
Material in DRR is thick and it may called as semi-solid. The material is exposed to very high temperature and
low pressure. Material slides through surface of every ring attached to shaft which is revolving at very slow
rate per minute.

Similar to process in PP, EG and water vapors leaves from the top of DRR and pass towards horizontal scrapper
condenser. Horizontal condenser is used because better quality product is required.

Uncondensed vapors passes through jet system afterwards it undergo expansion which produces vacuum
and condense vapors. Some portion of uncondensed vapors vent to atmosphere which contain aldehyde
and ketones,

Product from DRR is pumped by pre-polymer pumps (product pumps which are gear type and self-
lubricated) into viscometer and then to the candle filters which have stainless steel candles.

Two gamma rays level detector are installed at inlet and outlet of DRR. It consist of source and receiver
which are parallel to each other. When tank level is full it detect less rays when level of tank decreases it
detects more rays.

After filtration the product is then sent to spinning section. From the outlet of DRR to the inlet in spinning
section it takes 20min and intrinsic viscosity at spinning section will decrease up to 0.610 due to change in
driving force.

Currently operating parameters for DRR are:

TEMPERATURE OF DRR 275ᵒC

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VACUUM OF DRR 1.5 -1.2 mbar

DENSITY 1.195 kg/L
VOLUME 32.154𝑚3
LEVEL 20%
ACID NO. <32
DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION 104.7
RESIDENCE TIME 2h 10min
RPM OF AGITATOR 6rpm

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

ADDITIVES
Two additives used in polyester industry are

1. Antimony Triacetate (Catalyst)

2. TDO (Titanium Dioxide)

ANTIMONY TRIACETATE (CATALYST)

The purpose of using catalyst is to enhance the chemical reaction and to achieve required results in
lower residence time. Polyester fiber is made through an endothermic reaction, therefore, the energy
required to start the reaction is high. The catalyst lowers this amount of energy consumption.

Antimony triacetate Sb(CH3COO)3 is used as a catalyst. It is a white crystalline powder imported from
USA(Polytrade Global GMBH) in buckets each bucket weighs 15kg. Active part of the catalyst is antimony
metal ion having +3 Valance. It contains impurities like iron, chloride and toluol.

Catalyst is mixed with EG batch wise in catalyst preparation vessel before feeding into the Paste
Preparation Vessel. It involves following steps.

 Add 2500kg of MEG through counter flows into vessel.

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 Agitate until 65ᵒC achieved then add 5 buckets of catalyst (75kg).Use process/reaction water to
heat the vessel which will pass through the coils of vessel. At 65ᵒC XV valve will automatically
shut it. If it does not reach at the required temperature then proper mixing is not achieved.

 Add 1250kg MEG to remove catalyst contaminating the walls or agitator.

The mixture is then constantly agitated for 4 hours and 1 hour is provided as settling time. An analysis of
the solution is done after 5 hours and it is ensured that the concentration of catalyst is 2% in the solution.

Out of this 2%, only 0.8% is the active catalyst that actually takes part in the reaction. The quantity of
catalyst in the melt is 185 ppm by weight.

The final solution prepared after addition of 1250kg MEG contains 3250kg of MEG along with 75 kg of
catalyst. This solution is charged into the catalyst feed hopper from where it moves to the 1402- V01 batch
preparation tank. Flow counters are attached which send the measured quantity of EG in the catalyst
vessel. The batch in the 1402-V01 is then sent to a filter having 1 candle in which batch is filtered for any
suspended solids. This clear solution is sent to 1402-V02 for storage. It takes 30- 40mins to transfer batch
and then it is sent to the paste preparation tank.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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TITANIUM DIOXIDE
TDO or Titanium dioxide is in a white powder form .In fiber making process, it is used as dulling agent in
the second stage of esterification process. It is used to make products of different brightness. TDO is
imported from Germany. 1 bag weighs 500kg.

Properties of TDO are

BRAND Hombitan
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 79.9 g/mol
APPEARANCE PURE WHITE COLOR POWDER
TiO2 99 ± 0.5 %
MOISTURE ≤ 0.5%

PARTICLE SIZE VERY FINE≥ 3 microns

For making a semi-dull product, the concentration of TDO in the solution is 10% and 0.3% by weight of PET
in the final product. On the other hand, a bright product must have 3% concentration of TDO in solution
and 0.03% by weight of PET in the final product.

TDO also has following advantages for the final product,

 TDO provides matt finish to the final product.

 It increases the durability of the product.
 TDO has high refractive index close to diamond, which causes glitter-ness.
 TDO also gives hardness to the product

The centrifuge undergoes through three steps during its operation:

classify

centrifuge

dicharging

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1. Fine and oversized particles are classified and this process lasts for 50
minutes.
2. Dispersion of Oversized particles (which starts to settle down and chock
centrifuge) with MEG and this step lasts for ~20 minutes.
3. Discharging of oversized particles by MEG to Pearl Mill and this step lasts for
~5 minutes.

Whole 3 operations combine together to make one cycle of centrifuge. Total cycles of centrifuge are seven
at 3000rpm after which the vessel become empty.

Undersized particles are separated and moved to 1307-V02 in which 1800L of EG are added to make the
mixture concentration to 10%. Pearl Mill grinds the oversize particles by using a Muller which has fine
particles of Zirconium dioxide of diameter 0.8 micron. Ground particles form pearl mill are again moved to
1307- V01 Vessel. Mixture from 1307-V02 is now separated into two lines for making products of different
properties i.e. semi-dull and bright. 1307-V03 is used for making semi-dull product of 10% TDO
concentration. Bright product is made up in 1307-V04 vessel from where it enters 1307-V05 vessel in which
4363 L of EG are added to reduce the concentration of TDO up to 3%.

SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM

SEMI-DULL

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BRIGHT

500kg EG
500kg TDO
50% Concentrated sol.
4hrs Agitation

1800kg MEG
20% Concentrated Sol.
1 hr Agitation
1 hr Settling

1800 kg MEG
10% Concentrated Sol.

2500kg of 10% TDO

solution

Zirconium Dioxide
ZrO2
Adding 4800kg MEG in Beads
2500kg of 10% TDO Sol. Volume 1500 ml
To make 3.0% TDO Sol.

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HTM SECTION
HTM stands for "heat transfer media". As the reactions are endothermic so, the large amount of heat is
required to bring rector to reaction temperature. For this purpose two phases (liquid and vapor) of heat
transfer media are used. These are:

1. SANO THERM
2. DOW THERM

SANO THERM
Sano therm is partially hydrogenated terphenyl in liquid form. The trade name of Sanotherm is
Thermoinal-66. Which is designed for low pressure (negligible) indirect heating in other words "it is used
for primary heating by delivering efficient, uniform process heat with no pressure. It is less prone to fluid
leakage problems like other fluids and also its boiling point reduces volatility. HTM is heated in coils of
furnace by natural gas or bunker crude oil. HTM at temperature of 325ᵒC is sent to reactors where it is
used to heat secondary heating media after that secondary loops and exhaust return at temperature of
296ᵒC and heated again.

Properties of sano therm are:

MOLECULAR WEIGHT ~240

DENSITY 1002-1012 kg/𝑚 3
POUR POINT <-10ᵒC
FLASH POINT 170ᵒC
BOILING POINT 340ᵒC
AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE ~380ᵒC
FUEL FOR BURNING NATURAL GAS AND BC OIL
COLOR CLEAR, PALE
MAXIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT 150PPM

DOW THERM
DOW THERM is Diphenyl/ Diphenyl ether in vapor form. It is a secondary heating media. It is heated by
primary HTM coming from furnace. It is used to heat reaction vessels such as;

1. ES-1 & ES-2

2. PP

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3. DRR

DOW THERM is in the jacket of these reaction vessels and Sanotherm exchanges heat with this heating
media to convert it into vapors.

Properties of Dow therm are:

MOLECULAR WEIGHT 165.76

DENSITY 1062 kg/𝑚 3
FREEZINF POINT 12.3ᵒC
FALSH POINT 115ᵒC
BOILING POINT 256-258ᵒC
IGNITION TEMPERATURE 615ᵒC

HTM LOOPS
HTM LOOPS
HTM DESCRIPTION HTM CONTAINED
LIQUID/ TOTAL
LOOPS
VAPOURS VOLUME NO. OF
#
FROM TO (TONS) LINES

1 1424-R01 to 1424-E01 49

2 1424-R01 to 1424-P01/P02 10

3 1424-P04/P05 1424-C01 17

1521-R02 &
4 1531-E03 1531-R01 53

1521-R02 &
5 1521-P01 20
1531-R01

6 1541-E04 1541-E01 22

7 1561-E04 1561-R01 29

1561-E01 &
8 1571-E04 46
1571-J01
1551-P01/P02,
9 1581-P03/P04/P05 58
1581-P01, 1581-S01

10 3007-F01/F02 Different Areas 26

3007-P02/P03 ~
11 Different Areas 33
3007-F01/F02

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12 3007-P01 Different Areas 17

13 Different Areas 14

14 Different Areas 3007-V04 39

15 Different Areas 3007-V02 15

16 3007-F01/F02 3007-P01 4

17 3101-P02/P03 3101-C01 26

18 7375-E01 7375-Y01 13

19 3310-P02 Different Equipment 11

20 1461-P01/P02 1461-R01 29

21 1441-E04 1441-R01 23

1421-R02 &
22 1431-E03 53
1431-R01
1421-R02 &
23 1421-P01 20
1431-R01

24 3083-P01 Different Areas 12

25 Different Areas 3083-V01 10

26 Different Areas 3083-V01 10

27 Different Areas 3083-V01 15

28 1471-E04 1461-E01 & 1471-J01 47

1451-P01/P02,
29 1481-P03/P04/P05 61
1481-P01, 1481-S01

FURNACE
Furnace are used to heat HTM (Sanotherm). It is the most critical part of plant. In IFL-1 W e have three
furnaces. Currently advanced technology furnace working on coil system is in operation and other two are
standby. HTM is in coils of furnace. It has three passes (primary, secondary and tertiary) for flue gas. Duel
nozzles are used for HFO and natural gas and duel fuel burners are installed vertically at the top of furnace.
At plant site, furnace are in continuous operation it only stops during shutdown.

To increase temperature of Sanotherm in furnace we require combustion. Combustion occurs by three

important element.

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Air
Fuel

Heat

Combustion

LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is used to ignite spark. HFO and natural gas are used as fuel.

Force draft fans are used to send air to the top of furnace by taking air from the atmosphere.
Discharge of FD fans goes to economizer having shell and tube arrangement. Air enters at
temperature ~49ᵒC in the economizer at the shell side while flue gases from furnace enters at
temperature ~315-330ᵒ C in tube side. Economizer trips when the temperature rises up to 420ᵒC.

The flue gas after circulating through economizer enters in stack at temperature of 200ᵒC. Flue gases
contains maximu m amount of CO2 which goes to vent through stack at height of 35m.

The discharge air from economizer at the temperature of 180-185ᵒC and HFO is supplied to furnace for
combustion by low pressure pumps (increases pressure up to 9bar) before pumping an internal pre-heater
increases temperature up to 100ᵒC. It then goes into high suction pumps (increase temperature up to
35bar).Discharge then passes through the pre-heater using a steam (heating media) of 25bar and then
through atomizer. Sanotherm is heated and discharged from the furnace at 329ᵒC.

HTM from furnace is then divided into secondary loops for use in different reactors and
evaporators. It is stored in expansion vessel.

Parameters for furnace are:

NO. OF FURNACE 3
CAPACITY OF ONE FURNACE 35GJ
NO OF COILS IN FURNACE 4
HEATING AREA OF FURNACE 240𝑚3
SUCTION PRESSURE AT PUMP 3bar
DISCHARGE PRESSURE AT PUMP 10.9bar
PRESSURE DROP 2.9bar

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PRESSURE AT DISCHARGE OF FURNACE 8.9 bar

PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS 120-125 mbar
HEAT CAPACITY OF FURNACE 850KW

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

EQUIPMENTS
STACK
Stack has variable area to reduce emission of solid contents and increase kinetic head of gases. It is used
for emission of flue gases after economizer.

ATOMIZER

Atomizer converts jet of fuel to fine spray to increase effective surface are throughout furnace.

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PRE-HEATER
Purpose of preheater is to preheat HFO by 6 bar steam followed by 25 bar. It helps to save fuel for maximum
heat economy.

BLOWER
Blower is used to convert pressure head to kinetic head and increases the flow rate for effective combustion.

ECONOMIZER
Economizer is also a pre-heater that uses the flue gases and pre-heat the air coming from blower before
providing to the furnace in order to have the maximum utilization of waste heat.

DAMPER
Natural gas and warm air is added to damper that maintains a specific air to fuel ratio for maximum oxidizing
flame. As the reducing flame will cause more toxic emissions that needs to be processed before emitting
into the air.

EXPANSION VESSEL
It is used to absorb the pressure fluctuations. Level of vessel is maintain at 50%. Stability of expansion vessel is
95% and about 5% annually losses are calculated. 1 bar nitrogen is given to vessel. It is basically a storage
tank to maintain head.

IMPORTANT NOTES
 0.5% catalyst is required for 1 ton PET.
 0.4% TDO is required for 1 ton PET.
 Day silo is termed as day silo because of its temporary storage. It has four switches. If it
reaches set point then schenk system stops.
1. LALL: low alarm low low (set point)
2. LAL: low alarm low
3. LAH: low alarm high
4. LAHH: low alarm high high (set point)
 Two types of security interlocks, software and hardware.
 Compressor interlocks are installed at
1. Discharge pressure
2. Discharge temperature
3. Oil pressure and temperature
4. Suction pressure
5. Discharger temperature and pressure after cooler
 PIS (pressure indicator switch)

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 PAH( pressure Alarm HIGH)

 3-directional valves are installed at ES-1 consist of seal used to avoid leakage. To maintain seal
we use cool water supply to maintain its temperature to prevent it from melting.
 Agitator contain mechanical seal
 Distillation column top is at 19m and half is at 13m.
 Dow therm transfers more heat because it contains both sensible and latent heat.
 Sano therm is in coil and it is in liquid form, it only contains sensible heat.
 Nitrogen is used for bubbler level because it is inert media.
 Liver arm gives reading of displacer level.
 80% load of HTM is utilized in ES-1.
 More heat is consumed in ES-1 because of the temperature gradient.
 Options available in ES-2 are:
1. Catalyst can be added
2. TDO
3. Anti-pilling
4. Optical brightener
 PP-2 and DRR contain radioactive source.
 Chain value = 104.7
 PI at 19m is 2.1 and at zero is 4.3
 If TI is not working then RTD indicates temperature fluctuations in ES-2.
 Average PH of waste water is 3.5 and EG content is 0.24. Normally PH should be 2-2.5.
 Semi-dull = 0.3%/wt% PET
 Bright= 0.03%/wt% PET
 No agitators are installed in PP-1.
 No analysis can be done on PP-1 one because air starts trapping.
 Intrinsic viscosity measures the chain length of material.
 Formula for degree of polymerization
𝐷𝑃 = 193.03(𝑖𝑣)1.279
 DP of ES-1= 7.87, ES-2= 9.49, PP-2= 32.77, DRR= 104.7, PET BOTTLE= 122.322
 Degree of esterification and polycondensation is controlled by maintaining the pressure,
temperature and residence time.
 No Sanotherm is used in PP-2.
 In scrapper condenser umbrellas are fixed on which vapors fall.
 Oligomers are organic compound having less than 5 monomers.
 Flow pattern and partitions in PP-1 and PP-2 are important for residence time.
 Furnace Unit (3007-F01/F02) has the following interlocks:
1. HTM Flow Pressure 2.
2. Air Inlet Pressure 3.
3. FD Fan (Blower) Load
4. Fuel Gas Pressure
5. Ignition Gas Pressure
6. Fuel Oil Temperature
7. Fuel Oil Pressure
8. Discharge Pressure Pump Load
9. Blocking Tightness Control
10. Flame Eye Intensity

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 We don’t recover catalyst because it is in ppm so, it goes with product.

 In antimony triacetate
Antimony pure =99%
Triacetate = <1%
Antimony oxide = <1%
 74 tons of HTM is in ifl-1 and 8 tons of which is Dow therm.
 We don’t use steam as heating media in furnace because of its low enthalpy, prone to
corrosion and unable to produce enough heat for polyester plant.
 Chances of side reaction to produce sulfuric acid in furnace are high.
 HFO is heavy fuel oil also known as bunker crude oil and furnace oil and it is economical.
 While using HFO coils cleaning is often required but in case of gas it is opposite.
 Vacuum set point for pumps is 100mbar.
 No of candles at pre-polymer filter are 27 with filter size 20microns and 19 candles ate
polymer filter with filter size 25 microns.
 DEG is produced by combining two EG it should be less than 1% in final product . But upto some
extent it also enhances durability of product.
 TEG dissolves PET in it. It is imported for cleaning purposes.
 Consumption of TEG for pre-polymer and polymer 2kg
of TEG/kg of pre-polymer
8kg of TEG/kg of polymer.

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REACTION

ESTERIFICATION REACTION

n PTA + 2n EG → n BHET + 2n H2O

(104.7) (166.14) (209.4) (62.07) (104.7) (254.24) (209.4) (18)

[17394.66] [12997.46] [26618.9] [3769.2]

POLYCONDENSATION

n BHET → n PET + (n-1) EG

(104.7) (254.2) (20120.2) (103.7) (62.07)

PTA = (17394.86 / 20120.2) * 1000 = 861.8 Kg/s

MEG = (12997.46 / 20182.27) * 1000 = 644.0 Kg/s

H2O produced = (3769.2 / 20182.27) * 1000 = 186.75 Kg/s EG

removed = (6436.66 / 20182.27)* 1000 = 318.93 Kg/s

REACTANTS

PTA 166.44 17394.858

EG 124.14 12997.458

PRODUCTS

PET 192.17 20120.199

H2O 36 3769.2

EG 62.07 6436.659

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PER 1 TON PET with n PER 1 TON without n

PTA 864.5470157 kg/ton PTA 864.5470157 kg/ton

MEG 326.0802242 kg/ton MEG 322.9952646 kg/ton

H2O 187.3341312 kg/ton H2O 187.3341312 kg/ton

PTA + MEG 1190.62724 kg/ton PTA + ME 1187.54228 kg/ton

DIFF 1003.293109 ton DIFF 1000.208149 tons

Pet ton of PET Production

PTA = 861.6806 kgs

EG = 644.0038 kgs

H2O produced = 186.7580 kgs

MEG required = 644.0 – 318.93 = 325.07 kgs

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UTILITY SECTION
This section consists of following equipment.
 Chiller
 Boiler
 Compressor
 Nitrogen Generation
 Cooling Towers
 Water Treatment

CHILLER
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration
cycle. They are used where temperature need to be at 25ᵒC. In Ibrahim Fibers Limited, Polyester plant
have 11 chillers at the utility section. These include both types of chillers. Chillers are used to cool the
water. The chilled water circulates in the plant through a closed loop. It has four primary components:

1. Compressor
2. Compressor drive
3. Evaporator
4. Condenser

TYPES OF CHILLER

On the basis of types of compressor

Steam Absorption
Electric Chiller
Chiller

ELECTRIC CHILLER
In IFL we have 5 electric chillers i.e. 3 at IFL-1 and then 1 each at IFL-2 and IFL-3. Electric Chiller follows
exactly the refrigeration cycle in thermodynamics.

The compressor drive or pump is used to suck refrigerant vapors from evaporator to discharge it into
compressor. The compressor receives the refrigerant vapors from pump and compresses it down to
achieve high pressure. The vapors are then forwarded to condenser. The condenser acts as a shell and
tube heat exchanger and exchange of heat occurs between WC and refrigerant vapors causing vapors to
condense to a liquid form.

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High pressure condensed refrigerant is atomized resulting in evaporation due to very low boiling
temperature ultimately creating cooling effect. The condensate is prayed on the tubes carrying WCC. The
chilled water exchanges heat and leaves the chiller at 6-7˚C. The cycle goes on and the vapors are sucked
again by the pump.

Specs of these chillers are

TYPE CENTRIFUGAL WATER COOLED

COMPANY TRANE, USA
CAPACITY 575, 1000,1100 tons/hr
REFRIGERANT R-134
WC IN TEMPERATURE 30˚C
WC OUT TEMPERATURE 35˚C
WCC IN TEMPERATURE 11-12˚C
WCC OUT TEMPERATURE 6˚C

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

STEAM ABSORPTION CHILLER

The absorption cycle uses a heat-driven concentration difference to move refrigerant vapors (usually
water) from the evaporator to the condenser. The high concentration side of the cycle absorbs
refrigerant vapors (which, of course, dilute that material). Heat is then used to drive off

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these refrigerant vapors thereby increasing the concentration again. The steam absorption chiller can be
of multistage, commonly found chillers are:

 Single Effect (Stage) Units

 Double Effect (2-Stage) Units

In IFL we have total 6 steam absorption chillers which include 3 at IFL-2 and further 3 at IFL-3. Steam
absorption follows the refrigeration cycle with the addition of few things. By being double stage chiller it is
30 % more efficient in providing cooling effect.

In High Temperature Generator the 6bar steam is running in the tubes causing the dilute Lithium Bromide
solution to vaporize the water and become a saturated solution. The vaporized vapors are passed to Low
Temperature Generator. In LTG the water vapors from Heat Temperature Generator cause further
evaporation from the LiBr solution present already. The vapors altogether go right to the condenser. The
condenser is responsible for exchanging heat between WC and water vapors from generator. The WC
carries away the heat of water vapors eventually causing the vapors to liquefy. The condensed water
vapors are then sprayed over the tubes carrying WCC. The water vapors are passed through atomizer
which causes evaporation which in turn provides the cooling effect in this area. Water is chilled in here
and the vapors are then attracted by the absorber. Here water serves as the refrigerant. Absorber
contains the rejected saturated LiBr solution from HTG and LTG. LiBr being hygroscopic attracts away the
water vapors from evaporator and becomes diluted again. This cycle goes on like this. It is a closed loop
cycle i.e. refrigerant doesn’t leave the system.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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Specs of these chillers are

TYPE CENTRIFUGAL WATER COOLED

COMPANY TRANE
REFRIGERANT LiBr SOLUTION
CAPACITY 550 refrigerant tons/hr
WC IN TEMPERATURE 30˚C
WC OUT TEMPERTURE 35˚C
WCC IN TEMPERATURE 11-12˚C
WCC OUT TEMPERATURE 6˚C

FACTOR IMPORTANT FOR CHILLER SELECTION

Some important factors for chiller selection are

 First Cost
 Operation Cost
 Maintenance Cost
 Life Cycle Cost

LOOPS OF CHILLER

 Refrigerant loop
 Chilled water loop
 Cooling loop
 Oil loop

BOILER
Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or produce steam, which can then be used to provide
water heating. The heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired burner. The basic consumption of
steam is in

 The fiber draw line

 Heavy furnace oil
 Polymerization section.

The key boiler components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber, heat
exchanger, and controls.

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The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels. In IFL two sources are used:

1. Natural gas (mostly used)

2. Furnace oil (stand by)

The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition device, provides a
platform for combustion. Combustion takes place in the combustion chamber and heat is generated.
Generated heat is transferred to the water through the heat exchanger. Controls regulate the ignition,
burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply, exhaust draft, water temperature, steam pressure, and boiler
pressure. A deaerator is used to reduce oxygen (O2) and carbonic acid (CO2) levels in boiler feed water
to protect a boiler against corrosion. It is possible to reduce oxygen and carbonic acid levels to about <
0.02 mg/l of O2 and 0 mg/l of CO2, depending on deaerator construction. Condenser ensures that all
steam is condensed before being pumped back into the deaerator and on into the boiler. Damper makes
the mixture of air and fuel i.e. to set the air to fuel ratio. Economizer is a heat exchanger that is placed in
the exhaust from a boiler.

The steam condensate (70%) returning from the plant comes to the condensate vessel (VO2), after that
condensed steam is sent to the vessel (VO3) where tw o condensers are used to condense the steam of
VO1, VO2 and VO3. Then by using low pressure pumps (PO4, PO5) condensate is sent to the boiler feed
water tank where a deaerator is also attached to remove the air from the steam condensate. In this vessel
chemicals are added to condensate.

1. Hydrazine - for removal of free oxygen

2. Phosphate – anti corrosion agent

After the feed water tank the condensate is pumped by boiler feed pumps (PO1, PO2 and PO3) to the
boiler. The condensate along with 30% de-mineralized water enter the boiler on the shell side and
converts to the vapors form by heat transfer from the fire entering from the tube side. The level of water
in Boiler is 2/3 of total volume of boiler. The steam from the boiler then enters the super- heater at 25- bar
pressure and the steam from the super-heater exits at about 250°C. The steam at 25 bar pressure is then
divided in to 3 different pressures by steam header; 1. 25-bar 2. 10-bar 3. 6- bar.

TYPES OF BOILER
Boilers are classified into different types based on their working pressure and temperature, fuel type,
size and capacity, and whether they condense the water vapor in the combustion gases.

Boilers used in IFL are basically two types

Fire Tube

Boilers

Boilers

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FIRE TUBE BOILERS WATER TUBE BOILERS

Fire tube boilers consist of a series of straight Water tube boilers are designed to circulate hot
tubes that are housed inside a water filled outer combustion gases around the outside of a large
shell. number of water filled tubes
The tubes are arranged so that hot combustion The tubes extend between an upper header, called
gases flow through the tubes a steam drum, and one or lower headers or drums.

As the hot gases flow through the tubes, they Because the pressure is confined inside the
heat the water surrounding the tubes. The tubes, water tube boilers can be fabricated in
water is confined by the outer shell of boiler larger sizes and used for higher-pressure
applications.
To avoid the need for a thick outer shell fire Boilers used in to recover waste heat in Gas turbine
tube boilers are used for lower pressure are water tube boilers.
applications. Boiler house consist of these
boilers

Specs of boilers in IFL are:

Capacities of Boiler

TYPE QUANTITY CAPACITY

Fire tube boiler 2 10 ton/hr
Fire tube boiler 3 14 ton/hr
Water tube boiler 1 25 ton/hr

Capacities of Pumps

PUMPS CAPACITIES
Boiler feed water pumps PO1, PO2, PO3=18.40 m3/hr
Condensate pumps PO4, PO5=36 m3/hr
Condensate transfer pumps PO6, PO7=36 m3/hr
Oil circulation pumps P21, P22=84.8 lit/min

Capacities of Vessels

Vessels Capacities Temperature Pressure

VO1 2800 L 120°C 1.0 bar
VO2 5909 L 120°C 1.0 bar
VO3 1600 L 120°C 0.5 bar

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Equipment Interlocks

Super Heater Temperature TAH 285Oc

Natural gas pressure PAL 100mbar, PAH: 350mbar
Oil Temperature TAH 160oC, TAL: 80 oC Water Level Low LAH: 12%,
LAL: 90%

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

NITROGEN GENERATION
N2
Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. At room temperature, it is a gas of
diatomic molecules and is colorless and odorless. Nitrogen is a common element in the universe,
estimated at about seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the Solar System. On Earth, the element
is primarily found as the gas molecule; it forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere. Commercial nitrogen is
often a byproduct of air-processing for industrial

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concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. Most importantly nitrogen is inert gas and it
is used for PTA handling in IFL because it PTA is explosive and nitrogen is not combustible. We use nitrogen
instead of air because air contains oxygen which is combustible.

TYPES OF NITROGEN

PURE NITROGEN TECHNICAL NITROGEN

Nitrogen grade which contains less than 10 ppm Nitrogen grade which contains less than 3%
oxygen concentration is called Pure Nitrogen. oxygen. This grade is obtained, immediately, after
Pure nitrogen has limited applications in polyester the molecular sieves. Technical nitrogen is used
plant. It is used in most critical places, such as to fluidize PTA for transferring it from one place
reactors, which require inert atmosphere and to another. It is also used in some level indicating
proper nitrogen blanketing. instruments and to transport materials by
exerting a specific head.

PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION

In Ibrahim Fibers Limited, nitrogen is separated from air by using Pressure Swing Adsorption technique.
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a technology used to separate some gas species from a mixture of
gases under pressure according to the species' molecular characteristics and affinity for an adsorbent
material. It operates at near-ambient temperatures and differs significantly from cryogenic distillation
techniques of gas separation. Specific adsorptive materials (e.g., zeolites, activated carbon, molecular
sieves, etc.) are used as a trap, preferentially adsorbing the target gas species at high pressure. The
process then swings to low pressure to desorb the adsorbed material.

Pressure swing adsorption processes rely on the fact that under high pressure, gases tend to be
attracted to solid surfaces, or "adsorbed". The higher the pressure, the more gas is adsorbed; when the
pressure is reduced, the gas is released, or desorbed. PSA processes can be used to separate gases in a
mixture because different gases tend to be attracted to different solid surfaces more or less strongly. If a
gas mixture such as air, for example, is passed under pressure through a vessel containing an adsorbent
bed of zeolite
that attracts oxygen more strongly than it
does nitrogen, part or all of the oxygen
will stay in the bed, and the gas coming
out of the vessel will be enriched in
nitrogen. When the bed reaches the end
of its capacity to adsorb oxygen, it can be
regenerated by reducing the pressure,
thereby releasing the adsorbed oxygen. It
is then ready for another cycle of
producing nitrogen enriched air. Using
two adsorbent vessels allows near-
continuous production of the target gas.
It also permits so-called pressure

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equalization, where the gas leaving the vessel being depressurized is used to partially pressurize the
second vessel. This results in significant energy savings, and is common industrial practice.

The process starts with the compression of air (till 8 bar) in double-stage rotary screw type PD
compressors. Compressed air has a temperature of 33-34oC. It passes through dryers which use chilling
effect, thus lowering the temperature to point where moisture disengages from the gas. Now, air
temperature is reduced to 20oC and it is stored in storage vessels (4300-VO1, VO2). Air from storage
vessels enter into a buffer vessel (4300-VO1). The function of this buffer vessel is to absorb sudden
pressure surges. From 4300-VO1, air enters into a vessel which contains carbon molecular sieves. Air enters
at high pressure. Oxygen gas is entrapped into the carbon molecular sieves due to its small molecular size
while air, containing less than 2% Oxygen at 6.7 bar, exits through the vessels. This stream is called
Technical nitrogen and it is stored in a vessel. Pure nitrogen is produced by passing technical nitrogen
stream through a reactor (4300-RO1) which contains Palladium catalyst. Reactor is fed with controlled
amount of hydrogen to reduce oxygen gas to water. Exothermic reaction occurs and a temperature of
185oC is produced. Outlet stream is cooled by enhancing the heat transfer area and through water. The
gas passes through a desiccant chamber with absorbs moisture from the stream. Now, pure nitrogen
stream is available for storage and use.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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Capacity of Nitrogen generation in IFL are

IFL 1,2 185 Nm3/hr

IFL 3 200 Nm3/hr

COOLING TOWERS
The equipment which are used to cool water based on the difference between wet-bulb and dry- bulb
temperature of air.

In Ibrahim fibers Limited, cooling towers are used to cool process water and ch iller water. Process water is
used in the main plant for different cooling purposes. Process water inlet temperature to cooling towers is
about ~42oC and cooled process water exits at ~30oC. Cooling water for chillers is supplied to the cooling
towers at 39oC and exits at 34oC. High capacity centrifugal pumps are used to transport water from water
sump to different locations.

Blow down time depends on the conductivity and pH of sump water. Cooling water is injected with
biocides, anti-corrosion agents etc. to protect the cooling towers from fungal and corrosion attack.
Corrosion inhibitors, such as sodium or zinc based are added in the water to reduce corrosion in the
piping. The zinc reacts with access oxygen and a superficial layer of oxide is developed which prohibits
rusting and corrosion.

TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS

On the basis
of draft
On the basis
of application
Mechanical
Natural Draft
Draft

Induced Process Water Chiller Water

Draft Cooling Tower Cooling tower

Forced Draft

NATURAL DRAFT
Natural draft cooling towers are of very large size and used for water circulation rates above 45,000 m3/hr
(used for normal power plants where condenser water requirement s are high).

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MECHANICAL DRAFT
Mechanical draft cooling towers are further classified into following types

1. Forced draft cooling towers

2. Induced draft cooling towers

Forced draft cooling towers employ fan at the bottom of cooling tower to direct the flow of air through
the cooling tower.

Induced draft cooling towers have a fan at their top which sucks the air through the cooling tower and
directs it in the upward direction.

PARTS OF COOLING TOWER

1. Frame and casing
2. Fill
3. Cold water basin
4. Drift eliminator
5. Air inlet
6. Louvers
7. Nozzles and fans

Specs of cooling tower are

PROCESS WATER COOLING TOWERS

IFL-1 PROCESS WATER COOLING TOWER 3
IFL-2 PROCESS WATER COOLING TOWER 1
IFL-3 PROCESS WATER COOLING TOWER 3
COOLING WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURE 34ᵒC
COOLING WATER RETURN TEMPERATURE 42ᵒC

CHILLER WATER COOLING TOWERS

IFL-1 CHILLER WATER COOLING TOWER 3
IFL-2 CHILLER WATER COOLING TOWER 1
IFL-3 CHILLER WATER COOLING TOWER 3
COOLING WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURE 34ᵒC
COOLING WATER RETURN TEMPERATURE 40ᵒC

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WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment plant is responsible for the generation of the required water. We need three type of
water at IFL Plants

 Soft Water
 Demineralized Water
 Drinking water

Raw water from the source is pumped by centrifugal pumps to Multilayer Filter. In Multilayer Filters we
remove maximum suspended impurities. The capacity of Multilayer Filter is 4.5 m3/hr. Water just after the
Multilayer Filter is dozed by HCl.

HCl maintains a pH of 6.5 in the filtrate. After this the acidic water is filtered in Bucket Filters. The Purpose
of HCl dozing is to convert CaCO3 into CaCl2. Calcium chloride has large particle size than the mesh no of
Permeable Membrane of RO Section. The reaction that takes place at RO is given below:

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2+ CO2+H2O

RO plants reduce the conductivity of raw water from 3000 uS/cm to 65 uS/cm, which is our soft water.
The Rejected water of the first RO assemblies is then passed to the next RO plants for further generation
of soft water.

After these plants the rejected water whose conductance is 9000 uS/cm is rejected as drain. Capacity of
Raw Water is 180 m3 and 120 m3 is soft water and 60 m3 is rejected water. After this soft water is
transferred to degasser to remove CO2 from soft water. The removal of soft water is necessary as it is an
acidic gas that will cause corrosion.

Soft water from the storage vessel is then utilized for different purposes at the plant site. The main use
of soft water is in the DM Section. In DM Section maximum amount of Ions are removed by Cationic and
Anionic Ion Exchange. The main Reaction taking place at this is given by

C𝑎+2 + 2R-SO3H Ca(R-SO3)2 + 2𝐻 +

M𝑔+2 + 2R-SO3H Mg(R-SO3)2 + 2𝐻 +

In Order to regenerate the Resins, We dozed 5% by Volume HCl and NaOH in the DM-Section that
regenerates the Resins as given below

Ca(R-SO3)2 + 2HCl 2R-SO3H + CaCl2

Mg(R-SO3)2 + 2HCl 2R-SO3H + MgCl2

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

COMPRESSORS
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air
compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. In IFL, we need to fluidize nitrogen with then help air.
That air is obtained from compressors.

Maximum dust free air is required to avoid choking and get better quality. Blowers are installed to get
max air and two filters (pre-filter and air filter) at suction to make air pure. Focusing on the quality of air
two major factors should be under consideration. Air should be

 Dust free
 Moisture free

As ambient air contains moisture in every situation we need to remove it during compressing. In this
process, air first enters in to the suction filers after that it moves toward LP (low pressure) stage or stage-1
W here compression occurs and temperature, pressure rises up to 180ᵒC and 2.5 bar respectively. By the
fact that more the density of material more will be the specific heat, gases get warms and cools faster
than liquid which increases ∆T. To maintain temperature of compressed air we pass it through inter
coolers. These coolers are of shell and tube type. Shell contains air (70ᵒC) and tube side contain cooling
water (27ᵒC). In coolers heat exchange occurs resulting condensation due to moist in air. After heating in
cooler air temperature moves down ~50ᵒC and water temperature rises upto 40ᵒC.

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After inter-coolers air move towards HP (high pressure) stage or stage-2 where moisture traps are
installed at the bottom and they operate electrically. When traps get fill then they are drained.
Pressure here is ~9-9.2bar and temperature ~200ᵒC. We need to cool down this hot air again in after
coolers which have more capacity than inter coolers. Moisture traps are also installed in it. Temperature
here is about 140ᵒC. Air then goes through check valve to refrigerant air driers where due point achieved
is up to 4. It then goes to storage vessel or buffer vessels. These vertical expansion vessels generate
vacuum causing condensation of remaining moist and moisture traps then removes it. The line from the
center of the tank moves air to the process for use. These compressors are oil free compressors, oil is
used for lubricating purposes which after using goes to sumps and oil coolers are installed to maintain its
temperature.

Specs of compressors are

NO. OF COMPRESSORS 8
COMPANY ALTAS COPCO
TYPE POSTIVE DISPLACEMENT SCREW TYPE
NO OF STAGES 2
DRYERS 1
LOADING/UNLOADING VALVE 3(variable speed)
CAPACITY 1399 𝑚 3 /ℎ𝑟

SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM

INTER
AIR FILTERS LP SATGE

CHECK
HP STAGE
AIR DRIER VALVE COOLERS

BUFFER
VESSEL

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PARTS OF COMPRESSING SECTION

1. Pre-filter
2. Suction filter
3. Inter cooler
4. After cooler
5. Loading/unloading

LOOPS

3 Loops are under operation.

1. AIR LOOP
2. OIL LOOP
3. WC LOOP

AIR LOOP

OIL LOOP
OIL OIL
SUMP PUMP

OIL OIL
COOLER FILTER

STAGE -2

SUMP

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WC LOOP

AFTER OIL INTER

WC IN
COOLER COOLER COOLER

BLEED OFF
STAGE-2 STAGE -2 OUTLET
COOLER

GAS TURBINE
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous combustion, internal combustion
engine. There are three main components

1. An upstream rotating gas compressor;

2. A downstream turbine on the same shaft;
3. A combustion chamber or area, called a combustor, in between 1 and 2 above.

In IFL only one gas turbine having capacity of 15MW is installed. Plan was to install 3 gas turbines in PG-2
but due to gas economic issues we invested in coal plant. In GT waste heat is recovered by boilers having
capacity of 2500 tons.

OPERATION OF PG-2
Three major operations of PG-2 are

 Generation
 Distribution
 Transmission

11KVa energy is generated by feeders which are attached in bus bars. Bus bar is energized to distribute
energy through XLP cables to sub-panels according to requirement. 200V and 400V are used at plant site
for operation so, we need to step down volts by step down transformers installed at every plant.

NGR (neutral ground resistance) are used to ground the excess power due to static energy or other jerks
produced in bus bar. Basically we need to control two factors while dealing energy,

1. Frequency
2. Voltage

Normal frequency range of turbine is 50Hz and it can fluctuate between 50.2Hz to 49.5Hz.Voltage range
should be in between over voltage and under voltage, at these two set points the system will stop.

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Distribution panels are of two types HT panels and LT panels to transfer two types of power.

 HOT LINE
 COLD LINE

HOT LINE is for critical load as continuous plants i.e Polyester plant and COLD LINE for uncritical load as
batch plant i.e. draw lines etc.

Some panels are designed for auto-load shedding. In case of frequency fluctuations cold line feeders are
stopped first.

GAS DISTRIBUTION
Gas is taken from SNGPL of 2.bar pressure whose pressure is to be boosted up by compressors up to 24bar
for turbine.

Types of gas distribution

 Captive
 Industrial
 Domestic

ENERGY CONVERSION CHART

THERMAL MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL

ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Combustion occurs in turbine. Gas of 24bar pressure is taken from compressors as fuel. Atmospheric air
is used which is treated before going for combustion. Its pressure is increased by air compressors
installed in turbine house. Temperature of air maintained by coolers to increase the efficiency of
turbine. Turbine efficiency is about 80%.

AIR TREATMENT PROCESS

ATMOSPHERIC ROLLOMATIC

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Combustion is done give thermal energy to shaft which will convert into mechanical energy by rotating the
shaft. Shaft rotates at 11200 rpm and generator requires 1500 rpm to reduce rpm gear box is installed and
to keep it working efficiently oil pumps are used which are working on cycle. After lubricating oil goes back
to sump having capacity of 4000L.

Shaft is connected to generator at the end to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generator
gives power by rotating shaft around winding of generator which will produce magnetic flux. Excitation
current cuts off magnetic flux producing electrical energy which is then transmitted to bus bar.

Specs of turbine are

CAPACITY 15MW
BOILER CAPACITY 2500 ton
FREQUENCY 50Hz
SHAFT BLADES 3
RPM OF TURBINE 11200
RPM OF GENERATOR 1500
EFFECIENCY OF TURBINE 80%

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

Exhaust gases from turbine at 500ᵒC flows through duct to waste heat recovery section. The high
temperature flue gases are used to produce steam. There are two options to treat gases in this section.

1. Send it to stack before boiler.

2. Produce steam from boiler and then send it to stack.

Sending high temperature gases to stack is waste of high energy. Which is not economical.

BOILER PARTS
1. Economizer
2. Drum
3. Super heater
4. Evaporator

There are two drums upper and lower which are also known as steam drum and mud drum respectively.
Gases pass through tubes in between these two drum after that tubes from lower drum pass gases to
evaporator where heat exchanging process occurs. It then moves to stack at temperature 160ᵒC.

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BOILER LOOPS

GAS LOOP

SUPER
EVAPORATOR DRUM ECONOMIZER
HEATER

WATER LOOP

DRUM EVAPORATOR
(200ᵒC)

SPINNING/QUENCHING SECTION
SPINNING
Spinning is the twisting together of drawn-out strands of fibers to form yarn, and is a major part of the
textile industry. The yarn is then used to create textiles, which are then used to
make clothing and many other products.

In IFL-1 spinning section total capacity is 190 tons. It has two lines each having capacity of 98 and 92 tons.
Each making semi dull product currently. Melt coming from DRR it goes to heat exchanger where the melt
is heated upto 290ᵒC by dowtherm in the jacket because if the temperature is low there will be no
filaments. 2kg melt received then goes to the manifold area where gear pumps are used to suck and pump
melt at 36bar pressure. Two lines are divided into sub-lines further dividing 30 positions. Afterwards it
goes to chamber having spin pack, ring filters, supply filters. Spin packs are heated firstly in pre-heater to
310ᵒC then they are used in chamber. Fibers are formed in this section after words fibers go to quenching
section.

MAIN PARTS OF SPINNING SECTION

Some of the main parts of spinning section are

 Heat exchanger
 Spin pumps
 Spin pack

HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat Exchanger is at the 13M of IFL-1. It helps to attain the temperature of PET at 288 C. The HTM used in
the Heat Exchanger is Sanotherm. The line of PET is provided a continuous jacket of

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Dowtherm to maintain the temperature and specific flow rate. The Complex arrangement of lines of PET
is for the generation of homogeneity mixture under some static mixers.

SPIN PUMPS
IFL-1 has two lines of spin pumps. Each line contains 30 pumps called as positions. There are 5 assemblies
of 6 positions. Each spin pump is provided a feed at 288ᵒC and at 70 bars pressure. Each pump is screw
type and has a throughput 2268 g/min.

SPIN PACK

Spin Pack has two types on the basis of number of holes at IFL.

1. 3750 Holes (Circular)

2. 2250 Holes (Tridobal)

Filaments from the spin pack is drawn in a 50mm draw section. The spin pack is changed after 48 days for
semi dull product and after 38 days for circular bright. After this we regenerate the spin pack in auxiliary
workshop. So in the first step, spin pack is removed out from specified spinning position with the help of
pack manipulator. Then it is brought to auxiliary workshop by a trolley.

QUENCHING
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece in water, oil or air to obtain certain material
properties.

MAJOR COMPONENTS IN QUENCHING

 Quench air
 Discharge air
 Spin wall

QUENCH AIR
Air coming from A/C Section is at 21 C and 85% Humid, known as Quench Air. This air is provided through
the air filter just after the spinet. Air is provided to the filers in axial direction and filter supply that air to
the filaments in radial direction, to avoid fusing of filaments. The flow rate of air is equal in all directions
to cancel the opposite forces. The flow rate of this air is 1150 m3/hr. The purpose of humidification is to
enhance the rate of heat transfer as the specific heat of water is greater than that of air.

DISCHARGE AIR
Air from each position is discharged at the base through a suction line that leads the air at Scrubber. The
temperature of this air is 60 C and flow rate is 1100 m3/hr. This air is processed in

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scrubber where water is showered on air that contaminate the monomers and environment friendly air is
discharged into the atmosphere.

SPIN WALL

Spin wall has following equipment

 SLOB CATCHER
Slob Catcher catches the thread coming out from the spinet.

 THREAD OILER
Thread Oiler sprays the Spin Finish Oil on the threads coming from Slob Catcher. The function of SF Oil is
to reduce the static charge and enhance the cohesive properties.

 V-GUIDE
There is a V shaped guide that collects the filaments from the thread oiler. The purpose of this is to create
single tow of many filaments.

 SUCTION NOZZLE
Suction nozzle is there to facilitate the cutter. It sucks the filaments near the effective part of cutter.

 CUTTER
After closing the filaments to the cutter with the help of suction nozzle. Cutter cuts the filaments.

 DRIP EJECTOR
Drip ejector consist of two slides. These slides have a defined path for the filaments between them. If a
drip gets into it, it doesn’t allow the drip to pass. So at the end filament gets break.

 DEFLECTING ROLLERS
Deflecting Rollers deflect the filaments towards Dia Blow Rollers.

 FINGER GUIDER
Finger Guider has two functions at the Spin Wall.

1. It guides the filaments towards the Dia Blow Roller.

2. It facilitates the cutter to add the filaments into the sub tow during wiping.

 DIA BLOW ROLLER

There are 6 Dia Blow Rollers that provide tension in the whole line. The Dia Blow Rollers has a difference
of 0.25mm in their diameter. These Rollers have wrap detectors that detects the wrapping of filaments
across the rollers.

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 GODET ROLLER
Godet Roller provide feed to the sunflower rollers.

 SUNFLOWER ROLLERS

Sunflower Rollers grips the sub tow and put it into the cans in the form of UDY (Undrawn Yarn) . SCHEMATIC

FLOW DIAGRAM

POLYMER FIBER SLOB

QUENCH AIR RING OILER
MELT FORMATION CATCHER

DRIP SUCTION THREAD

DETECTOR V-GUIDER
CUTTER NOZZLE OILER

DEFLECTIVE FINGER DIA BLOW GODET SUN FLOWER

NOZZLE GUIDER ROLLER ROLLER ROLLER

FIBER LINES SUB TOW

PRODUCT
Two types of fibers are produced here

1. Semi dull
2. Bright

Semi dull is divided into two forms 1.2 and 1.4 denier having filament cut length of 32mm, 38mm, 51mm.

Bright is of two types circular and tridobal bright. Circular bright is 1.2 denier having cut length of 32mm,
38mm, 51mm.

Tridobal is 2 denier have cut length 38mm, 51mm.

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FIBER LINES
Fiber lines includes following parts

 Creel area
 Finger guider and guiding roller
 Dipping bath
 Draw frame-1
 Draw bath
 Draw frame-2
 Steam box
 Draw frame-3
 Thermosetting unit
 Tow cooler
 Draw frame-4
 Tow converter and three roller frame
 Tension roller
 Pre-steam chamber
 Crimper unit
 Traversing unit
 Tow drier
 Fiber cutter unit
 Baler

CREEL AREA
The fiber line starts from the Creel Area till Cutter and Bailer. UDY cans are placed in the creel area.
Placement of the number of cans depend on the number of working positions at spinning line. Number of
working spin pack positions and number of cans placed in the creel area are defined by over plant capacity;
the capacity to process a certain band of denier, for IFL-1 its value is
~3.2 MD (Mega Denier). Mega Denier is defined by the width of crimper unit which, in fact, defines
the whole capacity of a particular draw line. For IFL-1, the width of crimper unit for both the lines (71, 73)
is 350 mm.

UDY from cans passes through tension adjustment equipment in the creel area. UDY or sub-tow passes
through following equipment during its journey:

1. Horn Guides
2. H-Guides
3. Knot Detector
4. Loose end detector (uses photovoltaic detectors)
5. Ring guides

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FINGER GUIDER AND GUIDING ROLLER

UDY enters into the fiber line draw zone after passing through finger guides which guide the sub- tow
towards the rollers in the later stages. Tow guiding frame-1 (YO1) consists of seven rollers which adjusts
the tension of sub-tow and make it uniform for each filament of UDY. It is basically a 3-4 arrangement of
rollers. Rollers are driven by a variable speed motor which adjusts its revolutions according to the drawing
speed.

DIPPING BATH

Tow guiding rollers guide the tow towards the dipping bath which contains SF Oil at 0.3% concentration at
25oC. The purpose of dipping bath is to homogenize moisture content, temperature and oil content of
Tow. SF Oil temperature is maintained with the help of chilled water which exchanges heat in a plate and
frame type (counter-flow) heat exchanger. The purpose of SF Oil is to lubricate the tow to avoid
entanglement, slippage and development of static charges due to resistance through multiple surfaces.

DRAW FRAME-1
UDY laboratory tests confirm an average elongation capacity of each filament as 470% at ~1.2 g/d
tenacity. Thus, initial drawing starts at draw frame 1 W hich also consists of a set of 7 rollers of equal
diameter and revolving at a uniform speed. Very first roller of Draw Frame-1 is in contact with a
scavenging roller which drips off excess SF Oil from the tow.

DRAW BATH
UDY laboratory tests confirm an average elongation capacity of each filament as 470% at ~1.2 g/d
tenacity. Thus, initial drawing starts at draw frame 1 W hich also consists of a set of 7 rollers of equal
diameter and revolving at a uniform speed. Very first roller of Draw Frame-1 is in contact with a
scavenging roller which drips off excess SF Oil from the tow.

EFFECT OF GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE ON DRAWING

Below the glass transition temperature, polymer chains are rigid; after reaching the glass transition
temperature, the chains become more flexible and are able to unfold under stress. If the temperature is
above Tg and stretching is carried out, the randomly coiled and entangled chains begin to disentangle,
unfold, and straighten and some of them even slide over their nearest neighbor chains.

DRAW FRAME-2
Here, maximum drawing of TOW takes place which is around 85% of the desired elongation to meet
quality standards. Draw Frame-II rollers (7 in number in 3-4 arrangement) roll at high speed to produce
elongation up to the standards. Each Roller is supplied with a constant supply of 3 barg steam to maintain
a desired amount of temperature. Each draw frame roller is provided with wrap detectors which detect
the wrapping of tow and immediately trip the line. A slipping factor of 6-7% is exists during tow drawing in
draw frame-II. Temperature is maintained with the help of soft water which is circulated inside individual
rollers at a temperature of 80oC.

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STEAM BOX
Steam box is an intermediate equipment between YO7 and YO9. It uses 3 barg steam to increase the
temperature of process tow to 160oC. The function of steam box is to soften the tow for further
stretching.

DRAW FRAME-3
It is the final stage of drawing process where final elongation of fiber takes place which is around 15-20%
of the total elongation. YO9 rollers speed is different from the remaining set of rollers of previous draw
frames. Steam is supplied at 10 bar pressure to the lines of YO9 which use PCVs to reduce the pressure
upto 4.7 bar to achieve a specific amount of temperature. Each roller is supplied with an individual
steam line to achieve a temperature of ~160oC. These rollers are also provided with wrap detectors. YO9
is also called master draw frame because the overall speed of fiber line is interlocked with the speed of
YO9. Speed of YO9 is also called line speed because any change in its speed will affect the whole fiber
line.

THERMOSETTING UNIT
Here the setting of all the thermal properties of polyester is carried out. Y10 has 12 rollers which revolve
at variable speeds. There are actually three sets of rollers, four in each set. Y10 is provided with 25 barg
steam while pressure adjustment is carried out in each set of rollers to achieve a specific temperature
range to achieve thermosetting of properties.

ROLLER TEMPERATURE
1ST SET 190ᵒC
2ND SET 191ᵒC
3RD SET 204ᵒC

Setting of following properties

1. Tensile strength
2. Denier
3. Shrinkage
4. Elongation

It is actually a thermal treatment process which does not infer any further elongation in the fiber but
maintains a high temperature and provides large surface area for the properties to set.

TOW COOLER
It is a rapid cooling system which decreases the temperature from 205oC to 70oC with the help of SF Oil
which is showered at 50oC. Cooling results in the fixation of polymer structure which had been set in the
thermosetting unit. Spin finish oil is sprinkled by 12 nozzles arranged at a 30 angle having 6 nozzles on
both sides.

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DRAW FRAME-4
The function of Y12 is to prevent shrinkages in tow. The frame has different arrangement of rollers, i-e 4-3
(four rollers at top and three rollers at the bottom). Unique roller arrangement facilitates tow converging
and easy band formation.

TOW CONVERTER AND THREE ROLLER FRAME

This unit overlaps the three tows used in the drawing & forms a single tow whose width is comparable to
the width of the crimper intake.

TENSION ROLLER
The unit maintains the tension of the roller & again sent to the steam unit to gain the cotton like
property.

PRE-STEAM CHAMBER
This equipment finds its place before the crimper unit. It uses steam at 3 barg pressure to heat tow band.
If heating is not done then the crimpers will not form permanently. Heating the tow will result in the
formation of stable crimps.

CRIMPER UNIT
Now tow is crossed through the crimper unit. This unit induces crimps on the fiber at a rate of 13 crimps
per inch. The crimps are made for necessary fiber flexibility & cohesion with the natural fiber. Width of
crimping section is 350mm.

Crimper thumb rule = 9350 denier/mm

Crimper width = 350 mm = 3.2 MD

TRAVERSING UNIT
The tow leaves via traversing unit where spin finish oil is sprayed on the crimp tow depending on the
type of product. The traversing chute spreads the tow on the tow drier plate.

TOW DRIER
In this section the tow is dried & cooled. 10-bar steam is supplied for the heating zone. After being dried
the tow is transported to the cutter vertically to free roller. Tow band temperature is reduced to ~52oC,
drying takes place in four sections.

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

BALER

BALER AND CUTTER

FIBER CUTTER UNIT
After braking rollers tow has already attained much tension and it is passed to the cutter. The cutter is a
circular ring having blades of different sizes on edges. The tow is passed through the pressure plate which
presses the tow to wind around the cutter ring. Due to winding the pressure on the inside increases and
makes the tow cut down according to the blade size. Once the tow has been cut it passes down to the
baler section.

BALER
Baler has different parts actively playing their roles in making bales. The average weight of a bale is 300kg.
Parts of baler are described orderly

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 PRE-BIN
As tow is cut down, the fiber will fall down on plate that is called pre-bin. This will be opened when plate
below it will be closed.

 WEIGH-BIN
The fiber falls on the weigh bin. Weigh bin weighs the fiber up to 50 kg and discharges by opening up.
Similarly total six batches will be discharged to make a single bale.

 PUSHER
The pusher pushes away the 50 kg fiber under the pre-press ram.

 PRE-PRESS RAM
It is a hydraulic press and it presses the single charge at 60 bar. In the same way it presses six
charges into the revolving unit.

 REVOLVING UNIT
The revolving unit consists of two rectangular shaped molds. At a time one mold is being charged by
pre-press ram while the other mold is made ready by putting packing sheets on it. Once the charging is
over, it revolves and comes under the main press and the other mold will go under the pre-press for
charging.

 MAIN PRESS RAM

Main press applies pressure of 110 bar to the charged 300kg fiber in mold. The mold is removed and takes
a shape of bale.

 PACKING
Packing is done manually. It’s a man work. The operators pack the bale by joining the packing sheets on
up and below the bale. The packing sheet is polypropylene. After the sheet covers the bale, ring binders
are used to bind the sheet over bale to prevent its opening while carrying it to the customers.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

CUTTER PRE-BIN WEIGH BIN PUSHER

REVOLVING PRE-PRESS
PACKING MAIN RAM
UNIT RAM

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AUXILIARY SECTION
Spin Pack is a costly auxiliary equipment, costs ~0.1 million for its preparation. Therefore it is essential to
increase its life span by regenerating its different parts. It has specific, operational, life time of 40 days for
good performance after which we have to change it . However, filter changing jobs are carried out after 20
days. On position spin pack cleaning is carried out after every 40 hours with the help of a spray.

DISASSEMBLING
In the first step, spin pack is removed out from specified spinning position with the help of pack
manipulator. Then it is brought to the auxiliary workshop by a trolley and placed on dis-assembling device.
Here hydraulic machine disassemble immediately spin pack as it is removed. If this is not disassembled
immediately, spin pack would stuck and can’t be disassembled.

WASHING AND CLEANING

Spin pack contain different parts which can’t be washed in same bath because of variable temperature
sensitivity. Two different cleaning devices are used.

VACUUM CLEANING
At vacuum of -0.4 to -0.7 bars, spin pack’s parts are heated. Vacuum cleaning takes place in four stages. In
the first stage, the polymer melt sticking on the parts will be melt down at 320oC. In the second stage,
pyrolysis at 420oC takes place. In the third stage, oxidation of the polymer occurs at 450oC. Finally,
cooling of spin packs to normal temperature. This process takes place in about 10.5 hours.

TEG SECTION
The spinnerets are cleaned in TEG bath. In TEG bath, Tri-Ethylene Glycol is charged in TEG bath. A batch of
five spinnerets is charged in TEG bath. The cleaning process continues at temperature of 270oC. Here
residence time is 8 hours and 3 hours take to cool down the parts. After cleaning the spinnerets batch is
removed out from the TEG bath and charged in 5% NAOH bath. After 5 no of batches used TEG is drained
and fresh TEG is charged in TEG bath. 5 spinnerets can be charged in one batch of TEG bath.

ULTRASONIC BATH
TEG cleaning is charged into ultrasonic bath for 30 min. Also we clean the distributed plates and 5- fold
filters for 15 min each. All these parts are charged individually.

AIR DRYING
The spinnerets and other parts of the ultrasonic cleaning are dried in this device with the application of
the process air. Then cover the dry spinnerets in polythene sheet and placed in store for inspection while
5-fold filter and ring distribution plate are placed in assembling room.

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INSPECTION ROOM
The dry spinneret is brought into spinneret inspection room. The holes are magnified inspected of
individual hole is done. If any hole is choked, then the spinneret is recharged in TEG bath or in ultrasonic
bath. Or dust is removed out from choked hole by compressed air or needle. The pack body or pack
lousing, bolts & filling rings are cleaned with brass brush.

ASSEMBLING
Some of the main parts used in the assembling of a Spin pack includes

ONE FOLD FILTER

The mesh size of single fold filter is 540.

SAND
Sand of special type is added after the joint rings for the filtration purpose. The diameter of this sand
particles are 1.2mm. Weight of sand per spin pack is 2.6kg.

JOINT RINGS
Two Rings of different diameter is used.

FOUR FOLD FILTER

These four fold filters have this arrangement on the basis of mesh size. 17000+4500+540+64

FIVE FOLD FILTER

These fivefold filters have this arrangement on the basis of mesh size. 17000+4500+540+64+4500

RING DISTRIBUTION PLATE

Ring distribution plate is fitted just after the 5 fold filter.

FIVE FOLD FILTER

These fivefold filters have this arrangement on the basis of mesh size. 17000+4500+540+64+4500

SPINNERET
1. 3750 holes(Circular)
2. 2250 holes(Tridobal)

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

TEXTILE LAB
In this lab, we check out our required properties of filament fiber by performing different tests on it. All
the properties that are maintained during different operations are all customers dependent and are
ensures at Textile lab. It covers two products i.e. from spinning section and fiber draw line section. The
products are listed as following

 Undrawn Yarn/Spun tow

 Polyester Staple Fiber

UNDRAWN YARN/SPUN TOW

UDY is the final product from spinning section. The properties of UDY that are examined in textile lab
include

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SINGLE FILAMENT DENIER (D)

Single filament denier is the denier of a mono filament. It is observed in an instrument called
Vibroskop.

POSITION DENIER (D)

Position Denier is the total denier of the number of filaments at each position.

𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 𝑆. 𝐹. 𝐷𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒

𝑔
TENACITY ( ⁄𝑑)

Tenacity is defined as the ultimate (breaking) force of the yarn (in gram-force units) divided by the
denier. It is measured with an instrument called Vibrodyn. We take one filament of UDY and place it in the
machine. As the test starts, a stress vs. strain graph is also plotted on the computer. A tensile force is
applied to the filament. The point just before which the filament breaks indicates the tensile strength of
the filament. It is calculated as:

𝑐𝑁
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡𝑒𝑥

MOISTURE (%)
Sample is weighed initially and then wrapped in a paper and placed in an oven for 140˚C. After 30 minutes
the sample is weighed again and the difference in weight gives away the percent moisture.

OPU (%)
Oil Pick Up is the amount of oil, fiber can retain after being finished with spin finish oil. In this test, we
take 5g of UDY filaments in a burette and let 40g of methanol run through it. Methanol absorbs the oil
present with UDY. A flask is placed below to collect the methanol and oil solution. It is heated to 100C,
methanol evaporates away and the amount of oil remaining is measured and OPU is calculated.

ELONGATION (%)
The elongation at break is the increase of the length produced by stretching a yarn to its breaking point. It
is expressed as a percentage of its initial length. It is examined via an instrument called Vibrodyn.

POLYESTER STAPLE FIBER

DENIER (D)
Denier is defined as the 1 g per 9000meters fiber. It is examined using Vibroskop in textile lab. A single
fiber is clamped and then put it in the Vibroskop. The vibroskop measures the denier and give digital
results.

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𝑔
⁄𝑑)
TENACITY (

Tenacity is defined as the ultimate (breaking) force of the fiber (in gram-force units) divided by the denier.
It is measured with an instrument called Vibrodyn. We take one filament fiber and place it in the
machine. As the test starts, a stress vs. strain graph is also plotted on the computer. A tensile force is
applied to the filament. The point just before which the filament breaks indicates the tensile strength of
the filament. It is calculated as:
𝑐𝑁
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡𝑒𝑥

𝑔
T-10 ( ⁄𝑑)

It is the tenacity of fiber at 10% elongation. It is calculated graphically from the stress vs. strain graph
obtained while measuring tenacity.

ELONGATION (%)
The elongation at break is the increase of the length produced by stretching a yarn to its breaking point. It
is expressed as a percentage of its initial length. It is examined via an instrument called Vibrodyn.

CRIMP NUMBER ( 𝑛 )
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
Mono fibers from different chips in sample are hanged via clamp one by one on device and crimps are
counted manually.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑥 25.4
Crimp No. =
𝐿1

CRIMP REMOVAL (%)

Here one end of mono fiber from a chip in sample is stuck to a glass slab using transparent tape initially.
The other end is stretched until all crimps disappear and stuck it too on the slab. Now the length is
measured. Then via formula % no. of crimps removed will be calculated.
𝐿2−𝐿1
Crimps Removed = x 100
𝐿1

CRIMP STABILITY (%)

Similarly % no. of crimps that stayed will also be calculated from this formula:
𝐿2−𝐿3
Crimps Stabilized = x 100
𝐿2−𝐿1

SHRINKAGE (%)
In this test, 6-8 filaments from different chips in sample are collectively loaded with a certain weight on
shrinkage drum and readings are noted at shrinkage tester. Then this drum is placed in oven at 180C for
about 20 minutes. After being removed from oven the readings are noted again and the difference in the
readings gives the percentage shrinkage of fiber.

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OPU (%)
In this test, we take 5g of fiber filaments in a burette and let 40g of methanol run through it. Methanol
absorbs the oil present with fibers. A flask is placed below to collect the methanol and oil solution. It is
heated to 100C, methanol evaporates away and the amount of oil remaining is measured and OPU is
calculated.

MISCUT (WT. %)
It is a physical test, in which the person performing the experiment takes a bulk of fibers in his hands and
stretches it. The fibers cut properly will be separated and if miscuts are present, they will be detected. So
the bail containing miscuts will be categorized as B grade. If the miscut is more than 30 wt. % but less than
100 wt. % in length it is categorized as over length and if it is more than 100 wt. % then it is categorized as
multiple length.

FIBER LENGTH (MM)

It is a test in which various chips from the sample are measured manually to examine the fiber
length.

DDD (DEEP DYEING DEFECT) (%)

It’s a test to detect any fused fiber or overweight fiber or UDY. The sample fiber is dipped in a color for
about 20 minutes and at 95C. The dyed fiber is then dried and examined manually by putting it on a bright
plate. The UDY will pick up deep color and will be detected easily.

MOISTURE (%)
Sample is weighed initially and then wrapped in a paper and placed in an oven for 140˚C. After ̴30 minutes
the sample is weighed again and the difference in weight gives away the percent moisture.

COLOR VALUE
Color value of fiber is being checked by comparing it with a standard Cotton. It’s a manual test. Two
types of color values are checked, stated as follows

 Color l – show whiteness

 Color b – show yellowness

BULK DENSITY (𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑)

A can of measured volume is weighed initially W1. Then it is filled with sample fiber without any force or
weight. It is weighed again W2 and bulk density is calculated as follows

𝑊2−𝑊1
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛

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Coal Fired Power Plant

Coal fired power plants are a type of power plant that make use of the combustion of coal in order to generate
electricity. Their use provides around 40% of the world's electricity and they are primarily used in developing
countries. Countries such as South Africa use coal for 94% of their electricity and China and India use coal for 70-75%
of their electricity needs.

1. WORKING OF COAL FIRED POWER PLANT

Coal-fired plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce steam. The steam produced, under
tremendous pressure, flows into a turbine, which spins a generator to create electricity. The steam is then cooled,
condensed back into water and returned to the boiler to start the process over.

2. TYPES OF COAL
There are four main types of coal, which are formed in a similar manner both formed from decomposed vegetation
composed at high temperatures over millions of years beneath layers of sand, rock, and sediment. There are:

2.1. Anthracite coal

It’s a hard coal, which contains 86_97% carbon and mainly used by the metals industry, space heating in addition to
generating electricity.

2.2. Bituminous coal

It’s a dark, hard coal, which contains 45_86% carbon and it’s an important fuel for generating electricity and as a raw
material for making iron and steel.

2.3. Subbituminous coal

It’s a dull black coal which typically contains 35_45% carbon, and it’s used for generating electricity and space
heating.

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2.4. Lignite coal

It’s a brownish-black coal which contains 25_35% carbon, it’s crumbly and has high moisture content so it’s mostly
used for generating electricity.

3. PROCESSING OF CFPP
There are different stages involve in the production of electricity from coal using coal fired power plant. These are

1. Coal storage

2. Conveying section

3. Combustion section

4. Steam distribution section

3.1. Coal Storage

Coal used is subbituminous imported from induna Shia, as coal of Pakistan has more sulphur quantity and less
efficiency to be used here.
In the coal yard have storage of coal under sky, water sprinkling pipes are there for safety purpose.

3.2. Conveying Section

3.2.1. Stocker rod system
From stack it is brought to stocker push rods by lifter tractor. There are 3 push rods at a time one push rod moves
forward, second moves back while the third one remains stationary. Hydraulic cylinders are attached to stocker push
rods they have maximum of 180 bar pressure. Control oil is used for hydraulic system of push rods, and it is cooled
using plate type heat exchanger after circulation.

3.2.2. Primary hopper

Stocker gate valve has certain opening in hopper and from hopper it is brought to conveying belt. At hopper we have
hopper level switch which controls stocker system according to level in hopper. 10 spark detectors are present there
for safety purpose.

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3.2.3. Conveyor belt

Conveyor belt is to transport coal and it is 17m long. Emergency cord is present near conveyor belt, it is used for the
case if the belt gets misalign as belt and finally stocker system will be stopped by pulling emergency cord. There is an
over belt magnet to separate metal pieces and detecting quality of coal. There is also a below metal detector which
will trip belt upon identification of metal pieces.

Tension ruler is also present. And has 6 alignment switches.

3.2.4. Transfer hopper

From conveyor belt coal is brought in second or transfer hopper. It has 4 smog detectors and one level switch.

3.2.5. Coal chain conveyor

Coal chain conveyor takes coal from transfer hopper to bunkers.

3.2.6. Bunkers
There are 2 bunkers. Each bunker has capacity of 150 ton. Sliding gate valves are present for filling of bunkers. Bunkers
have level switches to detect level, carbon monoxide sensors and dedusting filters as well to remove air.

3.2.7. Crushers
To crush the coal there are crushers after bunkers. The whole process is shown below as a block diagram.

Coal Fire Process Cycle

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Coal Yard (Coal

storage)

Coal Conveying
Section

140 bar
100 bar
Stocker Push Rods

180 bar O.P

Conveyer Belt

Hopper

10 Spark
150 Tons Detectors 150 Tons
Bunker Bunker

Trough Conveying Chain Trough

Hammer Conveying Chain
Mill
Hammer Mill

Steam Drum

Down Comers

Air Super-

Furnace Cyclone 400℃ Heaters

Economizer

Air
HP Blowers 350bar

Air (150-155℃)

Bag Filter

Ash Collector
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4. COMBUSTION SECTION
4.1. Furnace
In combustion chamber for the combustion of coal we are feeding primary and secondary air. Primary air is

stoichiometric air which is fed in furnace at a temperature of 150oC. secondary air is for circulation of coal and to
provide excess air for combustion. Secondary air is fed at ambient temperature. Four forced draft fans are there for
suction of primary and secondary air, 2 for each. Quart sand is also used in furnace as burning material as it can retain

more heat. Maximum temperature in the furnace is 890oC.

4.2. Cyclone separator

Cyclone separator is used to separate particles, which collects on loop seal. High pressure blowers are there for the
fluidization of particles, settled on loop seal. And coal is moved back to furnace from cyclone.

4.3. Super heaters

Heated air coming from furnace through cyclone separator is entered in superheaters. And then it goes in
economizer, where it heats the coming water from inlet. Then it passes through bag filters where ash is separated
and collected in ash collector. And then this air is discharged.

4.4. Economizers
Economizer is there to improve the efficiency of furnace by extracting heat from flue gases to heat water and send it
to furnace.

5. WATER PATH
Water has inlet in economizer, and water enters here at temperature of 127oC. then it goes in furnace tubes, from
where steam is collected in steam drum above the furnace. After that it goes in superheaters from where it goes in
steam distribution system, and to rotate turbine and produce electricity.

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Water Steam Cycle

87 bar Boiler 520 ℃

8540 Gas Turbine

HP
rpm

LP
1500 rpm

0.15 bar a
30 bar a

Condenser
6.5 bar g Bleed 1

Polish
Water
Process Steam 0.2 bar g
E
Con v
dens a
ation c
Colle u
cting a
Tank t
i
o
n
S
y
s
t
e
m

Primary Air Pre- Heater 6.5 bar g

Pre-heater
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Centrifugal Pump

Derator

125 ℃

Feed Water Tank

1.5 bar g
6. STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Steam coming from the furnace goes in high pressure and low-pressure regions from where bleeds of
different pressures are circulated further in the system.
Steam of 87 bar comes in high pressure region from furnace, bleed 1 of 30 bar is extracted and
transferred in the process section. Then a second bleed of 6.5 bar is extracted from low pressure region
and it goes in primary air preheater, deaerator and evacuation system. Bleed of 0.15 bar from low
pressure region is condensed and finally through evacuation system in condensate collecting tank.
Another bleed of 0.2 bar comes in preheater and then finally goes in feed tank by passing through
aerator.

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Coal Fire Power Plant

___THE END___

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