Gard Guidance on Freight Containers

Jeroen de Haas
Gard Guidance on Freight Containers
Jeroen de Haas
 PREFACE 5

Preface

Knowledge and learning are key factors to achieve Gard’s core purpose, which is to help
our Members and clients in the marine industries to manage risk and its consequences.

I am very pleased to present our latest publication, the Gard Guidance on Freight
Containers, which provides comprehensive information about containers as a means of
cargo consolidation and effective transportation.

About 90% of international trade is moved by ocean-going ships and the vast majority of
consumer and semi-finished goods are shipped in containers at sea. The suitability and
quality of the containers themselves, as well as the knowledge and systems to ensure proper
handling, stowage and securing of them on board, is crucial to achieve safe and efficient
transportation. This has become even more pronounced with the tremendous growth in
containership size and corresponding changes in container terminal operations and other
parts of the logistical chain over the past two decades.

I am delighted that Mr. Jeroen de Haas, Managing Director of BMT Surveys (Rotterdam) B.V.
Published by Gard AS accepted to be the lead author – a task for which he was found to be extremely well suited.
Head office: P.O. Box 789 Stoa, NO-4809 Arendal, Norway Mr. de Haas holds, inter alia, an honors degree in Maritime Sciences from the University
Telephone: +47 37 01 91 00 of Antwerp and is also a qualified maritime officer with combined qualifications as a deck
Facsimile: +47 37 02 48 10 officer and marine engineer. He has been active in the international surveying business
Website: www.gard.no for more than 25 years and has specialist knowledge in the safe and secure transport of
Email: companymail@gard.no containers. Apart from applying this knowledge in consultancy work, Mr. de Haas has
provided expert evidence for tribunals and courts in several countries, as well as written

Cover design: Randi Gaughan

numerous expert reports, loss prevention articles and given lectures and practical training
courses to a wide array of stakeholders in the international shipping industry.
Graphic design: Ria van der Graaf, Gerard ‘s-Gravendijk for strictly personal
Printed in The Netherlands by NPN Drukkers, Breda
Again, this is a publication which is the result of a genuinely collaborative effort between
external experts and Gard staff. I wish to thank all contributors that made this publication
Copyright
possible. A special mention to Geir Kjebekk and Alf Martin Sandberg who shared the vision
Every effort has been made to contact/obtain approval from the copyright owners of the images used in
of such a publication and have been deeply involved in seeing it through.
this publication and Gard cannot be held liable for any errors and/or omissions in this respect.
Any queries regarding copyright should be forwarded to Gard AS, Arendal, Norway.
I hope this Guidance will be useful to those involved in the handling of containers, whether
on board or ashore, as well as insurance practitioners who need a good understanding of
© 2016 Gard AS the risks related to the carriage of containerised goods.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, Arendal, January 2016
electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the permission of the copyright owner. Rolf Thore Roppestad
Chief Executive Officer, Gard AS
ISBN 978-82-90344-35-6
6 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7

Acknowledgments Nico Blaauw, consultant and owner of Blaauw Container Service, for his advice on container
regulations and his time spent in proof reading Chapter 6.
I have received a significant amount of help and advice from many people in writing this
Guidance. The result of their hard work is that the final text is significantly better than it Onno van Rijswijk of the Dutch Customs Authority, for his advice on container security.
otherwise would have been and I am very grateful for all their input and effort in sharing
their knowledge, time and professional experience with me: Furthermore, I’m grateful for the assistance and valuable advice of my colleagues at BMT
who provided advice within their own particular areas of expertise:
Geir Kjebekk, Master Mariner and Senior Adviser at Gard chaired the project and
coordinated the review of the contents by many other experts at Gard, and provided Carlos Maenhout of BMT Surveys (Antwerp), MSc. in Naval Architecture and Marine
invaluable input and advice. Geir is also the author of the book’s last chapter on Engineering from the University of Ghent and President of the Technical Commission of the
Container Insurance. International Association for Inland Navigation (IVR) for reviewing the chapters on inland
navigation, ship’s stability and naval architecture.
Alf Martin Sandberg, Senior Technical Adviser at Gard gave the manuscript a detailed,
critical once-over based on his background as a former class surveyor and his time at Gard David Hurdle, of BMT Argoss and MSc in Fluid Dynamics from the University of Bristol, for
dealing with a wide range of technical and safety related matters – spanning an impressive reviewing the chapters on waves and ship motions.
career with over 40 years in the maritime industry. Alf is a person who does not take
information at face value and through his attention to detail and challenging questions, he Rob van Uffelen, Master Mariner and former manager of the dangerous cargo department at
often found some of my errors and made me rethink what I was trying to explain. P & O Nedlloyd, and later Maersk Line, for reviewing the sections dealing with hazardous cargo.

Gert Uitbeijerse, Master Mariner and retired head of the Global Cargo Care and Research In addition to the technical assistance that I have received, I would also like to thank the
department at P & O Nedlloyd and later Maersk Line, and currently owner and consultant following people for their support and assistance and with whom I have worked very closely
at Global Cargo Consultancy Management. Gert brought with him more than 40 years during the entire period of preparing this Guidance:
of unique experience from container shipping, which cannot be replaced by any form of
written reference material. Gert not only conducted a critical review of the manuscript, Special thanks go to Randi Gaughan of Gard (UK) Limited, who has proved absolutely
but also provided unlimited access to his files and often pointed to additional sources and invaluable in editing this manuscript specifically with regard to the language, style and
references. consistency of the finished product.

The management and supervisors of ECT Delta terminal Rotterdam, in particular Philip Gerard ‘s-Gravendijk and Ria van der Graaf of strictly personal, who have done
Beesemer, Wim Luck and Jan Theeuwen. With no working experience from a container a splendid job in improving the readability of this book by creating clear illustrations and
terminal, I felt extremely privileged being able to spend considerable time at the terminal to a professional layout.
learn in detail about container operations. I was given the rare opportunity, as an external
consultant, to be guided through every corner of the terminal and to carry out in-depth Lastly, my sincere thanks to Gard for their patience, continued support and confidence in
interviews with many of their professional staff. As a result, I have been able to complete the this project. I have a learned much and feel privileged to have been surrounded by so many
chapter on container operations with what, I believe, to be a rather unique insight and up to knowledgeable people who have a real concern for their Members and genuinely care for
date information on the day-to-day operations at a modern container terminal. safety and people, whether working on board a vessel or ashore.

Raymond Westdorp, planner at APM terminals who kindly read through the chapter on Rotterdam, January 2016
container terminal operations, providing valuable feedback from the point of view of a major Jeroen de Haas
terminal operator.

Mark van Kins, Operations Manager at CMA CGM (Holland) who provided much inside
information on container operations from a container carrier’s point of view.
8 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS CONTENTS 9

Contents

The Gard Guidance on Freight Containers covers intermodal transport and the handling
of containers in its widest form, both in terms of operations, geographical differences and
the underlying technology. Although every attempt has been made to be as complete and
correct as possible, there will be occasions or circumstances when containers are being
handled or transported differently to that described in this book.

The first two chapters deal with the historical development of container shipping. This is a
summary of information obtained from various books and articles published on this topic.
For those interested in further reading and in learning the ’full story‘ of container shipping,
some very interesting and worthwhile books are listed in the Bibliography.

Chapter 3 looks at transport networks and the various ways of shipping containers, which in
addition to seagoing transport also includes barge, rail and road transport.

Container terminals are the pivotal points in container transport and hence a significant part
of this book covers these operations. Particularly the chapters on Planning and Operations
give an insight into the interaction between terminals and vessel operations, and how the
planning is carried out.

Chapter 5 starts with a basic description of a container vessel. Today, many people working
in the container business have little or no seagoing experience, and safety rules make it
almost impossible to show people around a working vessel. Particular focus has further been
placed on explaining what is meant by the vessel’s ’operational envelope’ and the factors
which play a role in determining this operational framework which is particularly important
for containerships. Towards the end of Chapter 5 is a summary as well as a discussion of the
possible causes of typical containership related casualties.

Any Guidance on containers must contain a summary of the regulations covering transport,
design and maintenance of containers. This is covered in Chapter 6.

This Guidance concludes with a chapter on container insurance and gives an understanding
of the terms and conditions used in the insurance of the container box itself.

Throughout this Guidance you will also find side stories, or box-stories. These are sections
which discusses a particular topic in more depth, outlines an individual’s particular
achievements or are anecdotal in nature.

Rotterdam, January 2016

Jeroen de Haas
10 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS TABLE OF CONTENTS 11

Table of Contents

17 INTRODUCTION 88 Other areas

90 3.4 Container transport by rail
91 United States
21 CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 95 Europe
22 1.1 Introduction of the intermodal container concept in the United States 98 India
(1956-1960) 98 China
26 1.2 Standardisation of the size of the container (1960-1965) 98 Technology
28 1.3 Introduction of ISO corner castings (1965-1967) 101 3.5 Road transport of containers
29 1.4 Adoption and integration into global distribution systems (1967-1990) 101 History and development
32 1.5 Exponential growth and entry of China into the global economy (1990-2008) 104 Technology
34 1.6 Global crisis and shift in thinking (2008-2015) 106 Road accidents

37 CHAPTER 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 111 CHAPTER 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS

38 First generation (1956-1966) 113 4.1 History and development
39 Second generation (1966-1972) 117 4.2 Terminal owners and operators
39 Third generation (1972-1980) 120 4.3 The function of a container terminal
40 Fourth generation — Panamax Max (1980-today) 120 Handling and storage
41 Fifth generation — Post Panamax (1988-today) 121 Administrative functions
41 Sixth generation — Post Panamax Plus (1996-today) 123 4.4 Layout of a modern container terminal
44 Seventh generation — Post New Panamax (2006-today) 127 4.5 Terminal equipment
44 Eight generation — Ultra Large Container Ship (2008-today) 127 Quay cranes
131 Transport equipment at the terminal
49 CHAPTER 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 132 Terminal storage equipment
49 Introduction and terminology 134 Automated container handling in the storage yard
52 Hinterland 137 4.6 Planning and operations
52 Modal split 139 Ship planning – berth allocation, crane and resource planning
53 On-time delivery 144 Preparation of the stowage plan
53 Logistics management
53 Carrier 153 CHAPTER 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS
55 3.1 Deep sea transport 155 5.1 The construction and layout of a modern container vessel
55 Shipping networks and port connections 156 Cargo holds
57 Container trade routes 157 Deck / hatch covers
58 Important maritime passages 158 Engine room
61 Deep sea container ports 159 Accommodation
65 Inland ports and terminals 160 Bow and stern thrusters
67 3.2 Short sea container transport 162 5.2 Owners and operators
67 European short sea shipping 162 Non-operating shipowners
72 Short sea container shipping in North America 162 Container shipping lines
73 Short sea shipping in other areas 164 NVOCC
74 3.3 Container transport by barge 166 5.3 Registration and classification
76 Europe 169 5.4 Strength loads acting on containerships
82 North America 169 Bending moments
86 China 171 Shear forces
12 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS TABLE OF CONTENTS 13

171 Torsional stresses 247 Weight

173 5.5 Navigation and ship handling 249 Strength and structural requirements
173 Waves and swell 254 6.7 Container types and their main features
175 Excessive ship motions 254 General purpose containers
179 Notorious areas 260 Thermal containers
182 5.6 Stowage 265 Tank containers
182 The bay-row-tier numbering system 267 Bulk containers
183 Point load – line load 267 Platform containers
184 Russian stow 269 6.8 The labelling and marking of containers
184 Stowage limitations 270 Identification system
185 5.7 Determination of forces 270 Size and type codes
185 Mass, weight, force and acceleration 271 Other markings
186 Forces acting on container stows 272 6.9 In-service inspections of containers
187 Stability 272 Statutory inspections (CSC)
189 Design criteria 273 Routine operational inspections
194 Limitations 277 6.10 Maintenance and repair
197 5.8 Lashing and securing 277 Repair facilities
197 Methods of lashing and securing container stows 278 Repair standards and procedures
200 Container lashing equipment and systems 280 6.11 Container security
208 Container lashing routines 281 The Container Security Initiative (CSI)
212 The Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) 282 The Customs Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT)
215 Container lashing software 282 The SAFE Framework
217 5.9 Major containership incidents 282 The Global Container Control Programme (CCP)
217 Major cargo related fires and explosions 282 The IMO International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code
220 Major grounding incidents 283 Container security measures
222 Major capsizing incidents 283 ISO Security Standards
223 Major hull failure incidents
224 Container collapse and loss of containers 287 CHAPTER 7 CONTAINER INSURANCE (by Geir Kjebekk, Gard)
287 Container and Equipment Insurance
227 CHAPTER 6 THE CONTAINER 287 Amounts recoverable
228 6.1 Definitions 288 Conditions
228 ISO container 288 Special exclusions
229 6.2 Container owners 288 Limit and deductible
230 6.3 Regulations governing the transport of freight containers 289 Comprehensive Carrier’s Liability Cover
230 The International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) 1972 290 Providing the widest range of risk solutions
231 Other IMO regulations
233 Other requirements
235 6.4 Certification and testing of containers 293 Glossary of Terms
235 Approval and certification of new containers 315 Abbreviations
238 Maintenance requirements and in-service examinations 318 Bibliography
240 6.5 ISO standards 321 Photo Credits
243 6.6 Requirements on the design and construction of containers 325 Index
243 Dimensions
243 Length
245 Width
246 Height
14 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS TABLE OF CONTENTS 15

BOXTEXT / INSERTS
23 How the (container) seed was planted
25 Ideal X sets sail
27 Why are 20 foot and 40 foot the standard lengths?
30 Ready for take-off
39 Sea-Land’s SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships ever built
45 Forward visibility requirements
47 Container capacity, what you see is not what you get
56 Service routes
69 The success of Europe’s 45 foot intermodal container
73 Cabotage laws and the Jones Act
81 Stability requirements for inland navigation vessels carrying containers
92 Deregulation of the US transport system
93 McLean on his way to the White House
96 Swap body
107 Jane Mansfield and trailer safety
115 Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal;
leaders in the development of container terminal operations
131 Bigger ships call for bigger and smarter cranes
136 Container terminal equipment, for those who like abbreviations
138 UN / EDIFACT
151 The cost of calling at a container terminal
161 Gross tonnage and containership design: a topic of considerable discussion
190 IACS recommendation 34 Standard Wave Data
204 Keith Tantlinger, the inventor of the twistlock
221 The grounding of the RENA
224 The loss of the MOL COMFORT
241 The International Organization for Standarization (ISO)
248 Container weights and new IMO requirements on weighing
263 Frederick McKinley (Fred) Jones,
the inventor of the refrigerated transport unit
276 Container repair terminology
279 Technical Reference for Freight container equipment interchange
receipt – TR39:2015
16 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INTRODUCTION 17

Introduction

The container could be described unemployment and nations descending

as a simple steel box designed to into war over food and resources. In fact,
accommodate or carry cargo. However, the economic fate and destiny of mankind
the container conceals countless secrets could be said to rest with one single piece
unknown to many people. The types and of transport equipment, and that is the
sizes of the containers moving on our container. An article in The Economist
roads, railways and oceans are the results on 18 May 2013 states that ‘the container
of a clever design, years of negotiations has been more of a driver of globalisation
to reach an agreed standard and many than all trade agreements in the past 50
decades of evolution to meet particular years’. In fact, it is more than that. Through
business needs. a constant process of expansion with a
corresponding reduction in the cost of
In these days of truly globalised trade, transportation, the container has become
it would be difficult to imagine how the a self-accelerating machine which can no
world would look like if container shipping longer be stopped and which has
stopped tomorrow. Our lives would change become an indispensable part of our
dramatically; factories would close in a economy today.
matter of weeks, some even days, due to a
lack of supplies. Supermarkets and shops Containerisation has made the shipping
would be empty within a couple of days and of goods affordable and whole industries
modern economies would spiral into the have been able to relocate their factories
deepest depression in recent history. to locations far from their customers.
The end result would be massive New types of cargo such as semi-finished
18 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INTRODUCTION 19

products for assembly in low-cost countries Definition

ships ... in Asia entered the transportation chain. A container or cargo transport unit (CTU)
larger and more
At the same time, shipping lines added new is an article of transport equipment that
ports to their sailing schedules, which again is designed to be transported by various
increased demand
for container cap increased volum
acity es of existing pro fuelled the growth in transport volumes. modes of transportation in such a way that
ducts
new economies (pr reduction in trans
oducts / geograp port costs no intermediate handling of the contents is
hies) economies of sca
le
As a result, there was a need for increased required when being transferred from one
ships capacity and with the assistance of new mode of transport to the other and that at
larger and more
acity construction technology containerships the same time meets certain size criteria
for container cap
increased demand became ever bigger. Through economies and internationally accepted and
of scale, transportation costs could be agreed standards.
reduced, which promoted further growth in

new economies (pr volume, types of products transported and As most container standards have
oducts / spread)
geographical spread. been developed by the International
inc rea se d vo lum
es of ex ist ing pr
od uc ts Organization for Standardization (ISO),
In this way, over a period of 60 years, the the formal term for a shipping container
container transport system has become to is an ISO Freight Container. In this book,
world trade what the circulatory system is where reference is made to a container,

reduction in transport costs to the human body. It is difficult to imagine this will always be an ISO Freight Container.
the present level of international exchanges
economies of sca without a functioning intermodal container There are also many containers in
le
transport sytem. This system has proven to circulation which are not ISO-classified.
be a highly efficient and relatively safe and These are mainly used for domestic or
larger and more
ships reliable means of transporting goods across regional purposes.
the globe.
acity
for container cap
increased demand

inc rea se d vo lum

e ex ist ing pr od
uc ts
new economies (pr
oducts / spread)
reduction in trans
port costs

le
economies of sca

The self-accelerating container machine

 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 21

Chapter 1

History and development

The role of the container in today’s

transportation has evolved over a period
1956
of more than six decades and passed a
1960
number of milestones:
• Introduction of the intermodal container
concept in the USA (1956-1960)
1960
• Standardisation of the size of the 1965
container (1960-1965)

• Introduction of ISO corner castings

1965
(1965-1967)
1967

• Adoption and integration into global

distribution systems (1967-1990)
1967
• Exponential growth and entry of China in 1990
the global economy (1990-2008)

• Global crisis and shift in thinking

China
1990
(2008-2015)
2008

2008
2015
22 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 23

How the (container) seed was planted

1.1
The idea that the ‘big box’ could be used economically
Introduction of the intermodal container and efficiently on a massive scale came from a once
disparaged ‘trucker’ from North Carolina, named
concept in the United States (1956-1960) Malcolm Mclean. The idea that revolutionised cargo
handling worldwide, and forever changed the nature
of shipping, came to him one day back in 1937 at an
The birth of container shipping and its McLean, being more focussed on in moving American Export Lines pier in Hoboken, New Jersey.
initial development in the 1950’s and 60’s road trailers by sea, called his company Sea- ‘I had driven my trailer up from Fayetteville, North
were mainly an American affair, led by two Land, later becoming the largest container Carolina with a load of cotton bales that were to go on
self-made businessmen, Graham Brush and shipping company in the world. an ‘American Export’ ship tied up at the dock. Malcolm McLean at railing, Port Newark, 1957
Malcolm McLean. For one reason or another I had to wait most of the day
In their book The Box That Changed to deliver the bales, and as I sat there, I watched all those people muscling each crate and bundle off the trucks
Back in 1929, Brush founded a company The World, Arthur Donovan and Joseph and into the slings that would lift them into the hold of the ship. On board the ship, every sling would have to be
called Seatrain to develop the carriage of Bonney provide a fine tribute to these unloaded by the stevedores and its contents put in the proper place in the hold. What a waste of time and money!
railway freight cars overseas on specially American entrepreneurs: ‘It is clear that Suddenly it occurred to me: Would it not be great if my trailer could simply be lifted up and placed in the ship
designed ships. McLean, a trucking containerisation as we know it today was without its contents being touched?
entrepreneur from North Carolina built being seriously considered well before If you want to know, that is when the seed was planted…’
his own motor freight company (McLean Malcolm McLean was biding his time on
From: Reminiscences on Malcolm Mclean by Capt. Richard T. Soper, Father of the modern containership and former operations manager at
Trucking) and, after the Second World War, the dock in Jersey City. But as Brush and Sealand, during the Kinney Lectures in honor of Admiral Sheldon Kinney, February 2011. World Maritime University Inc.

concentrated on the shipment of road McLean would have reminded anyone who
trailers overseas, an idea which already is prone to stay in the world of ideas and
came to him during his early days working abstract thinking, the people who actually before. Brush and McLean fit that category. What was new in the revolutionary
as a truck driver (see How the container make history are the doers, those who built They were innovators and entrepreneurs, ideas presented by Malcolm McLean
seed was planted). things newer and better than what came men who earned a place in history by was the belief that efficiency could be
building more efficient systems for moving vastly improved through a system of
goods over land and sea.’ ‘intermodalism through containerisation’
and his preseverance in taking these
Boxes similar to modern containers ideas into reality. He was by no means the
had been used for rail and horse drawn inventor of the shipping container but his
transport in England as early as 1792. concept of containerisation as a means of
Small containers with a standard size were reducing the cost of transport was very
also being used by the US government radical back in the mid 1950’s.
during the Second World War, which proved
to be a quick and efficient way to load and
distribute supplies. Also Seatrain used
a system with boxcars as standard units.

Intermodalism
24 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 25

Note orders to ship goods back to Port Newark

Ideal X sets sail
Intermodalism is a system where one in containers. McLean tried to sell the
container and its cargo can be transported idea of container shipping to established On 26 April 1956, one hundred dignitaries enjoyed lunch at Port Newark and watched the crane place a container
with minimum interruption by different shipowners in the United States, but they on the IDEAL X every seven minutes. The ship was loaded in less than eight hours and set sail the same day.
modes of transport from an initial place of were more than a little sceptical to his ideas. McLean and his executives flew to Houston to watch its arrival at that port. ‘They were all waiting on Wharf II for
receipt to a final place of delivery, without This prompted him to become a shipowner the ship to arrive and as she came up the channel, all the longshoremen and everybody else came over to look’
limitations as to the distance carried. himself and he, very appropriately named one witness recalled. ‘They were amazed to see a
In practice this means that containers move his company Sea-Land. Initially the tanker with all these boxes on deck. We had seen
seamlessly between ships, trucks, barges containers were loaded together with a thousands of tankers in Houston, but never one like this.
and trains. However, before achieving an chassis. Later the chassis were left off, So everybody looked at this monstrosity and they
intermodal transport system, ships, port enabling the containers be stacked in couldn’t believe their eyes’.
terminals, trucks and trains had to be multiple tiers.
adapted to handle the containers. For McLean, though, the real triumph came only when the
Other companies such as Matson costs were tallied. Loading loose cargo on a medium sized
Malcolm McLean converted the Second Navigation Company soon adopted the cargo ship cost USD 5,83 per tonne in 1956. McLean’s
World War tanker POTRERO HILLS to a same approach and started a container experts calculated that the cost of loading IDEAL X (ships model) to indicate containers stowed on
a spar deck above the on-deck tanker arrangement, here
ship capable of handling containers. He service in the Pacific. The first vessel the IDEAL X at 15,7 cents per tonne. With numbers
shown with 58 containers on deck
rechristened the vessel IDEAL X and on specifically converted to carry containers like that, the container seemed to have a future.
26 April 1956, the vessel made its maiden only was Sea-Land’s GATEWAY CITY, which
From: Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006
voyage from Port Newark to Houston in the had its maiden voyage on 4 October 1957.
United States. The vessel had a reinforced
spardeck carrying 58 metal container boxes However, the container concept was only
as well as 15,000 tonnes of petroleum in ‘intermodal’ as long as it was shipped under
bulk and is known as the very first ship the umbrella of one shipping company.
to carry standard size containers. By the Due to differences in size and construction,
time the ship had unloaded its cargo at the boxes were not interchangeable
Houston, the company was already taking between different shipping companies
and not compatible with the port handling
equipment. As each company would need
a large fleet of containers exclusively for its
own customers, the next logical step was to
standardise the container sizes.

Containership SS MAYAGUEZ IMO number: 2245546

Type of ship: Containership (previously GATEWAY CITY)
Year of build: 1944
26 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 27

Why are 20 foot and 40 foot the standard lengths?

1.2
The idea of standardising container lengths at 10, 20, 30 and 40 feet was introduced by Herbert Hall, the chairman
Standardisation of the size of the of the Material Handling Section Committee (MH-5) during a presentation to an engineering society in 1957.
Hall knew little about the economics of using containers, but he was fascinated by the concept of arithmetic
container (1960-1965) relationships – preferred numbers as he called it. He believed that making containers in 10, 20, 30 and 40 foot
lengths would create flexibility. A truck equipped to carry 40 foot containers could also pick up two 20 foot
containers, or one 20 foot and two 10 foot containers.*
As early as 1960, international bodies eight foot, so as not to conflict with height
recognised the potential of container limits on United States highways. Today, the two most commonly used sizes are the 20 foot and 40 foot container lengths.
shipping and they began discussions The container width was mainly governed The 20 foot container, referred to as a ‘Twenty foot Equivalent Unit’ (TEU) became the industry standard with
as to what the standard container size by the restrictions on the railways and was cargo volumes and vessel capacity now measured in TEUs. The 40 foot container – literally 2 TEUs, became
should be. The first containers used by finally set at eight foot as well. known as the ‘Forty foot Equivalent Unit’ (FEU). The 10 foot container appeared economically inefficient and was
Sea-Land were 35 foot ASA containers, mainly used by the US Military and for off shore purposes. The 30 foot container also became less polular. These
i.e. containers constructed according to Years of negotiations took place on the days, 30 foot containers are used mainly in the short sea trade for the carriage of bulk cargoes, owing to its
American Standards. Other companies most appropriate container size and finally optimal length, volume and weight ratio.
had their own standard sizes, varying not on 14 April 1961, 10, 20, 30 and 40 foot
* From: Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006
only in length but also in width and height. boxes were announced as the standard
Various US industry committees were lengths. Only containerships designed to
established in order to reach consensus on carry these sizes could receive construction
container dimensions. This was a difficult subsidies from the US government. In
process as existing shipping companies 1964, these dimensions were adopted
had already invested large sums of money by the International Organization for
in their own equipment. Standardization (ISO) and a world standard
was born.
Nevertheless, all recognised the need
for standardised container sizes for Interestingly, not a single container
containerisation to reach its full potential. operated by the two leading shipping
The maximum container height was set at companies at that time, Sea-Land and
Matson, conformed with this new standard.

20 foot and 40 foot container

28 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 29

1.3 1.4

Introduction of ISO corner castings Adoption and integration into global

(1965-1967) distribution systems (1967-1990)

The agreement on standard container The four top corner fittings are used for Another important milestone for ships
dimensions would promote intermodalism lifting. The four bottom corner fittings are carrying containers became their
only to the extent that container operators mainly used for securing the container to deployment on the most important
now had clarity on the important issue of a road trailer, railway carriage or container shipping route at that time, the North
constructing their equipment. They could foundation pad on board a vessel. Atlantic crossing from New York to
now consider their long-term investment Furthermore, both the top and bottom Europe. The first ship carrying containers
programs without the risk of having corner fittings or castings are used for across the Atlantic was the United States
their containers ruled out for reasons of applying the lashing hooks. Lines’ AMERICAN RACER. On 18 March
non-compliance. 1966, the ship left Chelsea piers in New
In the early days, each shipping company York with fifty 20 foot containers on M.v. FAIRLAND on her maiden call at Rotterdam,
discharging containers
However, before the container could had its own patented design of container board, all stowed in container cells below
become readily interchangeable, one fittings. In 1965, ISO agreed the Sea-Land’s deck. Apart from containers, the ship also the North Atlantic, FAIRLAND will likewise
further standard design had to be agreed, design corner fitting as the international carried other break-bulk cargo. be identified as the first all-containership to
namely the corner fittings used for lifting standard. It appeared, however, that the link North America with Europe.
and securing the containers. design could not pass the necessary One month later, on 23 April 1966,
strength tests and a new design was finally Sea-Land’s FAIRLAND left Port Elizabeth A year later, the container proved its
Each container is fitted with eight corners, approved in June 1967. in the USA. On board were 236 containers efficiency in the Vietnam War. Every
four at the top and four at the bottom. stacked above and below deck. two weeks, a containership delivered
some 600 containers with supplies and
FAIRLAND’s first port in Europe was food in refrigerated containers to
Rotterdam where she arrived on 4 May Vietnamese ports.
1966. Thereafter, the vessel called at
Bremen. Before returning to New York, 1968 and 1969 were the baby boomer years
the vessel called at Grangemouth to load in container shipping. 43 container vessels
containers with Scottish whisky, one of the were built each with a capacity of 1,000 TEU
first containerised export cargoes from which was large for the time. Ship capacity
Europe to the US. soon increased to 2,000 TEU and in 1972
the first containerships of 3,000 TEU were
While AMERICAN RACER will thus forever completed at a shipyard in Germany.
hold the distinction of being the first
container carrying merchant ship to cross
ISO corner castings, top and bottom
30 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 31

Ready for take-off containers also arrived in the Middle East, In contrast to conventional break-bulk
India, East and West Africa. cargo ships, most containerships did not
After 1966, as truckers, shipping lines, railroads, container manufacturers and governments reached have onboard cranes. Container terminal
compromises on issue after issue, a fundamental change took place in the shipping world. The plethora of Containerisation was further boosted by facilities had to provide cranes as well
different container shapes and sizes that had blocked the development of containerisation in 1965 gave way to several initiatives, mainly by connecting the as sufficient space to stack and store the
the internationally approved standard sized containers. ports and terminals to the hinterland. containers on the dockside. Finger piers
In the US, land bridges were constructed at were no longer adequate and berths were
Leasing companies were now confident in investing large sums of money in containers and moved into this field a height to allow double high stacking on redesigned to accommodate quick ship
in a big way, soon owning more boxes than the shipping lines themselves. Apart from Sea-Land which still used railway carriages. In Europe, it was mainly turnaround and more efficient dockside
mainly 35 foot containers and Matson, which was gradually reducing its fleet of 24 foot containers, nearly all of the move to fast and scheduled container operations between the crane and the
the world’s major shipping lines used compatible containers. Finally, it was becoming possible to fill a container services in inland navigation which gave container storage areas.
with freight in Kansas City confident that almost any truck, train, port or ship would be able to move it smoothly impetus to the containerisation process.
all the way to Kuala Lumpur. International container shipping could now become a reality. On the European mainland, the port of
Containerisation also started to dramatically Rotterdam emerged as a major gateway
Marc Levinson. The Box, How the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger, Princeton 2006
From: Marad International Container Services Offered by US Flag Operators, January 1973 change the location and character of ports to serve the European hinterland, mainly
worldwide. Some of the established ports because of its access to the hinterland
declined, whilst new emerged. The port of and ability to receive deep draft traffic.
However, the container was still an unknown Swiss based Mediterranean Shipping San Francisco, for instance, lost its position Hamburg and Antwerp followed in its wake.
entity in global shipping and business, risks Company (MSC) was founded in 1970 and at the expense of the neighbouring port of
were relatively high as the technology was has developed into one of the world’s Oakland, which became one of the largest Prior to highly mechanised container
still unproven. major container carriers as has the Marseille ports in the US. In the United Kingdom, a transfers, crews of 20 / 22 longshoremen
based, Compagnie Martime D’Afrettement similar fate was met by the ports of London would be needed to stow break-bulk
Between 1970 and 1980 container shipping (CMA) which was founded in 1978. and Liverpool. Meanwhile, the port of cargoes into the hold of a ship.
grew exponentially, both in terms of volume Felixstowe gained in importance. Complete After containerisation, large crews of
and geographical reach. Connections were A dominating player in the Asia to US West new ports were built at strategic locations longshoremen were no longer necessary at
established between Japan and the US coast trade was Evergreen, who turned to on north-south / east-west junctions. port facilities, and the profession changed
West Coast and Europe and the US East container liner services in 1975. However, dramatically. With intermodal containers,
Coast. Still, the container business was with 63 vessels in operation, capable of the job of sorting and packing containers
mainly operated from the US. However, carrying 70,000 TEU, Sea-Land was still the could be performed far from the point of
as from the mid-70’s onwards, European largest shipping company in 1980. loading onto the ships.
shipping companies started to integrate
container shipping into their business By 1980, containerisation had been fully
model as well. Indeed, one of the giants integrated in trade between Europe, South
among today’s largest container operators America and South East Asia, South Africa,
Maersk, only established the dedicated Australia and New Zealand. In 1973, US and
Maersk Container Lines in 1973. The 1,400 European containership operators carried
TEU fully cellular containership ADRIAN some 4 million TEU. Ten years later, this
MAERSK was the first in a series of nine new had risen to 12 million TEU at which time
vessels which made its first voyage in 1975.
32 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 33

In 1998 the first 8,000 TEU vessels entered Containerships and terminals were used to
1.5 the market with the delivery of the full capacity during the period 2000 to 2008
Sovereign class series of containerships. in order to meet the demand for container
Exponential growth and entry of China In 2005, the EMMA MAERSK set a new space. Shipping capacity even turned out
landmark by raising the bar to 12,500 TEU. to be insufficient on some trade routes and
into the global economy (1990-2008) containers had to be left behind waiting
In the period 1995-2008, considerable for the next shipment. Freight and charter
consolidation took place among rates were rocketing and the revenues of
With the development of China into a distances apart, large quantities of semi- containership operators which significantly shipowners and operators followed a
global economy, a further boost was given finished products were carried in containers changed the competitive landscape. similar path.
to containerisation and to trade patterns to be assembled elsewhere. For example, The most notable mergers were Maersk’s
as a whole. Freight costs, particularly when an assembly site in China would receive acquisition of Malcolm McLean’s Sea-Land In order to meet the increasing demand,
looking at the transport cost per unit, no Japanese hair, Taiwanese plastics and in 1999 followed by Royal P&O Nedlloyd in large new building orders were placed with
longer represented the most significant American colourants in order to produce 2005. Through these acquisitions, Maersk shipyards in Asia, which were soon fully
cost aspect. As a result, factories could Barbie Dolls for shipment all over the world. Line became one of the major containership booked for years to come. No one at that
be located far from their customers. This In the carriage of food stuffs, a shift took operators in the world today. Similarly, time expected that, by 2008 the global
paved the way for the container to become place from the shipment of perishable through a number of acquisitions, French economy would have collapsed and that
goods in specialised reefer vessels to liner company CMA CGM became a for the first time since the introduction of
refrigerated containers. Whereas more global force in container shipping whilst, the container in 1956, there would be a
than 60 per cent was carried in specialised remarkably, Mediterranean Shipping worldwide drop in container volumes.
reefer vessels in 1990, this had decreased to Company (MSC) of Geneva acquired its
around than 30 per cent in 2015. position through organic growth only.

New techniques used to increase the shelf 1996 CMA (France) acquires previously state-owned CGM (France)

life of fresh produce saw supermarkets Royal Nedlloyd (Netherlands) merges with P&O (UK)

develop into global streetmarkets. 1997 APL ( Singapore) acquires NOL (Singapore)

Advanced refrigeration techniques in containers have Hanjin (Korea) acquires DSR Senator Lines (Germany)
made tropical products globally available, throughout
With the increasing volume of containers 1998 CMA CGM acquires ANL (Australia)
the year
being carried by sea, the size of 1999 Maersk Line (Denmark) acquires SafMarine (South Africa)

the preferred mode of transport in the containerships also increased. In 1988, the Maersk Line acquires Sea-Land.
development of Asia into the workshop first post-PANAMAX container vessels were 2002 CMA CGM acquires MacAndrews (UK)
of the world and to deliver to customers delivered to APL. Until then, construction 2005 CMA CGM acquires Delmas (France)
around the world a variety of new of containerships was mainly restricted by Maersk Lines acquires Royal P&O Nedlloyd (UK – Netherlands)
products. the width of the locks on the Panama Canal 2006 CMA CGM acquires OT Africa Line (UK)
which were some 32.2 m wide. Once the 2007 CMA CGM acquires Comanav (Morocco)
The shipping sector had to deal with a PANAMAX restrictions had been broken, CMA CGM acquires US Lines (USA)
far larger variety of cargoes being carried developments in ship size moved fast.
overseas than ever before. With production The first 5,000 TEU ship was delivered in Major acquisitions in the container shipping sector 1995-2008

and assembly locations considerable 1995 and the first 6,000 TEU ship in 1997.
34 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 35

By 2014 / 15, the international trade had to this new situation by reducing (and
1.6 to face yet another shake up the global cancelling) their newbuilding orders and,
economy, the slow down of the Chinese yet again, looking for further consolidation
Global crisis and shift in thinking economy. Container shipping lines adapted and mergers.

(2008-2015)
600

At the beginning of 2008, the general Slow steaming not only reduced the 500

topic at trade and container conferences carrying capacity, which had a positive

million TEU
400
was the failure of terminals to keep pace effect on freight rates, but also positively
with the growth in the container trade influenced the ever increasing fuel costs 300

which was doubling in volume every ten due to a lower consumption of fuel. Slow
200
years. This picture had radically changed steaming also improved a company’s
by September 2008 when a financial crisis carbon footprint, a new area of competition
45
in the Lehmann Brothers bank heralded for shipping lines and associated modes 1983 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2009 2015
(46) (700)
the complete collapse of the international of transport.
banking sector followed by global trade World container throughput 1983-2015 (source Alphaliner)
shortly thereafter. While Europe and the US were dealing with
the crisis, the Chinese economy managed a
A year later, in 2009, global container 10 per cent year on year growth.
volumes had dropped dramatically and
the same container terminals were now The new world’s leading container ports
struggling to survive. In some ports such such as Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai
as Antwerp, whole terminals were closed, and Shenzhen were all there essentially to
waiting for better times. serve the Chinese export market. European
or US ports would no longer appear on the
Remarkably, whereas the global economy list of the world’s largest container ports.
remained in recession for the next 4-5
years, container volumes picked up again In 2013, a new milestone was achieved in
and most ports saw expansion during the container shipping with the completion
years 2010-2013. The container industry of the first 18,000 TEU container vessel,
was facing a new problem; how to deal with the MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER.
overcapacity and how to maintain sound This vessel was part of a series of new
and profitable freight rates. The solutions mega TEU carriers which would dominate
the industry came up with were larger the Asia – Europe trade.
vessels, slow steaming and new alliances.
 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 37

Chapter 2

Evolution of containerships

The maximum size of a containership of stages. Traditionally, containerships

has increased from 58 trailer / container were classified as ‘generations’, of which
combined units in 1956 to nearly 20,000 literature recognizes six generations, the
TEU less than 60 years later. Building big last one being all ships with a capacity over
and stretching the limits of shipbuilding 8,000 TEU. Later, other denominations such
have been the favoured options of the as Super Post Panamax, Post Panamax Plus,
container shipping industry throughout Post New Panamax, Ultra Large Container
the evolution of the containership. Today, Ship, were used instead of ‘generations’.
new designs with even larger capacities
are finding their way on to the drawing There appears to be no consensus in
boards and into construction at shipyards the industry for the classification of
in Asia. The only restrictions appear to be containerships, especially for the ships
terminal capacity, ship’s strength and the built after 2005. This book has extended
size and capacity of the main bottlenecks the generations beyond the sixth one and
of global maritime traffic, i.e. the Panama also used the classification according to
and Suez Canal, and the Strait of Malacca. type of ship. The term ‘generation’ would
suggest the different stages of ship-size
Containerships can be grouped according succeed one another consecutively. This is,
to either their size, type or year of built. however, not the case. It is still well possible
When it comes to size, the evolution of that in 2015 containerships of the fourth
containerships has taken place in a number generation are built.
38 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 39

First generation (1956-1966) cranes to precisely lift and lower the Sea-Land’s SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships ever built
The very first containerships were mainly containers in and out of the cell guides.
converted break bulk ships or tankers. In 1972-73, Sea-Land took delivery of a series of eight 1,900 TEU containerships built at the RDM shipyard in
The very early containerships only Keith Tantlinger, an engineer from Toledo, the Netherlands, at a cost of USD 32 million each. The ships were equipped with two steam turbines, capable of
could carry containers on deck; in the Ohio played an important role in McLean’s delivering 120,000 bhp. They had a service speed of 33 knots (61 km / hr), fast enough to sail around the world in
case of converted tankers, a spar deck company on the design of cell guides, 56 days, from New York to Rotterdam
was constructed. Shortly thereafter the cranes and locking systems; or as McLean in 4.5 days, and from Oakland to Yokohama
tankers were replaced by former general said ‘Tantlinger was the one who did the in just 5.5 days. The SL-7 series became the
cargo ships. Malcolm McLean acquired six most to get containers on board ships’. fastest cargo ships ever built.
of these vessels (known as ‘C-2 freighters’)
from the US Navy and converted these Later in the 1960’s, more American shipping These ships were designed at a time when fuel cost
to carry 226 containers, stowed in cell companies entered the container business around USD 20 per barrel in 1980. When fuel prices
guides below deck and on hatchcovers and ships increased in size. A good example skyrocketed and reached some USD 100 per barrel,
above deck. of the later first generation containership they became financially unviable and were eventually
was the ELBE EXPRESS class series of sold to the US military. SEALAND McLean from SL-7 series
The first vessel of that series was the containerships built at Blohm & Voss
GATEWAY CITY which made its maiden and deployed on the first North Atlantic
voyage on 4 October 1957. These vessels service for Hapag-Lloyd-Container Linie. Second generation (1966-1972) Third generation (1972-1980)
were equipped with specially designed These ships generally had a capacity in the Second generation ships had cell guides From 1972 onwards a new series of
range of 700 to 1,000 TEU and a draught of under deck and were the first purpose built containerships entered the market. These
approximately nine metres. The containers containerships. The first such ship, was the ships were generally 32.2 m wide, the
were carried to a maximum height of three KOORINGA, built in Adelaide, Australia in maximum width of the Panama Canal,
tiers on deck and four tiers under deck. 1964 and deployed in a container service hence the name Panamax containerships.
between Melbourne and Fremantle, The first Panamax containership was the
the same year. The first purpose-built LIVERPOOL BAY owned by Overseas
containership crossing the North Atlantic Container Ltd. (OCL), whith a capacity of
was the United States Lines’ AMERICAN 2,961 TEU.
LANCER, delivered in 1966 and known to
ALSTER EXPRESS; be first such ship bringing containers to The accommodation unit on third
built 1968, 170 x 24.6 m, 736 TEU
Europe. The capacity of these vessels generation containerships had been moved
increased over the years and ranged further forward on the ship’s superstructure.
between 1,000 and 2,500 TEU, mainly as a This meant that containers could now also
result of increased vessel length and width. be stowed aft of the accommodation.
Maximum stowage height on deck was Some ships came on the market with
three to four tiers. Typical containerships huge power plants and multiple screws.
of this generation were the turbine vessels The SELANDIA and JUTLANDIA of the
of the ENCOUNTER BAY class, owned by Danish East India Company were renowned
Overseas Containers Ltd., and built at the for their speed and were equipped with
ENCOUNTER BAY; SELANDIA; Howaldtswerke shipyard in Hamburg. three screws and three diesel engines,
built 1969, 227 x 30.6 m, 1,578 TEU built 1972, 274 x 32.3 m, 2,272 TEU
40 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 41

Fourth generation — Panamax Max Fifth generation — Post Panamax

(1980-today) (1988-today)
Fourth generation containerships were A new era began in containership design
built with the largest dimensions capable in 1988 when American President Lines
of passing through the Panama Canal (APL) ordered five C-10 class ships with a
before its extension, but with an increased length of 260 m and a width of 39.4 m. The
container capacity. The capacity of first ships delivered had a capacity of 4,300
Panamax containerships increased in TEU. Containers were stowed 15 across
NEDLLOYD DELFT; the mid-1980s and rose to some 4,000 the deck and five tiers high. In the early Early 6th generation container vessel, SOUVEREIGN
built 1982, 290 x 32.2 m, 2,952 TEU MAERSK; built 1997, 347 x 44 m, 6,600 TEU
TEU. Panamax-sized containerships have 1990’s, TEU capacity of these post-Panamax
remained in favour with many shipping vessels rose to around 5,000-5,500 TEU.
delivering a total of 78,605 bhp thus lines and increased load capacities have During this period, particular attention was
achieving a maximum speed of 30 knots. been achieved. paid to the efficiency of the loading and
The largest containerships at this time were unloading operation and shipping lines
the NEDLLOYD DEJIMA and NEDLLOYD The ultimate fourth generation container such as Nedlloyd and Norasia, deployed
DELFT, each equipped with steam turbines class vessels, which are still being built open-top (hatch-less) containerships, where
capable of delivering a speed of up to 28 today, can accommodate up to 4,950 TEU. containers could be stowed 13 tiers high
knots, although normal service speed was With a beam of some 32.3 m, containers can from the cargo hold. This system did not
generally 20-23 knots. Even faster was be stowed in 13 rows across the deck. retain the interest from the market in the
Sea-land’s SL-7 series of which eight were The higher container volumes were long term, but is still in use today in the Late 6th generation container vessel, OOCL SX Class,
OOCL EUROPE; built 2003, 323 x 42.8 m, 8,160 TEU
built in the early 1970’s (see insert Sea- achieved by stretching the vessel’s length short-sea and barge trade.
Land’s SL-7 series, the fastest cargo ships to the Panama Canal limit of 294 m, and by
ever built). The number of containers decreasing the steel weight and increasing Sixth generation — Post Panamax Plus In order to optimise the stacking of
on deck was relatively low compared to the deck stowage. The later versions (1996-today) containers on deck, ships were fitted with
modern standards and the stacking height of Panamax container vessels stowed It was not until 1996 that a further new special lashing bridges. These bridges
was limited to three tiers. containers up to seven to eight tiers high, standard was introduced in container allowed the lashing to be anchored one or
making containers stowed on deck 70 per shipping with the launch of Maersk Line’s two tiers above main deck level.
cent of the total capacity. These ships have REGINA MAERSK. The ship had a capacity
typically a draught of 12.5 m. of 6,000 TEU and a beam of 42.8 m allowed Ship capacity continued to increase and by
17 containers to be stowed across the deck. 2003, OOCL had breached the 8,000 TEU
For many years, a beam of 42.8 m remained barrier with the SX Class series, of which
the standard and ship capacity was mainly 12 vessels were built. Interestingly, these
increased by extending the length of vessels had a length of 323 m, some 44 m
vessels to 350 m and increasing the stacking less than the SOVEREIGN MAERSK
height of the containers on deck to seven to although it has an identical beam of 42.8 m.
eight tiers. Subsequently, in 1997 / 1998, The increased capacity was mainly achieved
a series of 19 Sovereign Class vessels through increased deck carrying capacity.
were launched, each with a capacity of
Modern 4th generation (Panamax) container vessel, 5th generation Post Panamax container vessels, 6,600 TEU.
STADT COBURG; APL’s PRESIDENT TRUMAN and PRESIDENT KENNEDY;
built 2010, 247 x 32.2 m, 4,380 TEU built 1988, 275 x 39.4 m, 4,400 TEU
42 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 43

length x width x draft speed stowage

< 7/10 > number of rows across
1956

3 stowage height on deck

4 under-deck
First generation Early containership 170/200 x 25 x 9 18.5 knots max 1,000 TEU

< 10 >
1966

3/4
5
Second generation First cellular ship 220 x 30 x 10 18.5 knots 1.000 - 2,500 TEU

< 12 >
1972

3/4
8/9
Third generation Panamax range 290 x 32 x 12 23 - 28 knots 2,500 - 4,000 TEU

< 13 >
1980

7/8
8/9
Fourth generation Panamax Max range 290 x 32 x 12 24.3 knots 4,000 - 5,000 TEU

< 16/17 >

1988

5/6
8/9
Fifth generation Post Panamax range 275/320 x 40/43 x 14.5 24.2 knots 4,000 - 6,000 TEU

< 17 >
1996
still being built today

7/8
8
Sixth generation Post Panamax-Plus 350 x 44 x 14.5 25 knots 6,000 - 10,000 TEU

5 < 22 >
2006

9
10
Seventh generation Super Post Panamax 390 x 56 x 15.5 24.5 knots 14,500 TEU

< 23 >
2008

9/11
10
Eight generation Ultra Large Container Ship 395/400 x 54/59 x 16 19 knots 16,000 - 19,000 TEU
44 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 45

Seventh generation — Post New Forward visibility requirements

Panamax (2006-today) Visibility from the navigation bridge must conform with IMO requirements in addition to any local requirements
A new generation of containerships arrived such as those for the Panama Canal etc. Measures such as reducing the vessel’s trim or, alternatively, changing
in 2006 when Maersk Line introduced the the deck cargo stowage may be required to reduce the blind sector to within the stipulated limits.
15,500 TEU capacity, E-Class series. These
vessels were generally described as Post- A Panama Canal Authority (ACP) minimum forward visibility requirements
New Panamax class, as they were bigger Vessels transiting the Panama Canal must comply with the following minimum visibility requirements for the
than the expanded Panama Canal. With navigation bridge, as established in the Maritime Regulations for the Panama Canal in OP Notice to Shipping
a width of 56 m, containers could now be 7th generation container vessel, ELLY MAERSK; No. N-1-2009,
built 2006, 388 X 56.4 m, 15,550 TEU
stowed in 22 rows across the deck. The 1 for laden vessels, the view of the water’s surface from any conning position on the navigation bridge shall not
stacking height on deck increased to nine be obscured more than one (1) ship length forward of the bow, under all conditions of draught and trim.
tiers and lashing bridges were raised to the 2 for vessels in ballast (not laden), the view of the water’s surface from any conning position on the navigation
second tier from the deck. bridge shall not be obscured more than one and one half (1.5) ship lengths forward of the bow, under all
conditions of draught and trim.
The accommodation structure on these Vessels that fail to comply with the ACP’s minimum visibility requirements due to the presence of cargo, cargo
ships is located approximately amidships, gear, structures, or for any other reason, must inform the ACP of this visibility impairment at least 48 hours prior
allowing containers to be stacked higher to arrival in order to properly schedule the transit and minimize any delays.
just forward and aft of the accommodation
structure, whilst not conflicting with the B Extract from SOLAS 1974 (as amended in 1998) Chapter V Regulation 22 – navigation bridge visibility
IMO forward visibility regulations from the Early 8 th generation container vessel, MSC DANIELA; Ships of not less than 45 m in length, as defined in SOLAS regulation II /.12, and constructed on or after 1 July
built 2008, 366 x 51 m, 13,800 TEU
wheelhouse (see page 45). 1998, shall meet the following requirements:
From the conning position, the view of the sea surface shall not be obscured forward of the bow by more than
Eight E-Class vessels were delivered to the containers forward of the bridge to the lesser of two ship lengths or 500 m (1,640 feet) from dead ahead to 10 degrees on either side of the vessel.
Maersk Line in total. Considerations such as be stacked higher whilst still maintaining Within this arc of visibility the blind sector caused by cargo, cargo gear, or other permanent obstructions must not
the length of the propeller shafting system, sufficient forward visibility. Aft of the exceed five degrees.
hull stress and overall efficiency led to the bridge, containers could now be stowed
development of yet another generation of to the maximum height over approximately
containerships, built according to the ‘two 2 / 3 of the vessel’s length, leading to
island configuration’. a considerable improvement in sea surface laden
container capacity. sea surface ballast
1 ship length
Eight generation — Ultra Large A Panama Canal 1.5 ship length
Container Ship (2008-today) The first container vessel built according to
A complete new ship type was achieved this new principle was the MSC DANIELA
by building containerships according to (13,800 TEU) which was delivered in 2008.
the two-island configuration: these ships In 2012, CMA CGM launched its Explorer
were arranged with the navigation bridge Class with the CMA CGM MARCO POLO
B IMO 2 ship lengths or 500 m (which is less)
deck forward of amidships and the after (16,020 TEU) which became the largest
house located above the engine room aft container vessel in the world at that time.
of amidships. This configuration allowed
46 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 2 EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERSHIPS 47

In 2013, a new landmark was set by Maersk Container capacity, what you see is not what you get
with the delivery of the m.v. MAERSK
MCKINNEY MOLLER (18,270 TEU). Container capacity figures should be treated with some caution as the numbers may change quite considerably
depending on the method of calculation used. Contrary to deadweight (DWT) capacity, which is regulated by
The MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER specific rules, there are no strict rules for calculating TEU capacity.
stretched limits which had previously been Nominal TEU capacity. This is the container capacity usually listed on fleet data sheets and related statistics.
deemed unbreakable. The launch of the This is also the number usually referred to in charterparties. Nominal TEU capacity is the maximum capacity
vessel in August 2013 was the first in the of the ship according to its geometric capacity and is governed by the ship’s dimensions, design, lashing and
series of so-called ‘Triple-E class vessels’, CMA CGM MARCO POLO; stacking limitations and compliance to meet bridge visibility regulations. As a result, this number is the reasonable
built 2012, 395 x 54 m, 16,020 TEU
all with identical design and capacity. maximum number of containers the vessel can carry. However, the capacity can be further increased by so-called
20 Triple-E class vessels in total were on ‘blind sector loading’, such as ‘castle stowage’, whereby additional containers are stowed with intermediate
order at the Daewoo shipyard in Korea for visibility gaps, in front of the bridge.
delivery in 2014-2015. Effective TEU capacity. This number reflects the real carrying capacity of the ship, taking into account the
specifics of the trade in which the vessel is operating. For instance, if the vessel is operating in a trade dominated
The vessel’s beam of 59 m enabled by heavy boxes, the effective TEU capacity will be less. The same applies in trades where the majority are high-
containers to be stowed 23 across the deck. cube (9’6’ high) containers or where draft restrictions apply for the ship.
Whilst the Triple-E vessels were actually TEU capacity at 14 metric tonnes. This is a derivative of the effective TEU capacity and reflects the ability
only three metres wider and 11 metres to load a certain number of standard high (8’6’) 20 foot containers, each container loaded with a homogeneous
longer than the EMMA MAERSK, they can weight of 14 tonnes, taking into account draught limitations by freeboard rules, ship stability and a certain
carry some 2,500 boxes more. Included in MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER; quantity of ballast and consumables on board.
built 2013, 399 x 59 m, 18,270 TEU
the improved ship design was a stacking Example: EMMA MAERSK may have a nominal TEU capacity of up to 15,000 TEU.
capacity on deck of 11 tiers and the new At 14 tonne homogeneous load, the capacity is 11,000 TEU. The official figure is 12,500 TEU, which includes a
designs also provided increased cargo a waste-heat recovery system) emissions certain number of empty containers but in fact the vessel could load more than that.
space under deck. per container on the Triple-E class vessels
are 50 per cent lower than on other ships
Radically new design features of the trading on the Asia-Europe route.
Triple-E class included measures to improve
the ship’s energy efficiency. The capacity of In 2014-2015 containerships with even
the main engines was reduced to optimise greater capacity were delivered to other
their performance at a target speed of 19 container shipping lines. By the end of 2015,
knots. This not only significantly reduced the largest containerships in service were
fuel consumption but also emissions per those from the Olympic Class owned by
container. The company claimed that due MSC (e.g. MSC OSCAR) with a total capacity
to these environmental measures (including of 19,224 TEU.
 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 49

Chapter 3

Container flows and

transport networks

Introduction and terminology of cargoes carried in containers are almost

According to the World Shipping Council, unlimited; from unitised commodities
approximately 90 per cent of today’s global (in general-purpose containers), to bulk
trade is carried by sea, of which some 50 cargoes (in bulk containers), liquids (in tank
per cent is carried in containers. The growth containers), perishables (in temperature-
of container shipping in the last 60 years controlled containers), project cargoes and
has been impressive and the volume and yachts (on flatracks) etc.
types of cargoes carried in containers are
increasing all the time. This chapter describes the various stages
of the journey taken by the container; from
Globalisation would have been impossible the place of loading to its final destination,
without the full exploitation of the together with an explanation of the most
possibilities offered by the container. relevant terms used in the industry.
As already stated, the container’s real
importance does not lie in what it is – a Deep sea, feeder and short sea services
simple steel box – but in what it makes carry containers between ports located
possible: intermodalism, or the ability of the close to the open sea or to / from a port
container to be carried by different modes which has a connection to the sea by way of
of transport without having to handle the an inland waterway navigable by seagoing
cargo at an intermediate stage. vessels. Once the container has reached
its port of destination, it will be unloaded
The cargo in the container may be a from the vessel at a terminal and will require
finished product shipped directly to a further transport from the port. Further
supermarket or retail store. Increasingly, transport may involve only a short distance
however, the cargo in the container is by road from the container terminal to a
just part of an end product and requires warehouse. Here, the cargo is unloaded
assembly further down the line. The types from the container and transferred onto
50 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 51

container yard container yard container yard container yard

nt iner t fin nt iner t fin nt iner tri in nt iner tri in
e e n

Most basic container transport, direct shipment from shipper’s premise or factory to receiver’s warehouse
(usually a so-called FCL/FCL-shipment)

packing station packing station

container yard container yard container yard container yard container yard container yard container yard container
logistic
yardcentre logistic centre
consignee consignee
nt iner t fin nt iner t fin nt iner tri in nt iner tri in

e e n

Container transport, involving a container packing station and feeder vessels to connect a regional port to a container hub

train train train train

r e
inland terminal inland terminal r e
container yard container yard container yard r e
container yard r e terminal inland
inland terminal centre
distribution retail
distribution centre retail
nt iner t fin nt iner t fin nt iner tri in nt iner tri in
e e n

Fully intermodal containershipment (truck, train, barge, ship) involving an inland terminal in country of origion and country
of destination and a distribution centre for logistic service and delivery to retail shops
52 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 53

a road trailer for further distribution, either example is the Ruhr area in Germany which Finally, carriage by road offers greater In business, logistics management is
as a whole or in parts. Similarly, cargo to be is served by the port of Rotterdam as well as flexibility but is more costly and has a the part of the supply chain that plans,
exported through the seaport undertakes the Hamburg / Bremen port cluster and the larger impact on traffic congestion and implements, and controls the flow and
the same journey but in reverse. port of Antwerp. Using the Danube the environment. storage of goods, services, and related
and Rhine rivers, the Ruhr area may even information between the point of origin
Containers destined for locations further be served by the port of Constantza On-time delivery and the point of consumption to meet
away from the seaport may use other means in Romania. One of the most important requirements customer requirements.
of on-carriage, such as transport by rail or in transport today is on-time delivery of the
by barge using inland waterways (barging). Modal split shipped goods. Transport is considered Distribution centres form an essential
The percentage of freight using a particular an intrinsic part of the entire supply chain. part of supply chain management and
Hinterland type of transportation, e.g. ship, barge, Container transport operators have made containerised shipments. A distribution
The inland region located behind a port train, truck is generally referred to as ‘modal on-time delivery possible through a system centre is located where a vast number
and served by that port through a network split’. In container transport, cost is often an of fixed sailing schedules and berthing of products are stocked. A typical retail
of road, rail or barge connections is important factor in the choice of preferred windows agreed with terminals. This has distribution network operates with centres
generally referred to as a port’s ‘hinterland’. mode of transport. Carriage by ship or resulted in a different manner of stock set up across a commercial market, with
Ports with a gateway function have a barge involves relative low transport costs control in warehouses; whereas warehouses each centre serving a number of stores.
competitive advantage if they can efficiently and lower carbon footprints, but takes would previously have had to maintain Typical examples of such organisations
serve a large hinterland. An inland region longer and is subject to unpredictable large volumes of stock, most of their are major retailers such as Wal-Mart, IKEA,
is not necessarily linked exclusively to navigational factors such as weather and stock is today floating at sea on board a TESCO etc., whose distribution centres are
one seaport and more than one seaport deviation. Transport by rail is faster, more container carrier. constantly supplied with tens of thousands
may serve a particular hinterland. A good regular but does not offer flexibility. products carried in containers from
Logistics management suppliers all over the world.
Managing the supply chain in such a way
that the right item arrives at the right time,
Baltic Sea at the right place, for the right price in
Nor th Sea the right condition to the right customer
is known as ‘logistics’ and the services
involved are rendered by a ‘logistic service
Bremen
Rotterdam provider’.

Antwerp
The term ‘logistics’ comes from the military.
For an army, it is an important element of Aerial view of a large distribution centre
military strategy to maintain its supply lines
in the best possible way while, at the same Carrier
time, disrupting the supply lines of the In container transport, the term ‘carrier’
enemy. After all, an army without resources does not necessarily apply to the party who
and transportation is defenceless. physically transports the goods from one
Constantza
Rhine / Main / Danube place to another. Very often, an organisation
Blac k
Ruhr area Sea
has outsourced the transport and logistic
Connections with the Ruhr area from Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg/Bremen and Constantza
54 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 55

services to a ‘freight forwarder’ or ‘NVOCC’ role as MTOs, accepting greater liability

(Non Vessel Operating Common Carrier). as carriers. Examples of large freight 3.1
A freight forwarder or NVOCC does not forwarders are Kühne & Nagel, FedEx
own or operate vessels; they may own and UPS. Deep sea transport
containers or hire the container from a
leasing company. An NVOCC is legally Large sea carriers have also evolved into
responsible towards the shipper for the MTOs; they provide customers with a door- Shipping networks and Long-distance (or intercontinental)
transport of the containerised goods and to-door service as well as logistic services. port connections transport of containers has developed
accepts all liabilities as a carrier. However, The sea carrier picks up the container at the Intercontinental container shipping very much along the lines of the ‘hub and
the NVOCC acts as a virtual carrier and sender’s premises, usually located inland networks have emerged in recent spoke’ network system. Within this system,
the actual transport is sub-contracted to and delivers the same container to the decades. This development has supported container traffic moves along spokes
a range of sub-carriers (shipping lines, receiver’s premises, also usually situated the globalisation of production and which are connected to hubs at the centre.
railroad organisations, trucking or barge inland, under one transport bill. In those consumption. From a logistics point of view, Since the 1990’s, many of these hubs have
companies). The NVOCC carrier therefore instances, the sea carrier transports the shippers require frequent direct services emerged particularly along the East-West
acts as shipper towards the actual carrier. container from a container yard at point between their ports of preference. On the trade lanes. Examples of such hubs are
A to the container yard at point B and other hand, shipping lines aim to optimise Singapore and Tanjung Pelapas in Asia,
The carrier responsible for the entire nominates a sub-contractor for the land their transport networks. This is usually Dubai and Salalah in the Middle East, and
carriage is referred to as a ‘multimodal transport. The term ‘carrier haulage’ is a achieved by utilising the space on board ports such as Malta, Algeciras and Gioia
transport operator’ (MTO). specific term to indicate that the shipping vessels in the best possible way (utilisation Tauro in the Mediterranean.
line is responsible for the land transport, as rate) and to operate the service at the
Freight forwarders were traditionally the opposed to ‘merchant haulage’ where the lowest possible cost. Large liner ships call at large ports, usually
agents of the shipper of the goods, but shipper or the receiver is responsible for the located far apart, because each ship carries
more and more, they have moved into a land transport to or from the container yard. As it is both technically and economically a huge volume of cargo. Smaller ports
impossible to establish direct shipping are serviced by feeder ships that cater to
connections between every country, regional and niche markets. The term ‘small’
transport hubs have been established along in the context of ships’ sizes has become a
the main global trading routes, particularly relative concept; ships that were considered
where east / west and north / south trading very large ten years ago, now act as feeder
routes meet. At these points, containers vessels in some trades.
can easily be transshipped from one
vessel to another. This gives shipping lines Today’s shipping networks are very complex
greater flexibility to connect a range of and consist of many different sub-networks
ports around the world with the smallest with regional connections. The combination
number of vessels. Efficiency can be of shipping alliances and vessel sharing
increased further when shipping companies agreements further promote flexibility and
participate in so-called ‘alliances’ with other diversity of hubs and ports within each
shipping lines. shipping network.
56 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 57

Service routes of services, and number of companies In terms of container volume, the most
deploying containerships in a country’s important connections are between Asia
Generally, container shipping may operate their deep-sea itineraries according to three types of service routes: ports. In 2004, the index value was fixed at and North America (Transpacific Pendulum),
» End to end (or shuttle) services 100 for the country with the highest index followed by the Asia – Europe connection
» Pendulum services value (China). The index for a given year and Transatlantic Pendulum serving north-
» Round the World services shows how well connected a country is, west Europe and the east coast of the
End to end services compared to China. The higher the score United States. All of these are mainly east
The container vessels are scheduled back and forth between two continents and a range of ports are called the more active that particular country is west freight movements.
on each continent. Examples are the Trans-Atlantic , Trans-Pacific services and Europe to Asia service. The in the container trade. The index can give
advantage of end to end services is that ship size on these routes is only constrained by the navigational an indication of a country’s developing Important north south connections have
accessibility of the ports along the route. A disadvantage may be imbalance in container volumes between the connectivity over a given number of years. been established between the east coast
two directions of the service. of South America and Europe, between
Pendulum services The table below lists the 25 countries with a range of ports in Asia Pacific but also
These services schedule vessels between three continents, with one continent acting as a central point the highest connectivity index value in 2014. between Australia and Asia Pacific and
(of fulcrum), linking either side of the pendulum swing. For example, a pendulum service may involve North between North America and the east coast
America linking East Asia through Europe (or a European hub) serving as the fulcrum. The main advantage of this Container trade routes of South America.
kind of service is better utilisation of the container space on board as container slots may be filled four times on There are nearly 500 liner shipping services
the same voyage. Pendulum services can be arranged in many different shapes and can also be merged with end providing regular scheduled services that With the future opening of the expanded
to end services. enable goods to move between ports along Panama Canal (and possibly Nicaragua
Round the world service the many trade routes crossing the globe. Canal), new liner services using larger
This service ties the world’s three trade corridors (i.e. Europe / Africa, North America and Asia) into one.
The service can move either in a westward or eastward direction or in both directions. The main disadvantage 175
of this type of service is that vessel size is limited by the dimensions of the Panama Canal which is included in 2004 (China = 100)
a round the world services. 150 2014 (China = 165)

125
The flow of containerised trade across development of an area often starts
100
the globe is very much determined by the once local ports receive regular calls by
strategies of the individual liner companies a container liner service. 75
and shippers’ demand for certain types
of services. Whether or not a port will be The Liner Shipping Connectivity Index 50
included in a liner network depends on (LSCI) captures how well countries are
25
a number of factors, such as the actual connected to global shipping networks.
or expected density of the flow of trade, It is compiled by the United Nations 0
deviation from an existing network, political Conference on Trade and Development

USA
China
Hong Kong
Singapore
Republic of Korea
Malaysia

The Netherlands
Germany
United Kingdom
Belgium
France
Spain
Italy
United Arab Emirates
Morocco
Japan
Egypt
Saudi Arabia
Sweden
Sri Lanka
Turkey
Denmark
Poland
Malta
Oman
stability in the region, etc. Studies have (UNCTAD) and is based on five components
shown that connection to such networks is of the maritime transport sector: the
important for the economic development number of ships, container carrying
of a region or even a country. The rapid capacity, maximum vessel size, number
Top 25 connectivity index (source: UNCTAD)
58 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 59

to container shipping as they are the Panama Canal New Panama Canal
chokepoints in the flow of intercontinental
container traffic. draught 12.5 m 18 m
Bosporus
Gibraltar
Suez Canal Strait of Hormuz
width 32.25 m 57 m
Panama Canal
Bab el-Mandab
Panama Canal
Strait of Malacca The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic
Ocean with the Pacific Ocean, and runs New Panama Canal (since 2015)
from Cristobal on the Atlantic side to New locks were constructed, which,
Cape of Good Hope Balboa on the Pacific side. The canal together with the deepening of the access
consists of artificial lakes, several channels, allow ships with a maximum
improved and artificial channels, and length of 366 m, a width of 57 m and a
World chart with most important container trade routes three sets of locks. draught of 18 m to use the canal. The ships
passing through these news locks are no
container vessels will be established, to Important maritime passages Caribbean Sea longer positioned by locomotives but
support higher volumes and more frequent Maritime shipping supports some 90 per by tugboats.
COSTA RICA Panama Canal
east west connections, particularly between cent of global trade by volume and 72 per
Asia Pacific and the east coast of North cent of its value. Clearly, an efficient and Panama Suez Canal
America. The realisation of port expansion smooth running of this industry is very The Suez Canal is an artificial waterway
plans in North America was necessary to important. To connect continents around COLOMBIA
connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the
make these ports accessible to very large the world, maritime shipping depends Pacific Ocean Red Sea. It is an open connection between
container vessels. on relatively narrow lanes of transoceanic Port Said at the Mediterranean Sea side and
passages which are of strategic significance. construction completed 1914 the Gulf of Suez.
Because of global trade imbalances, a current owner Panama Canal Authority (ACP)
large number of empty containers need Since the beginning of shipping, the unique length of canal 82 km Until July 2015, ships passing the Suez
to be transported by sea as well. There features of these main maritime passages operational / ship design restrictions: Canal had to sail in convoys with substantial
are approximately 2.2 times more full have also placed important limitations on draught 12 m waiting times as the size of certain sections
containers being transported from Asia to the design of ships, and the location of the width 32.25 m of the Canal allowed for one-way traffic
Europe than from Europe to Asia. A similar navigable route. For example, the Panama length 295.4 m only. The Suez Canal expansion project
locks yes; Gatun locks
situation exists in the Asia to North America Canal imposes restrictions on the width added a new 35 km long shipping lane
(Atlantic side, Christobal)
trade. A containership sailing from Europe (max. 32.25 m) and draught (max. allowing for separated passing of ships in
Miraflores and San Pedro locks
or North America towards Asia carries half 12.04 m - upon request) of the design of opposite directions. The existing section of
(Pacific side, Balboa)
the load it carried on its way to Europe or (container) ships. the Canal was also deepened.
tolls Yes, for containerships based
North America. This large number of
on intake capacity: USD 72.00
empty containers poses significant While ships continue to increase in size, the per TEU, effective from 2009.
This increased capacity allows 97 ships to
challenges to the liner companies in their limitations on ship design created by two A new toll rate applies as from pass the Canal every day compared to 49
logistic processes. other important maritime passages must April 2016. ships before the expansion project.
also be taken into consideration, namely the The waiting times decreased from 11 to 3
Suez Canal and the Strait of Malacca. These hours for most ships.
three passages are of vital importance
60 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 61

The expansion project was completed in Strait of Malacca Deep sea container ports Containerisation has also fundamentally
one year and the New Canal was officially The Strait of Malacca is one of the world’s The location of container ports is very changed the layout of shipping terminals
inaugurated on 6 August 2015. most important shipping lanes. much a reflection of how containerisation and the reasons for their location. In
has changed the commercial geography particular the larger container vessels
Indian Ocean South of the world. Until the year 2000, the most do not have onboard cranes, and
Mediterranean Sea
China
important container ports were New York consequently, significant onshore

Str
Sea

ait
ISRAEL MALAYSIA and Rotterdam, but with the emergence investment is required to provide cranes to

of
M
Suez Canal cc

al
a of the strong economies in the Asia Pacific load and discharge the containers. As the

a
EGYPTE Caïro
region, a significant change occurred. container itself protects the cargo from the
Gul
fo

Singapore In less than a decade, many container ports elements, cargo warehouses are no longer
fS

z
ue

INDONESIA
were established or further developed required. On the other hand, ample storage
along the Tokyo – Singapore corridor. space is required to store the containers on
Today, with the exception of Dubai and the dockside.
construction completed 1869
The majority of maritime trade between the port of Los Angeles/Long Beach, the
(expanded in 1980, 2001 and
2015)
Europe, India, the Middle East and Asia world’s top ten container ports are all Global container carriers prefer to exercise

current owner Suez Canal Authority (SCA) passes through this natural corridor. located in Asia Pacific. As of 2014, the port some control over the terminal and its
length of canal 163 km of Rotterdam, which is Europe’s largest operations. Particularly in locations where
operational/ship design restrictions: The strait measures approximately 800 km container port is twelfth on that list and they handle large cargo volumes, global
draught 20.0 m in length and has a width of between 50 New York twenty third. container carriers operate their own
air draught 68 m and 320 km. At Phillips Channel, just south terminals or even entire ports.
width 50 m of Singapore, the Strait of Malacca narrows
length unlimited to 2.8 km (1.5 nautical miles), creating one
locks no
of the world’s most significant maritime
tolls yes; depending on the tonnage
traffic junctions. In naval architecture, the
(Suez Canal tonnage) and
term ‘Malaccamax’ is used to refer to the
number of container tiers on
largest ship capable of passing through the
deck. Ranging from
25 m deep Strait. The typical Malaccamax
approximately USD 250,000
for a 4,000 TEU vessel to
vessel used to be a bulker or a supertanker
USD 650,000, for a with a length of 330 m, a beam of 60 m and
13,000 TEU vessel a draught of 20.5 m.

Suez Canal The latest generation of containerships

has been built in accordance with the
draught 20 m Malaccamax size requirements, but for
reasons of safety and operational efficiency,
width 50 m
and to make these ships capable of
calling at several ports across the
continents, the design draught of these
ships has been limited.
Container terminal Antwerp
62 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 63

12 16

17
11 15
7 6 10
8 3 1
9 5
14
20 4 18
13
train trucks barge 19 2

waterside landside

In terms of ownership and access by users, area and is the area where the containers
container terminals may therefore be split are stacked and temporarily stored.
into ‘dedicated’ terminals, the use of which 1 Shanghai 35,300 6 Busan 18,700 11 Tianjin 14,100 16 Hamburg 9,800
is reserved for one single or a small A container terminal can serve as a place 2 Singapore 33,900 7 Qingdao 16,600 12 Rotterdam 12,300 17 Antwerp 9,000
3 Shenzhen 24,000 8 Guangzhou Harbor 16,600 13 Port Kelang 11,000 18 Xiamen 8,600
number of operators, and common where containers are transhipped from one
4 Hong Kong 22,200 9 Dubai 15,300 14 Kaohsiung 10,600 19 Tanjung Pelepas 8,500
‘multi-user’ terminals, which are open to vessel to another vessel (the so-called ‘hub
5 Ningbo-Zhoushan 19,500 10 L.A. / Long Beach 15,200 15 Dalian 10,100 20 Laem Chabang 6,600
any liner company with a contract with the function’). This function is usually used to
terminal operator. link transport networks to each other. Only World’s top 20 container ports, measured by container throughput 2014, in 1000 TEU (source: Alphaliner)
a very limited number of the containers
The four largest operators of container arriving at these ports are destined for one carrier but may be less significant for in the selection of a port site within the
terminals in terms of container throughput the country or place where the terminal is another carrier. For instance, Antwerp in shipping networks.
are Hutchinson Port Holdings (HPH), China located. This is different from the so-called Belgium is the main hub for MSC in
Merchants Holding Int. (CMHI), APM ‘gateway’ ports, which are especially Europe while it serves relatively fewer The table above presents the world’s top
Terminals, Cosco Pacific, Port of Singapore equipped to serve a hinterland. vessels from Maersk Line. On the other 20 container ports, measured by ‘container
Authority (PSA) and DP World. The hand, Algeciras is the main European hub throughput’. Container throughput is the
terminals operated by these six companies The connections to the hinterland can be in for Maersk Line, but is relatively insignificant amount of cargo that passes through a
handle approximately 40 per cent of the the form of rivers, lakes, canals, and rail or in the MSC network. port, and is measured in units of 20 foot
world’s total container throughput. road systems. As a result, hub ports usually containers (TEU).
have large storage areas but limited or no With the deployment of the very large
Container terminals are divided into the connections with other modes of transport. container vessels, nautical accessibility The top three ports in the above list are
waterside area, the storage yard and the Gateway ports place great emphasis (water depth) and availability highlighted below.
landside area. The waterside area consists on providing efficient connections to of space have become important factors
of a quay and apron for serving the vessels. rail or barge terminals and access to
The landside area consists of the hinterland road transport.
servicing area for connections to barges,
trucks and trains. The storage yard The function of a terminal or port may differ
decouples the waterside from the landside depending on the container carriers using
the site; a port or terminal can be a hub for
64 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 65

Transport connections capable of

St r
MALAYSIA CHINA

ait
East China Sea
handling larger number of containers in

of
M
cc Kuala Lumpur

ala
a one movement are established between
Guangzhou Shenzhen
ze Singapore Xi an inland terminal and a seaport. For
gt INDONESIA
Ya
n Shanghai Hong Kong
Hangzhou example, one freight train can carry up to
forty truckloads, whilst one barge can carry
East China Sea anything up to several hundred truckloads.
CHINA

The port of Shanghai The port of Singapore The port of Shenzen There are many different shapes, sizes and
Shanghai is probably the best example of Singapore became the world’s largest Shenzhen is situated in the south of varieties of inland (or intermodal) terminals,
how the Chinese economy established itself container port when it took over from the Pearl River Delta in the province of and likewise, many different names are
as an economic power in a relatively short Hong Kong in 2005. Singapore is a Guangdong, China, and is one of the fastest being used to describe this type of facility,
period of time. In 1991, when the central typical container hub; a large majority growing ports and cities in southern China. such as:
government of China allowed Shanghai to of the containers arriving at the port are The port acts as the economic hinterland » Inland clearance depot
commence commercial activities, container transhipped to other ports. connection for the nearby port of » Container freight station
handling in the port was insignificant. Hong Kong but has also developed » Inland container depot
Twenty years later, Shanghai became Singapore is located on the southern tip of into an important port for China’s » Intermodal freight centre
the biggest container port in the world, the Malay Peninsula, at the entrance to the international trade. » Logistics centre/freight village
overtaking Singapore. Strait of Malacca, one of the world’s most » Inland freight terminal
important marine traffic junctions. Within 50 km of Shenzhen, are the ports of » Inland port
The port, which is a typical gateway type Hong Kong, Shekou, and Yantian, together » Dry port
port, is situated in the centre of China’s The port is also the largest port in the world representing what is probably the highest
18,000 km long coastline, where the for the bunkering of fuel oil. concentration of container activity in The most common description is the term
Yangtze River flows into the sea. Through the world. ‘inland terminal’. The main features of an
a network of inland waterways and rail inland terminal are:
connections, it serves the entire Yangtze Inland ports and terminals » it is an intermodal terminal – bimodal
River valley, one of the most densely In most parts of the world, trucking is the where two transport modes are
populated areas in the world with a very predominant mode of transport between a concerned, or trimodal involving three
high economic activity, mainly focussed on seaport and its hinterland. Containers are transport modes
manufacturing and export of goods. picked up from the terminal for transport to » it is situated inland
the final receiver’s premises either directly » it provides regular and reliable rail or
or indirectly, i.e. after transfer of the load barge connections from/to the seaport
from a warehouse onto a road trailer. » it offers the same ancillary services as
are available at seaports and freight
However, as the volume of cargo to be terminals, including:
distributed increases, issues such as » storage of containers (buffer function
costs, energy consumption and delays for the seaport)
due to congestion may provide sufficient » empty container storage
incentives to set up an inland terminal. » repair and maintenance of containers
66 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 67

» customs clearance carried by the terminal operator to the

» warehousing, supply chain inland terminal under their own transport 3.2
management regime. This has created a situation where
» distribution. terminal operators have become carriers Short sea container transport
of containers, either by deploying their
The concept of inland ports has developed own transport equipment or by hiring
particularly in Western Europe. Logistics equipment from others. Deep sea container transport is the In general, short sea shipping is seagoing
zones, mostly with rail-based inland shipment of containers from one continent trade, including the movement of cargo,
terminals, can be found in almost every Large numbers of inland ports can also to the other, carried by very large mainly along a coast without transiting
region or close to any major city. This be found in North America, where they are containerships between major hub ports an ocean.
development was strongly supported mostly referred to as ‘load centres’. They with smaller feeder vessels delivering the
by the liberalisation of rail services in service the ocean trade from and to ports in containers from these hub ports to smaller European short sea shipping
Europe, especially in major sea ports such the Atlantic, the Gulf and Pacific areas. regional ports. The feeder vessels’ own In Europe, short sea container shipping has
as Rotterdam, Antwerp and Marseille. In One of the world‘s largest inland ports is schedules tie in with those of the deep sea mainly developed as a multimodal door-
some ports, such as Basel, the majority of the port of Montreal in Canada. container vessels. to-door transport concept for the carriage
the containers handled are transported by of intra-European cargo. It also includes
barge. The largest inland port in Europe is In Asia, a large number of inland ports (over Since the early 1990’s, a new type of destinations bordering the European Union.
Duisburg, Germany. 2.000) are found along China’s Yangtze and container trade has been developing in
Yellow Rivers. The cities of Nanjing and parallel with and entirely independent of The European Transport Policy has been
Several European inland ports are owned Chongqing are two of the largest inland the deep sea container trade discussed promoting intermodal transport for the last
or operated by the same owner/operator ports in China. In addition to these river- above. This new transport segment is 20 years. Aspects such as road congestion,
as the seaport. Containers arriving at the based inland ports, many rail-based inland generally referred to as ‘short sea container environmental impact and sustainability
seaport with an inland destination are ports are being established in China. shipping’, and its development has been against the background of a continuously
particularly rapid in Europe. One of the increasing volume of goods were the main
main drivers behind this growth is the reasons for this policy. Various instruments
incentivising policy of the European Union, were used by the European Union as well
which sees a great number of advantages as its individual member states to bring the
of short sea shipping compared to road policy into practice, such as improving and
transport which is often characterised by financing current and new infrastructure,
congestion, environmental issues, etc. smoothing administrative bottlenecks
(customs), and support for the providers of
The term ‘short sea shipping’ is relatively the transport services.
Largest inland port in Europe: Duisburg new. The trade from which it originates
has existed for centuries and used to be Over the years, many projects involving
referred to as ‘coastal trade’. In the United short sea shipping have been initiated
States it was also referred to as the ‘marine throughout the European Union and various
highway’ or the ‘highway of the seas’. formal and informal networking groups
have been established to further enhance
68 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 69

Short-Sea connections
European short sea shipping covers a 20, 40 and 45 foot long containers with a
very wide geographical area. It stretches height of either 8’6” / 2.59 m (standard high)
Atlantic Ocean from the Baltic states across Scandinavia or 9’6” / 2.89 m (high cube). In the deep
Baltic
Sea Helsinki and Iceland, via the United Kingdom, sea trade, the variation in container size
Oslo Stockholm Ireland, and Western Europe to the Iberian is governed by ISO standards and mainly
Moscow Peninsula and the Mediterranean as well as limited by the design of the vessel and the
North Sea
Dublin to Northern Africa and the Black Sea. positioning of cell guides and container
Hamburg Warsaw
Berlin foundations on deck.
Celtic Sea Rotterdam
The main European centre for short
Milan sea activities is Rotterdam, followed by In the European short sea shipping sector
Bay of Bucharest
Biscay Ad Antwerp and Hamburg. Several terminals in a large variety of container types have been
ria Black Sea
Barcelona tic
Sea Istanbul Rotterdam operate containers exclusively introduced over the years, mainly aimed

Lisbon Athens for the short sea trade. at better adapting to the characteristics
and dimensions of the cargo to be carried
Casablanca Mediterranean Sea Most short sea shipping lines operate by the container. Containers with a length
both in the short sea and in the feeder of 10, 21, 23, 27, 30 and 35 feet etc., can
Cairo trade. This implies that ships in this trade be seen on board a typical short sea type
Short sea shipping connections in Europe call at several terminals in one port to pick vessel, and many of these with an expanded
up and / or deliver cargo from / to different external width of 2.50 m – so-called ‘pallet
the growth of short sea container shipping ESPO transport chains. wide’ containers, or 2.55 m which are also
in Europe. Some of these are: European Sea Ports Organisation known as ‘over-wide’ bulk containers.
Founded in 1993, it represents port Short sea shipping is not bound by The pallet wide container was designed
TEN-T authorities, port associations and port limitations in type and size of containers for better utilisation of the container space
Trans-European Transport Networks administrations of the seaports of Norway as is the deep sea shipping sector. The when loading pallets (see The success of
The role of TEN-T is to support financially and European Union member states. ESPO typical dimensions of containers in deep Europe’s 45 foot intermodal container).
transport projects of common interest to also has observer members in several sea container transport are standardised
the member states of the European Union. neighbouring countries to the EU.
The projects aim to facilitate the mobility
The success of Europe’s 45 foot intermodal container
of goods and passengers within the EU. ESN
Its annual budget is approximately European Shortsea Network One particular type of container has become very popular in the short sea shipping trade in Europe, and that
EUR 1 – 1.5 billion. ESN is a forum for co-operation between all is the 45 foot intermodal container. This is the longest container which can be carried by road within mainland
the national short sea promotional centres, Europe. As European short sea shipping is often a combination of sea and road transport, the restrictions on the
MOS and is not exclusively for EU members. largest size permitted for road transport must be taken into account. These restrictions are laid down in Council
Motorways of the Sea (MOS) ESN provides information, and organises Directive 96 / 53 / EC.
The concept was first introduced in the conferences and seminars, all aimed at
White Paper on European Transport Policy promoting the role of short sea shipping Council Directive 96 / 53 / EC of 25 July 1996 has laid down the maximum permitted dimensions of certain road
of 2001, and aims to design logistics in Europe. vehicles operating within Europe in both national and international traffic, and the maximum permitted weight in
corridors based on short sea shipping international traffic.
similar in nature to the motorways on land.
70 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 71

kingpin
The large range of different containers
carried in the European short sea sector

2040
created a need for a special type of vessel
2040
which could offer the carrier sufficient

16500
12000
45FT bevelled corner casting flexibility to stow, lash and secure the

12000
4500 containers in a safe and efficient manner.

In the period between 2001 and 2008,

The Directive also states that the total distance from the kingpin of the container trailer to the aft end of the a large number of ships were built to serve Sietas 168 type containership for short sea, 862 TEU

container should be no more than 12,000 mm. The standard 45 foot ISO container exceeds this maximum the growing short sea shipping business in
permissible length by 80 mm. An industry lobby working to have the 45 foot ISO container accepted by all Europe. A significant percentage of these
European states failed, and it cannot, therefore, be carried by road everywhere in Europe. new vessels for the short sea sector was
built at the shipyard of Sietas in Hamburg-
Simply moving the 45 foot container 80 mm further forward will not solve the issue, as the same Directive states Neuenfelde, Germany. The most popular
that, at the forward end, the container should be within 2,040 mm of the kingpin. As a result, a container was class was the Sietas 168 class, which had
designed with a length of 45 foot but with the forward corner castings bevelled at an angle of approximately a carrying capacity of 862 TEU. The cell-
45 degrees (see illustration above). This container construction complied with the EC Directive and made the guided cargo holds were designed without
container fit for road and sea transport in Europe. hatchcovers and the ships could carry
both over-length as well as over-width Sietas 178 type containership for short sea, 1,400 TEU
Baltic Max
Council Directive 96 / 53 / EC also imposed restrictions on the maximum height of the trailer and container, which containers. Later ships were designed with
was limited to 4,000 mm. A standard road trailer can therefore carry a container with a height of 2,775 mm. a larger carrying capacity, i.e. up to 1,400
A special trailer was designed with a so-called (lowered) ‘gooseneck’ chassis to accommodate the carriage of high TEU, which were referred to as ‘Baltic Max’
cube containers with a height of 2.89 m. container vessels.

Furthermore, in order to better align the width of the container with the standard pallet sizes used in the In Europe, short sea connections are also
European trade (so-called ‘EUR pallets’ with a dimension of 1200 x 800, L x W), the internal width was increased offered by the many ferry services between
from a standard 2.348 m. to 2.438 m. the continent and the United Kingdom,
Scandinavia, etc.
The 45 foot pallet wide, high-cube container has gained so much in popularity in the European trade that it has
become available with a large variety of options to meet particular trade requirements: Shipping connections were also established
» the 45 foot curtain-sided container between seaports and inland ports such
» the 45 foot reefer container; including diesel electric power supply as Duisburg and Dortmund using hybrid
» the 45 foot bulk container vessels. These vessels are small enough to
» the 45 foot double door container (e.g. for the carriage of rolls of carpet) use inland waterways, while at the same
» the 45 foot dry box with double load floor (e.g. for the carriage of cars) time meeting flag state and classification
» the 45 foot open-top container (e.g. for long / heavy objects exceeding the height of the container ceiling) society requirements for overseas voyages.
» the 45 foot dry box for hanging garments Some navigation restrictions usually apply
» the 45 foot dry box with extra tall doors. for these types of vessels, e.g. weather,
(source: Unit 45) distance from coast, etc.
72 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 73

Cabotage laws and the Jones Act

Short sea container shipping in ensure reliable, regular, competitive and
North America sustainable services’. As in Europe, these Cabotage is the transport of goods or passengers between two points in the same country alongside coastal
The majority of long-distance container efforts are aimed at reducing landside waters, by a vessel registered in another country. Most countries enact cabotage laws for reasons of economic
transport in North America is carried by congestion and air emissions and to protectionism, national security, or public safety.
the railways, whilst road transport is the produce other public interest benefits.
preferred option for shorter distances. America’s Marine Highway System consists The Jones Act, or the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, is a US federal rule that supports the promotion and
of over 40,000 km of navigable waterways. maintenance of the American merchant marine. It regulates, amongst others, matters of maritime commerce
However, in 2007, America’s Marine These include rivers, bays, channels, the in US waters and between US ports. Section 27 of the Jones Act deals with cabotage, i.e. coastal shipping, and
Highway Program was established under Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence Seaway restricts the carriage of goods or passengers between United States ports to US built and flagged vessels.
section 1121 of Energy Independence System, coastal, and open ocean routes.
and Security Act and the United States
Department of Transport, Maritime Marine Highway Routes are divided into Some in the industry are of the opinion Coastal transportation of containers
Administration (MARAD) is tasked with corridors, connectors, and crossings. that short sea services in North America takes place on every continent in the
its execution. In 2012, the scope of the The corridors comprise long, multi-state could be significantly increased if cabotage world, but are mostly combined with
program was expanded by section routes that run parallel to major national rules, tariff issues and duty aspects were feeder or (passenger) ferry services. The
405 of the Coast Guard and Maritime highways. Connectors are shorter routes removed. An example of such legislation is types and sizes of containers carried
Transportation Act. that serve as feeders to the larger corridors. the Jones Act (see above), which prevents are similar to those carried by deep sea
Crossings are short routes passing through foreign registered carriers from transporting container services (20, 40 and 45 foot long).
The aim of the program is to ‘integrate harbours or waterways as an alternative to containers between ports in the US. Frequent coastal services are maintained,
Marine Highway vessels and ports into the much longer land routes. for example, between South East Asia,
surface transportation system, in order to Short sea shipping in other areas China, Japan and Korea. In China, the
As described above, the concept of short port of Nanjing, which is situated some
sea shipping is to provide a door to door 200 km upstream of the Yangtze River has
service between ports in the same country, developed into China’s busiest inland port
region or continent without crossing an and is the most important economic centre
ocean. The vessels employed in these in China after Shanghai. The port of Nanjing
trades offer flexibility in terms of the variety offers many direct coastal services to other
of containers they can carry. As such, the ports in the region.
short sea shipping trade has matured
in Europe only. Programmes have been Apart from coastal services, there is also
Toronto initiated in the United States to establish inter-island traffic for the transport of
Pac if ic O cean Chicago Boston
New York
a similar type of trade to compete with containers in countries such as Indonesia
San Francisco
Los Angeles Washington, D.C. road transport. and between the various islands in
Atlanta
the Caribbean.
A tlantic O cean
America’s Marine Highway Routes Gulf of Miami
Mexico
MH Corridor
MH Connector San Juan
MH Crossing

Short sea shipping connections in North America (source: MARAD)

74 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 75

many navigational obstacles or seasonal

3.3 differences allow access only during certain
periods of the year. Furthermore, rivers
Container transport by barge are only suitable as a major transport
connection if their direction of flow
corresponds with the direction of the
The term ‘inland waterways’ includes rail transport appeared to be a better transport demand. For example, many
natural rivers, lakes, channels and man- alternative for transporting larger volumes rivers in Russia flow in a north-south
made canals. The use of inland waterways of goods over longer distances. direction, while the main demand for freight Pushed container convoy, Mississippi River
to transport goods goes back to the transport is east-west.
early stages of the industrial revolution During the first half of the twentieth century,
in the nineteenth century when barges barges were constructed with their own Significant inland waterways serving inland
were the only way to transport goods in propulsion systems which introduced a markets and used for container transport
larger volumes and at a cost that were not period when inland navigation became are, in particular, found in Western Europe,
comparable to road transport. Many canals increasingly important, particularly in but also in North America (Mississippi River
were built, particularly in England and the Western Europe. New canals were built or and The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes system)
United States to transport goods between existing canals were widened and deepened. and the interior of China.
the industrialising areas. Later on, most of
these canals were closed to commercial Some 50 countries have natural inland Inland navigation is focussed on serving Self propelled container barge, Europe

traffic as their size (width / draught) was navigation networks that are a thousand geographic regions. The type of barges
too small to meet the demand for vessels km long or more. However, not all rivers deployed on the various inland waterway
with greater capacity. At that time, can be used for transport purposes as too systems worldwide, are unique to each
region. The same applies to the rules and
regulations these barges have to comply
with. In contrast to international deep sea
and coastal shipping, there is no regulatory
system covering inland navigation
shipping with a similar global coverage,
e.g. IMO, SOLAS. Barge transport, port of Hong Kong

Inland freight vessels can be either

self-propelled vessels, pushed barges
operated by a push boat or towed barges
operated by a towing vessel. Barges can be
interconnected to form a convoy and, if not
self-propelled, they can be operated by a
push boat or towing vessel.

Ship to barge transfer, port of Hong Kong

Overview rivers and inland waterways in the world

76 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 77

Europe When container shipping started to of Rotterdam, transported to Ginsheim by containers as high as possible. There were
The inland waterway network in Europe develop in Europe in the late 1960’s, inland barge after which they were carried by truck no rules and repeatedly barges capsized
covers some 50,000 km of rivers and canals transport of containers was mainly by to the US army depots. due to lack of stability. There was significant
of which 50 per cent is accessible to barges road. Rail transport became increasingly growth in container transport by barge
with a capacity of 1,000 tons or more. In important at a later stage, for example to In the wake of the accelerated growth of between the ports of Rotterdam, Antwerp
Europe, inland waterway traffic is mainly connect the German Ruhr area with the global container transport, inland transport and several inland ports along the Rhine.
concentrated in Germany (7,500 km of German ports of Bremerhaven by barge became increasingly important The Rhine is one of the world’s busiest
waterways), The Netherlands (5,000 km), and Hamburg. in Europe. Cross-border transport of inland waterways
Balticand
Seamillions tonnes of
Belgium (1,600 km) and France (15,000 km). containers by rail proved inferior compared freight are carried on this natural waterway

North Sea TEU

1 Duisburg 2,253,000
Atlantic Ocean 2 Mannheim 2,014,000
Baltic 3 Neuss-Düsseldorf 658,000
Sea 4 Köln 557,000
5 Strassbourg 361,000
Meuse 6 Germersheim 226,000
North Sea 7 Bonn 178,000

Rh
Hamburg 8 Mulhouse Ottmarsheim 157,000

ine
Rotterdam Ma 9 Wörth 121,000
Celtic Sea Duisburg in
10 Mainz 117,000
Se

sel
in Sa
e 11 Koblenz 100,000

Mo
ar

Neckar
Basel 12 Basel 99,000
Constantza Dan

ne
ub e 13 Ludwigshafen 85,000
Bay of

Rhi
Biscay Ad 14 Andernach 80,000
ria Black Sea 15 Emmerich 78,000
tic
Sea
16 Kehl 66,000
17 Karlsrühe 54,000
18 Weil 25,000
waterways
7,229,000
Mediterranean Sea container terminal

PO

Overview of rivers and inland waterways in Europe Rhine River with container ports and transport volumes (source: EICB)

E
RHÔN
DONAU

The most important European waterway The first transport of containers by barge to transport by barge. Rail systems in the each year. In terms of capacity and
system is the River Rhine and its tributaries. took place in 1980 when a company called various countries were often different and operational accessibility, the Rhine can be
It connects the ports of Amsterdam, Kieserling started a barge service between transport had to be carried on the same divided into three sections:
Rotterdam and Antwerp to inland the port of Rotterdam and the inland port of track as busy passenger traffic, which had
destinations in Germany and Switzerland Ginsheim Gustavsburg, situated where the priority over freight transport. The Lower Rhine – Rotterdam to
(Basel) over a distance of some nine River Rhine flows into the Main. Kieserling Cologne – 350 km
hundred km. Barges up to 192 m long, 12 m had agreed a contract for the carriage of In the beginning there was limited This part of the Rhine can accommodate
wide and with a 4 m draught can travel from containerised supply for the United States experience with container transport using the largest self-propelled barges with a
North Sea ports to Constantza in the Black Army forces based in central Europe. inland navigation barges. At that time, capacity of 500 TEU as well as push / tug
Sea using the Main Donau Canal, a distance The containers from the United States were barge owners experimented by using dry combinations with six barges with a
of some 3,500 km. unloaded from ocean vessels in the port bulk push barges and loading them with capacity up to 800 TEU. There are no
78 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 79

locks on this part of the Rhine. The most classification length breadth draught air draft tonnage
important port in this section of the I 38.5 5.05 1.8-2.2 4 250 - 400
Rhine is Duisburg, Europe’s largest inland
II 50 / 55 6.6 2.5 4/5 400 - 650
port. The port has an annual turnover of
III 67 / 80 8.2 2.5 4/5 650 - 1,000
approximately 110 million tonnes of cargo,
including some 3.4 million TEU of IV 80 / 85 9.5 2.5 5.25 / 7 1,000 - 1,500

containers (2014). Va 95 / 110 11.4 2.5-4.5 5.25 / 7 1,500 - 3,000

Vb 172 / 185 11.4 2.5-4.5 9.1 3,200 (convoy » 1 x 2)

The Middle Rhine – Cologne to Container barge, Scheldt Rhine Canal
VIa 95 / 110 22.8 2.5-4.5 7 / 9.1 3,200 - 6,000 (convoy » 2 x 1)
Karlsruhe – 330 km
The conditions on this part of the river are VIb 185 / 195 22.8 2.5-4.5 7 / 9.1 6,400 -12,000 (convoy » 2 x 2)

comparable to those of the Lower Rhine. VIc 193 / 200 34.2 2.5-4.5 9.1 9,600 - 18,000 (convoy » 2 x 3)

There are no locks but restraints upstream

of Mainz do limit the size of vessels. CEMT-classification, dimensions in metres (source: CEMT)

The Upper Rhine – Karlsruhe to as well by delivering or picking up the Within the framework of this classification,
Basel – approx. 200 km container at an inland terminal. three typical container barges have been
Vessel size and carrying capacity in this part designed with capacities from 32 TEU to
of the Rhine are restricted by draught and World’s largest locks for inland navigation, In Europe, canal dimensions and barge 500 TEU.
Volkerak Locks, Netherlands
a series of eleven locks with a maximum types are strongly linked. Barges are
capacity of 110 x 11.40 x 2.50 m (length x Canal. The Canal connects the Rhine with classed according to the waterway they On the larger container barges, the
width x depth). the River Scheldt and provides direct access can safely transit and grouped into containers are stowed six containers wide at
to the various container terminals in these CEMT classes. (Conférence Européenne most and five to six tiers high. There are no
The container carrying capacity of inland ports and has the world’s largest locks for des Ministres de Transport / European hatchcovers fitted on these container
barges on the Rhine is also limited by the inland traffic, in terms of annual volume: Conference of Ministers of Transport). barges. The cargo holds may be fitted with
river’s water level. When the Rhine has a the Volkerak locks. The locks’ three basins CEMT was founded in 1953 to co-ordinate cell guides extending above the hatch
high water level, the clearance below the measure 200 x 23.50 x 4.75 m (length x European transport policies. In 2006, CEMT coaming. Only the containers which extend
bridges will be insufficient to permit four width x depth) each. was renamed the International Transport above the cell guides require securing.
tiers of stowage. During dry periods and Forum. It has its headquarters in Paris. For barges which do not have cell guides,
low water, draught is a limiting factor. The transport of goods and containers by the usual practice in Europe is that only
Most of the specialised container barges in barge is heavily promoted by the
Europe have liftable wheelhouses, allowing European Union Transport Policy. Inland length x width x draft stowage

the containers on deck to be stowed as high barge terminals have emerged all over
55 x 6.6 x 2.5 32 TEU
as stability and bridge clearance permits at Europe where there is sufficient
any given time. navigational access. All import or export
procedures can be completed at inland 110 x 11.4 x 3 250 TEU
Most container traffic in North West Europe container ports. Congestion in the
takes place between the ports of Rotterdam urbanised seaport areas can be avoided
135 x 16.9 x 5.5 500 TEU
and Antwerp through the Scheldt Rhine
Different types of container barges
80 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 81

Stability requirements for inland navigation vessels carrying

containers which extend above the coaming in Europe has been taken by the Central
containers
of the barge are secured. Stacking cones Commission for the Navigating of the Rhine
are applied between the container tiers to (CCNR). The framework, which in itself is The provisions of Rule 22 of the EC Directive 2006 / 87 / EC require the vessel to have on board an approved
avoid sideward shifting of the containers. only applicable to vessels navigating the stability booklet, which should contain comprehensive information enabling the crew to check the stability of the
The practice of applying these stacking Rhine, has become a technical reference vessel for each loading condition. The verification can be done manually or using special software.
cones varies. On some barges all the point for the construction, operation and For the manual method, the following steps need to be taken, using a simple calculation sheet:
containers above the coaming are secured; inspection of inland navigation vessels, » The skipper calculates the total weight of each container tier and multiplies that figure with the vertical centre
whilst on others only the containers stowed irrespective of whether the vessels are of gravity for that container tier.
in the outboard rows are secured. Lashing intended for the Rhine or not. In several
The vertical centre of gravity for each tier is a fixed number and can only vary with the container height (e.g. standard high or high cube
elements such as twistlocks, which also countries, the CCNR regulations have containers). Where there is a mixed stowage of standard high and high cube containers, the vertical centre of gravity for high cube
containers should be used.
have a vertical restraint, are not used been adopted in national regulations.
onboard inland navigation vessels. The regulations were also the basis for the Similar calculations are made for the ballast and fuel on board:
European Council Directive 2006 / 87 / EC of » On completion of the form, the skipper has established the KG value of the vessel. This KG value is the overall
There are no strict regulations covering the 30 December 2006. centre of gravity for the vessel in loaded condition.
lashing and securing of containers onboard » This KG value must be checked against the table of maximum permissible KG values which every vessel must
inland barges. There is an increased risk Other examples of European conventions have. There is a maximum permissible KG value for containers which are ‘secured’ and for containers which are
of loss or shift of the containers when the applicable to inland waterways are: ‘not secured’.
barge makes a turning cycle, during periods » CLNI convention on the limitation of
The Rule states that ‘containers shall only be considered to be secured if each individual container is firmly attached to the hull of the
of strong wind or when the barge heels liability in inland navigation on the Rhine vessel by means of container guides or securing equipment and its position cannot alter during the voyage’. Consequently, this would
imply that containers secured by stacking cones are considered ‘not-secured’.
over as a result of loss of stability (see also and elsewhere
Stability requirements for inland navigation » CMNI convention on the contract for the » The vessel complies with the regulation, and is sufficiently stable, if the KG value for the vessel in loaded
vessels carrying containers). carriage of goods by inland waterway condition is less than the maximum permissible value in the KG table.
» ADN agreement on the transport
European rules and regulations of dangerous substances by inland
covering inland navigation vessels waterways
Various national regulations and » CDNI convention on the treatment of
European conventions apply to inland waste produced during inland navigation.
navigation vessels operating on waterways
within Europe. Special stability requirements apply
to inland navigation vessels carrying
A leading role in the development and containers. These are set out in chapter 22
harmonisation of a legal and technical of The Directive 2006 / 87 / EC (see insert).
framework for inland navigation vessels
82 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 83

North America oil industry and to connect to ports in the ranges from four or six barges on smaller an important incentive to increase container
The inland waterways of the United States Gulf of Mexico for the delivery of steel waterways up to over 40 barges on the barge traffic in the southern and central
consist of more than 40,000 km of navigable and construction materials. Today, it is the lower Mississippi River between St. Louis United States. The terminal will link ocean
waters. The majority of these waterways is third busiest waterway in the United States and New Orleans. going traffic with short-sea and inland
situated in the eastern part of the country connecting a large range of ports in the waterway services.
where the landscape is flatter and there Gulf of Mexico with the inland waterway Although the potential for intermodal
is a higher rainfall. The most important systems of the Mississippi and rivers in the container traffic is significant, the number The most important waterways in the north
waterways for inland traffic in the US are state of Ohio. Further north, the Mississippi of container freight movements in this and north east of the United States and
the Mississippi River System in the south is connected to the Illinois Waterway, river system is limited. One of the largest Canada are the Saint Lawrence River, The
and the Great Lakes system / St Lawrence which continues to the Great Lakes container barge operators in the area Saint Lawrence Seaway and The Great
Seaway in the northeast of the United States Waterway and then to the Saint Lawrence provides a weekly service between Lakes System.
into Canada. Seaway into Canada. Houston and New Orleans and between
New Orleans and Memphis. More irregular The first section is the 1,600 km Saint
The most important waterways in the Inland navigation systems in the container services are also available Lawrence River which provides direct access
south are the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway United States are mainly used for the between the Gulf ports and Pittsburg to the port of Montreal, Canada’s second
(GIWW) and the very extensive Mississippi transportation of agricultural products, and Chicago, which involves transiting busiest port and reportedly the world’s
River System. which is highly seasonal and primarily several locks. largest inland port in terms of intermodal
focussed towards the end of the summer container transfers. Montreal is unique in
The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway is a and autumn. The goods are transported on US authorities are investing in plans to that the railway tracks are laid very close to
2,000 km long canal that runs along covered non self-propelled barges, which promote container barge transport in the the dockside. Freight locomotives transfer
the Gulf of Mexico coastline from the are lashed together and operated by a United States. The building of the Louisiana the containers to a large railway freight
southern tip of Texas to Florida. It was towage vessel or push boat. The number International Gulf Transfer Terminal at the terminal nearby from where containers
originally constructed to serve the Texan of barges in such a combination varies and mouth of the Mississippi River is considered are carried by rail to eastern and western
Canada as well as to the United States.
Hudson Great Lakes
Bay St.Lawrence
S e a w a y Sy s t e m
From Montreal, the Saint Lawrence Seaway
Lake Lake Lake
Huron Erie Ontario proceeds to the Great Lakes via a system of
Lake Superior Quebec
Toronto canals, locks and channels. Ice conditions
Boston Lake
Toronto
Michigan Montreal allow the Seaway to remain open for
Detroit
Chicago New York Chicago navigation from late March / early April to
San Francisco Cleveland New York
mid-December. The Seaway which was
Washington, D.C.
Los Angeles opened in 1959 is known as one of the most
The Great Lakes St.Lawrence Seaway System is a deep- outstanding engineering achievements
draft waterway running from the Atlantic Ocean to the
of the twentieth century. A total of fifteen
A t la nt i c O ce a n Great Lakes, a distance of some 3,700 km
locks bridge the 180 m height difference
Miami between Lake Erie and the Atlantic Ocean.
P a c i f i c O ce a n G ul f o f M e x i co

inland waterways

Most important waterways in the United States

84 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 85

The locks each measure 233.5 m in length, There are several major container ports A fifteen barge combination could carry
24.4 m in width and are 9.10 m deep. on the west coast, such as Port Rupert, some 700 to 800 40 foot containers.
Hence the term ‘SeawayMax’, or the more Vancouver, Seattle / Tacoma, Oakland and On sections of the lower Mississippi
commonly used ‘Laker’, is used for the Los Angeles / Long Beach. However, there where bridge height would allow five-high
type of vessel designed to meet these are no navigable inland waterways due to tier stackings, a combination of 42 two
dimensions. the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains. barge units could carry up to 3,000
The only exception is the Colombia River 40 foot containers.
Ocean-going container vessels can travel as basin which provides access to the port
far inland as the port of Montreal. However, of Portland, some 160 km inland. From Another method used is the so-called
hardly any significant container traffic takes Portland, container barge services can ‘Container on Flat Barge’ system, whereby
place further down the Seaway system travel a further 600 km inland towards the containers are stowed in multiple tiers
towards the Great Lakes as it is faster to state of Idaho. on a flat bottomed floating platform.
ship containers to the eastern and western Loading containers on such a flat bottom
seaports by rail. The typical self-propelled inland container presents additional risks such as exposure
vessels, of which thousands are deployed to water / waves due to the low freeboard,
In 2014, a new monthly Trans-Atlantic on European waters, are not used on US stability issues, tow line failures, etc.
container service was established between inland waterway systems.
the port of Cleveland on Lake Erie and It is a requirement of the United States
Antwerp. Transit time for the service is The most commonly used barge types in Coast Guard that operators of these barges
13 days. the US are barges used for agricultural have an approved Operations Manual.
products whereby the containers are The Manual must contain procedures for
There is no navigable river system on stowed in a cargo hold. These barges the loading of containers and the need for
the east coast of the United States can typically accommodate 48 40 foot stability calculations to be made prior to
because of the Appalachian Mountains, containers, which can be stowed three wide, each voyage.
which are located just a few hundred four long and four tiers high. Also barges
kilometres inland. with a capacity of 80-100 containers per
barge are deployed on US inland waterways
(see photo).

March 2014, first departure of combined general cargo, Containers on a push barge, USA Containers on a flat barge, USA.
container service from Cleveland, bound for Antwerp
86 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 87

Beijing
Tianjin in these cities. Seagoing vessels with a draft The largest and most advanced container
up to 10 m can travel as far as Nanjing. terminal upstream of the Yangtze River is
the Cuntan International Container Terminal
i ver
Ye l l o w R The Yangtze River is the number one river in Chongqing, some 2,200 km inland from
Grand Canal in the world in terms of cargo volume; over Shanghai. This terminal is an important

er
1.2 billion tonnes of cargo, mainly dry bulk, inland freight hub in China with barge
Three Gorges Dam Wuhan Riv
g t ze Nanjing were moved by ships navigating the river connections to Shanghai, rail connections
n
Ya Shanghai
in 2014. The navigational conditions for to Shenzhen and close proximity to a large
Hangzhou
Chongqing barge transport on the river have improved international airport.
significantly by the construction of several
large hydraulic engineering works. Another major improvement project was
the dredging of the Grand Canal, the
Xi
Guangzhou
East China Sea The Three Gorges Dam between world’s longest. The canal runs for some

Hong Kong
Chongqing and Wuhan, including a ships’ 1,776 km from Beijng to Huangzhou,
0 100 100 300 km.
lock system, was completed in 2006. connecting the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers in
The three most important waterway systems in China These locks are 280 m long, 35 m wide eastern China. The project was completed
and 5 m deep and have an annual transit in 2012 and significantly increased the
China flows from Tibet in the Himalayas through capacity of approximately 100 million Canal’s transport capacity.
Rivers and inland navigation for the the heart of China’s most populated areas tonnes. In addition to these locks, a new
transport of people and goods have always before finding its way to the sea close to ship lift system is being built, capable of
played an important role in the Chinese China’s most important economic lifting / lowering ships up to 3,000 tonnes
economy. China has some 120,000 km of centre and the world’s largest container over a vertical distance of 113 m. The lift
navigable inland waterways, with more port: Shanghai. basin will be 120 m long, 18 m wide and
than 4,000 inland ports and some 200,000 3.5 m deep. It will reduce the transit time
river vessels. Other important cities and ports located through the dam from three to four hours
on the Yangtze River are Nanjing – some using the lock system to approximately 30
The three most important waterway 400 km from Shanghai, and Wuhan and to 40 minutes using the ships’ lift. The lift
systems in China are the Yellow River in the Chongqing. Some of the most important was completed in 2015.
north, the Yangtze River in central China inland container terminals are also located
and the Xi River in the south. By far the most
important waterway is the Yangtze River
with a length of 6,400 km of which 3,000
km is suitable for navigation by vessels in
excess of 1,000 tonnes.

Some three quarters of China’s inland

waterborne traffic takes place on the
Yangtze River and its tributaries. The river
Yangtze River Locks on the Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River New ship’s lift, Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River
88 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 89

The importance of continuing to improve Other areas The Russian inland navigation fleet consists South East Asia / Mekong
inland navigation is recognised by the There are many other extensive river of some 15,000 freight vessels, of which Another river system which has gained
Chinese government. In the five year systems around the world, several of which the 1,100 river sea ships are particularly significance in the transportation of
plan for 2005-2010, the equivalent of EUR have reasonable to good navigational important. Winter conditions mean the containers is the Mekong River in South
1.5 billion was set aside for investments accessibility. Only a few, however, are used rivers are only navigable during a certain East Asia. The river flows over a distance
in the inland waterway system. This for or have significant potential for inland part of the year. During the remainder, of 4,350 km from South China to Vietnam,
included improvements to the navigational container transport by barge. these sea-river vessels can also be through Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Thailand
accessibility of the rivers, implementation of employed offshore. and Cambodia.
traffic information systems and replacement Brazil
of old tonnage. In South America, the Amazon and Road and rail transport dominate the freight Due to seasonal rains and many bends in
Paranagua Rivers are mainly used to transport market in the Russian Federation. the river, navigation is difficult and only
The most commonly used container barges transport agricultural and mining products. Inland navigation transport is mainly for possible for smaller sized barges. Significant
in China are self-propelled barges with a Significant levels of container transport take agricultural and mining products. Container container transport by barge has developed
fixed, non-liftable wheelhouse, situated place on the Amazon River where deep- transport by dedicated barge services on the lower part of the river, between the
either forward or aft. The maximum sea container vessels can travel as far as is quite limited. There are intermodal capital of Cambodia, Phnom Penh.
stacking height on board these barges Manaus, which is located some 1,600 km container terminals also offering domestic
which resemble coastal vessels is three to inland. Several container lines offer direct barge transport in the Moscow area.
four tiers. services from Manaus to other continents.

The Brazilian Ministry of Infrastructure

and Transport plans to increase the inland
navigation’s share of the domestic transport
of containers. This will also include
container transport by barge, which will be
focussed on the Amazon and Paranagua
Rivers as well as between the seaport of Rio
Grande and the inland port of Porto Alegre.
Container barge transport on the Pearl River, China Container terminal in Moscow
Russian Federation
The Russian Federation has some
100,000 km of navigable inland waterways
and over 100 inland ports. Most inland
navigation movements take place in the
European part of the Federation. The most
important rivers for freight transportation
are the Volga, Neva, Svir, Don and
Dnepr and a range of canals connecting
these rivers.
90 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 91

United States intermodal. Accordingly, McLean was

3.4 The US freight rail network is generally equally active in rail and road transport.
considered the world’s largest and most As in shipping – trucks, ships and railroads
Container transport by rail efficient freight transportation system. US were all in the same business, namely that
freight railroads account for approximately of moving freight from one place to another
40 per cent of intercity freight volume – this with as few transfers as possible.
Containers are very important in the Transport by rail remained the preferred is more than any other mode of transport.
global transport of freight – not just in way of moving bulk volumes of goods up US railroads are all privately owned, and At the time McLean started to consider
their capacity as cargo transport units, but until the Second World War. However, as are built and maintained by the railroads land transport, it was recognised that,
more so due to their successful integration roads improved and the road network themselves. According to the Association road transport was expensive and time
with rail, road and maritime shipping grew in the years after the war, trucking of American Railroads, some USD 550 consuming especially on longer distances.
networks. Transport by land, rail and road companies became major competitors billion of their own funds were spent on Railway corporations already offered an
are strongly interlinked. Rail is viewed as to the railways and gradually gained locomotives, freight cars, tracks, bridges, arrangement called ‘Piggyback’ or ‘TOFC’
the long-distance volume-based haulier, an increasing share of the market. tunnels, and other infrastructure between
while flexibility and the ability to The transport of containers by rail has 1980 and 2013. There are a limited number
transport individual consignments over developed in the United States in particular, of players in the American railroad business:
shorter distances are achieved through where it has become the way to move CSX Transportation (former owner of Sea-
road transport. containers across the continent. The Land), Canadian National Railway (US
carriage of containers by rail in Europe operations), Norfolk Southern Corporation,
Primitive rail systems were already in developed some time after the US, but has BNSF Railway, Canadian Pacific (US
existence in the 17th century and used over time gained an important share of operations), Kansas City Southern Railway,
to move materials in mines. The first land-side container transport. and Union Pacific Railroad Company.
proper rail transportation systems were Intermodal rail transport of containers is an Trailer on flat car (Piggybacking)
only established in the early 19th century, Since 2000, both India and China have important part of the business of each of
with the introduction of the first steam invested in dedicated container rail services these railway companies. (Trailer On Flat Car), a system whereby a
locomotive in 1829. They were the product and several major infrastructure projects to road trailer, with container, is transported
of the industrial revolution which, at that build more railways are underway or in the Malcolm McLean, the founding father on a railway carriage. This method to
time, was sweeping across Western Europe planning stages in these countries. of containerisation, had a clear idea of transport freight by rail remained very
and North America. Rail transport was, and the opportunities that rail could offer. common in American railway transport
still is today, the only way to move large With some 225,000 km of track, the United He saw containers as a way to integrate until the 1990’s. After this time, intermodal
and heavy freight volumes and large States has by far the largest rail network in maritime and land-based transport into one freight transport moved towards so-called
numbers of passengers at the same time the world, followed by Russia (130,000 km), transport chain. For this reason he called ‘COFC’ (Container On Flat Car), a system
on scheduled services. These advances China (100,000 km) and India (65,000 km). his shipping line Sea-Land and the which had been introduced to American
were of great benefit during the The total extent of the rail network in the company, which was initially set up as railway transport in 1936, but had become a
industrialisation, and they fundamentally European Union is approximately a shipping line, was sold to a railway common standard only in the 1980’s.
changed the way in which freight and 220,000 km. corporation (CSX Tranportation) in 1986.
passengers were moved by land. Rail transport of containers in the United
Marine transport of containers requires States started relatively late. One of the
alignment with land carriage to be fully difficulties was the fact that the US railways
92 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 93

Deregulation of the US transport system Road. Shortly afterwards, APL followed with often over a mile long – were deployed
A significant reformation of the US transportation system took place between 1978 and 1980 by the passage a land-bridge service out of Seattle. between ports on the West and East Coast.
of three major deregulation laws. These laws were the result of efforts by the Nixon Administration in the early The Staggers Rail Act, together with A new industry standard for the carriage of
1970’s to replace the regulatory structure that had existed since the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. the advent of the container shipowners containers by rail was introduced in 1977.
becoming involved in railway operations, This new concept was known as ‘double-
Rail transport was deregulated by the Staggers Rail Act marked the beginning of a new era in stack’, a system whereby the containers
of 1980 (named after its sponsor Harley O. Staggers). container rail operations in the United were carried two-high on railway carriages.
The other two laws were the Airline Deregulation Act of States. The traditional stringent practices To facilitate the introduction of this new
1978 and the Motor Carrier Act of 1980. with respect to schedules, right of way technology, a new type of railroad car was
The Staggers Rail Act provided opportunities for rail and interchange with other railroads were created – the ‘well car’. Again, Malcolm
operators to establish their own rates and their own abandoned, which allowed containership McLean, the founder of Sea-Land, played
contracts with shippers. The effect was increased companies to exercise greater control over an important role in the development of
competition between the operators and, over time, a their landside operations. At the same time, the double-stack and the construction of
considerable reduction of the freight rates. (According to a shift was observed from railway-owned well cars (see box story McLean on his way
a study by the Department of Transportation’s Freight rolling stock to large fleets of railway cars to the White House). After several years of
Management and Operations, costs and process were US President Jimmy Carter signs the Staggers Rail Act, owned and operated by containership development, the first all double-stack train
14 October 1980
halved over a ten-year period). companies. By the end of the 1980’s, left the port of Los Angeles heading east in
hundreds of dedicated container trains – 1984. The concept proved successful,

were heavily regulated and fragmented. Interestingly, particularly the ship operators
McLean on his way to the White House
At one point in time there were over 100 – lead by companies such as American
railway companies. Furthermore, the railway President Lines (APL) and Sea-Land – Sea-Land people had been meeting with executives from the Southern Pacific, but the railroaders kept insisting
companies did not see a future in the pushed the development of intermodal (rail) that the floor of a conventional flatcar precluded transporting containers one atop another, as McLean wanted
transport of freight containers on their transport of containers. They introduced a to do. One day McLean and his wife and children were invited to a reception at the White House, and they
rail tracks. The situation changed in 1980, concept known as ‘land-bridge’, whereby travelled to the capital from northern New Jersey aboard a Pennsylvania Railroad train. As they were walking
when Congress passed the Staggers Rail the container was carried both on board a along the platform at Washington Union Station, McLean noticed that a considerable amount of permanent
Act. Through this Act, the US railway system ship as well as on a railroad train as part of equipment hung below the floor level of the cars, especially steam pipes and brake hoses that were connected
was substantially deregulated and opened single shipment. For instance, containers to each other below the couplers of the cars. Getting down on his hands and knees, McLean crawled beneath
up to competition. from Asia Pacific with final destination New the cars to estimate how high above the rails this equipment rode, and he determined that it cleared by a mere
York would be discharged from the vessel at three inches. Armed with this information, Sea-Land people renewed their efforts with the Southern Pacific, and
a port on the West Coast and then carried the world’s first double-stack container car, Southern Pacific No. 513300, turned out by the American Car and
by train over land (bridge) to New York. The Foundry Company, a joint effort by Sea-Land and Southern Pacific.
first service of this kind took place from the
port of Los Angeles in 1977 and was offered Not so lucky, though, was the man who was en route to a White House reception. His little inspection tour in
by Sea-Land and the Southern Pacific Rail Washington Union Station put a big hole in Malcolm McLean’s trousers – he called him his ‘britches’ – and
when he arrived at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue shortly afterward, the man was anything but the last word in
sartorial splendour.

From : Brian J. Cuhady, Box Boats How Container Ships Changed the World, Fordham University Press, 2006. Quoted from: Malcolm McLean
Container on flat car interview, McLean Foundation Oral History Collection
94 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 95

however, before double-stack trains Average transit times on the main routes a number of specific issues to overcome
could move from west to east, the are (source: websites of various railway before efficient container rail services
overhead clearance of many railway companies): could be established. The European Union
passages had to be adapted. Today, Los Angeles – New York 7 days played an important role in resolving these
more than 70 per cent of intermodal Los Angeles – Miami 8 days problems and in creating an environment
containershipments in the United States Los Angeles – Chicago 4 days whereby cross-border traffic could be
is carried on double-stack trains. Chicago – New York 3 days accomplished without too many difficulties.
Kansas City – New York 4 days In the 1970’s and 80’s, the European rail
The main seaports on the US west coast are Vancouver (Canada) – Chicago 6 days market was dominated by state-owned
Los Angeles / Long Beach in the south and Double stack on well car Prince Rupert (Canada) – Chicago 4 days railway companies offering international
the Seattle / Tacoma region in the north, services. However, as there was no single
with Oakland located halfway in between. Trans-Pacific transit times out of Pusan, organisation responsible for cross-border
From these ports, daily services are Korea range between nine days for Prince traffic, when the train reached the border
available to destinations inland and on the Rupert and up to twelve days for Los station, the unit had to be transferred
east coast. Large inland container terminals Angeles. Accordingly, a voyage from Pusan to the railway company operating in the
have been built near cities such as Chicago, to New York, using the most efficient neighbouring country.
Detroit and Kansas City, where east-west land bridge connection, could take some
and north-south connections meet. 17-18 days and is therefore a reasonable With the liberalisation of rail traffic within
alternative to the Panama Canal, if only the European Union, smaller rail service
taking transit times into account. providers entered the market and a new
Calgary
Winnipeg type of service, referred to as ‘rail-road
Vancouver Europe combined transport’, became available.
Rail transport of containers only becomes These services included container traffic
Toronto
Detroit economically viable when large volumes between a seaport and an inland terminal
Salt Lake City New York
Pittsburg can be transported over long distances, (or vice versa) or long distance transport
Chicago
Kansas City
San Francisco with as few intermediate transfers as of consumer goods between various parts
Hampton possible. There are 51 countries in Europe of Europe. On these combined transport
Atlanta
Dallas and travelling a few hundred kilometres in trains one can find ISO freight containers,
Los Angeles
Long Beach any direction usually involves crossing one (semi-) trailers or a typically European load
Houston
A t l a n t i c O ce a n or more borders. Therefore, Europe had unit known as a ‘swap body’.
Miami
P a c i f i c O ce a n G u l f o f M e x i co

major railroad connections

Major container railroad connections in the United States — source Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography
96 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 97

Swap body The introduction of combined rail services regular container services between the
A swap body is a regional transport containment of a permanent character designed for road and rail transport was a turning point in European rail traffic, major seaports and a large number of
within Europe and complying with European standards. (UNECE definition) Swap bodies are generally 2.5 m or and was further improved once issues such inland container ports.
2.55 m wide and are subdivided into three length categories: as flexibility, transit time, punctuality and
Class A: 12.2 to 13.6 m long (maximum gross mass 34 tons); cross-border issues had been addressed
Class B: 30ft (9.125 m long); by the railway operators. Clearly, in order to
Class C: 7.15, 7.45 or 7.82 m long (maximum gross mass 16 tons). be competitive, European rail transport had
to offer at least the same level of service as
For all swap bodies, bottom container castings are fitted at the same intermediate distances as on a normal ISO did road haulage. This was accomplished by
shipping container. This allows the swap body units to be placed on the same types of trucks, trailers and railroad offering scheduled block-train services with
cars as the ones designed for ISO shipping containers. The overall dimension of a swap body may be different from high quality rail logistics.
an ISO container, which results in the bottom fittings not always being located at the corners of the swap body.
Note
The width of a swap body is usually 2,50 or 2, 55 m in order to allow two EUR pallets (80 x 120 cm) to be placed ‘Block (or unit) train service’ is a point-to- Betuwe route, Netherlands

next to each other without leaving empty space. The other advantage of a swap body is its relative light weight point service for a complete train, usually
and the consequential cost saving in fuel consumption during transport. There are stackable and non-stackable for one customer, the opposite being In Europe, most container transport by
swap bodies. ‘wagonload service’ whereby single wagons rail uses the same very busy tracks as
for various customers are assembled in passenger trains. In 2007, a 160 km long
Non stackable swap bodies only have bottom fittings and require lifting by the bottom frame, usually by means one train. dedicated freight track, the Betuweroute,
of grappler arms which are inserted into the four recesses in the bottom structure. More and more stackable was completed between the port of
swap bodies come on the market and these have top fittings as well, enabling the same kind of handling with Container block trains (also known as Rotterdam and the German border.
standard freight container handling equipment. ‘container shuttle services’) are mainly used With a total cost of EUR 4.7 billion, it is
in hinterland container traffic between Netherlands’ most expensive infrastructure
In terms of stack ability and strength, a swap body differs substantially from an ISO freight containers and is the seaport and an inland container project ever. The Betuweroute has been
therefore not suitable for overseas transport on board a regular container vessel. Swap bodies are regularly port. Today, these shuttle services are built for double-stack container transport,
carried on board short sea vessels, in Europe. mostly operated by the seaport terminals although these are not in use at this
themselves and / or one of their subsidiaries. moment in time.
Swap bodies are subject to European Normalisation standards such as EN 283 (testing), EN 284 (non-stackable An example of such a company is European
swap bodies, class C dimensions and general requirements) and EN 452 (class A swap bodies, dimensions and Rail Shuttle (ERS), which was established As electrification of the railway system
requirements) as well as EN 13044 (coding, identification and marking). in 1994 by a consortium formed by in Europe predates the double-stacking
Maersk Line, NS Cargo, Sealand, P & O concept, the overhead cabling is too low
Containers and Nedlloyd. The company to accommodate a double-stack. Many
provided regular railway services between bridges and tunnels are also too low for
Rotterdam, Germany, Austria and Italy. In double-stacking, and adapting the height
2013, Maersk Line, who in the meantime had of these to accommodate taller freight
acquired the other shipping companies in trains would be far too expensive. Another
swap body
the joint venture, sold ERS to Freightliner UK. obstacle for further expansion of container
Today, several private railway companies transport by rail in Europe is the lack of
operate on European railways providing uniformity of the track gauge (the width of
98 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 99

the track). Spain, Portugal and the former gauge provides sufficient space. In double The widest track gauge is used in India and
Soviet Republics operate a broader gauge stacking, the top container is held in place is 1.676 m – it provides greater stability,
compared with other European countries. either by a bulkhead built into the car, or by hence allowing for a higher speed, e.g.
Funds are being provided by the European inter-box connectors. The vertical centre 100 km / hr when carrying high-cube
Union to connect the rail systems in these of gravity is a major aspect in double stack containers in double-stack arrangement
areas to the rest of Europe. transport of containers, as it determines on normal flatcars.
the stability of the car load. It is particularly
India important in connection with high side wind Well cars range in size to accommodate the
Containers were carried in double-stack loads and the corresponding maximum standard sizes of containers i.e. 2 x 20 foot
arrangement for the first time out of APM’s Double-stack container transport in India: containers permissible speed (centrifugal forces). or 1 x 40 foot (12.19 m), 48 foot (14.63 m) and
loaded on normal flatcars
container terminal at Pipavav, India in 2006. The use of well cars has a positive effect 53 foot (16.15 m) containers. There are also
In contrast to the United States, where on the centre of gravity and allows the 45 foot (13.72 m) and 56 foot (17.07 m) well
most long haulage routes are operated and containers. In future, China will have carriages to travel at higher speeds cars. If the well is smaller than the container
by diesel locomotives, India has opted for a complete network of inland container compared with flatcars. The use of well being loaded, the larger container may be
electrification of the freight railways. terminals interconnected by rail shuttle cars is also more secure as it prevents the placed on top of the smaller container.
With a distance of 7.45 m between the services. Several of these tracks will be able container doors from being opened during
cabling and the tracks, India has the highest to carry double stacks as well. the railway journey. Common configurations are 1 x 40 foot
overhead wiring in the world. This height container stowed on top of 2 x 20 foot or
allows for the carriage of two tiers of Technology Track gauge is an important feature. 45, 48, 53 foot containers stowed on top
high-cube containers on a normal flatcar. Containers may be carried on flatcars or It is the distance between the rails on a of a 40 foot container. For this purpose,
Double-stack container transport is also well cars on the railway. A well car, also railway track, and is measured between the containers longer than 40 feet have
planned for the Dedicated Freight Corridor known as a ‘double-stack car’ or ‘stack car’, inner faces of the load-bearing rails. Many additional ISO container posts at 40 foot
Project, connecting Delhi with Mumbai in is a railroad car designed to carry containers different track gauges are used worldwide. length (see photo). The size of the well is
the west and Kolkota in the east. used in intermodal freight transport. The most common is the standard gauge usually clearly marked on the side of the car.
With a normal flatcar, the wheels are of 1.435 m, which is found on 60 per cent
China positioned directly underneath the flat of the world’s railway tracks, for example Well cars are mostly constructed as units of
Double-stack container transport was bottom. On well cars, the wheels are in North America, China, Australia, the multiple cars (three or five), connected to
introduced in China on the rail track positioned at the fore and aft end of the majority of Europe, and North Africa. each other by articulated connections or a
between Beijing and Shanghai in 2004. carriage allowing the cargo platform to drawbar. At the extreme end of each unit
The Chinese railway system is in the be closer to the rails. The well car makes is a coupler to connect it to the next unit.
middle of significant expansion, not only it possible to load containers in a double- This coupler is usually a so-called ‘AAR’ or
for passenger transport but also for freight stack arrangement wherever the loading ‘Janney coupler’. These loose couplings
are necessary to enable the train to go
around bends. Furthermore, the couplings
are also an aid in starting heavy trains,
40 since the transmission of power from the
40
locomotive to the train operates on each
car successively.
t r e r US double stack of 53 foot containers in a well car
100 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 101

Couplings and connectors should also be generally weighs between 20 and 25 mt.
designed in such a way that they reduce the Since a container’s weight is limited to 3.5
impact of ‘slack action’ as much as possible. 32.5 mt for a 20 foot container and
Slack action in railway terms is the length 34.0 mt for a 40 and 45 foot container, Road transport of containers
of free movement of one car before it single stacking does not exploit the full
transmits its motion to an adjoining coupled load capacity of the railway car. Weight
car. When the train is set in motion, this considerations are, however, important Road transport by truck is the dominant container yard and the client’s warehouse,
slack is gradually let out when cars begin when double-stacking is involved. mode of transporting freight in developed or vice versa. In most container ports, there
to roll one at a time. With long trains, as countries. This is particularly so for local are distribution and storage centres nearby,
used in the US and Canada, where freight In Europe, flatcars are commonly used and short distance transport, where there where containers are loaded (stuffed) and
trains can be several kilometres long, some for the transport of containers. These are little or no suitable alternatives. Road unloaded (stripped). The short transport
units may be moving uphill while others are specialised container cars have an open- transport is fast, flexible and available by road between the container yard and
moving downhill at the same time. In such bottom frame with securing equipment almost everywhere, although this has an these distribution centres is usually referred
circumstances, slack is constantly let out (hinged locking pins) at intermediate effect on transport costs, air quality and to as ‘drayage’.
and taken up, and this causes a significant distances, meeting standard container traffic congestion.
fore-aft shock effect to the container and sizes. Two-axle (L-type) container cars are History and development
its cargo. Freight trains are known to have designed to carry two 20 foot or one 40 foot Only very rarely are shipping containers The road transport of freight first
divided as a result of such slack action. container. The four-axle (S-type) cars can used in road transport when trucking is developed when small combustion engines
carry three 20 foot containers, one 40 foot the only mode of transport, for example a were installed in freight trucks. In 1915,
Accelerations / weight limits plus one 20 foot container or two 30 foot point-to-point carriage over land. For this MAN delivered the first diesel operated
Similar fore-aft forces also occur during containers (see photo below). type of road transport, vehicles such as truck, which was succeeded by the first
shunting operations. Excessive impact box trailers, tautliners and road tanks direct injection diesel engine in 1924. An
loads and accelerations, up to seven times are used. Refrigerated and insulated box efficient road infrastructure was needed
2
gravity acceleration of 9.81 m / s , may occur trailers are also available for transport of to be able to move quickly from one place
during shunting. For this reason, cargo in perishable goods. to another. The first modern motorway
the containers must be properly secured with road segregation, overpasses and
against these very significant fore-aft forces. In the intermodal transport of containers, restricted accesses was built in Germany
The maximum permissible weight for trucks are used during the first and last in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. After
a railway car is generally in the order stages of the transport, i.e. between the the Second World War, there was a period
of 8 mt per metre of train length, and of rapid development of road transport
approximately 22.5 mt per axle. For systems in North America, Europe and
example, a four-axle 40 foot container car 2 x 30 foot bulk containers stowed on a four axle Australia followed by other continents.
S-wagon car
can take 90 tonnes. The railway car itself In the United States, probably one of the
most important achievements was the
completion of the American Interstate
Highway system in 1956. The purpose of
the road network was to serve the national
economy and to support the movement
40 foot container on a 3-axle road trailer of army troops. The motorways were even
102 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 103

Highway, the Asian Highway and the States, where they are known as ‘turnpike
Calgary European E-road networks. doubles’ or ‘Rocky Mountain doubles’. More
Winnipeg
Vancouver
commonly, road trains are referred to as an
In China, the building of a national network ‘LCV (Long Combination Vehicle)’ and can
Toronto of expressways was started in 1989. Twenty be found in several different arrangements.
Chicago Detroit
years later, some 80,000 km of expressway
Pittsburg
Salt Lake City Kansas City New York had been completed. In 2011, the length of ‘Powertrains’ are the largest road trains
San Francisco the Chinese road network surpassed that of operating in Australia and worldwide.
Hampton
Atlanta the US Interstate. This combination, however, only operates
Dallas
Los Angeles
Long Beach

A t l a n t i c O ce a n 20 40
Houston B-double (20 + 40 or 20 + 20)
P a c i f i c O ce a n
Miami
20 20 40
G u l f o f M e x i co B-triple

Interstate Highway
40 40
double road train pocket train

US Interstate Highway system 40 20 40

AB-triple

20 40 20 40
BAB Quad

Atlantic Ocean 40 20 20 40
ABB Quad
Baltic
Oslo Sea Helsinki
Stockholm 40 40 40
triple road train
Moscow
North Sea 40 40 20 40
2AB Quad
Dublin Hamburg Berlin Warsaw
London
40 40 40 20 40 40 40
Celtic Sea Powertrain
Paris Vienna
Munich
Bay of Bucharest Australia relies heavily on road transport, on private property such as mining grounds
Biscay Ad
Rome ria Black Sea
tic
Sea Istanbul also for long distance transport. There are and not the public highway and are
Lisbon no inland waterways and the rail systems therefore not subject to legislation.
Athens
have not been sufficiently developed to
transport large volumes of freight. The In most European countries, the standard
Casablanca Mediterranean Sea
road train concept is therefore a typical has been for a long time a maximum
European E-road system Cairo Australian solution. A road train consists of length of 18.75 m. The longer combinations
a tractor unit pulling two or more trailers. previously permitted in Sweden and
designed in such a way that they could act By 1980, most industrialised countries had Australia permits the world’s largest and Finland resulted in a discussion when
as air strips in an emergency. In total, some a national motorway system and the work heaviest road-legal vehicles on its roads, these countries joined the European
70,000 km of four to six lane motorways began to establish regional motorway with configurations weighing up to 200 Union in 1980. A compromise was reached
were built between 1950 and 1975 and networks. Examples are the Trans African tonnes and over 50 m in length. Road trains to allow an increased vehicle length
linked all major US cities. can also be found in Canada and the United (maximum 25.25 m) and weight (maximum
104 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 105

3-axle semi-trailer

fit ee in
air dam

cabin rear underrun

(with or without sleeper) protection system n fie d r

fuel tank side underrun protection system

trailer support legs (storage without truck)

Typical US 3-axle truck, pulling a 2-axle semi trailer European cabover truck with three axles, pulling a 3-axle
3-axle truck
trailer with 40 foot container (one steering axle, two driving axles, mostly liftable)

60 tonnes) across the EU on the condition The overview below shows some common for the driver, but accessing the engine Container trailers (chassis or Skeletal
that the standardised European Modular configurations including the EMS requires the cabin to be tilted. Conversely, trailers) are available in many different
System (EMS) was used. Each country was configuration, which allow the transport conventional (US type) cab tractors offer the versions and sizes. Modern container
subsequently free to introduce the EMS (or of 3 x 20 foot or 1 x 20 foot and 1 x 40 foot driver more comfort and better protection chassis can be adjusted in length, to
EuroCombi) at its own discretion. Denmark container at the same time. in a collision. accommodate 20 foot, 40 foot, 45 foot
permitted use of the EMS on some parts of or longer containers. Each corner of the
its road network in 2008. The Netherlands Technology A trailer can be either a full trailer or a container is secured to the chassis by
followed in 2011 and some parts of A road transport combination comprises semi trailer, the only difference being the means of twistlocks, which are fixed to the
Germany in 2011. Trials are currently (2015) a truck (powered vehicle) and a trailer presence of a front axle (or dolly) on the trailer. Full trailers are usually equipped
ongoing in Belgium. (unpowered vehicle). The tractors, or full trailers. There are far more semi-trailers with a draw bar which can be coupled to a
powered trucks, typically have two or three than full trailers in use, except in the case truck. The most common type of coupling
The definition of the EMS can be found axles. One of the rear axles on a three axle of multiple trailers in one road combination used on semi-trailers is the so-called ‘fifth
in EC Directive 96 / 53. The remaining truck can be liftable. Trucks built for hauling (e.g. road trains). wheel coupling’. This coupling provides a
European countries continue to have heavy cargo may have as many as four or link between a semi-trailer and the towing
a maximum length of 18.75 m with a five axles, although these are not common A semi-trailer is normally equipped with truck, or between the dolly and the leading
maximum weight of 40 tonnes, or 44 tonnes in container transport. legs, called ‘landing gear’, which can be trailer. The coupling consists of a kingpin,
in case of a 40’ ISO container. lowered to support the trailer when it is (a steel pin on the front of the semi-trailer),
In North America and Australia, most uncoupled from the tractor. and a horseshoe-shaped coupling device
tractors have a forward engine, one on the rear of the towing vehicle. The fifth-
18.75 m
25.25 m steering axle, and two drive axles. wheel coupling on most tractor trucks is
40
The driver and the sleeper cabin are adjustable and can be moved fore and aft

20 20
located behind the engine. to optimise weight distribution over the rear
axle of the truck. 25 per cent of the total
40 20 The Cabover or flat nose truck is more trailer load should ideally rest on the fifth
common in Europe and some other parts of wheel coupling.
20 40
the world, where there are more restrictions
on truck lengths. Cabovers offer greater
European Modular System (EMS) manoeuvrability and better overview Fifth wheel coupling
106 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 107

Jane Mansfield and trailer safety

Maximum permissible dimensions for road
transport units differ by country or even by Many people know Jane Mansfield (1933 – 1967) as
state (US). A maximum permissible height an American actress, nightclub entertainer, singer, and
of 4 m prevails in most European countries. an early Playboy Playmate. In the 1950’s she became
Hence, high-cube containers 2.89 m high, one of Hollywood’s most famous sex symbols. Most
are carried on gooseneck chassis, which people, however, are not aware that her name became
reduces the overall height to an acceptable connected with an important safety device on road
level. In the United Kingdom, the standard trailers. Her sad death explains how the story began:
minimum clearance over every part of the Container road accident
carriageway of a public road is 16 feet 6 Late on 28 June 1967, Jane Mansfield together with
inches (5.03 m). In the United States, the Side wind her three children Miklos, Zoltan and Mariska, her
maximum gauge is 4.11 m (13.5 foot). Trucks transporting containers are partner Sam Brody and their driver Ronnie Harrison
In most Australian states the maximum particularly susceptible to aerodynamic left Biloxi, Mississippi in a Buick Electra 255, heading
gauge is 4.3 m. forces. This can be the effects of side wind for New Orleans, where she was scheduled to appear
or other passing vehicles. in an early morning television interview.
Weight is usually limited to nine tonnes on
a single axle or 18 tonnes on tandem axles. Speed and cornering forces On 29 June at approximately 2:25 in the morning,
In the United States, 80,000 lb (36,000 kg) is The centrifugal force is affected by vehicle on US Highway 90, east of Rigolets Bridge, the car
the maximum permitted weight of a single speed and the angle of turn. In other crashed into the rear of a road trailer and the top of
truck trailer. A special permit is required for words, the faster the vehicle is going the car was sheared off when it went under the truck.
heavier weights. In the United Kingdom, and / or the tighter the turn, the more likely Police reports state that the three adults in the
the weight limit is 44 tonnes. The heaviest the driver is to lose control of the vehicle front seat were killed instantly; whilst the children,
permitted weight for a single semi-trailer causing the vehicle to roll over. Centrifugal sitting in the rear, survived the accident with only
(50 tonnes) anywhere in the world can be forces occur during cornering or evasive minor injuries.
found in the Netherlands. manoeuvres. Speed has a squared effect
to the overturning force and may therefore The death certificate stated that the immediate
Road accidents dramatically impact the ability to control cause of Mansfield’s death was a ‘crushed skull with
Every year there are thousands of road the vehicle. For instance the overturning avulsion of cranium and brain’.
accidents involving container trailer loads. force at a speed of 60 km / hr is four times
The most common and very dangerous the overturning force at a speed of 30 After her death, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recommended that road trailers
accident is the container overturning, km / hr. At 90 km / hr the overturning (or be equipped with a rear underride guard. The bottom rear edge of a road trailer is almost at head level of a person
usually as a result of one or a combination centrifugal) force will be nine times that of in a car, where the car’s windshield is the only, and insufficient, protection. A strong assembly hanging down from
of the following factors: 30 km / hr. See illustration below. the bottom of the rear edge of a semi-trailer would prevent cars from sliding under the trailer. Today, most trailers
are equipped with this type of bar, which is known as the ‘Mansfield bar’.
4x 9x
In addition to rear underride guards, a Side Underrun Protection System (SUPS) is also required on most trailers
and trucks may also be equipped with a Front Underrun Protection System (FUPS). These additional safety
measures provide protection in an oblique or side collision. Following a high number of fatalities in car crash
incidents, underride protection systems on trucks and trailers have become mandatory in most countries.
30 km/h 60 km/h 90 km/h
108 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 3 CONTAINER FLOWS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS 109

Stability of the vehicle Centre of gravity

There are many factors affecting the The trailer load’s centre of gravity is the
stability of the trailer. Some of these are: sum of the centre of gravity of the empty
trailer and the centre of gravity of the cargo
Poor load distribution loaded in the container. When carrying
This particularly applies to the transport high-cube containers, a gooseneck chassis
of containers as the cargo inside the may not only assist in reducing the overall
container is not visible to the truck driver. height of the trailer load but also to lower
If the load in the container is too off centre the centre of gravity.
(longitudinally as well as transversely), it
will have a negative impact on the stability Construction of the trailer
and cause the trailer load to bend over This includes wheel and axle alignment,
dangerously. Too much weight on the brake calibration, position and number of
coupling may lead to a so-called ‘motor axles. The more axles a trailer has, the more
boating effect’. Too much weight on the stable the trailer unit will be.
rear of the towed vehicle will have a similar
effect, resulting in an uneven pressure
distribution over the length of the truck-
trailer combination.

Load securing
Numerous incidents have been caused by
improper or no securing of the cargo inside
the container.
 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 111

Chapter 4

Container terminal operations

Any movement of freight involves modal container terminals’, the container

terminals in one way or another. Even the may be transferred between different
simplest form of freight transport − the modes of transport, e.g. rail, road or
dispatch of a postcard − requires assembly barge. This is particularly the case where
(the central post box) and distribution the terminal serves as a gateway to a
through a network of regional and national hinterland. Terminals may also serve as
post centres (terminals) before arriving at points of interchange between the same
its final destination. mode of transport, for example where the
terminal acts as a central hub. Container
With the exception of freight large enough terminals which do not have a maritime link
to be shipped individually, e.g. a heavy lift are known as ‘dry ports’, where containers
unit, goods will be consolidated and travel are transferred from trucks and barges to
in batches or units, for example a trailer railway carriages and vice versa.
load, a ship load, or a freight container.
The processes of assembly, dispatch, and The container terminals’ clients are the
the transfer to other modes of transport shipping lines. They pay the terminal an
take place at terminals. Terminals are, agreed fee for every container loaded or
therefore, critical links in the transportation unloaded from the vessel. At the same
chain. Depending on their function and time, shipping lines demand that terminals
location, each terminal requires specific handle a minimum number of containers
equipment and accommodation to handle per hour. These and many other aspects of
the specific types of freight involved. terminal operations are agreed between
the shipping line and the terminal and set
The obvious unit of freight in container out in the terminal service contract.
transport is the container itself with its
capacity constrained by either volume An important section in these contracts
or weight. At terminals known as ‘multi deals with the terminal’s commitment to
112 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 113

reserve, long before the vessel arrives, a

berthing space for the vessel on a certain 4.1
date and for a certain period of time – a
so-called ‘berthing window’. History and development
In terms of exclusivity and ownership,
container terminals may be divided into The word terminal comes from the
‘multi or common user terminals’, which Latin ‘terminus’, which means the end
serve any shipping line, and ‘dedicated or final part, and suggests the end of
terminals’ offering exclusive rights to a transportation line. In shipping, and
shipping lines. This exclusivity may only container shipping in particular, terminals
apply to a part of the terminal and for a have an intermediate function in moving
certain period of time. Shipping lines may containers from one ship to another, or
also own and operate terminals themselves, from a ship to another mode of transport.
particularly in locations of significant Historically, ports developed at the most New York Lower Manhattan . East River piers circa
1931. Typical pier construction as was common prior to
strategic importance to the shipping line. navigable upstream parts of rivers or in
containerisation
locations where rivers came together.
This chapter describes how containerisation Cities such as London on the Thames, be relatively small. Warehouses located
has changed the function and layout of Antwerp on the Scheldt, or New York immediately adjacent to the dockside
ports and terminals, and gives an insight on the Hudson River owe much of their meant that goods were only exposed to the
into the processes at a modern container current status as major global cities and elements for a very short period of time.
terminal and the complexities of storage, ports to their location.
shipping, stowage planning, loading and The shift from break-bulk to containers
unloading of a vessel as follows: In those early days, there were few led to a fundamental change in the
• History and development requirements for navigable access, and sites construction and siting of terminals.
• Terminal owners and operators easily achieved status as a port or harbour. This was especially so in the late 1960’s,
• The function of a container terminal Ports which had to cope with tidal waters when containerships were built without
• Layout of a modern container terminal created enclosed docks accessible through on-board cranes. The terminal where the
• Terminal equipment lock gates. ship intended to berth had to provide the
• Planning and operations. equipment to load or unload the containers.
Dry cargo was shipped in the form of break The rate at which containers were loaded
bulk and ships had to stay in port for several and discharged was much faster than the
days or even weeks to load and unload the trucks could handle. Therefore, a buffer
cargo; this required a sufficient number of of container storage space was needed
berths being available. Ports were typically ashore. Quayside warehouses were no
constructed with finger piers to achieve a longer needed as the container itself
maximum number of berths within the port provided enough protection. Accordingly,
area. As ships had their own cargo gear and ports which entered into container handling
transfer times were lengthy, quays could had to completely redesign their port
114 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 115

structure. Locations like New York and With the size of vessels increasing, there Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal;
Hamburg reshaped their existing port areas was a corresponding growth in the demand leaders in the development of container terminal operations
while, for example, Rotterdam shifted its for ports and terminals to handle these
container operations towards the coast larger vessels as well. These new vessels Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal
and built it on land reclaimed from the created new challenges for the terminals, On 15 August 1962, the Port Authority of New York opened its Elizabeth Marine Terminal, considered to be the
sea. With the further globalisation of the particularly regarding water depth and world’s first container terminal, at the port of Newark.
world trade, large container ports were the size of quay cranes. The investment
needed at the junctions of north / south and required to build new terminals or to adapt The New York Port Authority was created in 1921 from the merger of the ports of New York and New Jersey,
east / west trade routes. These ports had a existing terminals to the new standards who had been fighting for many years between themselves over the jurisdiction rights on the Hudson River.
transhipment function only. became so large that many terminal The new port agency was tasked with developing and modernising the entire port district. The nearby port of
owners sought alliance with or ownership Newark received particular attention, as by 1951 it had become one of the world’s most modern terminals with
Historically, two ports have led the way in by foreign investors to be able to afford 21 berths and a 35 foot (10.7 m) deep channel to accommodate the largest ships at that time. On 26 April 1956,
the development of container ports and these investments. the terminal was the location of a landmark in the carriage of containers, when Malcolm McLean’s IDEAL X was
terminals. The first major development took loaded for its first voyage carrying standard freight containers, destined for Houston. At that time, McLean had
place in the late 1950’s (and early 1960’s), Due to ‘call-size’ (the volume of containers already struck a deal with the port agency to build a completely new container port just south of Newark, which
when New York and nearby Newark battled handled during one port call) and the was to become the new Port Elizabeth. In fact, this new terminal instigated the demise of the port of New York.
over the location of the construction of the need for storage space ashore, terminals Marc Levinson writes as follows in The Box:
first dedicated container port in the area. handle much greater peak loads than ever
The second such development was in 1980 before. A normal port call of a very large ‘Then (1955) came the most aggressive move of all. On December 2 1955, New Jersey governor Robert Meyner
when Rotterdam-based Europe Combined container vessel involves the exchange of announced that the Port Authority would develop a 450-acre tract of privately owned tidal marsh just south of
Terminals decided to move their container some 5,000 TEU (loading and discharge), Port Newark. The new Port Elizabeth, the largest port project ever undertaken in the United States, was planned
operations from the city of Rotterdam to however, there have been instances where
the coast and opened its Delta terminal, over 10 to 15,000 TEU have been transferred
the world’s first automated terminal, in 1985 during one port call. The trend is for current
(see also Port Newark Elizabeth Marine container volumes to be handled by fewer,
Terminal and ECT Delta Terminal; leaders but larger terminals, capable of handling
in the development of container terminal ultra large container vessels and with the
operations). required navigational accessibility.

y
rt e r i et rine er in Bayonne

Ba
Upper
Bayonne bridge

New York and the Bayonne Bridge

116 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 117

eventually to accommodate twenty-five oceangoing vessels at once, enabling New Jersey to handle more than
one-fourth of all general cargo in the Port of New York. Previously, the Port Authority had shown little interest 4.2
in Elizabeth’s marshlands. McLean’s idea of putting truck trailers on ships changed that view entirely. Now, port
planners foresaw a resurgence of coastal shipping, and the new Port Elizabeth would have ample wharf and Terminal owners and operators
upland available for the proposed use of large shipping containers on specially adapted vessels. There might
not even be a transit shed, the most expensive part of pier construction. The first containership had yet to
sail, but the Port Authority was making clear that the future of container shipping would be in New Jersey, The investments involved in constructing container handling. Examples are HPH, PSA
not in New York.’ and operating container terminals are very (Singapore), HHLA and Eurogate (Germany).
significant, require strategic planning and
Today, the Port of New York and New Jersey is the third largest port in the United States in terms of volume a long term view. Furthermore, operating Financial holdings / investment companies
(tonnes), after the Port of New Orleans and the Port of Houston. a container terminal requires capacity These are investment banks, pension
in terms of funding, knowledge of ship funds and wealth funds that consider
Any development of the Port of Newark is considerably hampered by the fact that the Bayonne Bridge only handling, logistics management and data the container terminal sector a valuable
allows a maximum air draught of between 46 and 48 m, which is not sufficient for the largest container vessels. processing. This combination makes that source for generating revenue. The
In May 2013, a USD 1.3 billion project was started to increase the navigational clearance to 65 m, with completion container terminal operators are usually majority are shareholders and do not get
aimed in 2017. part of large international consortia of directly involved with the management of
which a limited number are operating on a the terminal leaving this to the (existing)
ECT Delta terminal world-wide basis. operator of the terminal. Examples are DP
Ten years after its birth in the United States, containerisation found its way to Europe. The director of the World from Dubai and Port America.
Rotterdam Port Authority, Dr. F. Posthuma, recognised containerisation’s enormous potential at the port of Based on their container throughput in
Rotterdam. Sea-Land chose Rotterdam as its centre of activities in Europe, influenced by Posthuma’s good 2014, the six largest container terminal Terminals linked with container
relationship with McLean. In 1967, a consortium consisting of Dutch Rail and four stevedoring companies, operators are: shipping companies
founded a new company to handle the new container business: Europe Combined Terminals (ECT). In order to » Hutchinson Port Holdings (HPH) These terminals were set up by container
facilitate further growth in its container operations, the ECT opened its Delta Terminal in 1985, near the sea » China Merchants Holding Int. (CMHI) shipping companies expanding into
and some 50 km from the city of Rotterdam. Many were of the view that the new terminal was too far » APM Terminals terminal operations in order to exercise
away from the existing port area, however, the move appeared successful and ECT’s business continued to » Cosco Pacific greater control over this important part in
grow. The terminal expanded further in 1993, with the opening of the world’s first automated terminal. Further » Port of Singapore Authority (PSA) the container transport chain. Examples are
expansion took place in 1999 and 2003 with the opening of the automated Delta Dedicated East and West » DP World. APM Terminals (AP Moller), Cosco Pacific
terminals. In 2008, the opening of ECT’s Euromax terminal was the next step in the development of terminal (source: Lloyds List / company’s annual reports) and TIL (MSC).
automation, and it became one of the most environmental friendly terminals in the world.
Looking at background, organisation and Productivity rates of ports and terminals
Many terminal operators around the world followed ECT’s example of situating their terminals closer to the sea constitution, container terminal operators The productivity of a container terminal or
or sufficiently close so as to allow access without the need to pass through locks. Automation was introduced at can be divided into three categories: port is the average of the gross moves per
many terminals around the world, particularly in countries with high labour costs. hour for each vessel’s call.
Terminals with a typical
Further innovations in container terminal operations, particularly with regard to energy saving and reduction of stevedoring background The definition of gross moves per hour for
carbon emissions, have been introduced at Rotterdam’s new terminals at Maasvlakte 2, which opened in 2015. These companies were originally founded a single vessel call is the total number of
as stevedoring companies and, at a container moves (loading, discharging and
certain moment in history, diversified into repositioning) divided by the number of
118 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 119

hours the vessel is at berth, for the period ranking port moves ranking terminal moves

between all lines fast and all lines off. 1 Tianjin (China) 130 1 APM Yokohama 163

The method of counting moves may vary 2 Qingdao (China) 126 2 Tianjin Xingang Sinor 163
between ports and terminals but the
3 Ningbo (China) 120 3 Ningbo Beilun Second 141
following is a common method:
4 Jebil Ali (UAE) 119 4 Tianjin Port Euroasia 139

discharge or load 1 x 20’ / 40’ / 45’ = 1 move 5 Khor al Fakkan 119 5 Xiamen Sonyu 132

restow in the same bay 1 x 20’ / 40’ / 45’ = 1 move 6 Yantian (China) 108 6 Tianjin Five Continents 130

discharge, land and restow 1 x 20’ / 40’ / 45’ = 1 move 7 Xiamen (China) 106 7 Ningbo Gangji 127

out of gauge 1 x 20’ / 40’ / 45’ = 3 or 4 moves 8 Busan (S. Korea) 105 8 Tianjin Port Alliance 126

hatchcover handling on board = 2 moves 9 Mawan (China) 104 9 DP World, Jebil Ali 119

hatchcover handling to shore = 3 moves 10 Shanghai (China) 104 10 Khor al Fakkan 119

twinlift 2 x 20’ units = 2 moves

Ranking of world’s most productive port and terminal, average container moves per ship, per hour, all vessel sizes (2013).
tandemlift 2 x 40’ units = 2 moves source: JOC Group

In 2014, the US based JOC Group produced counterparts. The APM Terminal at Port
a white paper on port and terminal Elizabeth (New Jersey) was the highest
productivity, based on a survey of 150,000 ranked terminal in the Americas with 104
port calls at 483 ports and 771 terminals. moves. The Euromax Terminal at Rotterdam
They ranked ports and terminals according was the highest ranked European terminal
to the average number of moves per hour with 100 moves.
per ship during 2013. The port with the
highest productivity was Tianjin, China Whilst there are no official records, the
averaging 130 moves. The terminals with the Westport Terminal at Port Kelang Malaysia
highest productivity were the APM Terminal claims to hold the world record for the
in Yokohama, Japan and the Tianjin Xingang most container moves in one single hour.
Sinor Terminal in China, with 163 moves In March 2010, they achieved 734 container
each. The survey indicates that Asian ports moves in one hour over the 9,572 TEU CSCL
are far more productive when compared LE HAVRE, using nine cranes at a time.
with their European and American
120 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 121

Container stripping and stuffing provided by the trucking company, is

4.3 Facilities for regular loading (stuffing) and different from that stated in the booking
unloading (stripping) of the container may form supplied by the shipping line.
The function of a container terminal be available at the terminal, albeit this will Container weight and container weighing
mostly be only at the smaller or medium- will be dealt with further in Chapter 6.
sized terminals. The larger terminals do Efficiency of stacking containers in the
Handling and storage On the other hand, the terminal provides not usually have the space to carry out yard also depends on the correctness of
The primary function of a container terminal secure and relatively inexpensive storage such operations on a regular basis, and the information about the next mode of
is to handle and move containers one way for shippers, receivers and shipping lines. will only facilitate stuffing and stripping of transport (e.g. rail, barge, truck or ship)
or another. This is the primary function of Terminals, therefore, provide fixed time containers if alllowed by the Custom status
every container terminal around the world, periods during which shippers can deliver of the terminal and / or in an emergency; for Container inspection
irrespective of whether it is a marine or an their export containers to the terminal. example, if the container has been At the terminal, the container crosses
inland terminal. The practical impossibility The point in time from which shippers can damaged and can no longer be transported. several ‘lines of responsibility’ each
of directly transferring containers between deliver the containers to the terminal in requiring an assessment of the external
vessels or between trucks, barges, advance of the vessel’s arrival is known as Administrative functions condition of the container. These lines
trains and vessels are an integral part ‘the cargo opening time’. This varies from Document check and verification of responsibility are crossed where the
of container terminal operations. Direct terminal to terminal, but a cargo opening Container terminals exchange a vast container enters the terminal. This can be
transfer between vessels would require time of some eight to 10 days prior to the amount of information and documentation either at the quayside or at the entrance
the transhipment vessels, as well as trucks, vessel’s estimated arrival is not unusual. with their users. Every day, mostly 24 / 7, gate to the terminal. In practice, the
trains and barges to all arrive at the terminal The terminal would ideally prefer that they are in contact with shipping lines, local container will be inspected as soon as
at the right time and in the right order, and import containers which have been agents, trucking companies, barge and rail it is landed on the quay. This inspection
containers would need to be unloaded from discharged from the vessel are picked up operators, Customs, etc. This particularly usually entails a check for any damage to
these in the same sequence as they are as soon as possible. A two to three day applies to terminals with a gateway the container, as well as the integrity of
loaded on board the vessel. This is simply storage period at the terminal is usually function, where various modes of the container seal. The container will also
impossible. Therefore, container terminal included in the cost of the container transport meet. be checked for any leakage or spillage
operations can only be executed in an handling. Thereafter, the terminal charges a of cargo. Containers which have been
efficient manner if the containers can be daily storage rate. For the terminal to operate as efficiently declared to contain hazardous cargo, are
placed in temporary storage at the terminal. as possible, it is important that all the checked for the presence of the required
This is referred to as the ‘storage buffer’. Empty containers are a separate category information delivered to the terminal IMO placarding on the outside of the
of storage and separate areas may be is correct and accurate. For example, if container.
The amount of time a container remains at set aside at the terminal to store empty the transport document shows that the
the terminal is referred to as the ‘container containers for each shipping line. However, container delivered to the terminal is a A special type of container is the
dwell time’. Terminals prefer to limit in most instances, and especially at very 20 foot container, but is in fact a 40 foot refrigerated containers. These containers
container dwell time as much as possible, busy terminals, empty containers are container, this will lead to complications are stored in a special area of the container
as too many containers at the storage yard stored at designated empty container during the automatic container stacking yard where they can be connected to a
complicates the logistic processes. After depots just outside the terminal itself. and stowing on board the vessel. The same power supply. The temperature of these
all, a container terminal is not a warehouse, At these empty container depots there complication, with an additional safety containers must be checked regularly
but is built to handle as many containers are also facilities for inspection, repair and risk will arise if the weight of the container to verify that these are in line with the
as possible in the shortest possible time. cleaning of the containers. as declared on the transport document carriage instructions.
122 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 123

Similar inspections take place at the available, has been blocked for transport,
container gate. At some of the more has not been cleared by Customs, or does 4.4
sophisticated terminals, cameras with not yet have the necessary documents.
‘Optical Character Recognition’ (OCR) are This would not only incur unnecessary Layout of a modern container terminal
installed at the entrance gate to identify costs for the transport company, but would
the arriving container by its unique 7-digit also create congestion and inconvenience
reference number. Seal status, direction at the terminal gate. Terminals have, The purpose of a container terminal is to of the terminal is to serve more than one
of the door, container damage and IMO therefore, often a system in place whereby safely and efficiently load and discharge transport mode, and to have an efficient
labels can also be detected. If the system the transport companies can verify that vessels and to accomplish a smooth internal transport system to shuttle
finds any irregularity with the container, the these issues have been resolved before transfer between the various modes of containers between the container stacks
security systems can automatically prevent sending their haulage equipment to the transport. The terminal will only function and the landside operation. Nevertheless,
the container from entering the terminal. terminal. These systems vary from a simple efficiently if the layout of the terminal has the general layout will be more or less the
It is good practice by the terminal to send line of communication to a complete online been designed in such a way as to ensure same at each location.
a damage or non-compliance report to computer system, where all the relevant that all operations are in alignment with
the client as soon as an irregularity has parties can log on, enter clearance codes, each other. A marine container terminal can generally
been found. This gives those involved an and check whether the container is ready be divided into three areas:
opportunity to rectify any errors. for collection. Each container terminal has its own specific
layout, concept of container handling, and 1 The ‘waterside area’ with quay wall, apron
Data control and verification Stowage planning its own equipment. and cranes to load and discharge ships
It would not be in anyone’s interest if Terminals play an important role in the and barges.
transport companies send their haulage completion of the preliminary and final In general, the layout of a container terminal
equipment to the terminal to pick up stowage plans for each vessel calling serving as a transhipment hub is different Most modern containerships are
a container if the container is not yet at the terminal. In the past, these plans from that of a typical gateway terminal. gearless. The loading and discharge
were created by the ship’s officers but, A transhipment terminal will have of containers are carried out at large
due to logistic reasons, this task has been maximised the container storage, as terminals with specialised gantry cranes.
transferred to the planners at the terminal, containers may have to stay at the terminal These cranes can traverse the length of
who work in close co-operation with a for a longer period of time. The landside the quay on a rail track. Between the rail
stowage co-ordinator at the offices of the operation on the other hand will be track and the quay wall may be a road
shipping line. The process of preparing the minimal, as only a few containers will have used by terminal personnel and visitors
stowage plan is described in more detail an inland destination. For example, the to gain access to vessels. This road may
later in this chapter. Malta-based container hub Malta Freeport also be located behind the gantry crane.
will only handle a few import and export The trolley of the container gantry crane
Automatic container inspection at the terminal gate containers destined for the island itself. is passing over this road. At the landside,
The vast majority of the containers arriving the containers are picked up / landed in
at the port are destined for transhipment a section of the container yard where
onto other vessels. vehicles drive between the container
cranes and the container storage yard.
A gateway terminal will focus on having an
efficient landside operation. The purpose
124 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 125

2 The ‘storage area’ or ‘container yard’ approximately 750 TEU per hectare for
where the containers are stored straddle carriers. In some locations with
temporarily and which links the water- a high storage density, e.g. Hong Kong,
and landside operation. bay racks are used where containers can
be stowed up to 12 tiers high.
The container yard is located at the
centre of the terminal and occupies most A less common system is ‘storage on
of the space at the terminal. A storage trailer chassis’ which is particularly
capacity of 30,000 to 40,000 containers is popular in the United States. This system
not uncommon. requires a significant storage area and
is therefore only found at terminals with
Containers may be stacked ashore in limited container throughput.
blocks or lanes. ‘Block storage’ is used
in conjunction with yard cranes. Each When containers are stacked in the yard
position in each block is identified by not every container is readily available
its bay, row (lane) and tier position. to be picked up by the yard equipment.
‘Lane storage’ is used where straddle Where the container at the base of the
carriers are used to store the containers stack is needed, the containers stowed
in the yard. on top must be removed first. This
involves unproductive moves (reshuffles)
The stacking height for block or lane in the yard. The terminal obviously
stowage varies with the lifting capacity wishes to keep the number of reshuffles
of the yard’s cranes or straddle carriers. to a minimum and this places certain
waterside
waterside Straddle carriers and yard cranes usually demands on the storage strategy, the
lift to a maximum of four tiers high. The type of equipment in the yard and, most
quay cranes landside (truck/rail) highest storage density can be achieved importantly, the decision whether or not
using yard cranes with approximately to automate the storage system.
1,100 TEU per hectare as opposed to
entrance gate

ASC
container yard
AGV

feeder and barge

loading quay

inspection area special containers

Lane storage involving straddle carriers train trucks

126 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 127

3 The ‘landside area’, where containers are or yard cranes load containers onto
delivered or leave the terminal by road, chassis or railway carriages. Barges are 4.5
rail or barge. loaded further away from the stacking
area. This may also be the case for Terminal equipment
The landside operation is where the dedicated rail centres. Special vehicles,
terminal interacts with the connections such as ‘multi-trailer units’, are used to
towards the hinterland. At the end of the shuttle between the container stacking Handling systems found in container operate a scheduled service, and they are
container stacking area, straddle carriers area and the rail / barge loading areas. terminals include a quayside handling best served by a reliable and consistent
system for loading and discharge of performance of the terminal in the loading
vessels and barges, a transport system, and discharge of their vessels. Automation,
and a storage yard system. however, completely changes the
operation and data processing at the
Each terminal will use its own type of container terminal and requires very
equipment based on differences in significant investment.
operation, size and construction of the
terminal. Furthermore, the systems will
differ between terminals due to their
different manufacturers.

This section therefore provides a general

overview of the equipment used at
container terminals. A general distinction
can be made between terminals which
are automated and terminals where all Gantry or ship to shore crane
(or part of the) equipment is operated by
drivers. The areas of the terminal which Quay cranes
US: Container storage on chassis lends themselves most to automation is Different terms are used for quay cranes at
the stacking area, the transport between container terminals. The most commonly
the stacking area and the quay cranes, used term is ‘ship-to-shore (STS) crane’,
and the transport between the stacking although the term ‘gantry crane’ is more
area and the loading platforms for trucks common. In the United States, the term
and rail transport. A few terminals operate ‘portal crane’, or more commonly ‘portainer’
with remotely operated gantry cranes for is used. This was the trademark of the very
loading and discharge of vessels. first container cranes built by Paceco Inc.
in 1959 but has since that time become the
The benefits of automation are reduced generic term used for this type of cranes.
labour costs, reduced emissions and, most In this book, quay crane denotes a rail
importantly, a more consistent performance mounted crane consisting of a supporting
of the terminal as a whole. Shipping lines framework with a container spreader device
128 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 129

that can traverse the length of a quay, and runs over the boom of the crane. In its corner of the container, sensors are fitted
which is known in the industry as a backreach position, the trolley hangs above in the spreader allowing the locking device
‘gantry crane’. the storage area at the container yard. In to engage only if the spreader is resting
the outreach position, the trolley hangs on the container. A signal in the cabin tells
It should be noted that some terminals above the vessel. The part of the container the driver when all four locking devices are
also use multi-purpose, mobile harbour crane which hangs above the water is engaged. Similarly, sensors, both on the
cranes, which can be fitted with a container hinged and can be moved into a vertical spreader and in the driver’s cabin, prevent
spreader. These cranes, however, have position to clear the area for navigation. the lifting of 2 x 20 foot containers in a 40
limited capacity in terms of reach (usually foot spreader. Twin lift
they can serve ships up to 13 containers The driver’s cabin is located in the trolley
wide) and are slower than gantry type itself which is equipped with a steel wire Crane and spreader devices are now
quay cranes. In view of their limited use at operated container spreader to lift / lower available which allow containers to be lifted
modern container terminals, this type of the containers. The spreader is fitted with in horizontal tandem, vertical tandem or
crane will not be further considered here. a standardised twistlock mechanism which twin lift arrangement.
Gantry type quay cranes move on rails locks into the four upper corner castings of
running parallel to the quay wall. The the container to be lifted. Telescopic beams Conventional container gantry cranes have
positioning on a rail system means that in the spreader allow easy adjustment from a single hoist with a single spreader lifting a
quay cranes cannot pass each other and the a 20 foot container length to 40 / 45 foot single 20 foot, 40 foot or 45 foot container.
sequential order of the quay crane positions container lengths. Tandem lift
along the quay wall cannot, therefore, A special spreader can be fitted which
be changed. From his position in the cabin, the driver allows 2 x 20 foot containers to be lifted at each operating a single spreader, and
has to lower the spreader on top of the one time. This way of lifting, whereby 2 x working in parallel on the same trolley.
The crane driver is located in a cabin just container to be lifted. Flipper arms are 20 foot are lifted end-to-end in a 40 foot A ‘vertical tandem lift’ (or in port jargon
above the spreader. From his position in the fitted at each corner of the spreader to help spreader, is referred to as a ‘twin lift’. ‘Piggy backing’) is the lifting of two
cabin, the driver controls all movements of position the spreader onto the container. A ‘tandem lift’ is the lifting of two (or containers locked one above the other in
the crane and spreader. Once the spreader is fully lowered in the three) containers side by side. There are one operation. The safety of this operation
correct position, the spreader’s locking two systems for tandem lifts; a single hoist very much depends on the integrity of the
The loading / unloading mechanism of a devices engage and the container can be system with one set of falls connected devices locking the containers together and
gantry type quay crane is a trolley which lifted. To ensure proper connection at each to a special single headblock with two is not allowed in every port in the world.
(or three) spreaders, or two main hoists

twin lift tandem lift vertical tandem lift

20 20

Gantry crane driver cabin Container spreader with flipper arms

130 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 131

Modern container gantry cranes must not Bigger ships call for bigger and smarter cranes
only be capable of handling the largest Increasing the capacity of containerships has not only been a challenge for naval architects and classification
vessels (see insert), the increased volume societies. Crane manufacturers have had to keep pace with these developments as well. The increased container
of container traffic also demands quicker capacity of ships was mainly achieved by increasing the width of the vessel and the stacking height of the
transfers to and from the ships. Modern containers stowed on deck. Consequently, lifting height and outreach of the gantry beam had to become larger as
gantry cranes are therefore equipped well. In addition, heavier and larger cranes also impose increased requirements on the strength of the quay wall.
with many features to improve efficiency,
single trolley system such as:
» Precision vehicle positioning (to align
vehicles on the quay in an optimal
backreach gauge outreach
position for loading or unloading)
» Cameras for better visibility and
lifting height lifting height
remote control 25 m 52 m
» Pendulum motion control to eliminate the
1970 Panamax 10 m 2013 Triple E 17 m
effects of wind and container inbalance
» Automatic container landing systems, for
precise motion control of the container 17 m outreach 37 m backreach 25 m 30.5 m outreach 72 m
during landing on the terminal vehicle
» Automatic track control. The spreader
follows set paths along the trolley to Transport equipment at the terminal do not have lifting capacity. These
dual trolley system automatically position the spreader Once the container has been unloaded vehicles can be either (multi-)trucks with a
above the container stacks. The driver from the vessel, it needs to be taken to the container chassis operated by truck
takes over during the last few metres container stacking area, where it will remain drivers, or unmanned automatic guided
backreach gauge outreach
before the spreader is lowered onto the for a certain period of time. The vehicles vehicles (AGV).
container or into the cell guides. used for the transport from the quay to the
Gantry cranes can be divided into ‘single’ yard fall into two categories. AGVs are robotic vehicles that drive
and ‘dual trolley cranes’. A single trolley Some recently built container terminals, along predefined loop-type paths with
crane transports the container in one such as APM and Rotterdam World Gateway The first group comprises vehicles which transponders in the ground. These vehicles
move from its stowage position on board (RWG) at Maasvlakte 2 and the Dubai-based provide horizontal transport only, and which can either be operated by a diesel motor
to the quay or onto a terminal vehicle. A Jebil Ali T3 terminal, deploy container or can be electric or both, i.e. a hybrid.
dual trolley gantry crane consists of a main gantry cranes which are no longer operated The vehicles have a loading capacity of 60
trolley which moves the container from by crane drivers located in the cabin, but to 70 tonnes, and are capable of carrying
the vessel onto a platform. From there, a are instead remotely controlled by an one 40 foot, one 45 foot, or two 20 foot
second trolley moves the container onto operator in the terminal building. Crane containers. Some AGVs have a liftable
the quay. manufacturers have developed a range of platform, enabling the vehicle to lift and
concept designs which can increase the place containers independently on transfer
crane’s rate of handling containers. racks in the interchange zone in front of the
yard-stacking cranes.
AGV
132 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 133

The road at the terminal used by the AGVs originally the name of one of the terminal Forklift trucks lift containers by inserting
is divided into a small grid. Before an AGV chassis manufacturers. the prongs into the forklift pockets in the
can enter that grid, it has to be allocated container’s base frame.
the path so that no other AGV can drive in
the same area at the same time. This way, Reach stackers (top pickers) have a
collisions between AGVs within the network telescopic arm with a spreader device
are avoided. In addition, sensors are fitted attached to the top of the arm which lifts
at the front and the back of an AGV, which the container using the top corner castings.
immediately switch off the engine if the Straddle carrier Reach stackers are capable of stacking
AGV hits, or is hit by, another object. containers up to five tiers high.
An overview of all the AGV movements to place it directly into the container yard,
can be seen on the screen in front of the or vice versa. Straddle carriers are mostly Mafi
quay operator located in the terminal operated by a driver located in a cabin at
building. As soon as an AGV fails, it can be the top of the frame. The work orders for Special yard tractors are used to shuttle
remotely steered to a separate area where the carrier drivers appear on a screen in the the containers and chassis from their
technicians can locate and repair the fault. cabin in a sequential order. Once a work parking position on the terminal to the
If the engine fails on an AGV, a truck can order has been accepted by the driver, it gantry cranes.
be connected to the AGV to pull it to the disappears from the top of the list and a
inspection area. Experience from operating new order heads the list. In 2005, the Patrick For transport on public roads, the trailers
automated terminals has shown that for the Autostrad Terminal in Brisbane, Australia, must have additional features such as a Forklift truck
optimum operation of the terminal, at least became the first terminal with a completely twistlock system to lock the container to
eight AGVs should be connected to one automated straddle carrier system. The the chassis.
quay crane. Therefore, a terminal operation terminal had opted for the straddle carrier
with six quay cranes should deploy some system instead of the AGV system to ensure The terminal equipment used to stack
50 AGVs. a consistent container throughput, as they containers can be divided into three
were of the view that the AVG system was different groups:
The second category is the ‘straddle carrier less flexible and more at risk of failure. » Reach stackers, container lift trucks and
system’, also called a ‘shuttle carrier’ or forklift trucks
‘van carrier’. The vehicle consists of a Terminal storage equipment » Straddle carriers (see previous Chapter)
metal frame with a telescopic spreader The simplest form of container storage » Yard cranes Reach stacker
suspended within the frame. The vehicle is ‘storage on chassis’. This system is
usually drives on four wheels located either particularly popular in the United States. Reach stackers, fork lift trucks and container
side of the frame. The frame itself is in the The typical yard chassis consists of a simple lifting trucks are all rubber-tyred vehicles
shape of an upside down U, which allows steel frame with guides to allow easy and powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid
the carrier to drive over the container and correct positioning of the container on the diesel-electric engine and used to lift fully
to lift the container between the frame legs, chassis. In its parked position, the chassis loaded containers. The vehicles differ from
up to three or four container tiers high. This is resting on support legs. The chassis is each other in the way they lift the containers
allows the straddle carrier to pick up the often referred to as a ‘MAFI trailer’, which and the stacking height capacity.
container from the quay or truck chassis and has become a generic term but which was
Container lift truck
134 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 135

Container lift trucks (side pickers) can only A yard crane consists of a steel portal and span eight to twelve containers wide.
lift containers vertically. For that purpose, frame, a trolley and a spreader. The crane The container block can be several hundred
the trucks have a telescopic lifting frame in drives on either rubber tyres (RTG – rubber metres long and can be served by one
front of the vehicle. The containers are lifted tired gantry) or moves on a rail system or more ASCs. Where there are multiple
through the side apertures of the top corner (RMG – rail mounted gantry). ASCs in one container block, the ASCs
castings. These trucks are particularly can all be of the same height, in which
popular at empty container deports Automated container handling in the case they cannot pass each other, or can
where containers need to be stacked 6-8 storage yard be of different heights, in which case they
tiers high. During the last 25 years, improved sensor can pass below each other. This latter ASCs in end loading system
and navigation technology has made configuration can be found at the CTA and
All the above types of container stacking it possible to operate automatically CTB terminals in Hamburg. containers from the trucks. The end-loading
equipment are used mainly in smaller ports, container handling equipment, using very system is considered less flexible in its
container logistic sites or container depots. sophisticated computer controls systems. There are two different layouts used in the ability to handle peak loads at either
They are very flexible and can be used for The first type of automated container construction of storage yards operated the land or waterside end and for this
both transport and stacking. Reach stackers handling equipment was the rail mounted by ASCs; the ‘end-loading’ and the ‘side- reason many terminals opt for the side-
are also used to load and discharge barges. gantry cranes, now commonly known as loading system’. loading system. A combination of the
‘Automatic Stacking Cranes’ (ASC). end and side-loading system is in use at
Larger container terminals, however, prefer The first ASC, together with unmanned The end-loading ASC yard (E-ASC) has Thamesport, UK.
to use another type of equipment for AGVs, were installed at ECT’s Delta container blocks perpendicular to the
container storage, namely ‘yard cranes’. Terminal in Rotterdam in 1993. In 2002, quay. This system is particularly seen ASCs receive their work orders directly
Firstly, more containers can be stowed HHLA’s CTA terminal in Hamburg in automated terminals in Europe, e.g. from the terminal operation system. These
within a given area when using yard cranes. implemented a similar technology. Since its Rotterdam, Hamburg, Algeciras and work orders come in batches which means
The yard crane system is also much safer first introduction in 1993, some 30 terminals Antwerp. Containers are only handled at those responsible for terminal planning
as there is less traffic in the storage area. have introduced ASCs and their use have the two ends of the storage block; one end can prepare each batch based on the
Furthermore, yard cranes lend themselves become the norm at new large container serving the waterside (usually by trucks, latest real-time information received and
to a high degree of automation which is terminals in Europe, Asia and America. AGVs or straddle carriers). The other end any future information can be included in
particularly important in countries where serves the landside for loading container subsequent batches.
labour is expensive. The latest ASC designs can stack up to five onto trucks, railway carriages or multi-trailer
containers high (with one container passing) systems. There is no traffic in the yard when The sequence of stowing and stacking
using the end-loading system. containers in the yard is a highly
computerised process, whereby the
The side-loading system has the container operation system continuously looks for
blocks positioned parallel to the quay. optimisation. In container storage terms,
This system is mainly favoured in Asia. optimisation means the smallest amount
The ASCs in the side-loading system are of reshuffles (or shifters) during the loading
cantilevered (C-ASC). Trucks drive into the of the vessel. Since trucks do arrive at the
container stacking area in a side-loading terminal in an entirely random order which
system, through lanes running parallel to
Rubber tired gantry Automatic Rail Mounted Gantry (ARMG), or: Automated the container blocks. ASCs pick up the
Stacking Cranes (ASC)
136 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 137

will be different to the sequence in which ASCs must be equipped with advanced
the containers are to be loaded on board observation (CCTV), positioning 4.6
the vessel, the ASCs will carry out reshuffles (transponders, laser, infrared) and
during periods of less activity. communication systems to automatically Planning and operations
report the status of the crane and any
The container storage will now have been possible technical failures of the machinery.
prepared in such a way that only a small Different container terminals have performance of a quay crane may be less
number of reshuffles will be necessary different processes and procedures in than initially planned. If this is the case,
during the loading operations of a vessel. place for the planning and execution of the terminal will have to reschedule its
their operations. operations in order to meet the vessel’s
planned departure time.
Container terminal equipment, for those who like abbreviations
These differences may depend on the type
A wide variety of container handling equipment is available, each type with its own abbreviation. Each type of of equipment used at the terminal, but All these uncertainties mean that container
equipment has a unique functionality and may be used together with complimentary equipment within the same the differences can also be of an historic terminal operations are very dynamic
system. Below is a list of the most commonly used abbreviations: and / or cultural nature. For example, processes where plans continuously
AGV Automated Guided Vehicle. Robotic vehicles that drive between the gantry cranes and terminals located in high cost countries will need to be rescheduled and decisions
the stacking area and are controlled by a network of electric wires or transponders in move more quickly towards automation. need to be taken to adjust to the actual
the ground real-time situation.
ALV Automated Lifting Vehicle, an AGV that can both load and unload An example of this, is as already
ASC Automatic Stacking Crane mentioned, the fact that Asian countries The terminal operation system (TOS) is
TTU Terminal Tractor with Trailer Unit favour the side-loading system in a storage the beating heart of a modern container
MTU Multi Trailer Unit (terminal tractor with several trailers) also known as ‘MTS - Multi yard whereas European yards favour the terminal and is designed to quickly deal
Trailer System’ end-loading system. with any real-time changes. The TOS is
RTG Rubber-Tyred Gantry crane (mostly used in conjunction with straddle carriers) a software package offered by a dozen
ARTG An automated RTG Container terminal operations are very different manufacturers to the market in
RMG Rail Mounted Gantry crane complex compared with many other many different versions, and capable of
ARMG An automated RMG (also referred to as an ‘ASC’) similar operations due to the high level of adding software modules covering various
OHB Overhead Bridge Crane uncertainty at almost every stage of the other operations. It is important that plans
SC Straddle Carrier planning operation. These uncertainties are and messages are interchangeable and
ShC Shuttle carrier inherent in shipping, but also in transport in can be read by every computer system at
STS crane Ship to Shore crane (usually a gantry crane) general. Vessels may be delayed because the terminal to achieve efficient operation
ECH Empty Container Handler (front loaders capable of up to 9-high stacking ashore) of bad weather or operational delays in and to communicate efficiently with other
a previous port. At the terminal, during parties in the transport chain.
the execution of an operation, technical
equipment can suddenly fail and this can Apart from internal communication,
lead to rescheduling of the operations. container terminal operators conduct a high
The terminal can suffer congestion during volume of communication with a wide range
peak times because of conflicts between of external parties such as shipping lines,
terminal operations and, as a result, the local agents, freight forwarders, trucking,
138 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 139

UN / EDIFACT
These processes are outlined as they would time frames are mentioned, these will be
In shipping, as in many other sectors of industry, documents and data are exchanged electronically between be at typically large container terminals applicable to these particular terminals only
different companies, in accordance with internationally agreed standards. in north-west Europe. The container and may be different at any other terminal.
yards at the terminals in question are fully
By definition, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, automated as well as the transport between Ship planning – berth allocation, crane
from one computer system to another without human intervention. The files carry the extension .edi after the container yard and the quay cranes. and resource planning
the message description. There are several EDI standards although the standard recommended by the United The annual throughput ranges between This is the process which assigns vessels
Nations UN / EDIFACT (Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Administration) is the only 2 and 4 million TEU and there is a full to a certain section of the quay wall, taking
international standard. All EDIFACT messages are based on the ISO standard 9735, which was adopted in 1988. range of intermodal connections to inland into account the vessel’s dimensions,
Accordingly, all computers used in a shipping environment and have been installed to deal with electronic data Europe. The planning departments operate location of mooring points, expected
exchange, should support EDIFACT-type messages. a 24 / 7 service in five work shifts. Where service times, etc. It is the terminal’s quay

The following are the most frequently used EDIFACT messages in communication with container terminals: S i s annin oced e (indicative)
BAPLIE (Bayplan / stowage plan Occupied And Empty Locations message). e t in indo a eement
Bayplan message from the terminal to the ship operator, to the ship and, if required, to the next terminal
COPARN (COntainer Pre-ARrival Notice)
mont ay annin
Container announcement message (loaded or empty) from the carrier to the terminal
before ETA
(Estimated
Crane allocation
COPRAR (COntainer PRe-ARrival) message Time of Arrival)

}
The loading and / or discharge instruction from the carrier to the terminal mont indo confi mation
before ETA
COARRI (COntainer ARRIval) message
regular updates on vessel’s ETA

}
Loading / discharge report from the terminal to the carrier
ee a o o enin time
MOVINS Stowage instruction from the ship operator to the terminal before ETA
delivering of export cargo
COREOR (COntainer REelease ORder)

}
Container release message for full and empty containers from the carrier to the o s a o c osin time
before ETA
terminal dt ntr erifi ti n
CODECO (COntainer DEparture COnfirmation)
o s oadin ists to anne
Gate in / gate out movements from the terminal to the carrier before ETA ° Load discharge sequencing
° Stowage plan
° Work orders to TOS (Terminal Operation System)
esse s a i a
° Ship’s control of stowplan
rail and barge operators, customs etc. This chapter will now deal with the following
To achieve uniformity and efficiency, two processes which are important to every n as in
all parties use the UN internal standard marine container terminal:
for electronic communication, called » the ship planning process – berth
Sta t oad disc a e
‘EDIFACT’. (Electronic Data Interchange For allocation, crane and resource planning
Administration, Commerce and Transport). » the preparation of the container
These messages are recognised by the file stowage plan. om etion oad disc a e
° Final stow plan
extension .edi. (see also above).

esse sai s
140 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 141

planner, who is part of the terminal’s The terminal service contracts entered into The table below is an extract from a typical
resource planning department, who between the liner operator and the terminal berthing window plan, agreed between the
handles these planning issues and stays state a predefined berthing window, as well terminal and the liner operator.
in contact with the shipping line and the as the length of time the liner operator is
vessel’s local agent. allowed to be delayed. A typical contract Art. 1 Vessel’s details / trade
allows the vessel to arrive two to four hours trade nominal L.O.A. maximum maximum vessel number
The allocation of a berth starts a long time late. Depending on the terminal’s other capacity (metres) number of draft operator of vessels
(TEU) containers operated
before the expected arrival of the vessel. berthing commitments, consideration abeam
Nearer the date of the vessel’s arrival, crane may have to be given to rescheduling Alliance X 6,600 305 16 14.50 container 9
line x
sequences and labour resources will be the vessel’s berthing time if the vessel is
involved in the planning process as well. delayed, or, alternatively, to skip the port
call all together. Art. 2 Berthing window plan
We will now deal with the various stages of trade call size (TEU) contractual berthing dedicated berth
the ship planning process. Timely arrival of the vessel is also important window

for the planning of the operations at

Alliance X 2,500 load / 2,500 discharge Wednesday 22.00 − Friday alfa berth
Berthing window agreement the stacking yard. The terminal usually 22.00 hrs.

Large container vessels operate regular allocates mooring berths well before the
schedules that are agreed a long time in first export containers arrive at the terminal.
advance. A typical liner service runs weekly The terminal would ideally like to have as Quay planning quay planner estimates the number of
schedules with berthing on a certain day short a distance as possible between the Approximately three months before the quay cranes that needs to be allocated to
each week. The weekly service can be containers at the yard and the vessel, and expected arrival of the vessel, the quay the vessel. For a crane productivity of 20
provided by one single liner operator, will therefore place the export containers as planner books the intended quay position containers per hour, this would be 5 quay
or by a pool or alliance of operators. close as possible to the vessel’s intended (length) and allocates a number of cranes to cranes. A section of the stacking area, and
The latter being the most common berth. If for one reason or another the ship the vessel. Quay positions are indicated by a number of ASCs, will be automatically
arrangement today. arrives after the allotted time, she may have the bollard positions. The decision on berth connected to the berthing location.
to divert to another berth. This will incur allocation takes into account the vessel’s
Long-term planning is important for liner significant costs (and additional work) for technical requirements and the technical Once the number of cranes that will be
operators to enable them to provide their the terminal as the containers will have to restrictions at the intended berthing place, needed has been established, the quay
customers with scheduling information well be moved over a longer distance to be such as air draught, water draught, outreach planner will also know the expected length
in advance and to contract with terminals loaded onto the vessel. of the crane, etc. of stay of the vessel at the terminal. If, for
at scheduled ports along the route. The example, the forecasted call-size is 5,000
contracts with the terminals provide the The ship’s name is usually not mentioned in The service contract between the shipping containers, fifty hours need to be set aside
liner operator with a degree of guarantee the berthing window clause contained line and the terminal also stipulates a berth in the quay planning system and allocated
that a berth will be available when the ship in the terminal service contract; only the production. This is the average number of to the particular quay positions. At this
arrives. At the same time, the advance ship’s dimensions and estimated call size, containers per hour which the terminal has stage, the vessel’s name is not known; and
planning allows the terminal to plan the i.e. number of containers to be loaded to handle during the vessel’s stay at the the entire planning is made on forecasted
resources available (quay space, labour, and and discharged. terminal. A typical berth production for numbers only.
equipment) for a longer period of time. a large container vessel is 100 containers
per hour. On the basis of this figure, the
142 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 143

2 5 8 11 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99 104 110 116 Feeder vessels and barges are entered grant trucks access to deliver the export
into the quay planning system shortly containers. The container gate system
0800
before arrival at the terminal. These vessels contains information on which section of
quay position mooring points occupy less quay space and require less the stacking area has been assigned to
time allocated to them in the quay planning the vessel’s berth and any incoming trucks
system and the planning surrounding them will be directed to the correct area of the
time line
crane number can be much more flexible than that for the container yard to deliver the containers.
large ocean carriers.
Cargo closing time, data control and
green = twin lift
Window confirmation 24-hour fine tuning
red = single lift
Approximately one month before the Export containers are allowed to enter the
1600
vessel’s expected date of arrival, the terminal, up until 24 hours before the vessel
shipping line will inform the terminal arrives. This is referred to as the ‘cargo
whether the vessel is still within window. closing time’ or ‘cut-off time’. After that
At this moment, the vessel will have time, export containers can be accepted
started the ocean voyage to Europe and with the permission of the terminal planner
the terminal can be provided with the who prepares the preliminary stowage
number of cranes for 1 vessel (here 5) exact call-size. Based on this updated plan. Immediately after the cargo closing
information, the terminal can adjust the time, the data control centre of the terminal
quay and crane planning further. At this will verify that all the booked containers
29
OCT stage, the shipping line will also provide the have arrived at the terminal. They will also
ship’s name. The terminal will ensure that check that the information contained in
all vessel details needed for the stowage the transport company’s documentation
planning are available to them. If this is the matches the information in the loading
first time the vessel calls at the terminal, lists received from the shipping line’s local
the shipping line will have to provide the agent. Items such as size of the container,
details needed for the terminal to prepare weight, IMO status etc., will be checked.
its planning programmes. If any discrepancy is found between the two
total period vessel alongside quay documents, the data centre will contact the
0800 In the weeks that follow, the shipping line shipping line’s local agent to obtain more
sends regular updates to the terminal about accurate information. If any uncertainty
the vessel’s expected arrival time. If it is remains, the general principle is that the
possible that the vessel will fail to meet its terminal will take the information from the
window, the terminal’s resource planner will documentation of the transport company
check to see if the plan can be altered. which delivered the container to the
terminal. Experience has shown that this is
Cargo opening time usually the most accurate information.
Approximately one week before the vessel’s
Example of a quay / crane planning expected date of arrival, the terminal will
144 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 145

The terminal’s data control centre has cranes and related haulage equipment, the
approximately 18 hours to complete these so-called ‘crane sequencing’ or ‘crane split’.
checks. The final loading information must
start operations container bays
be sent to the vessel’s terminal planner The crane sequence diagram shows the fore aft
at least six hours before the arrival of the crane positions relative to the vessel and
vessel. the length of time each crane works at a
certain location on board the vessel.
The day before the vessel’s arrival, the The diagram is designed in such a way single lift discharge
resource planner will book the labour gangs that, in an ideal world, all cranes complete
needed to operate the quay cranes. The their operations at exactly the same time.
foreman of the lashing gang will obtain The crane diagram, in combination with
information on how many containers need the preliminary stowage plan, is translated
to be unlashed and lashed and will arrange into work orders for the ASCs and AGVs. twin lift discharge
the labour force accordingly. The harbour These work orders are entered into the
pilot and mooring gangs will be informed terminal’s operating system (TOS) several
about the exact berthing position of the hours before the vessel’s arrival. This time
incoming vessel. The terminal is now ready is needed by the TOS to optimise and start
accommodation
to receive the vessel. The shipping line the stacking sequence in the yard.
and / or its local agent will be informed of
the final arrangements made. Once plans and schedules are ready time line
for execution, the terminal’s operations
twin lift discharge
Load / discharge planning – department will take over and will start
crane sequencing monitoring and supervising their execution.
The terminal’s planning department assigns This is done from the terminal building.
a vessel planner, usually referred to as the The operator oversees the situation on twin lift load
‘terminal planner’, to the vessel, who will board and on the quay using remotely
be in charge of preparing the preliminary operated cameras. There is direct radio
stowage plan and the division of work contact between each crane and each
across the gantry cranes and other related crane works on a separate radio frequency
equipment. The terminal planner will remain to avoid interference between the cranes.
the central point of contact for all planning
activities during the vessel’s entire stay at Preparation of the stowage plan
the terminal. Container stowage planning can be
described as the act of allocating positions
Based on the number of containers to be to containers on board the vessel. For a
loaded or unloaded as well as the planned number of reasons, accurate and correct completion operations
stowage positions of these containers on stowage planning is vital, not only for the
board the vessel, the terminal planner will
divide the work across the respective quay Crane split diagram for container vessel to discharge and = discharge twin lift twin lift
load containers (see right page) = loading discharge loading
146 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 147

efficiency of the operations at the terminal containers containing hazardous cargo Preparation of the Stowage plan (indicative)
but particularly for the safety of the ship and containers requiring a particular
container bookings
and crew. stowage position. The positions, or slots, for
refrigerated containers are also indicated.
Shipper
The process of preparing the ship’s stowage The positions of the remaining containers
plan differs between liner operators. Some are grouped by loading and discharge booking booking booking booking SLBS
system system system system Shipping Line
liner operators will have the final say over port without further reference to numbers, Booking system
the stowage plan; others leave it entirely up weight, etc.
to the terminal planner to prepare a plan. carrier 1 carrier 2 carrier 3 carrier 4 Carrier /
ship operator Shipping
The second step of stowage planning is operator

At larger terminals the stowage plan is executed by the terminal planner who
central
produced by computers based on general assigns specific positions to each and every booking forecast planner
principles of good practice. These principles container to be loaded on board the vessel. and IMDG

pre-stow plan
are part of the software used for the This will result in a plan showing the exact

loading

loading

loading

loading
stowage planning. Stowage planning by position of every container on board

lists

lists

lists

lists
the terminal has the major advantage that and containing all the relevant details of
maximum optimisation can be achieved; each container.
i.e. a minimum of reshuffles in the yard

loading
Data Control Terminal planner Terminal
and maximisation of the crane production. In practice, however, stowage planning

fina
list

preliminary stowage plan

These factors have a positive effect on costs contains several more stages. It starts at Gate-in
arrivals

fina sto a e an
and the length of the vessel’s stay in port. the initial booking by the shipper and ends

approval
with the submission of the final approved Terminal Gate

In its simplest form, stowage planning plan to the Master of the vessel. The above
barge, truck, rail
is a two-step process. The first step is outline and simple description of planning
performed by the shipping line who only applies when there is one shipping line
arrival Ship
prepares a very rough plan, the so-called and all cargo carried on board the vessel is
‘pre-stow plan’. The central planner at the booked by that particular shipping line. In
completion operations
shipping line is responsible for this task. reality, most container vessels operate in a
There is no reference to specific container pool or alliance with other shipowners.
numbers in the pre-stow plan, except for Chart showing the various stages in the stowage planning process for a vessel operating in a pool with four members

The principle of a shipping alliance is that same time, enjoy the benefits of scale
different liner ship operators, who either when operating a large vessel instead
own or charter the vessels, put a number of a smaller one. The liner operator who
of ships in a pool and that each operator delivers the vessel in the pool provides the
is entitled to use a certain number of the central planner; the others are referred to as
container slots on every vessel. This way, ‘partner lines’ or ‘slot charterers’, and do not
each ship operator can offer their clients, have a say in the stowage planning.
for example, a weekly service and, at the
The terminal’s operations department
148 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 149

An additional complexity is the fact that, » Port-of-load and discharge The pre-stow plan Loading lists
while the group of operators form a pool, » Pier-of-load and discharge The central planner or planning centre Prior to the terminal’s cargo closing time,
they do not want to disclose sensitive » Ready-date (date when the containers has received the booking forecasts from the local ship’s agent of each slot charterer
commercial information to other members will be available for shipment) all slot-charterers, including the booking provides the terminal operator with a list of
of the pool. As a result, the exchange of » Ocean vessel name or call sign information from their own agency, and will containers to be loaded and discharged, a
information between the pool members » Ocean vessel voyage number use the information to prepare the pre-stow so-called ‘COPRAR message’.
is kept to a minimum. Nevertheless, » Unique reference on booking level plan. The purpose of the pre-stow plan is to
the terminal needs to obtain detailed » Unique reference for each container on ensure that all containers can be carried on In addition to the name of the ocean going
information to organise their processes container level board in a safe manner and that the cargo vessel and the loading / discharge port, this
and to prepare a proper stowage plan. » Container ISO code or type size is loaded with a view to avoiding costly message also lists the unique container
As a result, the flow of information » Container empty or full re-stows in future ports of call. The pre-stow identification numbers, weight and other
follows different routes as described in the » Container weight (only for full containers) plan will also provide some rough guidance references such as IMDG class or the
chart on page 146. » Commodity (only for full containers) to the terminal planner when the more required setting temperature.
» IMDG class (in case of hazardous cargo) detailed preliminary stow plan is prepared
In the above example, the vessel in » Temperature settings (in case of at a later stage. The local agent also sends a message
question operates in a pool with three other refrigerated containers) (COPARN) to the terminal, specifying
partners. An allocation of the container » Special stowage codes (e.g Out The central planner will therefore work with the containers which will be delivered
slots has been made in the pool agreement Of Gauge). known data – the containers already on or picked up from the terminal and the
and each member is entitled to assign 25 board, as well as projected data which is the mode of inland transportation used.
per cent of the container slots to bookings By using the booking system, the container booking forecasts. The preparation of the This information will be checked against
under their own bill of lading. Pool member line will know how many empty containers stowage plan at the central planner’s office the information supplied by the various
4 is also the operator or owner of the vessel to release from its depot. By aggregating all will also require input on ship’s stability, hull transport companies when they deliver
and therefore delivers the central planner the booking information, the shipping line stress, draught, forward visibility, etc. their containers at the gate. The final
to coordinate the port calls and stowage will know how many containers are going to checked loading lists will subsequently be
planning with the terminal. be shipped at each loading port. No specific container data has been transmitted to the terminal planner. In the
entered in the plan yet. The only exception meantime, the terminal will not take receipt
The shipping line booking system (SLBS) A few days before the vessel’s expected applies to containers with hazardous cargo. of any further containers to be loaded.
Every shipping line providing a container arrival date, the shipping line has to The stowage positions of these containers
service has a booking system. The purpose submit the booking forecast to the vessel’s are fixed by the central planner and cannot Preliminary stowage plan
of this system is to book cargo shipments operator for the central planner to prepare be changed by the terminal planner, The preliminary stowage plan is compiled
and find the best route for each shipment the pre-stow plan. At this time, however, without the central planner’s consent. shortly before the vessel’s arrival. Some
to its final destination. The system requires the complete booking information such as six hours prior to the vessel’s arrival is
input of data supplied by the shipper as well exact weight and quantity may not yet be The central planner will subsequently not uncommon. By this time, the terminal
as information provided by the shipping available. The information received from the transmit the completed pre-stow plan to planner has received the inbound stowage
line’s agency. slot charterer may therefore not be entirely the terminal to guide the planner at the plan from the previous port of call and the
accurate until the terminal receives the final terminal’s office in the further planning of loading list of the containers to be loaded.
Once completed, the following information information from the trucking, rail or the stowage. This transmission will take The previously received pre-stow plan from
is contained in the booking form: barge company delivering the container to place some 1-2 days prior to the the shipping line is also entered into the
the terminal. vessel’s arrival.
150 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 4 CONTAINER TERMINAL OPERATIONS 151

terminal planning system and serves as a Approval of the preliminary plan by the will also be forwarded to the vessel’s next
rough work sheet for the planner. vessel’s staff port of call.
The preliminary plan, in BAPLIE format, will
The objective of the terminal planner is be sent back to the central planner and to
The cost of calling at a container terminal
to prepare the most efficient preliminary the vessel for approval, prior to start of
stowage plan, taking into account the pre- the operations. Ships entering a port to load and unload cargo have to pay a range of costs which can broadly be split into the
stow plan, the limitations of the vessel, following categories:
the general principles of stowage, the The vessel is equipped with a loading » Port related costs (e.g. harbour costs)
allocated resources (labour, cranes) and computer capable of calculating the ship’s » Navigation and mooring costs
the way the containers are stacked in the trim, stability, shear force, bending and » Stevedoring costs
yard and, at the same time, comply with the torsion moment. The computer will also
requirements by the central planner. check that the maximum permissible Below is an example of the costs incurred by a 15,000 TEU container vessel calling at a terminal in north-west
During this part of the stowage planning, forces are not exceeded in the vessel’s Europe to load 5,000 TEU and to discharge another 5,000 TEU.
these general stowage principles are: planned departure condition. The vessel’s
» minimise the number of reshuffles in the programme is also equipped with software The below list is an indication only and costs can vary considerably between different ports and terminals.
container yard to check that the requirements of the
» no heavy over light stowage vessel’s Cargo Securing Manual are met Port related costs
» the maximum permissible stacking and that the prescribed limits are not Harbour costs € 65,000
weight. This is the maximum weight the exceeded in the vessel’s planned departure Compulsory waste fee € 875
vessel’s hatch covers are designed to condition. The computer programme can Navigation and mooring costs
carry and cannot be exceeded quickly upload the BAPLIE file in the system Pilotage (inward and outward) € 9,500
» the positions of IMO and reefer and will flag locations where forces may Towage (inward and outward) € 4,800 (2 tugs)
containers are fixed. be exceeded. At this stage, the vessel’s Mooring gangs (2 x) € 8,800
staff may have to instruct the terminal to Stevedoring costs € 600,000
The plan can be compiled manually, change the stowage plan if this is the case.
but is today mostly done by a computer Once the plan is approved, the status of the Stevedoring costs include terminal handling charges and costs which are deemed part of the freight charges.
programme. The following information will stowage plan is final. Any changes to the Terminal handling charges are effectively charges which are incurred by the shipping line and which will be
be contained in the stowage plan for each plan after approval has been received, and recovered from the shippers at the loading port and from the receivers at the discharge port. The basic principle
container position: which may result in different stowage is that all costs related to the handling of the container before it passes the ship’s rail are terminal handling costs
» container number forces will have to be agreed by the ship’s and that the costs incurred after the containers have passed the ship’s rail are for the account of the shipping line
» carrier indication staff and / or central planner in advance. and deemed incorporated in the freight charges. For example, the cost of lashing the containers and the vessel’s
» ISO size / type code (e.g. 2210,…) planning are for the account of the shipping line. The costs related to the movement of the container at the yard
» empty / full indication During loading and discharge operations, and inspection of the container, are included in the terminal handling charges. Terminal handling charges also
» weight (gross weight) terminal staff will make a record of include a number of days with free storage after which a ‘demurrage fee’ is charged.
» stowage position (Bay / Row / Tier) the containers which are loaded and
» load port discharged. This information will uploaded
» discharge port in the terminal operation system and a final
» required transport temperature version of the plan will subsequently be sent
» dangerous goods class (IMDG Code). to the vessel and the central planner and
 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 153

Chapter 5

Shipboard container operations

The basic function of a merchant cargo in ship handling and navigation, the ship’s
vessel is to transport goods from one officers also had to possess detailed
place to another, and to deliver the knowledge of the nature of the commodity
cargo in the same condition as when it carried and how to handle it in port and
was loaded. While containerisation has care for it during the voyage.
changed every aspect of the transport
of goods, this basic function has not The role of the crew in the handling of
changed. However, the method and cargo has developed towards a situation
equipment used to accomplish this are whereby virtually all co-ordination of
very different due to containerisation. loading, discharge and stowage is the
responsibility of the central planner and the
Throughout the evolution of terminal. The ocean voyage is no longer
containerisation, one common denominator a self-contained journey but is just a link,
has driven change; the need to make albeit an important one, in the entire supply
shipping more efficient and to reduce the chain. Except for containers with hazardous
overall cost of transport. substances and refrigerated containers, the
crew on a modern containership has little
Prior to containerisation, the ocean voyage or no knowledge of the cargo contained
was an enterprise in itself. The Master of in the boxes on board. Their role is mainly
the vessel, being in full control of all cargo focussed on taking the vessel safely from
handling on board, knew exactly what cargo one port to another and to maintain the
was on board, where it was loaded, and vessel’s tight sailing schedule.
how it would be discharged. Once the ship
had left port, the Master had to rely on his At the same time, the crew’s responsibility
navigational skills, knowledge of the sea in terms of the volume and value of
and weather to steer the ship safely to its the cargo being carried has evolved
destination. In addition to being specialists tremendously. Today, the Master of a very
154 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 155

large container vessel can be responsible

for assets in excess of USD 1 billion; reason 5.1
enough to take a closer look at the vessel
itself, the container operations on board The construction and layout of
and the risks involved.
a modern container vessel
We will look at the following aspects of
container transport in this chapter:
• The construction and layout of a modern Containers can be carried on two types ‘suitable for the carriage of containers’.
container vessel of ships: This vessel category includes Ro-Ro
• Owners and operators » Ships designed exclusively for the vessels (rolling stock and containers),
• Registration and classification carriage of containers. These ships conbulkers (bulk cargo and containers),
• Strength loads acting on containerships belong to the category ‘containerships’ multi-purpose vessels (general cargo
• Navigation and ship handling and may again be divided into ships and containers) and specialised
• Stowage with hatch covers or hatchless ships, and refrigerated vessels.
• Determination of forces ships with on-deck container handling
• Lashing and securing equipment, e.g. cranes, or gearless For both the above categories of ships the
• Major containership incidents. ships. The majority of containerships are rules of the applicable Classification Society
gearless, dedicated containerships with must be adhered to in order to ensure that
hatch covers. the ship and its fittings meet design and
» Ships that carry containers as well as test criteria to carry containers safely.
other types of cargo. The combined
carriage may be in only some cargo Below is a schematic overview explaining
holds and can be different from voyage the basic layout of a containership.
to voyage. These ships are classified as

3
1 4
7
8
11
5 6

2 9
10

1 Foc’s‘le 5 Main deck 9 Engine room

2 Bow thruster 6 Hatch cover 10 Rudder / propeller
3 20’ bay 7 Wheelhouse 11 Poop (winch) deck
4 40’ bay 8 Accommodation

Hapag Lloyd containership

156 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 157

hatch covers
Hull Deck / hatch covers
The typical hull structure of a modern 1 1 The cargo holds are covered by steel hatch
containership has large deck openings, a covers. These are either hydraulically-
cargo hold
sharp bow with a significant flare and an 2 2 operated folding hatch covers or steel lift-
almost rectangular shape further towards away pontoons, the latter being standard
3 3
aft narrowing towards the aft transom. 2 4 2 on cellular containerships. During cargo
operations the hatch pontoons are lifted
The deck openings stretch across the 1 under deck passageway – access to holds by shore cranes and stacked on top of
entire breadth of the cargo holds. Hull form of a modern container vessel 2 waterballast or fuel storage tank each other on board the vessel or ashore.
3 void space or tank space
This construction is used to minimise 4 duct keel The undersides of the hatch pontoons
obstruction of the hatchway during loading Cargo holds are strengthened to carry the weight of
and discharge of containers under deck. Below deck, the vessel is divided into cargo Each cargo hold is connected to the ship’s the container stacks. Welded container
To promote safety and to ensure that the holds separated by watertight transverse bilge (drainage) system to discharge rain foundations can be found at the four
necessary strength is achieved, ships are bulkheads. The holds are numbered from and condensation water. The bilge system corners of each stack, e.g. for 20 foot and
constructed with a double, U-formed, fore to aft; 1, 2, 3... is also designed to cope with a certain 40 foot stowage, where the weight of the
hull structure with heavy transverse amount of outboard leakage water, e.g. container stack is transferred.
constructions at intermediate distances A typical design configuration has after a collision. Classification societies
between every 40 foot container. The watertight bulkheads at every two 40 foot require increased pumping capacity for Container stanchions approximately 2.5 m
double hull itself is divided into various container bays with an open transverse open-hatch containerships. high are fitted in line with the deck edge at
watertight compartments used as water frame construction in between. This the extremities of the deck. In this way, the
ballast or fuel oil storage tanks. layout divides the ship into a number The ship, including the cargo holds, is fitted deck stow covers the entire width of
of watertight compartments. The open with various types of fire / smoke detection the vessel.
There is an internal passageway for access frame construction also serves as a vertical and fire-fighting equipments. These include
to the holds just below the main deck at passageway giving access to the containers, fixed systems for extinghuising with water Containerships can also be built without
either side of the ship running from fore to albeit from one side only. (possibly also automatic systems such as hatch covers. These hatchless, or open-top,
aft along the entire length of the ship. sprinklers) and smothering systems such containerships have cell guides extending
as CO2. above the hatch openings. This design
is particularly popular in the feeder and
Ventilation of cargo holds can be done short sea shipping trade but has been
either naturally (air draft only) or abandoned in the ocean trade.
mechanically (electric fans). Cargo holds
certified to carry dangerous cargo under Mooring winches are located on the
deck must have mechanical ventilation forward (foc’s’le) and aft (poop) decks.
fans. Cargo holds designed to carry The aft winch deck is usually over-stowed
refrigerated containers can be equipped by containers resting on one tier high
with additional ventilation fans. All the support bridges.
ventilation openings can be closed, for
example, during a fire in the hold.
Containership, cross sections
158 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 159

Engine room The propulsion engines on large long, weighs over 2,300 tonnes, and Accommodation
The engine room contains the main engine containerships are two-stroke turbocharged produces 80,080 kilowatts (107,390 horse The accommodation houses the living
and ancillary equipment such as pumps, low speed engines. These engines burn power). This type of engine was, for quarters for the crew and the wheelhouse
generators, electrical switchboards etc. thick, heavy fuel oil which requires pre- instance, installed in 2006 on the Maersk E- on top. The minimum number of crew
heating, cleaning and filtering prior to being class (EMMA, ELLY etc.) of vessels. (ratings and officers) on board is regulated
The main engine drives the propeller via injected into the engine’s cylinders. by international conventions. This varies
a shaft running through an enclosed Another major engine manufacturer, MAN from 10 crew members on smaller container
space from the engine room towards the The most powerful engine currently B&W, installed its 12S90ME-C Mark 9.2 vessels, to a crew of 25 on larger vessels.
vessel’s stern. in service is the RT-flex96C from the engine on board the latest 19,000 TEU
Finnish manufacturer Wärtsilä. Its largest containership series purchased by China
14-cylinder version is 13.5 m high, 26.59 m Shipping Container Lines (CSCL). This
type of engine is 17.2 m high and has been
de-rated to 56,800 kW to allow for a more
efficient performance at lower speeds.

For the largest vessels in service, the

above engines drive one single propeller
measuring ten metres in diameter and Bridge of a modern large container vessel
weighing over 110 tonnes. Maersk’s Triple
E-class vessels are equipped with a custom The crew consists of ratings and officers
designed ‘twin-skeg’ propulsion system working either for the deck or engine
with two 43,000 horse power engines each. department. A few shipping lines continue
Each engine drives a four-bladed propeller to use an integrated crew system, whereby
developing a service speed of 19 knots and the officers have dual qualifications and
a maximum speed of 23 knots. alternate between working in the engine
room or navigating the vessel with working
In more recent years, the principle of slow on deck. This system of integrated crew
steaming has been introduced in container was introduced in 1980, but has been
shipping, driven by increasing fuel costs. abandoned by most shipping lines.
Where, for example, the EMMA MAERSK
would consume 150 tonnes of fuel per day Over the years, the location of the crew
for a service speed of 24 knots, this has accommodation on board the vessels and
been reduced to less than 100 tonnes a day its height above deck have undergone
for the triple E-class vessels, sailing at an several changes. The demand for higher
average speed of 16 knots. container stacking heights on deck made
it necessary to increase the height of
the accommodation superstructure. For
example, the first generation of Panamax-
sized container vessels built in the 1970’s
Source: MAN-B&W
160 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 161

had three to four tiers of containers on stern of the vessel. The purpose of bow and manoeuvrability in port. Large ships may
deck. The latest generation of Panamax- stern thrusters is to improve the vessel’s have multiple bow and stern thrusters.
sized container vessels have eight tiers of
containers on deck.
Gross tonnage and containership design: a topic of considerable
discussion
Due to the development of containerships,
the crew accommodation and engine For many years, there has been considerable discussion in the industry as to whether the definition of gross
room have moved forward. One of these tonnage compromises the safe design of ships.
developments was the size and the Accommodation almost aft
weight of the main engine on very large What is gross tonnage and what is the issue about?
containerships requiring the engine to be
positioned in that section of the vessel with Gross tonnage is a unit-less index related to a ship’s overall internal volume. It was defined by the International
more voluminous hull forms. At one point, Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships in 1969, adopted by the IMO in the same year and came into force
e.g. the mid-island type Maersk E-class of in 1982. The purpose of the new definition was to arrive at a universal tonnage measurement system as the
vessels, the propeller shaft had to span a basis for determining ship manning regulations, safety rules, port dues etc.
significant distance, up to 100 m, from the
engine room towards the propeller. The Gross tonnage is calculated on the basis of the ’moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship’. In
moving of the engine room forward has practical terms, this is the volume enclosed by the ship’s hull and main deck together with the volume of the
introduced the need for a watertight door Accommodation amidships accommodation. Gross tonnage is calculated by applying a multiplier to this volume.
in the aft engine room bulkhead, which
has to be kept closed at sea. Locating It was argued that, in order to keep gross tonnage as low as possible, the ship designer was tempted to sacrifice
the crew accommodation further forward a safe height of freeboard and to compensate for the loss of cargo space under deck by increasing the volume of
was also beneficial in view of the forward containers stowed on deck.
visibility requirements on ships as this
would increase the number of containers A reduction in the vessel’s freeboard reduces the angle of down-flooding, i.e. the angle at which the deck
that could be stowed on deck, aft of the edge comes in the water, and may cause the vessel’s stability to be compromised at low angles of heel,
accommodation. e.g. 12-15 degrees.

The latest containership designs have Two island configuration with accommodation at 1 / 3
from bow
separated the accommodation structure
and the engine room. The accommodation under deck to construct heavy transverse
together with the wheelhouse can be frameworks to stiffen the vessel and make it
found approximately one-third from the less vulnerable to torsion stresses.
ship’s bow. The engine room and funnel
are now located at two thirds from the Bow and stern thrusters
bow. This concept is known as the ‘two Almost every vessel has a bow thruster,
island design’ and has further increased the which is a transversal propulsion device
vessels’ on-deck stowage capacity. At the built into the bow of the vessel. A similar
same time, the new design created space type of thruster may also be built into the
162 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 163

All container shipping lines have a Collaboration arrangements between

5.2 strong maritime heritage and seafaring shipping lines
background by their initial founders. The Container shipping lines may collaborate
Owners and operators history of some shipping lines go back with one another in many different ways.
over hundred years when operating as a The most common way is to share available
steamship company whilst others have container capacity on a certain liner trade
Container carriers can be divided into Far East, causing an overcapacity been founded just around the 1970’s by means of vessel sharing agreements, slot
• Non-operating shipowners (NOO) in the market and a further drop of when container shipping was introduced charter agreements, pool arrangements,
• Container shipping lines charter revenues. These developments into Europe. Quite remarkably, all of the etc. The reasons for collaboration are
• Non vessel owning common have not gone unnoticed by many container shipping lines who played a obvious: with a relatively limited number
carriers (NVOCC). shipowners and several had to change pioneering role in container shipping in of ships, more frequent services covering
their funding strategies. North America (e.g. Sealand, Sea-Train etc.) a wider network can be offered, the ship’s
Non-operating shipowners no longer exist in their current capacity but utilisation rates improve and slot costs
Non-operating shipowners provide the Examples of major non-operating have been merged with other companies. can be reduced. Furthermore, the liner
market with ships which are chartered out shipowners are: Seaspan Corporation In that respect, there has been a real shift operators joining the agreement have a
to liner operators on a long term basis (Singapore / Vancouver), Claus-Peter Offen in emphasis on ownership of container stronger bargaining position in negotiating
(e.g. five or ten years). This arrangement (Hamburg), Blue Star Holding (Hamburg), shipping lines from the United States to arrangements with terminals.
implies that the NOO takes responsibility Peter Dohle (Hamburg) and Costamare Europe and, later, the Far East.
for the vessel, its machinery, equipment, (Piraeus). Collaboration between shipping companies
crew, navigation, stability etc. They are not A further distinction can be made between exist since the middle of the 19th century
carriers under a bill of lading and therefore Container shipping lines container shipping companies being part when the first regular liner services were
have no direct responsibility under a Container shipping lines offer scheduled of a large consortium with activities in other being established. These first arrangements
carriage contract towards the shipper. services for container transport for which areas of business (e.g. AP Moller / Maersk, were called ‘conferences’, a system
A typical NOO does not own or lease they own and / or charter containerships. Evergreen) and shipping companies who dominating the liner (and thus later the
containers. They are seen as the parties who operate have concentrated on shipping alone, either container) industry till 1994.
the vessel in a commercial manner, as exclusively container shipping or also for
The investment for the building of new ships opposed to managing the vessel on a instance in luxury cruises. Apart from obtaining operational synergies,
may either be funded through corporate technical basis in a role as shipowner, only. the conference system was very much
capital, external investors on the stock In general, it can be said that all of the focussed on fixing tariffs. For many
exchange (in case the company is publically There are many container shipping lines, ten largest container shipping companies decades, the general consensus (and
listed) or funding by private investors the largest ones being Maersk Line operate globally whilst others are acceptance) was that if liner operators
and banks. Until 2008, the latter model (Copenhagen), Mediterranean Shipping concentrated in certain geographic areas or were to compete among themselves on
was very successful and generated large Company (Geneva), CMA CGM (Marseille), particular trade lanes. Only a few container price, this would create rate wars and a
sums of investment capital to build new Hapag-Lloyd (Hamburg) and Evergreen shipping lines are seen as specialised destructive competition undermining the
containerships. The global economic crisis (Taiwan). Container shipping lines are either carriers of certain types of cargo such as stability of the trade. Eventually, by 1990 the
caused drop in demand for container space privately owned companies (e.g. MSC and the transport of refrigerated containers. system of conferences was abandoned in
reducing the charter incomes. Meanwhile CMA CGM), shareholder based (e.g. Hapag the container industry because of anti-trust
more (already ordered) containerships were Lloyd) or a publically listed company (e.g. law concerns.
being delivered from the shipyards in the AP Moller / Maersk Line).
164 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 165

After 1995, other forms of collaboration President Lines), HMM (Hyundai Merchant NVOCC vs freight forwarder » in certain countries, such as the United
amongst container liner operators Marine Co Ltd.), MOL (Mitsui OSK Lines), The role of an NVOCC and freight States, NVOCC operators must publish
developed in the form of consortia, global Hapag-Lloyd AG, NYK (Nippon Yusen forwarder are often mixed up with one their tariffs. This requirement does not
alliances and slot charter agreements. Kaisha) and OOCL (Orient Overseas another. This is understandable as in several apply to freight forwarders.
Container Line Ltd.) instances they both operate under the same » NVOCCs issue bills of lading and as a
In a consortium or an alliance, the objective identity and offer the same kind of services. result take on the liabilities of the carrier.
is to rationalise capacity by offering joint NVOCC Both ship freight over long distances and » freight forwarding companies may act as
liner services organised by two or more The third category of container carriers both work with common carriers as well as either an agent or partner for an NVOCC;
shipping lines, either globally or one is the Non Vessel Operating Common with companies requiring transportation of the vice versa is not true.
particular trading route only. While all Carriers (NVOCC) also referred to as ‘ship- their goods to complete an order. However,
members share space amongst one another less shipping lines’. NVOCC was first there are some distinct differences: The differences between the three
and use the same terminals, they continue defined in the US Shipping Act of 1984, » NVOCCs can (and mostly do) own or categories of container carriers is
to operate independently in respect of according to which NVOCC means ‘a lease the containers they operate. summarized in the below overview.
pricing, conditions, issuance of bills of common carrier that does not operate the Freight forwarders do not.
lading etcetera. vessels by which the ocean transportation is
provided, and is a shipper in its relationship NOO Shipping line NVOCC (Non Vessel Operating
(non operating owner) (acting as charterer) Common Carriers)
Main alliances (2015) with an ocean common carrier’.
2M owning ship yes no no

The 2M alliance was established in 2015 and Today, NVOCCs operate in every continent providing crew yes no no
is a 10-year vessel sharing agreement (VSA) and do not necessarily operate under the providing bunkers no yes no
between Maersk Line and Mediterranean above strict interpretation of the law.
maintaining fixed no yes possible
Shipping Company (MSC). In most instances, an NVOCC is considered sailing schedules
an ‘international intermodal service enters agreement no yes no
Ocean Three (O3) provider who uses the services of common with terminal

In September 2014, CMA CGM, China carriers’. An NVOCC therefore acts almost issue bills of no yes yes
lading
Shipping Container Lines and United like a common carrier, with the exception
Arab Shiping Co. formed the O3 alliance, that an NVOCC does not actually operate owns containers no yes possible

a combination of a vessel sharing, slot the vessel it uses to move the container. An lease containers no yes possible
exchange and slot charter agreement. NVOCC act as a virtual carrier towards the
shipper (for which it issues a bill of lading)
CKYHE and acts as shipper towards the shipping
This alliance was formed in 2014 and line. (for which it receives a bill of lading
comprises Cosco, K-Line, Yang Ming Line, from the shipping line).
Hanjin Shipping and Evergreen.
There are literally hundreds of NVOCCs,
G6 and analysis shows most of them operate in
The G6 was set up in 2014 for a period of certain trade lanes / continents only.
two years and comprises APL (American
166 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 167

through a separate class notation, There are more than fifty companies
5.3 e.g. ‘lashing’. worldwide classifying themselves as ship
classification societies, but most have
Registration and classification A separate flag state requirement is the no recognition by major flag states and
approval of the ship’s Cargo Securing insurance providers. Of the internationally
Manual (CSM), which is described further in recognised classification societies there
Merchant ships must be registered in Apart from the inspections and certification the chapter on lashing and securing. are twelve, all members of the International
a country, known as their ‘flag state’. for or on behalf of the flag state, a ship Association of Classification Societies
The flag state has the authority and must also be certified by the classification Apart from providing classification (IACS). IACS was established to serve as a
responsibility to enforce regulations society itself in accordance with its and certification services, the larger forum for the exchange of knowledge and
applicable to vessels registered under its Rules. The requirement to be certified classification societies also conduct technical development and to harmonise
flag, including those relating to inspection, by a classification society is not a formal research at their own facilities and provide class rules and survey procedures across
certification and the issue of safety and requirement made by the flag state, but additional services such as innovation, the societies. Classification societies
pollution prevention documents. is necessary to obtain insurance for both technology support and consultancy. can become members of IACS by
the cargo and the vessel, which again is a demonstrating a consistently high standard
Flag state certification and inspections prerequisite to trade. of operation.
can be undertaken by the flag state’s
own authority, such as the Maritime and A classification society is a non- List of IACS Classification Societies

Coastguard Agency (MCA) for vessels governmental organisation that establishes name abbreviation date head office EMSA member
registered in the United Kingdom, and the and maintains technical standards for American Bureau of Shipping ABS 1862 Houston Yes
Coastguard (USCG) for vessels registered in the construction and operation of ships
Bureau Veritas BV 1828 Paris Yes
the US. and offshore structures. The society will
China Classification Society CCS 1956 Beijing Yes
also verify that the construction of a ship
Most merchant ships, however, are or offshore structure complies with the Croatian Register of Shipping CRS 1949 Split Yes

registered in a country where the owners applicable standards and regulatory DNV / GL* DNV / GL 1864/1867 Oslo Yes
of the vessels are not domiciled. Some requirements. In this respect, regular
Indian Register of Shipping IRS 1975 Mumbai No
of these flag states are known as ‘flags surveys are carried out of ships in service
Korean Register of Shipping KR 1960 Busan Yes
of convenience’, with lower standards and during dry-docking.
for vessel, equipment, and crew than Lloyd’s Register LR 1760 London Yes

some other maritime countries. Panama Apart from the ship’s overall construction, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK) NK 1899 Tokyo Yes

is currently the world’s largest flag state, the classification society will look at hatch Polish Register of Shipping PRS 1936 Gdánsk Yes
with a quarter of the world’s ocean-going covers, lashing bridges, cell guides and
Registro Italiano Navale RINA 1861 Genoa Yes
tonnage registered there. fixed fittings on containerships, to ensure
Russian Maritime Register of Shipping RS 1913 St. Petersburg Yes
that these have sufficient strength. Loose
Most of the flag states have outsourced fittings such as twistlocks, turnbuckles * DNV / GL is the merger (in 2013) of Oslo-based Det Norske Veritas (DNV) and Hamburg-based Germanischer Lloyd

the certification and inspection of ships to and lashing bars are excluded from this
classification societies. certification process, but the shipowner
may assess the adequacy of these fittings
168 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

The European Union has recognised eleven

classification societies as belonging to the
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA).
Maritime authorities in EU Member States
can only authorise a classification society
recognised by the European Union to
undertake surveys on their behalf.

European Maritime Safety Agency; Lisboa, Portugal

(EMSA)
 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 169

5.4

Strength loads acting on containerships

The types of stresses on a ship’s hull Bending moments

structure are: The hull of a ship has many of the same
• longitudinal strength loads – bending properties as a single steel beam.
moments, shearing forces and torsional Therefore, when describing the nature of
moments the vessel’s hull, a simple beam theory can
• transverse strength loads be applied. This is usually referred to as
• local strength loads – vibrations, ‘the hull girder theory’, i.e. thinking of the
slamming, stacking loads etc. vessel’s hull as a floating hollow steel beam.

The loads acting on a ship are either When a vessel floats in still water, there are
internal loads, e.g. caused by cargo, ballast, two forces acting on the hull: buoyancy
fuel etc., or external loads caused by acting upwards, and weight acting
sea, wind and ice, and can occur in a still downwards. The resultant force is zero
water (harbour) condition or in a dynamic (Archimedes’ principle).
(seagoing) condition.
The buoyancy force will be more at the
Longitudinal stresses and certain local midships area as the submerged volume
stresses are of particular interest for in this region is larger. The buoyancy force
containerships. The longitudinal loads gradually decreases at the less voluminous
are bending moments, shear forces and shaped aft and forward ends.
torsional stresses.
The weight distribution varies along the
length of the ship. In addition to the
distribution of the weight of the ship itself,

buoyance curve

Typical buoyancy curve for a container vessel

170 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 171

Shear forces Torsional stresses

weight curve When a ship floats in still water, the ship’s Torsional stresses twist the ship’s hull
own weight and that of the variables on along the longitudinal centreline. Torsional
board, such as cargo, ballast, fuel etc., are stresses occur particularly when the ship’s
supported by the overall buoyancy force hull is subject to oblique waves. At a given
acting on the exterior of the ship’s hull. point in time, the sea may be attempting to
There will be local differences in the vertical roll the forward end to starboard while the
Typical weight curve for a container vessel forces of buoyancy and ship’s weight along after end is trying to roll to port. The ship is
the length of the ship. These unbalanced designed to withstand these wave-induced
it also depends on the location of the ship’s In addition to weight and buoyancy forces, net vertical forces acting along the length of torsion stresses.
equipment such as the main engine and wave forces also act on the hull girder at the ship will cause the hull girder to shear.
machinery, and propulsion system, and in sea; the wave bending moment. All ships classed with an IACS classification Most ships, being fully loaded with cargo
particular, the location of the cargo, society are assigned permissible still water do not induce torsional stresses.
ballast and fuel. This weight variation along For example, when the length of the waves shear forces (SWSF). In containerships, however, it is possible
the vessel’s length is displayed in the are equal to the ship’s length and the wave
weight curve. crests are at the bow and stern; the ship will
tend to bend downwards in the midships
In any condition, the total area under the area in way of the wave trough (sagging).
weight curve will equal the total area under On the other hand, when the wave crest is
the buoyancy curve. The unevenness in right at the middle of the ship’s length, the
the weight distribution acting downwards ship will tend to bend upwards (hogging).
and the buoyancy force distribution acting The sum of the still water bending moment
upwards results in a still water bending and the wave bending moment is the ‘total
moment. This causes the hull girder to bending moment’. Shear forces
bend. If the hull is bending upwards, this is
called ‘hogging’ as opposed to ‘sagging’ if At sea, the continuously changing wave that excess weight to one side at one bay
the hull is bending downwards. pressures on the hull produce shear forces is balanced by an excess to the other
on the vessel’s hull as well; referred to as the side at another bay, thus setting up a
‘wave induced shear forces’. The still water torsional stress.
and wave induced shear forces are taken
into account during the design phase of the New containership designs using the two-
vessel as well as in the day to day operation island configuration has improved the
of the vessel when loading / unloading and vessel’s strength against torsional stresses
sagging ballasting / de-ballasting the vessel. as heavy transverse constructions are built
at 1 / 3 and 2 / 3 of the ship’s length.

hogging
172 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 173

5.5
bending moments

Navigation and ship handling

Training and education on navigation, Many research studies have been

meteorology and ship handling in conducted by universities, classification
heavy weather is an important part societies and ship design organisations
shear forces of the education provided by nautical on the subject of ocean waves and ship
Shear forces and bending moments academies. Mariners with a nautical motion. The topic is very complex and the
degree are specialists on these subjects approaches are usually highly mathematical
Loadicator These values are also included in the due to their training. They are well aware in nature. Below is a simplified explanation:
Classification societies require that loading computer programs. The calculated of the dangers posed by heavy weather
the vessel is equipped with a loading stresses are usually expressed in terms of and extreme sea states to the ship, crew Waves and swell
instrument (called ‘loadicator’) capable of percentage with 100 per cent being the and cargo. Excessive ship motions are Ocean waves can be divided into ‘seas’ or
calculating the shear forces and bending ceiling limit. often the result of extreme weather or ‘wind waves’ and ‘swell’. Seas are waves
moments, usually a computer program. an excessive sea state, but this may not which are generated fairly quickly, often
The computer program also calculates The International Association of necessarily be the case. within an hour or so, in the immediate area
transverse stability, draught, trim and Classification Societies (IACS) has issued where the wind is blowing, and they usually
lashing forces. Torsional stresses may also a set of Unified Requirements for the The following topics related to navigation subside shortly after the wind has died
be calculated. structural requirements and loads applied and ship handling of containerships will be down. The wave height is dependent on:
to a ship’s hull. UR (Unified Requirement) discussed in this chapter: » wind speed
With regard to bending moments and S11, which has been common to all IACS • Waves and swell » fetch, which is the horizontal distance
shear forces, the loading computer members since 1992, is particularly • Significant wave height over which winds blow from a single,
produces overviews showing the load relevant to ships over 90 m in length and in • Excessive ship motions constant direction
curve, shear forces and bending moments unrestricted service. • Notorious areas. » the length of time the wind blows
at regular intervals along the ship’s length. consistently over the fetch
These values are entered into a graph and UR S11 requires the bending strength to Prior to departure, the Master approves » water depth.
appended to the calculation results. be calculated for the midships region, the voyage plan for the voyage to the
covering 40 per cent of the ships length. next port. This plan will take into account Generally speaking, the stronger the wind
Regulations Any bending strength requirements the latest reported weather conditions, and the longer it persists in the same
Information on the highest permissible outside this area are at the discretion of the recommendations by the routing company direction without changing speed, the
stresses at designated frames of the vessel individual classification society. if provided, navigational hazards and larger the waves. The fetch required for
is provided in the vessel’s loading manual. the required arrival time in the next waves to develop their maximum potential
port. Weather forecasts are updated in the open sea is 60 km for a wind of 5 m / s
continuously and routing advices may and 1000 km for a wind of 20 m / s.
recommend that the vessel deviate from its
original voyage plan.
174 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 175

mode
Once waves have been formed, they » length, which is the distance between median Excessive ship motions
mean
can continue to travel for thousands of successive crests (or troughs) significant wave height, Hs Following extensive research on this
kilometres even through areas with no wind. » period, which is the time that elapses 90th percentile subject, it has been recognised that

number of waves
These waves, which are no longer the result between the passing of successive crests containerships are sensitive to certain ship
of local winds, are called ‘swell’. (or troughs) motions and hydrodynamic effects, such as:
» steepness, which is the slope determined wave height » excessive rolling, i.e. beyond the
1/3 of waves
Seas are shorter in length, steeper, more by the ratio between wave height and design criteria
irregular and more confused than swell. wave length. As can be seen in the above graph, there » slamming (bow and stern)
are a relatively high number of small waves » hydro elastic effects (springing and
The term ‘sea state’ is used to describe the (left side of graph) and a low number of whipping).
crest
overall condition of the water surface which wavelength very large waves (right side of graph).
takes into account the combined effects of This implies that you will not encounter a Excessive rolling
wind waves, swells, and surface currents. waveheight significant wave very frequently. However, When a vessel is moving in following or
stil water level
highest
statistically, it is possible towave likely overaa10 minute quartering
encounter period : 1.6 x Hs situations can
seas, dangerous
In a constant sea state, waves can occur wave that is much higher highest likelythe
than wave over a3 -hour periodoccur causing heavy : 2.0 x Hs Problems
rolling.
highest likely
highest wave wave
likely over
over aa12
10 -hour
minute period
period : :2.25
1.6 xx Hs
Hs
with a whole range of individual heights trough significant wave. highest likely
highest likely wave
wave over
over aa3 -hour period
arising
24 -hour : 2.0
period from the heavy xrolling
: 2.35Hsx Hs of ships,
which can vary from minute to minute or highest likely wave over a12 -hour period : 2.25 x Hs sailing in
particularly containerships
highest likely wave over a 24 -hour period : 2.35 x Hs
indeed wave to wave but changes in sea Significant wave height For example, given that HS is 10 m, following or quartering seas, have
state generally take a number of hours. Marine weather forecasts usually provide statistically this implies that: been known for some time. The issues
The sea state can either be assessed by an information on wind velocity (speed and surrounding this were addressed in the IMO
H (mean) = (0.64) Hs = 6.4 m
experienced observer, such as a trained direction) and wave height. The usual MSC Circular 1228, dated 11 January 2007.
H (most probable) = 6.0 m
mariner, or through instruments such as term to define wave height is ‘significant H
H1/10 (mean)
(10% highest waves) =
= (0.64) HHss =
(1.27) = 12.7
6.4 m
m or higher
weather buoys, wave radar or remote wave height’, abbreviated as HS . This is the H
H1/100 (most
(1% probable)
highest waves) =
= 6.0 m
(1.67) Hs = 16.7 m or higher The effect of stern or quartering seas
HH1/10
1/1000 (10% highest waves)
(0.1% =
= (1.27)HHs)s =
(1.86 = 18.6
12.7 m
m or
or higher
higher
sensing satellites. There is a large number average of the highest one-third (33 per H1/100 (1% highest waves) = (1.67) Hs = 16.7 m or higher on any vessel may give rise to any of
of variables which together create the cent) of waves, measured from trough to H 1/1000 (0.1% highest waves) = (1.86 Hs) = 18.6 m or higher the following:
sea state. crest, that occur during a given period. The Canadian National Marine Weather
Guide provides information on the Surf-riding and broaching-to
These cannot be quickly and easily Significant wave height is therefore an likelihood of meeting a particular wave When a ship is located on a steep forefront
summarised, so simpler scales are used average of the largest waves and this height within a given time frame: of a high wave in following and quartering
highest wave likely over a 10 – minute period 1.6 x Hs
to provide an approximate but concise does mean that individual waves may be highest likely wave over a 3 – hour period 2.0 x Hs seas, the ship can be accelerated to ride
highest likely
highest wave wave
likely over
over aa 12
10––hour
minute period
period 1.6 xx HHss
2.25
description of conditions for reporting in higher. Significant wave height is actually on the wave; this is known as ‘surf-riding’.
highest likely
highest likely wave
wave over
over aa 243 –– hour
hour period
period 2.0 xx HHss
2.35
a ship’s log or similar record, e.g. the (1-10) a statistical term and indicative of a highest likely wave over a 12 – hour period 2.25 x Hs When a ship is surf-ridden, the so-called
Douglas Sea Scale. certain range of wave heights. This is best highest likely wave over a 24 – hour period 2.35 x Hs ‘broaching-to’ phenomenon may occur,
explained on the basis of a graph showing which puts the ship in danger of capsizing
The wave conditions can be characterised the wave numbers on the vertical axis and The energy generated by a wave is as the result of a sudden change of ship’s
by four main elements: wave height on the horizontal axis. proportional to the square of its height. heading and unexpectedly large heeling.
» height, which is the distance measured For example, a 30 m high wave will hit the
from the trough to the crest of the wave vessel with a force equivalent to four times
that of a 15 m wave.
176 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 177

Reduction of intact stability when riding safety of containerships. Parametric roll is (post) Panamax containerships, with large Other situations which can occur include:
a wave crest amidships a threshold phenomenon as a combination bow flares, are particularly prone to head-
When a ship rides a wave crest, the intact of environmental, operational and design sea parametric rolling. Slamming
stability will decrease substantially. This parameters needs to come together before Slamming occurs when a ship’s hull impacts
stability reduction may become critical with it is encountered. These are: Parametric rolling can best be described as heavily with the water surface.
wave lengths within the range of 0.6 L to » the ship travels with a small heading a situation where there is loss of stability,
2.3 L, where L is the ship’s length in metres. angle to the predominant wave direction followed by a complete recovery of stability, The accelerations caused by slamming
This situation is particularly dangerous (head or stern seas) half a wave frequency later, see illustration. may create high compression forces on the
in following and quartering seas, as the » the wavelength is comparable to the ship container stacks. Modern containership
duration of riding the wave crest length and wave height is large Official guidance has been provided by designs are sensitive to wave impacts due
becomes longer. » the ship’s roll damping characteristic the IMO in IMO MSC Circular 1228, dated to the large bow flares and wide and flat
is low 11 January 2007 to the Master for avoiding overhanging sterns. Slamming can have an
Synchronous rolling motion » if unfavourable tuning occurs between dangerous situations in adverse weather impact in both the bow and stern areas.
Large rolling motions may occur when the the wave encounter period and natural, and sea condition, including parametric There are two types of bow slamming:
natural rolling period of a ship coincides or twice natural, roll period of the vessel, rolling. The Circular includes an operational
with the wave encounter period. When parametric roll motion can occur guidance, assisting the Master with ship Bottom slamming
navigating in following and quartering handling procedures to avoid dangerous The ship’s bottom emerges from the water
seas, this may happen when the transverse Although the phenomenon has been known situations such as this occurring. Various and suffers a severe impact on re-entry,
stability of the ship is marginal and for a long time, investigations into the data such as wave height, wave period, often also referred to as ‘pounding’.
therefore, the natural roll period is longer. APL CHINA incident in 1998 revealed that wave length, wave speed, roll angle and
encounter period must be obtained from on
Parametric rolling motion 1.5 board measurements tools and input into 1.5

The term ‘parametric roll’ is used to the various diagrams provided.

1 1
describe a large unstable roll motion
suddenly occurring in head or stern
0.5 0.5
seas. Due to its violent nature, the large
accelerations associated with the onset
GZ (m)

GZ (m)
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
of parametric roll cause concern for the
-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
stil water stil water
trough trough
crest -1.5 crest -1.5

Parametric rolling: wave crest amidships, temporary loss of stability (see GZ curve) Parametric rolling: wave crest forward and aft. Recovery of stability (see GZ curve)
178 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 179

Bow flare slamming Even where this effect is not severe it therefore, recognise the importance of following areas have a relatively high record
This occurs when the upper flared part of can be clearly felt in the ship structure staying clear of the most severe weather of container (loss) incidents:
the bow is forced deeper into the wave. and in particular in the accommodation systems such as tropical cyclones and
The buoyancy of the bow section increases and wheelhouse. deep Atlantic or Pacific depressions. The Le Havre

Brest
proportionally over time and thereby most economic and effective approach in
progressively dampens the downward When sailing in head sea conditions and / or this respect is to rely on crew capabilities
FRANCE
movement of the bow. at reduced speed, the transom may also to overcome bad weather. To assist in the Bay of Biscay

come free of the surface due to large decision process there are various on-board Bordeaux

Stern slamming pitching motions. Re-entry may lead to high tools as well as shore based weather
This is when the underside of the vessel’s stern slamming loads. routing systems. Some major containership Finisterre
Bilbao
SPAIN
stern impacts with the water surface. For companies even operate an in-house fleet
reasons of propulsion efficiency and the Hydro-elastic forces / springing / whipping and weather monitoring system to guide The Bay of Biscay
desire to have more cargo space in the Ship motion tests in water basins use their ships’ masters to make the best
aft area of the vessel, the exposed plating rigid body models to determine loads navigational decisions. The Bay of Biscay is home to large storms
around the aft waterline has over time and accelerations. However, ships do flex and many ships have been lost there over
become a more or less flat surface. along the hull, particularly when navigating Notorious areas the centuries. The Bay stretches from Brest
The development of the so-called through high head seas. There are many notorious areas around the in France to Finisterre in Galicia, Spain.
‘overhanging sterns’ does not solely apply world known for their extreme weather. As can be seen from the bathymetric
to recent designs of containerships, but can The term ‘springing’ is used to describe Most of these areas, such as Cape Horn and chart, the continental shelf forms a trench
also be found on passenger vessels strong hull girder vibration due to the Southern Pacific, are not major trade for Atlantic swells and weather systems
and sailing yachts. oscillating wave loads. The term (slamming lanes for containerships. When looking at entering the Bay from west – northwesterly
induced) ‘whipping’ is used to describe an the major trade lanes of containerships the direction.
increasing vibration along the ship’s hull
after an excitation at the ship’s bow, usually
a slamming event.

Full scale and model tests, with flexible

models, have indicated that the additional
wave load because of whipping is typically FRANCE FRANCE FRANCE FRANCE
between 10 and 50 per cent. Classification
14 14 24 24
Overhanging stern societies are currently (2015) carrying out 13 13 22 22
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay
further testing in this regard. 12 12 20 20

18
Under certain, even moderate, conditions 11 11 18

10 10 16 16
wave impacts against the flat bottom may In summary, containerships and their
9 9 14 14
create huge impact forces. These impacts lashing and stowage arrangements are 8 8
SPAIN SPAIN
12 12
SPAIN SPAIN
may occur in following waves even in mild designed for a certain operational envelope 7 7 10 10

sea states when sailing at low speed. If the and it may be possible that weather, sea
significant wave height
significant wave(m)
height (m) peak wave height
peak wave(m)
height (m)
transom is out of the water the overtaking state and ship motions become so severe
waves may slam into the stern plating. that this envelope is exceeded. Mariners, Wave height analyses Bay of Biscay, north west 9 Bft. Peak wave height (1% highest waves): over 20 m
Storm. Significant wave height up to 14-15 m source : BMT Argoss
180 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 181

RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Bering Sea CANADA
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
Sea of
JAPAN Okhotsk Vancouver

JAPAN USA
CHINA
East China Sea Pacific Ocean

Philippine Sea North Pacific, great circle navigation. High following seas for ships sailing in easterly direction

PHILIPPINES North Pacific Ocean North Pacific, great circle high following seas most of the time. The
Containerships are sensitive to stern classification society DNV / GL estimates this
and quartering seas as when wave riding would apply to 70-80 per cent of the ships

MALAYSIA and parametric rolling can occur. Most using this route. Many container losses have
containerships trading between Asia and occurred in this area in recent decades and,
Typical typhoon tracks, western Pacific, over a year period the West coast of North America take a almost without exception, the experience
great circle route reaching high altitudes of the ships was that the rolling behaviour
Some 50,000 ships transit the Bay annually. during its westerly course towards mainland with weather depression systems prevailing of the vessels suddenly changed from
They may find westerly waves of impressive China where it either will make landfall most of the time. As a result, ships trading regular moderate motions to very violent
heights crossing their course from abeam or turn northwards to develop into a on this route in the easterly direction motions with large amplitudes in short
with no availability of shelter. Pacific depression. The northwest Pacific (Asia to North West America) operate in periods of roll.
sees tropical cyclones year round, with the
The wave analyses (based on satelitte smallest number in February and March and
measurements) after a north-west storm a peak in early September.
9 Beaufort is indicative of the possible
magnitude of wave heights in the Ships crossing the China Sea often have
Bay of Biscay. to make the decision whether it is safe to
pass ahead of the track of the typhoon, to
The Hong Kong – Japan coastline divert or to delay the voyage. Especially
This area is probably one of the busiest ships sailing on a northerly course and
shipping lanes in the world and at the anticipating maintaining a certain speed
same time, notorious for the presence of might find themselves in difficulty as the
tropical cyclones. These cyclones, known anti-cyclical direction of the winds will
as ‘typhoons’ in Asia, have their origin in force them to slow down, reducing the
the warm tropical waters of the Pacific distance between the ship and the centre
Ocean. Once developed into a cyclone, of the typhoon.
the devastating weather system intensifies
182 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 183

21 19 17 15 13 11 09 07 05 03 01 20’ bays
20 16 12 08 04 40’ bays
5.6
tiers

Stowage 88
86
84
82
08
06
Containers are stacked in such a way that Row 04
02
the ISO corner posts of every container in The row position indicates where the
the stack rest on top of the corner post of container is placed across the width of the
bay 16 (40’) tiers bay 03 (20’) tiers
the container below. The basic principle ship. The numbering starts at the centre line
08 06 04 02 01 03 05 07 08 06 04 02 01 03 05 07
used in container stowage is to stow the and increases outwards with odd numbers, 86 84
84 82
containers lengthwise with the doors 01, 03, 05 etc., on the starboard side,
82
08
facing aft. On some ships, e.g. certain and even numbers, 02, 04, 06 etc., on the 08 06
type of Ro-Ro vessels, the containers are portside. A container with the row position 06 04
04 02
stowed athwart ships. 00 is stowed on the centre line. A container 02
row is also known as a ‘stack’.
The bay-row-tier numbering system position 40’ position 20’
bay 16 - row 01 - tier 82 bay 03 - row 02 - tier 04
The location of a container on board a Tier
rows
vessel is called a ‘slot’. These slots are The tier position indicates the level where
08

portside
three-dimensional and each position the container is stowed. The tier coordinate 06 06
04 04
is allocated three coordinates. Each is an even number for standard high 02 02
01 01
coordinate consists of two digits. The containers and uneven for half-height

starboard
03 03
official standard to indicate the containers’ containers. The number increases the 05 05
07
positions on board containerships is ISO higher up the container is located. The tier-
9711-1:1990, the six-digit ‘bay-row-tier coordinates also indicate if a container is
numbering’ system. stowed in the cargo hold or on deck. Point load – line load system also allows for a lighter construction
The numbering of containers stowed in the The most common way of stowing of the supporting structure, for example the
Bay cargo hold start with 02. containers is in a pointload where the hatch covers. To stow containers in a line
The bay position indicates the position container is resting on the four bottom mode, a recess deep enough to prevent
of the container along the length of the The tier numbering on deck, usually starts corner castings. In a pointload, the forces the corner castings from touching the
vessel. Bays are numbered from bow to with 80 if the container is stowed on the in the container stack are transferred supporting structure, is made in way of the
stern, with odd numbers, 01, 03, 05 etc., for main deck, and 82 if the container is through the corner posts and finally to the four bottom foundations. The weight of the
20 foot containers, and even numbers, 02, stowed on the hatch covers. Containers are foundation on the deck, hatch cover or containers is not supported by the founding
04, 06 etc., for 40 and 45 foot containers. stowed on the main deck when there are tank top. tiers, but by the containers’ longitudinal
Two 20 foot containers can be stowed in a no underdeck stowage positions in that bottom girders. The lineload stowage
40 foot bay position. An even numbered location, for example on the deck above the Another way of stowing containers is in a system is mostly used on general cargo
bay position, e.g. 04, occupies two 20 foot engine room. lineload, which avoids the high point loads ships where the hatch covers have been
positions – in this case bay numbers 03 on the bottom corner castings of containers modified to carry containers.
and 05. stowed in the classic way. The lineload
184 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 185

Russian stow in Europe, have convertible cell guides to

The basic principle of container stowage is fit a variety of different sized containers. 5.7
that containers can only be stacked with the These frames are usually placed in position
ISO corner castings resting on top of one by a crane. Some general cargo and Determination of forces
another. From this principle follows that two multi-purpose ships capable of carrying
20 foot containers cannot be stowed on top containers have removable cell guides or
of one 40 foot container, but that one 40 do not have cell guides at all. The following topics are covered in this Weight
foot container can be stowed on top of two chapter: Weight is the force exerted on a body by
20 foot containers. This type of stowage is Containers may also be stowed in cargo • Mass, weight, force and acceleration the earth’s gravitational force. The direction
called ‘Russian stowage’. holds without cell guides where they are • Forces acting on container stows of the weight is towards the centre of the
stowed on top of each other and restrained • Stability earth and it is measured in terms of Newton
by means of a transversal lashing system. (N) or, in thousands, kiloNewton (kN).
40
• Design criteria for containerships
See chapter on Lashing and securing. • Limitations.

20 20 Stowage limitations Some knowledge of forces and stability is

Velocity
The velocity of a body is the rate of its

20 20 The hatch pontoons are constructed to necessary to understand the way forces are displacement with respect to time in a
carry a maximum weight for each stack. determined on board ships and how these particular direction (m / s).
76 mm ISO gap Exceeding the applicable maximum stack are applied to lashing and securing.
weight could cause damage to the hatch Acceleration
A key component of the design of covers. The ship’s maximum stack weight Mass, weight, force and acceleration The acceleration of a body is the rate of
dedicated containerships is the use of values can be found in the ship’s manuals The following basic terms and definitions change of velocity in relation to time.
cell guides which are fixed to the vertical and values are provided for both 20 foot are used when considering forces: The unit of acceleration (a) is metre per
steel structure of the vessel with an angled and 40 foot stowage. second squared (m / s2). If a body is moving
profile to guide the containers into their Mass at a constant speed, the acceleration is
stowage positions in the cargo hold and to The maximum permitted stacking weight Mass is the basic measure of the quantity zero. The acceleration will be at its highest
secure the containers during the voyage. not only depends on the strength of the of matter in a body, and is expressed in at the point where the moving body is
In a common cell guide configuration the tanktop, hatch covers and the container terms of the kilogram (kg) and the tonne (t), changing speed.
cell guide profiles are distanced for 40 itself, but also on the lashing system used. also known as the ‘metric tonne’ or ‘metric
foot containers. Depending on the size of Stowage in cell guides afford for the ton’ (mt).
the ship, the containers may be stacked as highest stacking heights; whilst containers
many as nine to ten tiers below deck. lashed by lashing bars have lower maximum
permissible stacking weights.
Some containerships, particularly those
operating in the short sea shipping sector
186 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 187

heave
The forces acting on container stows
yaw
on board seagoing vessels are a
combination of:
» static load roll
» dynamic load
surge sway
» wind load pitch
rest shift ti t e er
» forces exerted by pre-stressing of the
The point of application and the direction of a force will determine whether an object lashing gear. Vessel, 6 degrees of freedom
will stay at rest, shift, or to topple over
The static load is caused by the vessel’s
heeling and trim angle, the weight of the Rotational motions are:
Centre of gravity Static force container stack, and pretension of the » pitch the motion along the transverse
The centre of gravity of a body is the point The static force is the force exerted by an lashing bars. axis, causing the bow and stern of
where its mass may be assumed to act object due to its own weight while at rest. the ship to move up and down
vertically downwards, with a force equal to The dynamic load is caused by a ship » roll the motion along the longitudinal
its weight. Dynamic force moving in a seaway. Like any other type axis, causing the port and
The dynamic force is the force exerted by of floating structure, a ship has a freedom starboard side to move up
Force an object resulting from its movement. of movement, referred to as ‘six degrees and down
A force may be described as any push The most important dynamic forces of freedom’. The resulting motions can be » yaw the motion along the vertical
or pull exerted on a body and has three experienced on board a ship are those divided into linear and rotational motions. axis, causing the bow and stern to
elements: generated by the ship’s motions. move sideways.
» magnitude Linear motions are:
» direction Forces acting on container stows » heave the vertical (up and down) Stability
» point of application. The safe transport of containers by sea motion An assessment is made during stability
requires that the forces acting on the » sway the lateral (side to side) motion calculations of the vessel’s overall centre of
Isaac Newton’s second law states that force container stows are resisted by the lashing » surge the longitudinal (fore to aft) gravity (G), the centre of buoyancy (B), the
is the multiplication of mass by acceleration gear and the containers themselves. motion. metacentre (M) of the vessel and how these
F=mxa interact with each other. The interaction
Containers, like any other construction, between these points works as follows:
The earth’s gravitational acceleration (g) are designed and built to withstand a as soon as the vessel begins to heel, one
is approximately 9.81 m / s². Therefore, a maximum force. When the forces exerted side of the hull rises from the water and the
body with a mass of 1 kg has a force due on the containers exceed this limit, the
to gravity of 9.81 Newton. In practice, construction can suffer a structural failure.
this is rounded up to 10 Newton. Most of In terms of container stacks, this means that Metacentre

the forces involved in cargo securing are the stack can collapse or disintegrate. M
expressed in kiloNewton (kN). These forces In this chapter we look at the forces in a M
M
in kN must be divided by 9.81, although 10 container stow and their origin.
Gravity Z G Z G Z G Z
is commonly used, to derive the weight in Buoyancy B B B
tonnes. This is useful when selecting lashing
equipment which is certified in tonnes.
188 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 189

other side submerges. In a well-designed confused with ‘angle of list’ which is caused Central to any design methodology is
ship, this causes the centre of buoyancy to by an unequal distribution of weight on estimating the prevailing sea state and
shift towards the side that is deeper in the either side of the vessel’s centre line. selecting a design wave height. Therefore,
water. A vertical line can be drawn from during the initial design phase, information
the new centre of buoyancy and where The metacentric height is an approximation is collected on the wave spectrum a vessel
this intersects the centreline, the so-called of the vessel’s stability at a small angle is expected to meet during its service life
‘metacentre’ is located. As long as the (0-15 degrees) of heel. Beyond that range, (usually 20-25 years). These assumptions,
‘metacentre’ is located above the centre the vessel’s stability is dominated by together with several other service
of gravity, the ship is stable in an upright Snow and ice adding unknown weight and dislocation of what is known as the ‘righting arm’ (or conditions, are important as they determine
the centre of gravity (G) of the vessel
condition. The distance between G and M is ‘righting lever’), indicated as GZ. This is how strong the build of the ship’s hull need
referred to as the ‘metacentric height (GM)’ the horizontal distance between the lines to be to resist bending, torsion and shear
and is a measure of the vessel’s stability. loaded / discharged. The same applies for of buoyancy and gravity. The lower the forces. The strength of other structures
ballast water, fuel etc. A decrease of the vessel’s centre of gravity, the bigger the on board the ship, such as hatch covers,
A larger metacentric height implies greater GM value may also occur in connection with righting arm (GZ) will be. The righting arms lashing bridges, crane platforms etc.,
initial stability. The GM also determines the slack tanks, i.e. tanks which are not full, also for different angles of heel can be plotted are also based on the assumption of the
natural roll period of the vessel, with large known as the ‘free surface effect’. In certain onto a graph and a line can be drawn. This maximum wave height to be encountered
metacentric heights being associated situations, e.g. tanks with a large width, this curve is known as the ‘stability curve’. The by a ship during its lifetime.
with shorter roll periods and high forces free surface effect can have a detrimental stability curve’s shape does need to meet
of acceleration. effect on the stability of the entire ship. the requirements normally referred to as The ship designer may determine these
The position of G may also change the ‘IMO Res. A.167 criteria’, which were criteria on the basis of tests with models
If G moves upward, stability will reduce and significantly because of snow and ice on included in the IMO Code on Intact Stability in a wave basin. This is quite an expensive
become zero when in the same position the containers. A ship may also be unstable for all types of Ships covered by IMO method and, alternatively, computers can
as M. If G is located above M, the vessel in its upright position, but stability may Instruments (IMO Res. A.749) in 1993. be used to simulate the conditions in the
has a negative stability and may capsize become zero and subsequently positive at wave basin. A more common method is
instantly. The up or downward movement larger angles of heel. The vessel will then The stability criteria apply to all types of the use of so-called ‘Response Amplitude
of the centre of gravity (G) is relative to reach an equilibrium at a certain angle, vessels. Large containerships can suffer Operators (RAO)’ derived from model tests
the weight and position of the cargo known as the ‘angle of loll’. This is not to be from significant fluctuations in stability and which are in fact a set of statistics used
when navigating through particularly high to predict the behaviour of a ship at sea.
sea states. These fluctuations can cause
severe rolling of the vessel and are further When setting up model tests or computer
57,3˚ discussed in the chapter on Navigation and programs, wave heights statistics can be
Ship Handling. used which are available to purchase from
various organisations.
Design criteria
When designing ships and lashing systems, In commercial shipping, the most common
point of
vanishing it is important to know how ship’s motions method of determining the strength of the
maximum metacentric
ri tin e er

stability
righting lever height respond to waves. Design criteria assist hull is to apply the Rules of the classification
naval architects in designing ships fit for societies. After all, the ship is designed
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 particular weather and sea conditions.
n e ee in de ree
190 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 191

IACS recommendation 34 Standard Wave Data

IACS provides recommendations and guidelines related to adopted resolutions that are not necessarily matters
of class but where IACS considers it beneficial to provide advice to the marine industry. IACS recommendation 34
applies to Standard Wave Data and applies to ships carrying goods at sea, specifically aiming at ships covered by
Unified Requirement S11 and focussing on extreme wave loads.

(Note : UR S11 is the longitudinal strength standards and applies only to steel ships of length 90 m and greater in unrestricted service.)

Hs/Tz 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 SUM

0.5 0.0 0.0 1.3 133.7 865.6 1186.0 634.2 186.3 36.9 5.6 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3050

1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.3 986.0 4976.0 7738.0 5569.7 2375.7 703.5 160.7 30.5 5.1 0.8 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 22575

2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 197.5 2158.8 6230.0 7449.5 4860.4 2066.0 644.5 160.2 33.7 6.3 1.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 23810

3.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 34.9 695.5 3226.5 5675.0 5099.1 2838.0 1114.1 337.7 84.3 18.2 3.5 0.6 0.1 0.0 19128

4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 196.1 1354.3 3288.5 3857.5 2685.5 1275.2 455.1 130.9 31.9 6.9 1.3 0.2 0.0 13289

5.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 51.0 498.4 1602.9 2372.7 2008.3 1126.0 463.6 150.9 41.0 9.7 2.1 0.4 0.1 8328

6.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 12.6 167.0 690.3 1257.9 1268.6 825.9 386.8 140.8 42.2 10.9 2.5 0.5 0.1 4806

7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 52.1 270.1 594.4 703.2 524.9 276.7 111.7 36.7 10.2 2.5 0.6 0.1 2586

8.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 15.4 97.9 255.9 350.6 296.9 174.6 77.6 27.7 8.4 2.2 0.5 0.1 1309

9.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 4.3 33.2 101.9 159.9 152.2 99.2 48.3 18.7 6.1 1.7 0.4 0.1 626

10.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 10.7 37.9 67.5 71.7 51.5 27.3 11.4 4.0 1.2 0.3 0.1 285

11.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 3.3 13.3 26.6 31.4 24.7 14.2 6.4 2.4 0.7 0.2 0.1 124

12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.0 4.4 9.9 12.8 11.0 6.8 3.3 1.3 0.4 0.1 0.0 51

13.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.4 3.5 5.0 4.6 3.1 1.6 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 21

14.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.3 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 8

15.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 3

16.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 1

SUM: 0 0 1 165 2091 9280 19922 24879 20870 12898 6245 2479 837 247 66 16 3 1 100000

Probability of sea-states in the North Atlantic described as occurrence per 100,000 observations.
Derived from BMT’s Global Wave Statistics

Hs is significant wave height (in metres) and values are listed in the left column. Tz is Wave Period (in seconds).
Where the value of Hs and Tz intersect, one can find the probability (per 100,000 observations) of meeting such a wave.
192 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 193

in accordance with the Rules of the Roll motions / amplitude The transverse accelerations on board Wind load
classification society. Obviously, more and stronger lashings a ship with a long rolling period are Containers stowed on deck act as a wind
are required for a ship expected to roll 40 relatively low. It is for this reason that the shield and the stack would easily be blown
When considering wave height, the degrees than for a ship rolling 20 degrees. rolling period is kept deliberately long on over without lashings.
common standard used by the classification Therefore, classification societies assume passenger vessels, as too many passengers
societies, and thus shipbuilders, is a certain worst case scenario, based on would otherwise become seasick. Ships When calculating container lashings,
Recommendation 34 of the International technical research carried out by them for with a short rolling period create high a side wind force is assumed to act only on
Association of Classification Societies (see the vessel in question. This roll angle is acceleration forces on the ship’s structure those containers exposed to side winds.
IACS Recommendation 34 Standard the ‘design roll angle’. Current practice in and cargo, which in turn may cause These are the containers located in the
Wave Data). container shipping is that this design roll damage. outboard stacks and the containers in the
angle varies between 17 and 30 degrees, inboard stacks extending above the block
The assumption of wave height is used where the lowest angles apply to ultra- Thus: of containers (see illustration below).
to establish the behaviour of the ship at large container vessels. The design roll low stability » long rolling period A standard wind force of 40 m / s (more than
sea and the accelerations to the cargo angle is usually listed in the Container » low accelerations (ay) 12 Bft) is used to calculate the wind load
(containers) and lashings. The assumption Lashing Manual. » low dynamic forces (Fy) on the containers. The standard wind force
on accelerations determine how high results in the following forces on containers
containers can be stowed and the maximum Roll motions / period high stability » short rolling period in tonnes (This is the outcome of the wind
permissible weight distribution for a certain The rolling period is how long it takes for » high acceleration forces (ay) pressure formula: pressure (N / m2) = ½ x air
lashing arrangement. Therefore, the aspect the vessel to make a full roll motion from » high dynamic forces (Fy) density x windspeed2 x shape factor, with
of sea state (waves) and ship motions are port to starboard and back. There is one air density taken as 1,25 kg / m3 and shape
particularly important for containerships. main criterion for the rolling period for any factor taken as 1).
The most important motions considered by given type of vessel, and that is stability
the classification societies when calculating (GM), see below formula:
the forces in a container stack are pitching,
rolling, and heaving. whereby:
Troll natural roll period of the vessel in
There is currently no agreement between seconds
classification societies on the formulas for
0.7 x B ship
calculating standard acceleration forces. Troll =
GM
As a consequence, different classification
societies can arrive at different stowage and B ship width of the ship
lashing requirements for the same ship. GM metacentric height
The extent of the forces is mainly coming 0.7 block coefficient (here assumed to
from the roll angle (amplitude) and the be 0.7, but for containerships this
rolling period (time / velocity). Roll angle is usually somewhere in the range
and period are therefore the main design of 0.65-0.75)
criteria for determining the stowage and
lashing arrangements on board.
container with side
wind load
194 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 195

Standard side wind load to fold it flat. The racking force is governed force on a corner casting of a container as In test configurations, reference is
20 foot standard high container 1.6 tonnes by the construction of the container. designed under ISO 1496, is 250 kN (25 t.). also made to the term ‘proof load’. No
40 foot high-cube container 3.5 tonnes According to the CSC Convention and ISO permanent plastic deformation is allowed to
45 foot high-cube container 4.0 tonnes specification 1496, the maximum racking Strength of the lashing gear remain in the lashing device after the item
force a container is designed to withstand is Classification societies have imposed has been subjected to the proof load. The
Limitations 150 kN (15 t). Racking forces have no safety minimum strength criteria for the lashing proof load must be around 1.3 times the
Strength criteria of containers margins, and where there are racking forces gear used in container stows. The maximum securing load, although there is
The stowage and lashing configurations greater than 150 kN, symptoms of racking manufacturers of lashing equipment have some variation between the classification
should be arranged in such a manner that failure may be seen. to construct the material in such a way that societies on this.
any forces will not cause the container it meets these requirements. The most
stows to collapse. This means that the Vertical compression forces (b) important criterion is the ‘breaking load’ There are three different types of forces
forces must stay within the structural limits Vertical compression forces act vertically (BL), which is the minimum load a lashing affecting the lashing material:
of the containers and the safe working on the compression side of a container item has to sustain before breaking. The tension force the pulling force on each end
loads of the lashing material. If these forces through the corner posts. According to ‘maximum securing load’ (MSL) is derived of a lashing device
are exceeded for one reason or another, the ISO specification 1496, the maximum from the breaking load strength and is shear force the unaligned force from
the container stow is at risk of damage, permissible design compression force at defined as the ‘maximum permissible pushing one part of an item
collapse, and / or loss overboard. each corner post of a 40 foot, 30.5t. rated load allowed on a lashing device when in in one direction, and another
container is 848 kN (86.4 t) use’. The standard practice for evaluating part of the item in the
The permissible forces on containers container lashing equipment is that the BL opposite direction
are laid down in the Convention for Safe Vertical tension forces (c) and the MSL should differ by a factor 2, compression the pushing force on a
Containers and the international standard Vertical tension forces act on the container meaning that the maximum securing load is force device, with the object of
ISO 1496. In addition, classification societies through the corner posts. These forces half the breaking load. reducing the thickness or
maintain their own criteria. The most cause a container to tip or pull out of its length of the item along
important limitations are the following: corner fittings, and / or from the bottom that direction.
foundation on the hatch cover. The vertical
Racking force (a) restraint required to contain this force
tension force shear force compression force
The racking force acts by changing the is provided by the twistlocks and the
shape of a container end frame from a containers’ corner castings. The maximum
rectangle to a parallelogram, and ultimately allowable safe working load by a pull-out

a b c Forces on container lashing material

196 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 197

The particular classification society

and relevant ISO standard specify the 5.8
required minimum breaking loads for each
lashing element. Lashing and securing
To summarise, in a container stack secured
with twistlocks and lashing bars, the In this chapter, we will look at: For containers stowed on deck:
following forces and limitations are present: • Methods of lashing and securing » independent stacks with locking
container stows elements and lashing rods.
• Container lashing systems and
roll motion equipment Under deck stowage in a block with side
• Container lashing routines supports and (double) stacking cones
wind Fu3 Fc3 • Cargo Securing Manual This method is mostly used on feeder
• Container lashing software. vessels, general cargo vessels and multi-
Fu tension/uplift (25t) purpose vessels and is not common on
Fu2 Fc2
Fr racking (15t) Methods of lashing and securing dedicated ocean-going containerships.
Fs
Fr Fs shear (15t) container stows
Fl
Fu1 Fc1 Fc compression (86.4t) Containers on board seagoing vessels The containers are stowed in a block
Fr
Fl lashing force (25t) can be lashed and secured in three and connected to the foundations in the
different ways. tanktop of the hold by single stacking
Maximum permissible forces in container and lashing gear cones. A stacking cone provides a
For containers stowed under deck: horizontal restraint against shifting but
It may appear from the strength » in a block of stacks with side supports does not provide vertical restraint against
specifications of containers and lashing and (double) stacking cones lifting. The containers are transversally
material, that the racking and compression » in cell guides. interconnected by double stacking cones
forces of an ISO container are maximum between the container tiers. In this way,
forces with no safety margin. Strength limits the container stacks form a tight block with
of lashing gear are based on their MSL and
do have a safety margin before breaking.
side support with counter
bearing

double transversal stacker

single stacker

bottom stacker

Block or transverse lashing of containers stowed under deck

198 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 199

locking elements between each container

at every tier. In order to avoid the entire
block of containers shifting sideways,
pressure or pressure / tension supports
are fitted between the outboard container
stacks and the longitudinal bulkhead
of the hold. Special attachment points,
recesses or reinforced areas are fitted in the
longitudinal bulkhead for these pressure or Stowage in cell guides Lashing and securing of containers on deck A two tier high lashing bridge
tension / pressure supports.
between the lowest container and the Another disadvantage is that cell guides are stack. It is even possible to stow containers
This is known as ‘transverse lashing’, as foundation in the bottom of the hold. prone to damage thus requiring the crane with different lengths in one container stack,
opposed to ‘vertical lashing’, because This method of stowage and lashing can driver to handle the containers carefully. although this requires careful planning,
the forces are transmitted to the sides. also be extended above the hatch opening taking into account the basic principles of
Relatively higher stacking loads can be on cell-guided hatch-less vessels. On some Independent stacks with locking proper stowage and / or lashing.
achieved using this (transverse) method. vessels, cell guides are also installed up to a elements and lashing rods
The major disadvantage of this system is certain level on deck. The major advantages This method is the only method for loading The major disadvantage of this system is
that all the containers in each tier must be of this system are that no lashing elements containers on deck, except on ships with that all the forces acting on the container
of the same height and, therefore, a mixed are required and that relatively high stack cell guides on deck, and may also be used stack are transmitted through the corner
stowage with different container heights weights can be achieved. The forces are for under deck stowage on board feeder posts and locking devices to the container
needs careful planning. Careful planning transmitted to the cell guides as well as and general cargo vessels. at the base of the stack and, subsequently,
is also necessary when containers with to the bottom of the stack and stowing to the foundations on the hatch cover.
different discharge ports are stowed in containers with different heights is not The containers are stowed in a stack and Therefore, if using twistlocks alone, the
one block. Furthermore, because of the an issue. connected to one another and to the four forces exerted on the stack foundations will
use of double stacking cones, loading and foundations on the hatch covers using a exceed the permissible limits quite easily
discharging can only be done layer by layer, The major disadvantage of this method locking device, e.g. twistlocks. when containers are stacked three or four
and not stack by stack. is that the cell guides are suitable for high. For higher stowage configurations,
one container length only. The most There are no transversal connections with lashing bars are required at both ends of
Stowage in cell guides common cell guide length is 40 feet, plus adjacent stacks as every stack is lashed the containers. The height of the stowage
This is the most commonly used method of an approximate 40 mm margin at each and secured individually. The container can be further extended using long lashings
container stowage on board ocean going, end. Additional lashings must be used if lashing calculations assume that there is and lashing bridges.
dedicated container vessels, including short containers with a length of 30 or 20 feet no interaction between the adjacent
sea vessels. are stowed in these cell guides. A common container stacks. Another complication when using this
method is to stow two 20 foot containers in system is that the forces acting in the front
The containers are stowed on top of one a 40 foot cell guide with stacking cones at This lashing system provides maximum and door end of the lashed containers must
another in a cell with vertical guide rails the 20 foot open ends. flexibility in terms of the sequence used to be evaluated separately, as the two ends of
at each corner. No connection fittings load and discharge the containers, i.e. stack the container have a different deformation
are needed between the containers, and by stack or layer by layer, and containers characteristic.
with different heights can be loaded in one
200 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 201

manufacturers and the yard work closely

together during the vessel’s design and
construction phase to decide where
containers fittings need to be placed and
the system to be used. This is an important
aspect of the overall design of the ship, as

twistlock the lashing system chosen determines

how high containers can be stacked and Fixed

lashing rod how heavy the containers in each tier of ec fittin flush foundations, raised
with turnbuckle the stack can be. foundations, twistlock
pockets, sliding
There is a large variety of lashing foundations, lifting
Lashing of independent stacks on deck components and systems on the market foundation sockets,
today. For example, the catalogue of one base plates, dovetail
Container lashing equipment and of the leading manufacturers of container foundations, etc.
systems lashing equipment lists 160 types of fixed lashing points D-rings and lashing eyes.
Container lashing equipment can be lashing equipment and 50 types of loose
divided into fixed and loose fittings. lashing equipment. Each manufacturer
Fixed fittings are welded to the ship’s has its own range of products, which
in e e
hatch covers and structures and form an are often patented, and each year
integrated part of the vessel. Loose fittings additional products enter the market.
are stored in separate bins and can be As a result, there are several hundred
used where and when needed. The fixed different types of fittings in service on in e in e e te

and loose fittings together form the lashing board containerships today. d et i nd ti n
system. Each fixed fitting has a loose
counterpart within the system. In addition to the distinction between
fixed and loose fittings, the lashing
A container lashing system is part of elements can also be grouped in the
the vessel’s overall design. Shipowners, following subcategories:

r i ed nt iner nd ti n

t nt iner nd ti n
fi ed

Deck of large container vessel with fixed and loose lashing gear Example fixed lashing equipment
202 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 203

The most important piece of lashing his patented twistlock design in June 1967.
equipment in most of today’s systems is the His design was the world standard for many
Loose twistlock. Over the years, the design has decades (see Keith Tantlinger, the inventor
otto fittin base stacking cones, base undergone many changes. of the twistlock).
twistlocks, cone plates, etc.
stacking and twistlocks, midlocks, Twistlocks In the late 1990’s, the conventional
oc in fittin automatic locking cones, Twistlocks are used to attach the containers twistlock design was criticised by the
single stacking cones, in one stack to each other. The conventional US Occupational Safety and Health
terminal fittings, stackers, twistlock consists of two cones connected Administration (OSHA) following several
etc. to each other by a steel shaft, which is fatal incidents involving US longshoremen.
block stowage bridge fittings, double operated with a handle. In between the This led to new regulations for ships calling
systems stacking cones, pressure cones is a 30 mm thick plate (flange) with at American ports which prohibited terminal
elements, tension pressure a collar attached to it at either side. The operators from placing longshoremen on
elements, etc. flange and collar sit between two containers top of containers. The regulations entered
lashings turnbuckles, lashing chains stacked on top of each other. The upper into force on 26 July 1999.
and lashing rods, etc. cone sits in the bottom corner casting of
the upper container and the lower cone
sits in the top corner casting of the bottom
container. When the handle is moved into
n t it t ti t i t
the locked position, the two cones rotate
approximately 60 degrees, locking the two
containers to each other. This is done at
all four corners of each container resulting
rid e fittin e i t ti t i t in a tight connection between the two
ener r e e
eeder n i re ired containers. A similar twistlock connection Operating principle twistlock
can be made between a foundation on the
hatch cover and the base container of the The new regulations forced manufacturers
d e t in ne stack. In the locked position, the vertical of container lashing equipment to develop
play of the locked cone in the container a twistlock compliant with the new OSHA
castings is no more than 12 mm. Twistlocks regulations. This resulted in the semi-
may close in the clockwise or anti-clockwise automatic twistlock (SAT), which is still
direction, depending on the requirement widely used in the industry today. The
in e t in ne
of the purchaser. There is no international novelty of this twistlock was the shape of
standard, requiring one specific direction the spring-loaded cones which were shaped
for closing / opening. in such a way that they would automatically
engage when pushed into the ISO corner
ter in t er The principle of locking containers together casting of the container. The advantage was
e using the twistlock mechanism was the that it could be attached to the container’s
invention of Keith Tantlinger, who released bottom corner castings ashore, and would
Example loose lashing equipment
204 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 205

Keith Tantlinger, the inventor of the twistlock

automatically lock itself during stacking of » upper and lower cone locked. This is the
If Malcom McLean was the father of containerisation, the container on board the vessel. Prior to locked position, but is also the position
then Keith Tantlinger was the father of the discharge, the SATs have to be unlocked when the container is loaded.
shipping container. following which the container, together with
the SATs in the four bottom corner castings, Shortly after the introduction of the semi-
Keith Walton Tantlinger was a mechanical engineer can be discharged ashore. The position of automatic twistlock, manufacturers started
and inventor. In the course of his professional career, the upper and lower cone of the SAT can be experimenting with more revolutionary
Tantlinger was granted 79 United States patents, changed by an operating wire (see below). types of twistlocks. These new locking
all related to transportation equipment. Many of his devices would not require any manual
patents related to container transport, commercial Depending on the design, SATs have one or manipulation prior to discharge and
highway freight trailers and transit buses. two operating wires. The locking cones can would lock and unlock automatically.
Keith W. Tantlinger in 1958 be set in three different positions: Between 2000 and 2003, manufacturers
In the 1950’s Tantlinger started to work very closely with » upper cone locked, lower cone unlocked, experimented with several concepts. The
Malcolm Mclean to develop the idea of transporting goods in standardised units. Tantlinger’s technical inventions – during discharge of the container preferred design, receiving class approval,
were crucial to this development. His most important inventions for containers were the corner casting and in » upper cone unlocked, lower cone locked had a specially shaped lower cone without
particular, the twistlock, a container locking device still in use today. – when the SAT is used as a bottom any rotating elements. Consequently, the
twistlock and needs to stay on board term ‘twistlock’ was no longer appropriate
Tantlinger played a key role in the process of container standardisation, working extensively as a member of a during discharge for this device, renamed a ‘Fully Automatic
committee of the American Standards Association (ASA) and later with ISO. Tantlinger’s role in standarisation Lock (FAL)’. In 2003, this new concept went
was not only technical but also commercial. Most importantly, it was Tantlinger who convinced McLean to release into mass production and was delivered in
the patents for the container design, so that other ship operators could adopt the same designs. In 1965, ASA
adopted Sea-Lands / Tantlinger’s design as a global standard.

Tantlinger was born in Orange Co., California, on 22 March 1919. He was educated at the University of California,
Berkeley, where he was awarded a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering. During his professional
career, Tantlinger worked as chief engineer and vice president of engineering at Brown Trailers; vice president
of engineering and manufacturing at Fruehauf Corporation in Detroit; and senior vice president, ground
transportation systems at Rohr Industries in Chula Vista, California.

In 2010 he was awarded the Gibbs Bros Medal by the National Academy of Sciences for ‘his visionary and conventional twistlock semi-automatic twistlock fullly automatic twistlock

inventive design of the cellular containership and the supporting systems which transformed the world shipping
fleet and facilitated the rapid expansion of global trade.’

Keith W. Tantlinger died at his home in Escondido, CA on 27 August 2011, at the age of 92.

Sources: NY Times 7 September 2011. Keith Tantlinger, Builder of Cargo Container, Dies at 92, by Margalit Foxsept
The Telegraph, 15 September 2011. Keith Tantlinger Obituary
The Orange County Obituary Registers

upper cone unlocked, lower cone locked upper cone locked, lower cone unlocked upper end lower cone locked
206 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 207

large quantities to the new containerships lashings are needed. The most commonly Single mode Vertical mode (wind lashing)
launched at the shipyards in Asia. In used method is to apply lashing rods with a One pair of lashings is applied diagonally A single vertical lashing is applied to the
subsequent years, the FAL went through tensioning device, usually a turnbuckle. to the bottom corner castings of the bottom corner casting of the container in
a range of modifications to optimise its The lashing rod is hooked to the corner container in the second or third tier from the second or third tier from the anchoring
functionality. Its use has been widely casting of the container(s) in the lower the anchoring point. point. This is a so-called ‘wind lashing’ and
adopted by the industry. In addition to the part of the stack and subsequently, via a is only applied to stacks exposed to wind.
fact that no labour was required to unlock turnbuckle, anchored to a fixed lashing
the FAL prior to discharge and thereby eye on the vessel. Each turnbuckle has one
making significant cost savings, the time anchoring point on the vessel. The stowage
containerships had to spend in port was capacity on deck can be further increased
reduced with several hours for each by constructing fixed lashing bridges
port call. between each 40 foot bay. These lashing
bridges are one, two or three tiers high and
Twistlocks exist in many different versions, move the anchoring points between the
but their main purpose is to provide a vessel and the lashing higher up.
minimal tension load. A 500 kN breaking
load is uniform for all types. The basic A lashing rod must be combined with a Dual mode
functional requirements, as well as size compatible turnbuckle. Although both are One pair of short lashings is applied to the Parallel internal lashing
tolerances to make the lock compatible separate lashing elements, the lashing rod bottom corner castings of the container This is the most commonly used system
with ISO corner castings, are laid down in and turnbuckle are used in combinations in the second tier AND one pair of long on container vessels today, also called
ISO 1161. prescribed by the manufacturer. lashings is applied to the bottom corner ‘Paralash’ or ‘Flexilash’.
castings in the third tier from the anchoring
Lashing rods and turnbuckles The most commonly used system is the point. Both pairs are applied diagonally. The parallel internal lashing comprises a
A container stack lashed by twistlocks alone knobbed lashing rod in combination double set of short lashings where one
will be limited in height and weight and with a turnbuckle with one spindle. The pair is applied diagonally to the top corner
the on deck cargo capacity will be heavily turnbuckle is tightened with a lever to a castings of the containers in the bottom
underutilised. set tension. Manufacturers advise against tier, and another pair applied diagonally to
overtightening the turnbuckle. Some slack the bottom corner castings in the second
For higher and heavier deck stows, lashing can develop in the lashing during the tier. The lashing rods are running almost
calculations will show that additional voyage, requiring the crew to tighten it. parallel to each other.
Various additional devices are available
on the market to prevent the lashings
becoming slack during the voyage, e.g.
‘slack reducer’.

The lashings can be applied to the

container stack in different ways.
The following configurations apply for
both ends of the container:
Knob type lashing bar and turnbuckle combination
208 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 209

External parallel lashing Lashing of containers on inland » the off-set stowage of 45 foot containers Work Convention, 1973), however, the
This system was introduced around 2005 navigation barges on top of 40 foot containers as they implementation of these conventions
with the purpose of further increasing the There are no international rules or can only be lashed if they are stowed depend on ratification by nation states.
stacking heights and stacking weights of standards for the lashing of containers symmetrically on top of 40 foot
containers. Their application is similar to on inland navigation barges as barges do containers There are uniform collective agreements
that of the internal parallel system, although not navigate in the open sea and are not » the stowage of 30 foot containers by the International Transport Workers’
the lashing hooks are applied to the lifting exposed to significant motions. in 40 foot cell guides, unless special Federation (ITF), including the requirement
side of the container stack, as opposed arrangements are available that ships’ crews shall not be involved in the
to the compressed side as in the internal Only a very limited number of inland » the stowage of 40 foot containers in handling of cargo.
parallel system. barges have cell guides. Common practice 45 foot bays on deck. Although this is
in Europe is to secure containers by possible, the reduced strength of the On the other hand, a process of
means of stacking cones. These cones are lashings should be considered deregulation is in progress as a result of
usually only applied to the most outboard » the stowage of overwide containers in increased competition between ports
containers at port and starboard, and only places where there is insufficient space in and the emergence of private ports and
to those containers which extend above the the adjacent container stack. terminals. This has led to situations where
hatch coaming. Although barges are not port authorities may decide, for example,
exposed to significant motions, sideward On the other hand, the stowage plan whether to use non-union or casual labour.
forces may act on the containers because assumes a certain lashing arrangement.
of heavy side wind or when the barge is The maximum utilisation of the vessel’s
making a turn. container capacity can only be achieved if
the required lashing plan is executed.
Equalash Container lashing routines
The Equalash system is different as only The stowage and lashing of containers The lashing (and unlashing) can either be
one turnbuckle is needed for each pair are inextricably linked to each other. The done by the crew or by special lashing
of lashings and the head of the Equalash stowage must be done in such a way that gangs. There is an ongoing discussion
turnbuckle is equipped with a double it makes the lashing plan possible and easy between the various interests in the
hook system. to execute. industry as to who has the right to perform Container lasher at work
these operations.
Below is a list of examples where defective Whether the lashing and unlashing is
stowage may conflict with lashing Shore labour or ship’s crew carried out by the ship’s crew, stevedores,
requirements: There are no specific international or special lashing gangs, lashing of
» the stowage in the same tier of regulations relating to port work and cargo containers is a strenuous and hazardous
containers with different heights using handling, but the customary understanding task which requires training and education.
a transverse lashing system with double is that cargo handling is done by dock Lashing rods may be up to five metres long
stacking cones and side elements workers. This may be supported by and weigh more than 20 kg. The lashings
» similarly, if using a transverse lashing International Labour Organisation may have to be hooked up in a narrow
system as above, containers with conventions such as ILO 152, (The American space, several metres above the deck or
different discharge ports are stowed in Occupational Safety and Health (Dock above the outboard water, during the
the same block Work) Convention), and the ILO 137, (Dock hours of darkness and on slippery decks,
210 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 211

sometimes covered with ice and snow. e.g. in Australia, where stevedores refused Loading
Furthermore, a vessel calling at a port to to handle the ship because of unsafe When loading containers, the same
load some 3,000 containers on deck may working conditions. The vessel in question operation is carried out but in reverse.
require 10,000 twistlocks and 2,000-3,000 had to return to sea without any containers
lashings to be applied within a tight time having being handled. The procedure is different for containers
frame. Lashing of containers by the ship’s which are stowed in the base tier on deck.
crew on board large container vessels Discharge These containers are not fitted with semi-
is therefore often impractical. Common Once the vessel has been cleared for the automatic twistlocks ashore, but are placed
practice is to employ special lashing gangs operations to commence, the containers Ship-owned bins with twistlock on flatrack on top of the bottom twistlocks fitted to
to perform these operations on medium- to be discharged are unlashed first. These the foundations on board. These bottom
sized and large containerships, and that unlashing operations comprise the removal twistlocks are applied before the containers
the ship’s crew only get involved in the of the lashings and the unlocking of the are loaded to prevent damage to the ship’s
operations on small feeders or general semi-automatic twistlocks (SAT), unless fully container foundations.
cargo ships. automatic locks (FAL) are used.
Once the bottom containers have been
Safety code: Annex 14 The SATs can be unlocked from deck level loaded, the lashings can be applied.
The hazardous working conditions on by means of a light-weight aluminium pole The stevedores’ foreman will, meanwhile,
board containerships have led to extensive (an actuator pole), although only containers have familiarised himself with the way
regulations covering the operational up to the fourth tier can be unlocked Container discharged with (semi-)automatic twistlocks the lashings need to be applied in order
still attached to bottom corner castings
condition as well as the design of this way. The twistlocks of the containers to meet the requirements of the ship’s
containerships. These new regulations are stowed higher up must be unlocked by the container securing manual.
covered in Annex 14 of the IMO CSS Code. stevedores using a special lifting basket ashore and placed where the twistlocks are
(see photograph). This is a time-consuming removed from the vessel. This can be on the Supervision and checks
In addition, individual ports and terminals operation. The unlocking of a full deck of quay or on a special platform on the crane. During loading operations, the stevedores
may have their own regulations and it is not containers aboard a very large container These bins are marked with the name of will have a deck man in attendance at each
unusual for inspectors to board the vessel vessel can easily take two to three hours. the vessel and the type of lashing material crane, or a combination of cranes, to check
prior to operations in order to determine they contain. The stevedores only use the that the containers are stowed correctly
whether the working conditions meet local Prior to discharge operations, the ship’s twistlocks in these bins. This procedure is and properly. The stevedores’ deck man will
requirements. There have been instances, steel bins with lashing material are lifted followed to avoid any accidental mixing not be engaged with checking the lashings,
of lashing material occurring ashore, e.g. if the lashings are carried out by a special
mixing with lashing material from another shore gang. This is usually the task of the
vessel. To remove the twistlocks from foreman and the vessel’s crew. In many
the container, the crane driver holds the ports, stevedores do not permit the vessel’s
container approximately 1.5 m above the crew to enter the area of the container
quay or above the crane’s lashing platform. operations for safety reasons and the crew
At each end of the container, one person will in such circumstances have to check the
from the lashing gang takes out the lashings after container operations
twistlocks from the bottom corner castings are completed.
Unlocking twistlocks prior to discharge and places the twistlocks in the bins.
left: Using a so-called ‘gondola’ operated by the crane; right: From deck using an actuator pole
212 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 213

The crew’s inspections will be limited to an with regard to the lashing and unlashing Classification Society. In June 2010, the Lashing Manual, is usually prepared by the
inspection of the lashings and the bottom operations are limited to an inspection IMO published MSC Circular 1 / Circ. 1353 suppliers of the lashing manual, employing
twistlocks. If the bottom twistlocks are of of the correct application of lashing which is the revised guidelines for preparing naval architects for this purpose. After
the manual type, the locking position can material only. these manuals. The CSM summarises the completion, the CSM is passed to the
be checked on the basis of the position lashing material required on board, the user vessel’s classification society for approval.
of the lever. This explains the importance Most of the work by the ship’s crew will manual for the lashing material, the general The classification society verifies that
of using manual twistlocks which all close take place in the cargo office in the stowage principles for special cargoes etc. the maximum permissible forces in the
in the same direction as manufacturers ship’s accommodation, from where the It also provides an explanation on how containers and lashings are not
produce both right and left hand closing ballast pumps and loading computers to calculate forces acting on lashing gear exceeded according to their own criteria.
twistlocks for the bottom twistlocks. are operated. An excessive trim or list will according to the methods described in The Container Securing Manual must
For the container stowed above the base complicate the cargo operations and can Annex 13 of the IMO Code. receive separate approval from the
tier, the crew will rely on the automatic be rectified by (de)ballasting, managed classification society.
locking function of the (semi)automatic from the cargo office. Dedicated container Preparation and approval
(twist)locks, but it is only possible to verify vessels are often equipped with an Cargo Securing Manuals are approved User limitations
that every container is locked for those automatic anti-heeling system. by the flag state authority, or by the When relying on CSMs, the following
stowed in the lower tiers. classification society if they have been observations should be noted:
As the containers have been lashed for authorised by the flag state to carry out
The crew will also check if the lashings a calculated worst case scenario, adding these inspections on their behalf. GM value
have been applied in accordance with the lashings during the voyage is not standard One of the main design criteria for the
Container Securing Manual and that they practice. Firstly, all available lashing points The CSM must contain a separate section Manual is the vessel’s stability (GM value).
are moderately tight. on deck are most likely in use already and, covering the stowage and lashing of
secondly, lashing containers during heavy containers if the vessel in question is Classification Societies set the lowest
After the completion of all lashing weather is very dangerous. The crew’s approved and equipped to carry containers. maximum GM value the manual must be
operations, the stevedores may ask the tasks with regard to the container lashings This is the Container Lashing Manual, designed for.
Master to sign a voucher stating that the during the voyage will involve a daily also known as the ‘Container Securing
operations were carried out satisfactorily. inspection and occasional additional Manual’. This section lists the permissible The front page of the CSM usually lists the
tensioning, although no over-tensioning, weight distribution of the containers in design GM; see example on the next page.
In summary, on modern large container where necessary. different bays and stacks for one or more
vessels, the duties of the vessel’s crew GM values. The manual specifies the size It is important that the user is aware of the
The Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) of containers for which the manual was fact that the CSM is invalid if the vessel
Legislation prepared and thereby, which size containers operates at a GM value which is higher than
According to the IMO Code of Safe Practice the vessel can carry. The calculations take the design GM. This does not mean that
for Cargo Stowage and Securing (The CSS into account the strength of the container, the vessel cannot operate at that larger GM
Code), all vessels carrying cargo units, the strength and application of the fixed value, but the implication is that the vessel
defined as wheeled cargo, pallets, coils, and loose lashing gear, the strength of the must use alternative means to establish
packaged units, etc., must have a Cargo supporting structure etc. On bay-specific that the forces acting on the containers
Securing Manual (CSM) on board. The overviews, the manual clearly indicates and lashings remain within the permissible
manual is prepared in accordance with the which lashing element is required in which values. This can, for example, be done using
Stevedores’ deck man in attendance on board during IMO Code and the relevant Rules by the position. The CSM, including the Container class approved software programmes.
operations
214 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 215

differs between classification societies as CSM. This applies particularly to high-cube

the Rules for each classification society are containers with a high centre of gravity
different. For example, the classification requiring additional lashing components.
society Lloyds Register calculates the
design GM on the basis of the width of Container lashing software
the vessel, whilst DNV / GL includes the Container lashing calculations are very
freeboard distance and stacking height on complex and cannot be replaced by
deck. Classification societies also stipulate general rules of thumb or methods based
that the CSM is calculated based on two on common sense. To complicate things
GM values, for example 2.5 per cent and 7.5 further, the manner of calculation differs
per cent of the vessel’s width; see the Rules between the classification societies.
of Lloyd’s Register. The vessel’s staff must evaluate the safety
of the stow in a relatively very short period
Roll angle of time. It would be impossible to make
Another important design principle for these assessments for ships carrying several
the Container Securing Manual is the thousand containers. Therefore, the use
‘design roll angle’. Classification societies of computer programs with specialised
incorporate in their Rules formulas for container lashing software has become
calculating the amplitude of the design standard on board containerships. These
roll angle. Alternatively, the classification programmes are approved by the relevant
society may take into consideration classification society and are capable of
additional information provided by the reading the BAPLIE files (Bayplan occupied
shipowner, such as model tests or computer and empty containers Edifact message)
simulations. The current range for design commonly used in the communication
roll angles for containerships varies between the planners and the vessel.
between 17 and 30 degrees, whereby the
lower range of roll angles applies to the As previously indicated, the CSM is
Top: Cargo Securing Manual frontpage Top: Page from CSM showing container stowage and. very large ships. valid only for certain GM values, which
Below: Container Securing Manual frontpage weight overview per bay
is problematic if the ship operates at a
Below: Page from CSM showing lashing arrangement
The front page of the CSM usually lists higher GM value. The following are typical
The ship’s crew has limited control over loaded up to its capacity, e.g. China-US and the design roll angle, otherwise the examples which describe the problems and
the vessel’s GM value on every part of China-Europe. classification society can provide it. explain the need for lashing software:
the voyage, as this largely depends on
the weight distribution of the containers It is important to understand the principle Container dimensions Example 1
on board. Coastal voyages with only part of the design GM value and this may be The Container Securing Manual states the The CSM for a 6,500 TEU vessel shows a
of the deck space occupied are typically explained as follows: Classification Societies container sizes the CSM has been designed maximum design GM of 1.65 m. The CSM
voyages with high GM values. The GM value set a certain value of the GM value to and approved for. Should different shows that the containers in a particular
will usually be less during ocean voyages, ensure that the CSM is not designed for container sizes be carried, the classification bay on deck can be stowed six tiers high
particularly on transits where the vessel is an unrealistically low GM. The design GM society may require an extension of the only and that the weight in the top tier
216 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS

should not exceed 7 tonnes. During the loaded exactly as prescribed by the CSM.
voyage in question, however, the GM If, for example, the container in the bottom
appears to be 3.30 m. If the Chief Officer tier weighs 21 tonnes instead of 30 tonnes,
ignored the effect of the actual GM being the first instinctive reaction may be that the
twice the design GM, the forces acting on forces will be less than the example given in
the lashings at the base of the container the CSM, and the stowage would therefore
stack would increase by approximately be safe. However, the opposite is the case
75 per cent. If the ship were to encounter as less weight in the bottom tier will create
heavy weather and would roll at its design higher forces as the centre of gravity of the
roll angle of, for example 22 degrees, the stack moves upwards.
permissible forces would be exceeded and
the stow would be at risk of collapse. There are several container lashing
Using lashing software and recalculating the programmes available on the market.
forces for a GM of 3.30 m, the Chief Officer Most of these programmes form part of
will establish by how much to reduce the the ship-specific loading computer.
tier weight and / or stack height to keep the The advantage of these integrated
forces within permissible limits. systems is that the results from the stability
calculations can be included in the lashing
Example 2 calculations, meaning that the crew always
The same CSM shows that in a certain bay has an overview of the actual situation.
on deck the containers can be stacked six Most programmes will give a warning
tiers high, and that the tier weight from the indication if any securing components
base to the top is: 30 t, 20 t, 20 t, 15 t, or individual containers are likely to
10 t, 7 t. The maximum stack weight is then be overloaded.
102 tonnes. However, containers are never
 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 217

5.9

Major containership incidents

Over the last decades, containerships have temperatures which finally leads to ignition.
been involved in several major incidents. The causes of spontaneous combustion, or
A review shows that these incidents can ignition, can be the unstable nature of the
be divided into the following categories cargo itself, production errors, a reaction
according to the nature of the incident: with other substances or heating by an
• cargo related fires and explosions external source which starts / accelerates
• grounding

• capsizing, loss of stability

• structural failure
• container losses

Major cargo related fires and

explosions
A fire aboard a containership can be
very intense and difficult to control and
extinguish, especially if the fire starts in the Total devastation of vessel and containers from a cargo
fire / explosion
cargo hold. The tight stowage means that
the source of fire can be difficult to locate the process of self-ignition. Heat sources
and difficult to access once the fire has on board a containership can be fuel tanks,
spread to adjacent container stacks. the engine room bulkhead and strong
sunlight on containers stowed on deck. Fire
Several of these major incidents involved and explosion incidents are very severe
chemical cargoes liable to spontaneous and frequently lead to the total loss of the
combustion. This is a process of self-heating vessel and all its cargo. It may take weeks or
followed by a rapid acceleration to high even months to extinguish the fire and large

sun

engine room
fuel tanks
Containership heat sources
218 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 219

year vessel(s) incident / cargo and, depending on the hazardous nature of hold ventilation, the electrical equipment
of the cargo, can result in significant extra and bilge system.
1996 HANSA CLIPPER Cargo fire (barbeque coal)
costs and delays.
1996 MARLENE S. Cargo fire (barbeque coal)
There are rules regarding segregation
1997 BELLATRIX Cargo fire (barbeque coal) Clearly, there are significant risks related which must be followed when stowing
1997 CONTSHIP FRANCE Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite) to the carriage of hazardous substances containers with dangerous cargo on board
1998 ACONCAGUA Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite) which explains why the transport of these and these must to be taken into account
goods is heavily regulated. The overarching already at the stowage planning process.
1998 DG HARMONY Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite). Total loss
regulations are SOLAS (the International Usually, the planning of the stowage of the
1998 CMA DJAKARTA Cargo fire / explosion (calcium hypochlorite)
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) container with hazardous cargo is done by
2002 HANJIN PENSYLVANIA Cargo fire / explosion and MARPOL (the International Convention the central planner of the shipping line and
2004 NYK ARGUS Hot stow for the Prevention of pollution from ships), subsequently executed by the terminal.

2006 HYUNDAI FORTUNE Cargo fire / explosion

the regulations of which are contained On smaller container vessels (e.g. feeders,
in the International Maritime Dangerous general cargo vessels), the IMDG planning
2006 YM GREEN Cargo fire / explosion
Goods (IMDG) Code. Around seven to is done by the Master or the terminal.
2010 CHARLOTTE MAERSK Cargo fire
ten per cent of all containerised cargoes
2012 MSC FLAMINIA Cargo fire / explosion. Loss of life are hazardous substances in one form or Each dangerous cargo shipment must
2012 AMSTERDAM BRIDGE Cargo fire another. The regulations contained in the be accompanied by a Dangerous Goods
IMDG Code therefore form part of virtually Declaration / Container Packing Certificate
2013 MAERSK KAMPALA Cargo fire
all containership operations. supplied by the shipper. This is a signed
2013 CMA CGM LILAC Cargo fire
certificate or declaration stating amongst
2013 HANSA BRANDENBURG Cargo fire Several hundred thousand substances others that the consignment, as offered
2013 EUGEN MAERSK Cargo fire classified as hazardous may be carried in for carriage, is properly packaged,
2015 CAPE MORETON Cargo fire containers. Each substance is classified marked, labelled as appropriate and in an
according to its hazardous nature. The appropriate condition for carriage.
2015 KAMALA Cargo fire
IMDG Code has nine hazardous cargo
2015 HANJIN GREEN EARTH Cargo fire
classes. If a substance has more than one Information related to the hazardous cargo
2015 ALULA Cargo fire dangerous characteristic, a subsidiary risk is must be immediately available at all times
2015 MOL CONTRIBUTION Cargo fire added to the classification. for use in an emergency. This information

2015 MARENO Cargo fire

is contained in separate documents, safety
The vessel must be in possession of a valid data sheets or the Emergency Response
2015 BARZAN Cargo fire
Document of Compliance. The document Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous
is issued by the flag state and has an Goods (EMS Guide) combined with the
quantities of cooling and extinguishing Other incidents involving hazardous appendix which sets out, in compliance with transport document and the Medical First
water are needed. Subsequently, the cargoes are mainly due to leakage and the class requirements, the locations where Aid Guide for use in accidents involving
clean-up and removal of the waste and disruption caused by mis-declaration of dangerous goods can be stowed. It is also dangerous Goods (MFAG).
fire extinguishing water is a very time the cargo. These irregularities can become based on the particulars of the fire-fighting
consuming and costly exercise. apparent when the container has been and fire / smoke detection systems, the rate The IMDG Code requires the Master to
loaded on board or is still at the terminal prepare a list of dangerous cargo on board,
220 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 221

listing the relevant information such as have a large impact on the navigation of the seabed. Sometimes it can be enough (see The grounding of the RENA). In the
container number, line operator, port of the vessel because of the large number of to discharge the ballast water and fuel from meantime, the emergency situation can
loading / discharge, dangerous goods class, containers on deck. the vessel, but if more weight needs to be seriously deteriorate.
UN number, proper shipping name, weight, removed, containers have to be discharged.
flash point, EMS, etc. The consequences of a grounding incident Most modern containerships do not have Salvors have voiced concerns regarding a
can, however, be much more complex for on board cranes and, therefore, mobile or possible casualty involving containerships
Major grounding incidents containerships. floating cranes must be used. as so far, salvage operations of grounded
The most common causes of grounding containerships have only involved medium-
are engine failure, anchor failure or human Ships hard aground and unable to be These cranes are not always readily sized ships and that no cranes would be
(navigational) error. In that respect, the refloated using own power or tugs, need to available and it may take quite some time available to lighter the latest generation of
risk of grounding is no different for a be lightered. This is the removal of weight before they reach the stranded vessel ultra large container vessels.
containership than for any other type of from the vessel in order to reduce the
vessel, except that the wind load could vessel’s draught, respectively pressure on
The grounding of the RENA
year vessel(s) incident / cargo On 5 October 2011, at 02:20 hrs , while sailing in clear
2001 HEINRICH BEHRMANN Grounded. Zeebrugge Belgium weather from Napier to Tauranga, New Zealand and

2001 CMA CGM NORMANDIE Grounded Singapore Strait

with a speed of 17 knots, the MV RENA ran aground
on the Astrolabe Reef close to Tauranga port. The ship
2002 ALVA STAR Grounded Zakinthos, Greece
was carrying 1,368 containers, 1,700 tonnes of heavy
2002 CONTI SEATTLE Grounded Miami, USA
fuel oil and 200 tonnes of marine diesel oil.
2003 SEALAND EXPRESS Grounded Table Bay. South Africa

2005 FOWAIRET Grounded and fractured. Scheldt river, Netherlands The bow section was wedged on the reef and its stern
section was afloat with a significant list to port. Two
2005 APL PANAMA Grounded Ensenada beach Mexico
of its cargo holds were flooded and there were several
2005 CP VALOUR Grounded Azores. Oil pollution Pacific Ocean
fractures in the hull. The day after the grounding, oil
2006 SAFMARINE AGULHAS Grounded Port East London, South Africa was seen spilling from the vessel. During a storm on
Tauranga
2006 ROKIA DELMAS Grounding west coast, France 10 October 2011, the vessel changed from a port to a
starboard list and containers were lost overboard. Ta s m a n S e a NEW ZEALAND
2008 ISLAND INTREPID Grounded Miami
The entire crew was evacuated from the vessel and Napier
2009 WESTERHAVEN Grounded Belize
both oil and containers from the stricken vessel were
2010 PACIFIC VOYAGER Grounded Jamaica
washing ashore.
2011 RENA Grounding, Tauranga New Zealand

2011 CAFER DEDE Grounding Syros, Greece Salvors managed to remove some 1,300 tons of heavy fuel from the vessel and started the operation to remove
the containers. This was a very complex task as the ship was listing nearly 20 degrees. On 8 January 2012, the
2012 CELIA Grounded Valencia (storm)
fore and aft ship separated during a storm. The fore ship remained on the reef and the aft part sank on the slope
2012 SUNRISE Grounded Valencia (storm)
of the reef. In early April 2012, the stern section of the vessel sank in 65 m of water. On 5 April 2012, the Lloyd’s
2012 BARELI Grounded off Fuzhou, China
Open Form (LOF) contract between salvors and the owners of the vessel was terminated and the removal of the
2014 YUSUF CEPNIOGLU Grounding Mykonos containers was continued under a Wreckhire contract. By June 2012, all containers had been discharged from the

2015 MOL EXPRESS Grounded Tateyama, Japan fore ship.

222 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 223

Flag states permit vessels to be constructed Container weights

with a relatively low freeboard in certain The stability calculations on board are
circumstances. These types of ships are based on the weights listed in the bay
particularly popular in the short sea and plan. If these weights are, for whatever
feeder trade. reason, incorrect, the consequences can be
significant. There are no means available
Container centre of gravity to the vessel’s crew to visually check the
Errors in the stability calculation can occur weight of the container. The only option
Grounding of container vessel. Westerschelde approach if the container’s centre of gravity has been available is to check the vessel’s draught
to Antwerp. Salvage in progress
estimated too low. Classification societies readings and to compare these readings
use 0.4 or 0.45 times the container height as with the vessel’s calculated draught
Major capsizing incidents the container’s centre of gravity. produced by the loading computer. This
difference is referred to as ‘dead load’.
year vessel(s) incident / cargo Container height However, the dead load value gives an
2000 DONGEDIJK Capsized in the approach to the Suez Canal Containers are either 8’6” (standard overall indication only and does not indicate

2007 EXCELSIOR The river Rhine

height) or 9’6” high (high-cube). While the location of the weight differences.
the difference in height is only one foot,
2010 ANGELN Ship capsized and sank after departure from St. Lucia
30.5 cm, and a difference in the centre of The issue of container weights has been
2011 DENEB Ship capsized at berth in Algeciras
gravity will therefore not be significant for highlighted in many investigation reports
the individual container, a large number of following incidents involving aspects of
A ship capsizes because of loss of stability. holds and the lighter container loaded on incorrect heights can have an adverse effect stability, hull strength or lashing failures.
Only rarely does the capsizing (or heavy deck. This loading sequence will require on the vessel’s overall centre of gravity. This has resulted in new regulations, which
listing) of a containership result in the loss careful planning as the heavy containers will come into force on 1 July 2016.
of the vessel. This is mainly due to the fact need to come alongside the vessel first (see Chapter 6 Container weights).
that, as the vessel heels over, containers before the lighter containers are loaded
are lost overboard and the vessel regains on deck. Major hull failure incidents
stability and returns to an upright position.
Reduction in freeboard year vessel(s) incident location

It is generally smaller containerships and Width and freeboard are the main 1997 MSC CARLA Broken in the Azores
barges which are prone to large reductions dimension determining the stability of an 2007 MSC NAPOLI Hull fracture in the English Channel
in stability when loaded. empty vessel. The wider the ship and the
2013 MOL COMFORT Broken and sunk in the Arabian Sea
higher the freeboard, the better the ship’s
The following factors are important in the stability will be. The freeboard is particularly
stability of containerships: important as it determines the angle at
which the deck edge is under water.
Loading sequence As soon as the deck edge is under water,
Stability requirements may demand that the the stability will decrease.
heavier containers are loaded in the cargo
224 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 5 SHIPBOARD CONTAINER OPERATIONS 225

The consequences of these structural current regulations for containerships Container collapse and loss
failures are clearly very significant. With the operating in seagoing condition as well of containers
total loss of the vessel and 4,382 containers, as into the effect of improperly declared
the MOL COMFORT became the largest container weights. Major container loss incidents (total ship losses excluded)

casualty in container shipping (see The loss year vessel quantity lost / damaged
of the MOL COMFORT). Following the MOL COMFORT incident, 1998 APL CHINA 406 lost / 1,000 damaged
IACS developed two new Unified
2000 OOCL AMERICA 350 lost / 217 damaged
All three mentioned incidents occurred Requirements, namely UR S11A (longitudinal
2014 SVENBORG MAERSK 517 lost / 250 damaged
in the open sea during heavy weather. strength standard for containerships) and
Another common feature of these incidents URS 34 (functional requirements for
was that the ships broke around the mid- direct analyses by finite element method According to the World Shipping Council, Various reports and scientific research
ships area. Research into these incidents of containerships, including a set of 546 containers on average are lost at sea papers have been published on these
has focussed on the hull strength and loading conditions). each year, excluding catastrophic events. incidents. These listed heavy weather, high
When including catastrophic events, such sea state and excessive rolling of the vessels
as the RENA and the MOL COMFORT, the at the time of the incidents as important
The loss of the MOL COMFORT
average is a total of 1,679 containers. contributory factors.
The MV MOL COMFORT was a post-Panamax containership, built in 2008 at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in
Japan. On 17 June 2013, the vessel broke in two at her mid ships section while transiting the Arabian Sea, on A major container insurer published
her way from Singapore to Jeddah with 4,382 containers and some 3,000 tonnes of fuel on board. The 26 crew statistics indicating that every year 10,000
abandoned the vessel and were rescued by other ships containers are involved in container
nearby diverted to the site of the incident. collapses and that some 2,000 containers
are lost overboard during these incidents.
Following the structural failure, both sections of the
vessel remained afloat with the majority of the cargo Whatever the actual number is, the number
intact. Salvors were contracted to tow the sections of containers lost at sea vary between
to safety. However, on 25 June the stern section sank incidents: from a single container to Ship in port after having lost containers at sea

to a depth of 4,000 m before any salvage operation several hundred on one occasion. Not
could commence. every collapse of stow results in a loss of In 2009, a joint industry project led by a
containers overboard. For example, Dutch research institute looked at the
The tow of the bow section broke free in adverse weather on 2 July and on 6 July a fire broke out in the bow a collapse of containers under deck does causes of container losses from several
section, destroying most of the 2,400 containers on board. The following night, the damaged bow section sank not result in a loss overboard. Collapse other incidents. They also did a survey
to a depth of 3,000 m. of on-deck stowed container stows may amongst masters of containerships. Apart
result in only part of the containers being from the already mentioned heavy weather
The sinking of the MOL COMFORT is said to have cost insurers between USD 300-400 million in claims, excluding lost overboard. and excessive rolling of the vessel, the
the cost for the loss of the vessel and machinery. After the incident, sister ships of the MOL COMFORT were investigations by the project team identified
withdrawn from service and their hull structures upgraded to increase the longitudinal strength. When excluding lost containers from a total issues such as lashing and stowage failure,
loss or ship incident, the largest container the declared weight of the container, and
In 2014, IACS launched an expert group on structural safety of containerships. The team carried out a review of losses have been recorded from three major high vertical accelerations from slamming
the MOL COMFORT incident, which also took into account a number of past incidents. incidents, see above. as additional potential factors.
 6 THE CONTAINER 227

Chapter 6

The container

The following topics are covered in this

chapter:
• Definition
• Container owners
• Regulations governing the transport of
freight containers
• Certification and testing of new
containers
• ISO Standards
• Requirements on the design and
construction of containers
• Types of containers
• Labelling and marking of containers
• In-service inspections of containers
• Maintenance and repair
• Container security.

20 foot and 40 foot containers

228 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 229

6.1 6.2

Definitions Container owners

Many different terms are used when d of a size such that the area enclosed by Containers are owned either by shipping In the 1970’s, when containerisation became
referring to containers used to carry the four outer bottom corners is either companies or container leasing companies. global, leasing companies emerged in
freight. In its most generic form, a i at least 14 sq.m. (150 sq.ft.) or Traditionally, shipping lines owned the order to offer shipping lines flexibility in
container may be defined as ‘An object ii at least 7 sq.m. (75 sq.ft.) if it is fitted with largest number of containers worldwide, the management of their containerised
for holding or transporting something’ top corner fittings. but since 2014 this position has been taken assets. This appeared to fulfil a demand
(Oxford dictionary), or more specific as The term container includes neither vehicles by the container leasing companies who in the market and additional leasing
a ‘large cargo-carrying standard-sized nor packaging; however, containers when currently own some 50 per cent of the companies entered the business in the
container that can be loaded from one carried on chassis are included.’ total word fleet of containers. (Source: following decades. In the 1990’s a period
mode of transport to another’ (Collins World Cargo News). In addition, a very of consolidation took place which resulted
English dictionary) or a ‘standardized The requirements contained in the small percentage of containers is owned in the current position where nearly 50
re-sealable transportation box for unitized Convention apply to the great majority of by shippers. per cent of the globally leased container
freight handling with standardized freight containers used globally, except fleet is owned by the four largest leasing
equipment’ (Business dictionary). those designed for carriage by air. Millions of new containers enter the market companies, each owning a fleet of more
every year. China accounts for more than than 1 million TEU.
Over the years, various organisations Also used is the term ‘Cargo Transport 90 per cent of the global production of
involved in standardisation and regulation Unit’ (CTU), being ‘A freight container, containers. In 2015, some 60 per cent The major advantages of leasing containers
in the transport industry have developed swap body, vehicle, railway wagon or any of the newly manufactured containers are flexibility, local availability and,
more refined definitions. other similar unit in particular when used were acquired by leasing companies. No depending on the contract used, the
in intermodal transport’ (CTU Code: the shipping line in the world would be able to possibility of leaving the empty container at
The Convention for Safe Containers 1972 2014 IMO / ILO / UNECE Code of Practice meet the demand for containers by using its destination. Furthermore, the lessee, i.e.
(CSC) and ISO Standard 668 both provide for Packing of Cargo Transport Units). This their own fleet of containers only and all use the party which leases the containers from
the regulatory definition of a container definition is similar to that of an Intermodal the services of container leasing companies. the leasing company, is not responsible
as follows: ‘Container means an article of Transport Unit (ILU). for the maintenance and repair of the
transport equipment: shipping lines shippers and others container, its certification etc. This is done
a of a permanent character and accordingly ISO container by the lessor, i.e. the leasing company.
strong enough to be suitable for This term is used in many shipping
repeated use contracts, classification requirements, From an operational point of view, leasing
b specially designed to facilitate the software, on-board manuals etc. containers is more expensive than owning
transport of goods, by one or more ‘An ISO freight container refers to a freight containers. The largest container leasing
modes of transport, without intermediate container (in the context of the CSC companies are Textainer, Triton Container
reloading Convention) complying with all relevant Int. Ltd., TAL International and Florens.
c designed to be secured and / or readily ISO standards in existence at the time of Each own and manage a fleet of several
leasing companies
handled, having corner fittings for these manufacture’ (def. ISO 668). million containers, through a global agency
purposes Container owners (2015) network of offices and container depots.
230 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 231

» Clear provisions for containers operated

6.3 under the Approved Continuous
Examination Programme (ACEP) including
Regulations governing the transport of detailed requirements for a review of
these programmes every ten years.
freight containers » Containers where the stacking and
racking values are less than 192,000 kg.
or 150 kN respectively, e.g. certain types
All types of containers have to comply a welcome means of regulating the of 30 foot bulk containers, swap bodies
with international regulations governing construction and safety of containers. etc., must be conspicuously marked to ISO standards is not recommended unless
road, rail and sea transportation. This The Convention contains procedures clearly differentiate them from standard specific provisions are in place.
chapter provides an overview of the most for the approval of new containers ISO containers. The implication of this
important regulations and codes governing to be enforced by the State Party, or new requirement was that all non-ISO Other IMO regulations
the transport of freight containers. organisations authorised by such State containers must to be re-marked before In addition to the Convention for Safe
Parties. The evidence of such approval, a 1 July 2015. Containers, there are numerous other
The International Convention for Safe Safety Approval Plate, is recognised by all » Testing and marking requirements for international rules and regulations which
Containers (CSC) 1972 once granted by a State Party. The system containers operated with one door off. apply to ships carrying containers, the
Due to the rapid increase in the use of would allow the cross border movement of » The introduction in 2005 of so-called most relevant of which are imposed by the
freight containers and the development of containers with a minimum of safety and ‘Serious Structural Deficiencies’, International Maritime Organization (IMO),
specialised containerships, the International custom formalities. Interestingly, the CSC listing the most sensitive components such as:
Maritime Organization (IMO) instigated a was not introduced for the safety of the of a container with their maximum
study of the safety of containerisation in cargo carried in the containers, but for the permissible damage permitted. This The Safety of Life at Sea Convention
sea transport in 1967. The container itself safety of the people working around them. list was expanded and became more (SOLAS)
emerged as the most important aspect detailed following the 2014 amendments. The SOLAS Convention, including its many
to be considered. IMO, in co-operation The purpose of this list was to assist amendments, govern all areas of safety at
with the Economic Commission for Europe the designated persons (authorised sea for all types of ships, including purpose-
(UNECE), developed a convention which officers) in deciding whether the built containerships and ships that only
was adopted by the United Nations and movement of a container should be occasionally carry containers.
the IMO in 1972. This convention is known stopped or restricted.
as the ‘International Convention for Safe
Containers’ (CSC). Cover CSC Note
The CSC permits governments to approve
The aim of the Convention is to ensure a Several amendments to the CSC have been containers that do not meet the structural
high level of safety for personnel during implemented since 1972. Most of these criteria of the International Organization
handling and transport of containers and were agreed following recommendations for Standardization (ISO - see below).
also to facilitate international trade by by the IMO or following reports by Most stowage systems on board ships and
providing uniform international safety various Maritime Administrations into container constructions, however, must Cover SOLAS
regulations. The CSC made the approval container casualties. The most important conform with ISO and, as a result, the use
of new containers mandatory and was amendments were: of containers that do not conform with
232 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 233

IMDG Code also concerns itself with Protocol on Preparedness, Response Other requirements
terminology, classification, documentation, and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents Containers may also have to comply with
packaging, labelling, marking, stowage by Hazardous and Noxious Substances other requirements including those for
and segregation, emergency response etc. (OPRC-HNS Protocol) railway and road transport or for particular
The impact of the Code therefore extends This protocol entered into force in 2007 uses, such as:
beyond the usual ship and shore side and aims to provide a global framework for » The US Occupational Safety and Health
Cover CSS Code operations involving packaged dangerous international co-operation in the combating Administration (OSHA) with specific
cargo. The Code is under permanent review of major incidents or threats of marine requirements for containerships calling at
and amendments are published at regular pollution from ships carrying hazardous and US ports
The Code of Safe Practice for Cargo intervals, usually every two years. noxious substances (HNS), including those » The International Labour Organization
Stowage and Securing (CSS Code) carried in containers. One of the important (ILO)
The CSS Code is referenced in Chapter requirements of this Protocol is that ships » The WCO Customs Convention
VI of the SOLAS Convention. The Code subject to the regime have to carry a » The International Union of Railways (UIC)
establishes general principles for safe Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan » The Association of American Railroads
stowage and securing and is intended to on board. (AAR)
provide an international standard for the » The US Federal Railroad Association
level of forces likely to be encountered In addition to the above, the following more (FRA)
during sea transport. An important general IMO regulations are important: » The European Regulations concerning
mandatory requirement in this Code is the Cover MARPOL » The IMO International Safety the carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail
Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) which must Management (ISM) Code (RID)
be found on board all ships needing to » The IMO International Ship and Port » The European Agreement concerning
secure cargo. Regulations for the Prevention of Facility Security (ISPS) Code the carriage of Goods by Road (ADR)
Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried » The IMO Convention on Standards for » The US Department of Transport
by Sea in Packaged Form Training and Watch keeping for Seafarers Regulations CFR 49 for the transportation
The jettisoning of harmful substances (STCW) of Intermodal and Portable tanks
carried in packaged form, including from » The IMO Convention for the Prevention » The United Nations Customs Convention
containers, is prohibited under Annex III of of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) on the International Transport of Goods
the IMO Convention for the Prevention of » The IMO Convention on Facilitation under cover of TIR carnets 1975
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), unless the of International Maritime Traffic » For foodstuffs and thermal and
action was necessary for the purpose of (FAL Convention) including binding reefer containers: The United Nations
Cover IMDG Code securing the safety of the ship and crew. regulations concerning stowaways Agreements on the International
These regulations set out packaging and Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and
stowage requirement for marine pollutants on the Special Equipment to be used for
The International Maritime Dangerous to minimise any accidental pollution. These such Carriage (ATP Convention)
Goods (IMDG) Code regulations are also linked to the definitions » Cargo liability conventions (Hague-Visby
This instrument forming part of the in the IMDG Code. Rules, Hamburg Rules, Rotterdam Rules,
SOLAS Convention governs the transport UNCITRAL), etc.
by sea of packaged dangerous goods.
Apart from carriage requirements, the
234 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 235

The IMO / ILO / UNECE Code of Practice for in CTUs, in particular existing regulations
Packing of Cargo Transport Units which apply to one mode of transport only, 6.4
(CTU Code) e.g. for transport of cargo in railway wagons
The CTU Code is an important code by rail only. Certification and testing of containers
of practice for the carriage of cargo in
containers. The Code provides advice
on the safe packing of cargo transport According to the Convention for Safe Approval and certification of new
units (CTUs) to those responsible for the Containers (CSC), the government containers
packing and securing of the cargo and to of a contracting party under whose The approval process by the authorised
those whose task it is to train people to authority containers are approved (the organisation normally includes:
pack such units. The aim of the Code is administration) shall have procedures
to provide details of correct packing and Cover CTU Code in place for the testing, inspection and Approval of the manufacturing process
securing of CTUs and it gives practical approval of containers. The Convention, A surveyor from the classification society
advice to ensure the safe packing of cargo however, may entrust these tasks will carry out an audit of the container
onto or into CTU’s. The CTU Code contains There are several other Guidelines or to organisations authorised by that production plant. This is to verify that the
information and advice for all parties in Codes of Practice applying to containerised government. manufacturer has the capability, processes
the supply chain up to and including those transport, such as for example the The and procedures in place to continuously
involved in unpacking the CTU. The CTU International Maritime Fumigation Most contracting governments have produce the proposed container at a
Code is not intended to conflict with, or to Organisation (IMFO) Code of Practice, authorised classification societies to consistent high level of quality. This
replace or supersede, any existing national providing guidance to fumigators and ships’ approve the design, inspection and testing audit is usually carried out during the
or international regulations which may masters in respect of the use of pesticides of new containers. Classification societies production of the test containers submitted
refer to the packing and securing of cargo and fumigants. certify containers just as they do vessels for type approval.
and they were already engaged in the
container certification at the time the CSC
entered into force. CSC Approval of new containers

However, organisations which are not Application for approval

classification societies can also be
authorised to carry out such work.
Review of container design (drawings)
The criteria according to which containers
should be tested, inspected, approved
and maintained are found in Annex 1 of Prototype test y e ce tificate
the CSC. (CSC approval nr.)

Production survey and sample testing e

ontaine ce tificate
236 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 237

The classification society will issue a On completion and satisfactory compliance

certificate on the successful completion of with the test criteria the classification
b
the audit. society will issue a prototype test certificate,
a
listing, amongst others, the type series of c
Design type approval and prototype the container covered by the test.
d
testing
This consists of a review of documents and Survey of the unit once in production e
detailed technical drawings followed by a To ensure that all containers of a given f
type approval inspection and test. type are manufactured in accordance with
The (proto)type approval test includes: the approved design, the Administration
g
» A visual inspection of each component of examines or tests as many units as it
the container looking for the presence of considers necessary, at any stage during
any defects. production of the type concerned. CSC approval plate

» A visual inspection to verify that the (CSC Reg. 6, Annex 1). This inspection
container is dimensioned according to comprises the same tests as the proto about the country of approval (a), approval of the container. The all-important
the relevant ISO specification and has type tests and only a number of randomly reference (b), date of manufacture (c), proof of compliance with the CSC is
been manufactured within the tolerances selected containers will be tested. The manufacturer’s identification number the approval plate.
given. racking and panel tests are normally (d), maximum gross weight (e), allowable
» A mass measurement to determine excluded during the inspection of the unit stacking weight (f) for 1.8g (9.81 m / s2) Buyer’s inspections (optional)
the tare mass (empty weight) of the in production. Upon satisfactory completion and transverse racking load value (g). The buyers of the containers will want
container. of the inspection, the classification society Optionally, the plate may also list the end to know that the containers have been
» Strength tests. This is the most extensive will issue a container production certificate. and side wall strength if this deviates from constructed exactly as agreed with the
part of the type approval process. This certificate states the type approval the CSC criteria which are, respectively 0.4 manufacturer. These inspections may
A range of clearly defined tests is certificate number and the manufacturer’s and 0.6 times the maximum permissible include items of a less critical nature as to
necessary to determine the strength serial number. payload of the container. The plate has the overall construction, such as, but not
of the container sides, floor and roof, space for adding the month and year of the limited to, painting, floor fitting, general
the stacking capability and lifting CSC approval plate first examination of the new container and appearance etc. These inspections may
arrangements, the racking strengths Regulation 1 of Annex 1 of the CSC deals subsequent examination dates. The plate be carried out concurrently with the
etc. On completion of these tests, with the safety approval plate. Each can also state the strength of the container examinations undertaken by class during
the container shall show neither any container constructed in accordance with with one door off. The CSC plate can be production, but the buyer may also choose
permanent deformation beyond the the approved design type and which has found on the exterior of the container doors. to have an inspector present during the
applicable criteria, nor any fracture passed the production unit inspection Classification societies usually place a entire production process. The classification
or other abnormality rendering the carries the CSC Convention safety approval sticker with their logo on the container organisation may also be asked to perform
container unsuitable for its intended use. plate as shown furtheron under this door, confirming that they carried out the the buyer’s inspections. In order to avoid a
» A weather tightness test. On completion heading. The CSC safety approval plate initial certification of the container itself conflict of interest, the buyer may, however,
of the test, the interior of the container must be made of permanent, non-corrosive, and the factory producing it. This sticker is, prefer to contract an external party to
must remain dry. fireproof material, measuring not less than however, only for marketing and does not undertake this inspection.
200 mm x 100 mm. It contains information evidence the approval or maintenance
238 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 239

Maintenance requirements and The Periodic Examination Scheme (PES) The Approved Continuous Examination Regulation 2 of Annex 1 of the CSC, lists the
in-service examinations This is a system of regular inspections Program (ACEP) specific requirements an ACEP programme
Regulation 2 of Annex 1 of CSC deals arranged by the container owner every 30 Under this system, the letters ACEP are must comply with. In summary, these are:
with maintenance and the requirements months and starting no later than five years displayed on the CSC plate or on a sticker » The standard for maintaining the
for examination of the container after after the date of manufacture. Following next to the CSC plate. Furthermore, the container in a safe condition must not
manufacturing. The overarching principle each inspection, the month / year of the plate also lists the approval number and be inferior to the Periodic Examination
is that every container shall be maintained next inspection is stamped on the safety the reference of the administration which Scheme.
in a safe condition in accordance with the approval plate. The CSC also permits the approved the container. Containers » The ACEP programme must be reviewed
provisions of Annex 1 (Art. IV.4 of the CSC), use of stickers to show the next due date under ACEP are subject to examinations every 10 years. This audit should cover,
i.e. with a stacking capability of 192,000 kg of examination. Therefore, for containers arranged by the owner concurrently with amongst others, the method, scope
and a racking strength of 150 kN. certified under the PES it is possible to major repairs, refurbishments or on / off- and criteria, the frequency of the
see from the container itself whether it is hire interchanges. These containers are examinations, the qualifications of the
While the CSC requires new containers within dates. inspected practically every time they are personnel carrying out the examinations,
to be approved by a competent authority used, but under no circumstance can record keeping etc.
authorised by the relevant government, inspections take place more than 30 months
subsequent maintenance examinations of apart. The date of the next examination Most containers operate under the
an approved container in safe condition is cannot be seen from the container itself, ACEP system.
the responsibility of the container owner. but should be documented by the owner of
For this purpose, the container owner may the container.
choose between two inspection regimes:
The Periodic Examination Scheme (PES)
or the Approved Continuous Examination
Scheme (ACEP). The PES and the ACEP
systems differ from one another only in
the frequency with which the examinations Inspection sticker to indicate
due date for next examination
are necessary and the marking of the
inspection dates on the containers.
The underlying criteria used during the
inspections are not different.

Maintenance requirements

Owner responsible for maintenance container in safe condition

Maintenance and examination

Periodic examination scheme Approved continuous

(PES) examination programme (ACEP)
240 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 241

The International Organization for Standarization (ISO)

6.5
ISO (The International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-governmental organisation and
ISO standards the world’s largest developer of voluntary international standards. The organisation was founded in 1947, and
has since then published more than 19,500 international standards covering almost every aspect of technology
and business. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of 2013 works in 164 countries. The use of
Container Standards can apply at different modes of transport on a global scale. This ISO standards assist in the manufacturing of products and creation of services that are safe, reliable and of good
levels and include: is only possible if the system and containers quality, while minimising errors and waste.
• International standards, prefixed by ISO comply with a certain set of standards.
or EN, and sometimes by both The most common standards in container The organisation today known as the ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National
• National standards, e.g. the British shipping are set by the International Standardizing Associations (ISA). It was suspended in 1942 during World War II, but after the war the ISA was
Standard BSI, the German Standard Organization for Standardization (ISO). In approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal
DIN, the American Standard ASA etc. 1968, the ISO published its first standard to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in
• Industrial / sector related standards on freight containers. Since then, some 45 London and agreed to join forces to create the new International Organization for Standardization and the new
standards involving freight containers have organisation officially began operations in February 1947.
Standards have been defined as an ‘agreed, been published (see insert for an overview
repeatable way of doing something’ (BSI). of the most important ISO standards for The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, who develop the ISO
They are normally published documents freight containers). standards. ISO has three membership categories:
containing technical information to guide » Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country.
or define practice in a consistent way, and Although compliance with ISO standards These are the only ISO members with voting rights.
are used by designers and manufacturers of is voluntary and does not have a formal » Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organisations. These members
products as well as service providers. legal status, statutory documents such as are informed about ISO’s work, but do not participate in the standards promulgation.
the Cargo Securing Manual refer to ISO » Subscriber members are countries with small economies. They pay a reduced membership fee, but can follow
The use of standards is voluntary and freight containers only. This also applies the development of standards.
they do not impose a legal responsibility. charterparties and carriage contracts and,
However, in some cases legislation may as such, ISO standards are binding and ISO members appoint national delegations to the
incorporate a specific standard thereby almost universally complied with in overseas standards committees. In all, there are some 50,000
effectively giving it the force of law. transport of containers. experts contributing annually to the work of the
Alternatively, their use may be declared by ISO. The ISO is funded by its member bodies. The
a manufacturer, contract or classification An ISO container is a container that fully subscription amounts are proportional to the gross
society, effectively binding the contracting complies with all non-optional provisions of national product and trade figures of each country.
parties to the requirements of the standard. the ISO standards that were in force at the Furthermore, the ISO generates income through the
There are many types of freight containers time of its construction. Accordingly, a non- sale of standards.
in use today, but the purpose of each of ISO container is one that does not meet ISO The founding committe in 1947
them is essentially the same, namely quick standards. Examples are containers with a Probably ISO’s best known and most frequently used
and efficient handling and stowage, and lower payload, a lesser stacking capability standard is ISO Standard 31 from 1960 on quantities and units, e.g. metre for distance and second for time,
the interchangeability between different or racking strength. better known as ‘the SI system’. This standard has since that time been replaced by ISO 80,000.
242 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 243

Overview of the most important ISO Standards for Freight Containers

ISO 668 Classification, dimensions and ratings

6.6
ISO 830 Vocabulary
Requirements on the design and
ISO 1161 Corner fittings - Specification

ISO 1496-1 Specification and testing Part 1: General cargo containers for general purposes construction of containers
ISO 1496-2 Specification and testing Part 2: Thermal containers

ISO 1496-3 Specifìcation and testing Part 3: Tank containers for liquids, gases and
pressurized dry bulk The design and construction of containers of a freight container. The dimensions
ISO 1496-4 Specification and testing Part 4: Non-pressurized containers for dry bulk must meet certain criteria to comply of each type of container are defined in
with international rules and conventions. the appropriate part of ISO 1496, which
ISO 1496-5 Specification and testing Part 5: Platform and platform-based containers
The most important regulation is the is the authoritative document for internal
ISO 3874 Handling and securing
International Convention for Safe container dimensions.
ISO 3874:1997/Amd 1 Twistlocks, latch locks, stacking fìttings and lashing rod systems for securing of Container (CSC). The main purpose
containers
of this convention is the safety of the Length
ISO 3874:1997/Amd 2 Vertical tandem lifting
personnel working round them. Standards ISO 668:2013 specifies the following six
ISO 3874:1997/Amd 3 Double stack rail car operations have been developed for the purpose of container lengths:
ISO 3874:1997/Amd 4 45 ft containers standardisation, that is to make the freight

ISO 6346 Coding, identification and marking

containers interchangeable between container length nominal actual
denotation length (m) length (m)
different modes of transport which can be
ISO 9669 Interface connections for tank containers (foot)
applied on a universal basis. Thus:
ISO 9711 Information related to containers on board vessels - Bay plan system 10 feet 3,038 2,911 mm
CSC = Safety
20 feet 6,096 6,058 mm
ISO 9897 Container equipment data exchange (CEDEX) - General communication codes ISO = Standardisation
30 feet 9,144 9,125 mm
ISO 10368 Freight thermal containers - Remote condition monitoring
The CSC and ISO together determine the 40 feet 12,192 12,192 mm
ISO 10374 Freight containers - Automatic identification
dimensions, mass and volume of containers, 45 feet 13,716 13,716 mm
ISO/TS 10891 Freight containers - Radio frequency identification (RFID) - Licence plate tag
the required structural strength of the
ISO 14829 Straddle carriers for freight container handling - Calculation of stability container body and corner castings, the The nominal length of a container is
ISO/TR 15069 Handling and securing - Rationale for ISO 3874 strength and arrangement of additional the length by which a container may be

ISO/TR 15070 Rationale for structural test criteria features such as forklift pockets, gooseneck identified. With the exception of the 40
tunnels, anchoring points in the container, etc. and 45 foot container, this is, however, not
ISQ 17712 Mechanical seals
The most important design and strength the actual length of the container, see last
ISO 18185 Electronic seals
criteria are discussed below column above.
lSO 18186 RFID cargo shipment tag system

Dimensions The original ISO standard was developed

Note is not the case. The concept of series was The dimensions of ISO freight containers as a modular system, using the 40 foot
ISO standards refer to series one freight initially developed to cover different sizes of are set out in ISO Standards 668:2013 and length as a starting point. All the containers
containers. This would suggest there are containers but this was never developed and ISO 1496. ISO 668:2013 summarises the with a shorter length were dimensioned
other series of containers as well, but this there is no intention to do so in the future. external and some internal dimensions in such a way that they allowed a 76 mm
244 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 245

gap inbetween the containers in every used in intercontinental transport are 40 trans-Pacific trade to Asia. This service using An external width of an ISO container
configuration in the modular system. foot containers. 53 foot containers was terminated in 2013. of 2.438 m gives an internal width of
Therefore, except for the 40 foot container, The 48 and 53 foot long containers continue approximately 2.33 m, not enough to stow
all containers in the modular system are The 30 foot container is particularly popular to be used in North America in transport by two ISO pallets (2 x 1.20 m) or three EUR
shorter in length than suggested by their in the European short sea trade as the most sea, road and rail. pallets (3 x 0.80 m) next to one another.
indication in feet; this is done to make suitable container to carry bulk cargoes. Therefore, to achieve a better use of
the modular system work in practice. The Generally, the 30 foot container, however, Tolerance the available space in the container, the
45 foot container is not part of the modular is not carried on ocean going container Not every container can be manufactured so-called ‘pallet-wide’ container with an
system as it was introduced to the market vessels, unless special provisions are made. to the exact standardised length. ISO external width of 2.50 m was developed.
after the modular system became therefore provides an allowance of minus These containers have about 4 inches (10.2
the standard. The 45 foot container may conflict with (-) 10 mm for 40 foot containers and minus cm) more internal floor width than standard
road traffic regulations in some areas, e.g. (-) 6 mm for 20 foot containers. Lengths in containers. The 45 foot (13.72 m) pallet-wide

45
the European Union, and is therefore not excess of the standardised values are not high-cube shortsea container has gained
45’ = 13,716 m permitted everywhere. In September 2014, permitted under ISO. wider acceptance, particularly in Europe,

40
the first steps were taken in Europe to as these containers can replace the 13.6 m
40’ = 12,192 m increase the use of the 45 foot containers (44.6 feet) swap bodies common in truck
ISO standard width 8’ 2.438 m

30’ = 9,125 m 30 10 by allowing these containers to be carried

by road in the Benelux countries. Similar
transport in Europe. The EU has started a
standardisation of pallet-wide containers

2.591 m
20’ = 6,058 m 20 20 initiatives took place in other countries as in the European Intermodal Loading Unit
well. As a result, it is expected that the 45 (EILU) initiative.

20 10 10 ISO container will become increasingly

standard height 8’6”

10’ = 2,991 m
popular in the international container trade. Pallet-wide containers are not ISO
compliant and are therefore usually not
76 mm ISO gap 48 foot and 53 foot containers carried on board ocean going vessels in
Modular system incl. 76 mm ISO gap In 1986, the 48 foot (14.63 m.) container the intercontinental trade. Warnings are
was introduced by American President displayed on the outside of a container
The 10 foot container is mostly used in Lines, mainly for domestic use in the United Width to indicate it is over-wide. In addition to
the offshore sector, but is not a transport States. Three years later the 53 foot (16.15 Standard ISO containers are 8 foot the 2.50 m wide container, 2.55 m wide
unit seen on board modern commercial m) container was introduced as well but (2.438 m) wide. containers are also being used especially
container vessels. this container was not strong enough to be However, this width has proven to be rather in the short sea sector in Europe. Similar
inefficient when stowing standard pallets. pallet-wide containers are used in Australia,

48
The 20, 40 and 45 foot containers are The standard pallet sizes used by the the so-called ‘RACE containers’ – Railways
48’ = 14.63 m
the only ISO containers which are usually industry are: of Australia Container Express, for domestic

53
loaded on ocean going container vessels, » The ISO (or sea pallet) measuring transport only.
53’ = 16.15 m
provided this is approved in the vessel’s 1.00 x 1.20 m, and
Container Securing Manual. The 45 foot » The EUR pallet measuring 0.80 x 1.20 m Tolerance
container can only be carried on deck, carried on ships. In 2007 APL introduced and used by most supermarkets. Under ISO standard 668, there is a
unless special cell guides are fitted under the first 53 foot containers capable of ocean tolerance in the width of minus (-) 5 mm.
deck. By far the majority of the containers transport. These were employed in the
246 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 247

40’ palletwide 45’ palletwide 40’ ISO standard 668 lists the gross weights for
20 and 40 foot containers as 24 and 30.480
2.44 m
m.t. respectively. These are significantly
2.44 m 2.33 m lower than the maximum permissible gross
weights of up to 30.5-34 m.t. for 20 foot
and 34 m.t. for 40 foot containers for which
today’s containers are designed. However,
Gooseneck tunnel (view of underside of container) ISO also recognises that containers are
available with ratings in excess of these
Weight values, but warns that these containers may
Given that there is a variety of types and not be fully intermodal worldwide.
13.55 m
12.10 m

12.10 m
sizes of containers in use, the weight Thus:
restrictions related to their carriage varies R = rating
quite significantly. With this in mind (maximum permissible gross weight)
and rather than taking each container T = tare
type in turn, it is perhaps more fitting to (weight of the empty container)
outline the factors involved and the most P = payload
common weight ranges. The tare weight (max. permissible weight of the cargo)
of a container (indicated by the letter P=R-T
30 pallets 24 pallets 33 pallets 26 pallets 25 pallets 22 pallets
1.20 x 0.80 m 1.20 x 1.00 m 1.20 x 0.80 m 1.20 x 1.00 m 1.20 x 0.80 m 1.20 x 1.00 m
T) is the weight of the empty container
without cargo. This weight will depend on Furthermore, the stated maximum
Stowage patterns for standard and pallet-wide containers the construction material used, additional permissible payloads are based on the
fittings and will typically range between cargo being evenly distributed across
Height taller high-cube container 9’6” – 2.90 m 2 and 2.5 m.t. for a 20 foot container and the container floor so that the loads can
ISO 668:2013 recognises four different has become very popular in recent years. 3.5 and 4 m.t. for a 40 foot container. The be safely transferred to all four corners. If
container heights: Market reports have indicated that by gross weight of the container is the weight the weight of the cargo cannot be evenly
9’6” foot (2.896 m) 2015, the majority of the containers being of the empty container (T) plus the weight distributed, the limitations of the container
8’6” foot (2.591 m) carried by sea are 40 foot long high-cube of the cargo known as ‘Payload’ (P). This floor and the corresponding load spreading
8’ (2.438 m) containers. As the extended height of gross weight is also referred to in Standards should be considered.
Less than 8’ (< 2.438 m) 2.90 m conflicts with height limitations as Rating and is indicated by the letter R.
in several countries, the use of a special This value includes a safety margin to A way of calculating the permissible load
The standard container height was lowered gooseneck chassis is needed for account for the vertical accelerations per meter length is to divide the payload by
8 feet (2.438 m.) during the early days of road carriage. The container is fitted with a during a sea voyage. the number of cross members supporting
containerisation. This was mainly done gooseneck tunnel to fit onto the chassis. the floor of the container. So for example a
to avoid conflict with the limits on United The CSC requires that the values for both 30 tonne rated 20 foot container with
States highways and railway passages. Tolerance the gross weight and the tare weight are 16 cross members may carry approximately
However, these 8 foot high containers are The tolerance in height according to ISO clearly marked on the CSC plate and the 1.8 m.t. per cross member. An often used
no longer in use. Currently, the standard 668 is minus (-) 5 mm. container itself. rule of thumb is to keep a maximum of 4.5
height is 8’6” (2.59 m), although the 1 foot
248 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 249

m.t. per metre for a 20 foot container and This discussion focussed in particular on the Legislation as at 1 July 2016
3.0 m.t. per metre for a 40 foot container. differences between the weight as declared IMO has amended the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS) and added a requirement in chapter VI, part A,
by the shipper of the container and the regulation 2 which states that the gross mass of packed containers must be verified prior to stowage aboard a
The issue of container weights has been the weight as actually loaded into containers ship. Under this new requirement the shipper is responsible for the verification of the gross mass and for ensuring
subject of considerable discussion. (see insert). that the mass is communicated in shipping documents sufficiently in advance to be in the preparation of the
ship’s stowage plan. In order to achieve a common approach in the implementation and enforcement of the new
SOLAS requirement, the IMO has issued MSC circular no. 1 / Circ. 1475 dated 9 June 2014 entitled Guidelines
Container weights and new IMO requirements on weighing
regarding the verified gross mass of a container carrying cargo.
The issue
Weight declarations are usually made at two different stages of the container carriage. The first is when the Below is a short summary of the new requirements:
shipper makes a booking with the shipping line. This can be several days, or weeks, prior to the arrival of the » Before a container can be loaded on board a ship, its weight must be determined by weighing. This
container at the terminal. This weight declaration is often an estimated weight. responsibility lies with the shipper.
» This requirement applies to all containers governed by the International Convention for Safe containers (CSC).
The second declaration is when the road carrier picks up the container at the warehouse for transport to the There are no exceptions to this requirement.
terminal. At this point, the road waybill is issued stating the container weight as declared by the warehouse. » There are two methods for weighing that can be used:
This weight is declared by the road carrier to the terminal upon delivery. - to weigh the container after it has been packed
- weighing the cargo loaded in the container and add that weight to the tare weight of the container itself as
The data control centre at a modern container terminal will usually check the weight declared by the shipping line indicated on the CSC plate / door end of the container.
against the weight declared by the road carrier. If a discrepancy is found, the terminal will check with the shipping » The only exception is that ‘individual, original sealed packages that have an accurate mass of the packages and
line as to the correct container weight to be used and to be entered into the system. cargo items clearly and permanently marked on their surfaces do not need to be weighed again when they are
packed into the container.’
It is important that this weight is as accurate as possible as it is used in the preparation of the ship’s stowage » The carrier may rely upon the shipper’s weight statement and does not need to verify the actual weight.
plan. On every containership, the maximum container weight of each container tier is strictly limited and should » The weight declaration must be signed by a representative of the shipper, whose name must be stated in
not be exceeded. In general, the higher the container is stowed on the deck of a vessel, the lower the maximum the document.
permissible container weight will be. Therefore, if the weights declared are not accurate, i.e. the container is in » Estimated cargo weights are not permitted.
reality heavier than the stated weight, it can end up being stowed higher in the stow on deck than its actual » When a terminal receives a packed container for export without a shipper’s weight statement, the container
weight would allow. This can lead to a failure of the lashings and the containers becoming overloaded. can be weighed at the port. That weight must then be used for the vessel’s stowage plan.
Secondly, a discrepancy between the total declared weight of all the containers on board and the actual » Vessel stowage plans should only use verified weights for packed containers loaded on board.
container weight on board, referred to as ‘dead load’, may impact the strength calculations for the vessel as a
whole, e.g. bending moments, torsional strength and shear forces.
Strength and structural requirements e.g. wall pressure, roof and floor load etc.,
New legislation for container weighing was initiated following investigations by the UK Marine Accident The requirements for structural safety and the minimum strength criteria, etc.
Investigation Branch (MAIB) into the MSC NAPOLI incident in 2007. The MAIB concluded that misdeclared tests to be carried out on containers for More detailed test specifications
container weights were a major factor in the structural failure of the vessel. The second initiative came from a approval under the Convention for Safe are provided in ISO Standard 1496
Netherlands-led joint government-industry research project into the lashing of containers at sea, known as the Containers are described in Annex II of (Specification and Testing), the most recent
‘Lashing at Sea project’. the Convention. This section describes issue is the sixth edition of 1 July 2013.
in general terms how the tests are to be The Standard consists of five parts, covering
carried out, the elements to be included, the following types of containers:
250 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 251

Part 1 General cargo containers for » The container will have its cargo stowed
general purposes, i.e. dry box in accordance with the recommended 24,000 kg 26,670 kg
24 t 26,670 t
containers practices of the trade so the cargo does
48,000 kg
Part 2 Thermal containers, i.e. reefer not impose upon the forces in excess of 24 t 26,670 t
containers those for which it has been designed.’ 72,000 kg 34,000 kg
24 t 26,670 t 34 t
Part 3 Tank container for liquids, gases and
68,000 kg
pressurised dry bulk The above implies that the strength 24 t 26,670 t 34 t
Part 4 Non-pressurised containers for dry requirements do not include a safety margin 102,000 kg
24 t 26,670 t 34 t
bulk and that the strength of, for example, a
160,020 kg
Part 5 Platform and platform based 20-year old container is expected to be the 24 t 26,670 t 34 t
containers, i.e. flat racks etc. same as that of a new container. In day to 186,690 kg
day container operations this is logical, as, 24 t 26,670 t 34 t
Apart from the strength requirements, ISO as long as the containers bear a valid CSC 192,000 kg 213,360 kg 204,000 kg
24 t 26,670 t 34 t
1496 contains very specific requirements for plate and have complied with the in-service
forklift pockets, gooseneck tunnels etc. examinations, new containers can be 24 t 26,670 t 34 t
The design of container corner fittings stowed mixed with old containers. However,
ISO 1496-1 ISO 1496-1 ISO 1496-1
is specified in a separate ISO Standard at no stage during the life cycle of the (1990) (2005) (2005)

(ISO 1161). container, will it be subjected to the Stacking

same level of tests as during the initial
An important principle to consider is that approval stage. of 0.8 x g is assumed, with g being the Under the 2005 edition of the ISO standard
neither the CSC nor ISO accept that the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m / s2). 1496-1, the superimposed mass to be
strength of the container will degrade Below is a summary of the most important When the dynamic force of 0.8 g is added supported by a fully loaded container was
below its design values during its life cycle test and strength criteria for ISO freight to the static force of 1.0 g, the resulting total increased from 192,000 kg to 213,360 kg.
and that the starting point for all the criteria containers. However, the classification force may be taken as 1.8 g. Furthermore, it For the stacking of 45 foot containers,
is the design strength of the container. societies also maintain their own criteria is assumed that containers are stacked nine special stacking limitations apply for
In this regard, the CSC states in the which are specified in their Rules. These tiers high in cell guides with all containers particular stacking configurations.
introduction to Annex II: Rules use the ISO Standard and CSC criteria rated to 24,000 kg. This means that the
‘In setting the requirements for this as the minimum requirement. bottom container must be capable of Notes
Annex, it is implicit that in all phases of supporting a superimposed mass of 8 x » It is assumed that the containers are
the operation of containers the forces Stacking 24,000 kg. = 192,000 kg. The corner posts stacked in cell guides and that the
as a result of motion, location, stacking The container structure must have sufficient of the containers are known to have been clearance in the longitudinal direction
and weight of the loaded container and strength to allow containers to be stacked tested to 86,400 kg (848 kN) under test is 38 mm and 25 mm in the transverse
external forces will not exceed the strength when transported by the vessels. conditions. The vertical force at the base of direction. This implies that the above
of the container. In particular, the following the stack at each corner is then 954 kN. stacking configuration includes the
assumptions have been made: The vertical accelerations imposed by the containers to be stacked off-set in
» The container will be so restrained that vessel’s motions (pitch and heave) must All containers tested in accordance with ISO accordance with these clearances.
it is not subjected to forces in excess of be taken into account when considering Standard 1496-1 of 1990 will be capable of » The assumed rated weight of 24,000 kg
those for which is has been designed; stacking capacity. Under the provisions of supporting the above mentioned loads. is the maximum gross weight of a 20
the CSC, a maximum vertical acceleration foot container according to ISO 668.
252 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 253

Today, ISO containers are manufactured » Large numbers of non-ISO containers are the vessel’s roll motion. The design test
with a considerable higher permissible used in the marine industry, mainly short- load assumes a uniformly distributed mass
weight and a gross mass of 34,000 kg sea, with a considerable lower stacking equal to 0.6 times the rated payload of the
for standard containers is no longer capacity. Examples of such containers container to be applied to the side panel.
exceptional. However, when stacking are the European extra-wide 30 foot bulk 100 kg 100 kg
such containers fully loaded up to their containers, capable of being stacked a Roof
rated weight, the maximum stacking maximum of four tiers high. According The container’s roof structure must be
height must be reduced accordingly so to the latest amendments to the CSC strong enough to support two workers, with
that the maximum weight of 192,000 kg Code, these containers must be marked a weight of 100 kg each. Under ISO 1496,
(ISO 1496-1 of 1990) or 213,360 kg differently (see 6.8 The labelling and the test requires a load of 300 kg to be
(ISO 1496-1 of 2013) respectively, is marking of containers). uniformly distributed over an area of 600 x
not exceeded. 30 mm located at the weakest point of the
» The same restriction applies to vessels Panel loads container roof.
stacking containers up to 10-11 tiers high. Front and rear end (or 3,630 kg per wheel), a wheel width of
The weight of each container will have to The most dominant forces in the 180 mm, a contact area per wheel of 142
be reduced to remain within the stacking longitudinal (fore – aft) direction, are cm2 and the wheels centred 760 mm apart.
weight limit. those experienced during rail transport
» There is no system known to separate and when the emergency brake is applied Racking
containers with the higher stacking when the container is transported by road. The container must be rigid enough to
capacity of the 2013 ISO Standard from The design test load assumes a uniformly withstand the racking affecting the bottom
containers with a lower stacking capacity distributed mass equal to 0.4 times the container in a stack of containers carried
from the 1990 Standard. Therefore rated payload (P) of the container to Floor on deck under conditions affording limited
in considering maximum permissible be applied on the front or rear end of The base structure of the container must be external racking restraint. The front and rear
stacking weights the lowest value of the container. capable of withstanding the forces imposed panel should be capable of withstanding
192,000 kg may preferably have to be during cargo operations involving powered a racking force of 150 kN during test load
used to avoid overloading. Side panel industrial trucks. The minimum required conditions. The minimum required racking
The determining factor for the required strength (ISO 1496-1, 2005) is calculated force in longitudinal direction is 75 kN.
strength of the container’s side panels is from the vertical pressure from a tired
the transverse acceleration resulting from vehicle with an axle weight of 7,260 kg

150 kN 75 kN

0.6 P (payload) 0.4 P (payload)

forces on side panels forces on front and rear end Racking

254 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 255

General purpose containers may be made The roof, front panel and side panels are
6.7 of aluminum or steel. Cost advantages, corrugated steel profiles to give strength
however, have led to the predominant use and rigidity. The roof in way of the four
Container types and their main features of steel. The steel used for manufacturing corners, adjacent to the corner castings are
containers is COR-TEN, a registered usually constructed with steel reinforcement
trademark of US Steel Corporation and the plates to provide additional protection
The basic design of a shipping container different applications, mainly depending abbreviation stands for CORrosion resistant from incorrect application of the container
consists of a rectangular steel frame with on the type of cargo to be carried. and TENsile strength. This is a weathering handling equipment.
steel corner fittings (castings) at all eight The ISO recognises five main categories steel that is more resistant to long term
corners welded to the corner posts, top of containers: corrosion, rendering it more suitable for The doors are made of steel or ply metal
and bottom side and front rails and rear • General purpose containers salty conditions. (steel faced) panels, opening 180 degrees
door sill and header. • Thermal containers or reefer containers and with sealing rubbers to provide
• Tank containers for liquids, gases and General purpose containers can be divided weather tightness. Locking mechanisms
pressurized dry bulk into three categories: with sealing devices are fitted to secure the
• Non-pressurized containers for dry » Closed freight containers container doors.
bulk cargoes » Ventilated containers, including
• Platform and platform-based containers fantainers The side panels of the closed container may
(flat racks). » Open top containers, including hard-top be fitted with labyrinth protected openings
containers. for venting (pressure compensation),
These will be described in further although these openings are not supposed
detail below. Closed freight containers to measurably support air exchange with
Side panels, a front panel, roof and floor ambient atmosphere. This is different from
General purpose containers are attached to the basic framework. The the special purpose ventilated containers
As the name suggests, this container container space can be accessed through providing natural ventilation inside the
The function of the corner posts is mainly is suitable for the carriage of all types two hinged doors at the rear end. Some container (see Ventilated containers).
to transfer the vertical forces occurring of general cargo and, with appropriate containers have doors at either end or
during storage and transport. The corner temporary provisions, also for the carriage doors in the side panel, but these are The floor is usually made of 25-30 mm hard
castings are essential for lifting, lashing and of bulk cargoes, both solid and liquid, e.g. generally rare. or soft laminated plywood and supported
stacking the containers and have to be able flexi tanks. by steel cross members. Today, bamboo
to absorb a great deal of forces. The design is being used more and more in the
of corner castings is therefore carefully By definition it is ‘a freight container, totally construction instead of plywood. The floors
detailed in a separate ISO Standard (ISO enclosed and weatherproof, with a rigid in general purpose containers have been
1161). The corner castings at the bottom of roof, rigid side walls, and floor, having at treated against pests and infestations by
the container are shaped differently to the least one of its end walls equipped with insects. Various national requirements apply
corner castings at the top of the container. doors and intended to be suitable for the to such preventive treatment. Closed freight
Every type of container (with the exception transport of cargo of the greatest possible containers may be equipped with additional
of flatrack containers and some types of variety’ (ISO 830). features such as:
tank containers), will consist of this basic 20 foot general purpose (dry cargo) container
framework and serves as the basis for many
256 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 257

door header top side rail

Forklift pockets Cargo securing systems locking bar

These allow empty containers to be These are permanent fittings to which corner casting
handled with forklift trucks. Packed lashings such as ropes, straps, wires or
door panel
containers must not be picked up in this chains may be attached. They are not
hinges
way unless specifically permitted to do intended to be used for any other purpose
customs catch
so as there is a risk that the container and than securing the cargo in the container.
truck will topple over. Forklift pockets The fittings are either hinged or sliding door locking handles

are installed mainly in 20 foot containers eyes, rings or bars. Depending on their
and are arranged parallel to the centre position in the container, these fittings
line of the container in the bottom side are either classed as ‘anchoring points’ or door header top side rail
locking bar door sill
rails. According to ISO 1496-1 (2013), 30 ‘lashing points’. side panel forklift pocket
corner casting corner casting
foot, 40 foot and 45 foot containers shall
not be provided with forklift pockets. The Anchoring points door panel corner post
corrugated wall
reason for this provision is that such larger These are located in the base
hinges structure of
containers are more difficult to balance. the container. Typically: customs catch
However, there are 30 foot and 40 foot » 40 and 45 foot containers have 16
door locking handles
containers with forklift pockets. anchoring points,
» 30 foot containers have 12 anchoring
Gooseneck tunnel points,
Many 40 foot containers have a recess in » 20 foot containers have 10 anchoringdoor sill
side panel forklift pocket bottom side rail
the floor at the front end which helps to points,
centre the containers on the gooseneck equally spaced between the left and right
chassis. These recesses allow the containers hand side of the container. corrugated wall

to lie lower and therefore to be of a taller

construction. Gooseneck tunnels are often According to ISO Standard 1496-1, each
needed on high cube containers anchor point shall be designed and cross members
in particular. installed to provide a minimum rated load
of 1,000 kg applied in any direction.
Grappler pockets Particular modifications of closed » Open side, or curtain-sided containers
Containers are generally handled by top Lashing points freight containers for side loading. The strength of the end
spreaders using the corner fittings or corner These are the securing devices located in Depending on its intended use, the closed walls is similar to that of a closed freight
castings. However, some containers have any part of the container other than the freight container can be modified in many container but the curtain side of the
grappler pockets for handling by grapplers base structure. different ways, for example: container provides limited strength and
applied to the bottom fittings. » Containers for garments on hangers no restraint capability. These containers
According to ISO Standard 1496-1, each (GOH) fitted with an internal string or are therefore not covered by the
lashing point shall be designed and bar system or a combination of both, for ISO standards.
installed to provide a minimum rated load the transportation of garments in the » Containers with double load floors for
of 500 kg applied in any direction. same way as one sees in retail shops, also the carriage of cars.
called ‘hangtainers’.
258 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 259

external power source. Ambient air is drawn The reduction in strength of the container
into the floor of the container through an must be taken into account when
especially designed perforated lower front stowage and stacking the container on
sill. he cargo is stowed on pallets to create board a vessel.
a false floor forming an air duct under the
cargo. The hot and moist air is removed
through the extraction fan. The aim is to
remove any heat developed by the cargo
Hangtainer and align the temperature of the air within
the container with that on the outside to
» Containers with large flexi-tanks for the ventilation openings. Cooler air then prevent condensation.
the carriage of (non-hazardous) liquids enters the container at the bottom through
in bulk. the floor ventilation strips. The ventilation Fantainers are mainly used for the transport
arrangement is such that there is no of onions over long distances, e.g.
one door off value
Ventilated containers ingress of water. These containers are Australia / New Zealand to Europe or to
The construction of these containers is mainly used for the transport of organic Asia. A common variation of the fantainer
more or less the same as that of the general cargoes with a high moisture content such is the so-called ‘one door-off’ variant. In
purpose container except for the inclusion as cocoa and coffee beans, hence their this configuration using a closed freight
of full length ventilation galleries located name ‘coffee containers’. container, one container door is removed
along the top and bottom side rails. These and replaced with a plywood bulkhead
openings allow for a limited exchange of Fantainers where the extraction fan is mounted. The
air and humidity between the interior of The fantainer is a ventilated container, container door is reinstalled after discharge
the container and the ambient atmosphere albeit not classified as such under the of the cargo at the place of destination.
outside. The air exchange is based on ISO type code. These are essentially As freight containers carried with one door
the principle of pressure differences and general purpose containers fitted with a off or one door open will have reduced 40 foot open top container
convection: the warm air inside the loaded hatch in one of the doors allowing for the allowable stacking mass and racking
container rises and exits at the top through fixing of an electric extraction fan with an strength, the practice is discouraged as it Open-top container
is dangerous and only legal if it is marked This is a general purpose container without

full length ventilation gallerie accordingly on the CSC plate. a rigid roof commonly used for the carriage
of heavy and awkward cargoes requiring
top-loading. It is also used for cargoes
with a height in excess of that which can be
stowed in a general purpose container. The
door header can be removed or swivelled
out as well to allow loading either directly
through the roof aperture or through the
door using overhead lifting equipment.
full length ventilation gallerie Roof protection, if required, is provided by
Left: ventilated container; right: fantainer Ventilation gallery under the top side rail a tarpaulin-type cover made of canvas or
260 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 261

reinforced plastic material supported by proper name is ‘temperature controlled The porthole container container is that normal reefer units are
(re)movable roof bows. The purpose of the container’. The transport of cargoes The porthole container was particularly designed to maintain cargo temperatures
roof bows of an open-top container is not requiring accurate temperature control popular during the early days of only. This means that the cargo must
solely to support the tarpaulin, but also to during the voyage is a large and steadily refrigerated container transport in the be cooled to the required carriage
contribute to the container’s stability. growing business and not just limited to 1960’s and 70’s and has remained in use temperature prior to the container being
fruit, vegetables and meat. Approximately until very recently. The container, also stuffed. This is particularly important for
Hard-top container 70 per cent of world seaborne trade in known as a ‘ConAir container’, is insulated palletised commodities with a compact
This container can be classed as an perishable cargoes is carried in reefer to a similar extent as the integral reefer manner of stacking and packing.
open-top container, but has typically two containers and their share of this market container, but does not incorporate
distinguishing structural features: segment is continuously growing at the refrigeration equipment or fans. One end
» It is equipped with a removable steel expense of carriage by specialised reefer of the container is fitted with two porthole
roof. In some types, the roof has points to vessels. Most containerships are designed apertures connected to a system of air
accommodate the use of forklift trucks, to carry large numbers of reefer units. ducts in the vessel’s hold through which
allowing the roof to be lifted by forklift This design necessitates the availability cold air is supplied from a central battery of
truck. The roof weighs approximately of power connections on deck or in the air coolers. A clip-on unit supplying air has
450 kg. hold and auxiliary equipment to provide to be connected to the porthole apertures
» The door header can also be a power supply. The latest generations of when the container is stored ashore or
swivelled out. very large containerships may have a reefer transported by land. This, together with 40 foot high cube reefer container
container capacity of up to 15 per cent of the significant investment needed in the
These two structural features greatly the total container intake capacity. Some on-board reefer and air ducting system, The container body is insulated by a thick
simplify the process of packing and specialised reefer container carriers have lead to the phasing out of this layer of fibreglass matting or synthetic foam
unpacking the container. In particular, even greater capacity and some specialised container type. with aluminium or stainless steel cladding.
it is very easy to pack and unpack the carriers operate ships capable of exclusively The container floor is made from aluminium
container from above or through the doors carrying reefer containers. These ships have The integral reefer container T-sections providing a longitudinal double
by crane or crab when the roof is open and the capacity of carrying as much as 2,200 Integral refrigerated containers have, as floor for the passage of cold air into the
the door header is swivelled out. In the reefer TEUs on one trip. the name suggests, a refrigeration unit container stow. The principle of cooling is,
case of transport of an over height cargo, that is an integral part of the container therefore, based on the so-called ‘vertical
the container roof may be left open and This book only deals with the different body. Electric power is supplied via a cable air supply’. Air circulation fans in the reefer
fastened directly to an inner side wall of types of reefer containers used in sea plugged into the ship’s or terminal’s power unit introduce cooling air into the cargo
the container. The roof only needs transport. For further information on the supply system. If electric power supply is space through a supply in the bottom
approximately 13 cm (5 1 / 8 inches) of space transport requirements for individual not possible or available, the units must be of the container via the T-barred floor.
for this to be done. commodities requiring temperature or supported by a diesel-operated generator Subsequently, the cooling air is forced
atmospheric control, please refer to specific set (a so-called ‘genset’). upwards through the cargo and returned
Thermal containers information provided by shippers and carriers. to the refrigeration unit via the void space
Thermal containers are designed to Integral containers are typically designed below the container ceiling. When passing
carry perishable cargo in a temperature Generally, there are two main types of to maintain the temperature of perishable through the refrigeration unit, the air
controlled environment. More commonly, reefer containers: goods at levels from -30°C to +30°C, in is cooled again to the required supply
these containers are called ‘reefer’ or » The porthole container, and ambient air temperatures from -10°C to + temperature and, if needed, mixed with
‘refrigerated containers’ although their » The integral reefer container. 38°C or more. An important feature of this fresh air to avoid the build-up of respiration
262 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 263

return air
Frederick McKinley (Fred) Jones,
thawing heater
the inventor of the refrigerated transport unit
fans
evaporator coil temperature sensor The reefer transport technology applied to
location
airduct preserving perishable goods in transport containers
condenser fan control unit was invented by Fred Jones, who in 1938 received
condenser
patent for his invention.
power cable compressor

Fred Jones was born on 17 May 1893 in Covington

Kentucky as the son of a black mother and a white
supply air d ted r
railroad employee of Irish ancestry. Already at an
Air flow, parts and terminology early age, Fred exhibited great interest in mechanical
workings and cars. At the age of twelve he ran away
gases, for example during the carriage of air to reach all corners of the cargo hold. from home and began working in a garage, doing the cleaning and sweeping.
fruits and vegetables. Results may not always be satisfactory,
particularly when the vessel is passing Most of his time, however, he devoted to watching the mechanics as they worked on the cars. His observations,
The majority of the reefer containers used through an area with a tropical climate with along with a passion for learning through reading developed within Fred a deep knowledge of motor vehicles.
today are 40 foot long high-cube containers high ambient and seawater temperatures. Within three years, he became the foreman of the garage. Later, he began designing and constructing race cars.
and are carried on deck, up to the third The presence of heated bunker tanks In his thirties, Jones started working with Joe Numero, at that time head of Ultraphone Sound Systems. At some
tier. Stacking reefer containers higher up and hot engine room bulkheads impose point in time Numero was asked to develop a device which would allow large trucks to transport perishable
is often impossible because of the length additional requirements on the air goods. Jones was set to work and developed a cooling process that could refrigerate the interior of a tractor
of the power cable and inaccessibility, ventilation system to remove the heat from trailer. In 1939 Fred Jones and Joe Numero acquired a patent for this invention and Numero sold his business and
including the danger of crew falling when the cargo hold. together they founded a company named after their first vehicle air-conditioning system, called ‘Thermo King’.
inspecting, respectively, repairing the
reefer unit during the voyage. Some carriers Controlled atmosphere (CA) containers For the next 20 years, Jones and Numero introduced improvements to existing devices and created new
employ specialised reefer engineers for this In a normal reefer unit, the cooling air is inventions when necessary. In 1942, Jones developed the first portable refrigeration units for troops stationed
purpose, particularly where large numbers ambient air composed of approximately overseas during World War II. He also introduced the first refrigerated boxcars in the 1940s, which made fresh
of reefers are carried on board. Some 21 per cent oxygen, 78 per cent nitrogen produce more widely available and affordable to the public.
reefers are equipped with a water cooling and 1 per cent other gases, amongst which
system that can be used to remove 0.3 per cent CO2 or nitrogen. In such an Frederick McKinley Jones died in February 1961. During his life, Jones was awarded 61 patents of which 40 were
the heat generated if the reefer unit is atmosphere, fruits and vegetables ripen for refrigeration equipment. He was inducted into the Minnesota Inventors Hall of Fame in 1977. Joseph Numero
stored below deck on a vessel without and respire at normal rates. passed away in 1991 at the age of 94.
adequate ventilation.
Manufacturers of refrigeration equipment The same year (1991), both were awarded The US National Medal of Technology by President George Bush
As water cooling systems are expensive, and carriers of reefer containers, together because of their contribution to revolutionising the transport of perishable goods. Jones was the first African
vessels rely more on forced air ventilation to with shippers and receivers developed new American to receive the award and became known as one of the most important black inventors ever.
remove heat from cargo holds. The success techniques to control the atmosphere in the Today, Thermo King continues to be one of the largest manufacturers of refrigeration units for containers.
of under-deck carriage of reefer containers container and, thereby delay the ripening
Sources: Thermo King; African-American Inventors, Capstone Press, 1998; The New York Times
depends heavily on the amount of air process and to increase the post-harvest life
ventilation and ability of the ventilation of the produce.
264 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 265

The basic principle of a controlled will reduce the O2 content to approximately Tank containers
atmosphere is mainly to remove the oxygen 17 per cent. The combined percentage of The tank container comprises two basic
from the air and to replace it with a different O2 and CO2 will always remain at 21 per cent elements, the tank shell and the framework.
type of gas – mostly CO2. Different systems using this system. The required air condition The frame must be compatible with
exist, from integral units built into the reefer can subsequently be maintained by simply standard container dimensions
container, via units adjusting the level of admitting fresh air into the container’s (CSC / ISO) to render it suitable for
ventilation to systems whereby the ambient interior. This system has the advantage that intermodal transport.
air in the container is flushed out by a gas of it does not require an expensive nitrogen
a different composition than air. separator. The disadvantage is, however, The specifications of the shell and the 20 foot tank container - frame type
that good control is difficult to maintain fittings determine the class of the tank and
The development of a controlled when the respiration rate of the fruit is low. thereby the type of products it can carry.
atmosphere started around 1990, once the The frame is designed to support the tank
nitrogen separator became commercially AFAM and AFAM+ system when fully loaded. Most ISO tank containers
available at reasonable costs. This separator A cost effective way to alter the atmosphere are 20 foot long. Capacities generally range
not only eliminated the need to carry a in a refrigerated container is the Automated from 15,000 to 27,000 litres. There are
large supply of liquid nitrogen but also Fresh Air Management system, which uses several different designs for the frame and
made it possible for CA storage to be used a motorised fresh air exchange system tank construction:
in sea-going transport. Reefer containers and CO2 and O2 sensors to control the » Frame tank; this is a full frame with side
using a nitrogen separator, use nitrogen to respiration gases naturally produced by the rails connection between the end frames 20 foot tank container - frame type (top view)
reduce the oxygen level in the container to fruit in transit. The system maintains the and is the most common tank container
a certain fixed point. A computer monitors optimum CO2 levels throughout the voyage. » Beam tank has only end frames; this tank
and controls the atmosphere in the AFAM uses a small motor to control the has a lower tare weight and therefore
container and may adjust the levels of the fresh air exchange; AFAM+ adds a gas to higher payload capacity
different gases by varying the volume and the unit to vary the air exchange based on » Collar tank
purity of the nitrogen applied. This system O2 and CO2 levels. » Ten tank
has the advantage that is has few moving » The swap tank.
parts, it controls the atmosphere accurately Other reefer containers
and the dimensions are small meaning it These include: A filling port/manhole is located on the top
can be integrated in the cooling unit of an » Special integral containers for the of the tank and a dip rod with calibration 20 foot tank container - beam type
integral container without occupying extra carriage of flower bulbs and products scale is provided. Other fittings include a
cargo space. requiring humidity control; pressure / relief valve to protect the tank
» Integral containers with additional against over pressure or a pressure valve to
There are also systems taking advantage of cooling capacity such as Magnum for protect against excess external pressure,
the fact that the respiration of fruit converts -35° C freezing and Superfreezers for airline connections for pressuring the
oxygen into carbon dioxide (CO2). In gas quick cooling down cycles to -60° C., tank during discharge / testing or vapour
tight cells, the CO2 content produced by the e.g. for the transport of raw fish for recovery and a discharge pipe valve and
breathing fruit is allowed to increase. The the sushi industry as well as certain cap at the bottom rear end. Loading and
oxygen content is reduced similarly, so an pharmaceuticals. discharge may be done using a top outlet
increase of say 4 per cent in the CO2 content valve connected to vertical siphon pipe. 20 foot tank container - swap tank
266 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 267

Steam or electric heating systems can be polished smooth interiors to prevent the Different test requirements apply to each
fitted to the tank container and are usually accumulation of contaminants. type of tank container. These are set out
capable of maintaining air temperatures up There are hundreds of tank container in ISO Standard 1496-3. Tank containers
to 110°C. Reefer tanks are also available. operators worldwide and they can differ must be at least 80 per cent full to prevent
Insulation is usually in the form of expanded considerably in the service they offer. The dangerous surging of the liquid during
polyurethane. Tanks capable of carrying bigger operators typically offer a wide transit. There is also a general rule that
dangerous cargoes conform to IMO range of services, while smaller operators the tanks should not be filled more than 95
requirements and are classed according to may only offer services in one region or with per cent to allow for thermal expansion of
how hazardous the cargo is and whether one type of tank. the liquid. 30 foot bulk container
it is a liquid or gas. Food grade tanks are
commonly referred to as type ‘0 tanks’ and Tank containers can be grouped according Typical for tank containers particularly in the containers are usually not fitted with the
are suitable for the transport of food stuffs to their test requirements and intended use: short sea trade in Europe is the variation in hinged doors of closed freight containers.
intended for human consumption, although » IMO type 0 food grade tank container the dimensions of the containers available, They are commonly fitted with mild steel
some alcohols / spirits may fall within » IMO type 1 hazardous cargo not always meeting the ISO standard. floors to enable easy cleaning. ISO type
the IMO dangerous good requirements. » IMO type 2 semi / non-hazardous cargo Examples are the 30 foot bulk container bulk containers are usually 20 foot long.
These tanks and their fittings are usually » IMO type 5 gases and other explosives with a capacity of 40,000 litres, the wide The 30 foot bulk container is particularly
constructed of stainless steel with highly body tank, and the swap tank where the popular in the European short sea sector.
exterior of the tank protrudes beyond the This container has a container-wide
forward and aft tank frame. There are also discharge hatch at the rear end, with or
walkways manhole pressure/vacuum relief valves air inlet connection 40 foot tank containers with a capacity of without hinged container doors above.
56,000 litres, mainly for the transport of
dry bulk. Many of these tanks are owned Platform containers
by shippers, logistic service providers or These containers, commonly known as ‘flat
production facilities. racks’ or ‘flats’, are designed to facilitate the
di r e e fi in int
carriage of cargo with dimensions in excess
Bulk containers of the space available in general purpose
These containers are officially known as or open top containers. They consist of a
access ladder ‘non-pressurized dry bulk containers’. flat bed with either fixed or collapsible end
They are general purpose containers walls, i.e. flat racks, or just flats without end
specially designed to carry bulk cargoes walls (platforms). There are no side walls
such as dry powders and granular cargoes or a roof. Despite this, the tare weights of
insulated tank shell and are capable of withstanding the loads platform containers are generally greater
date plate resulting from filling, transport motions and than for general purpose containers
thermometer/ discharging . There are bulk containers for because of their heavy construction.
steam heating
tipping discharge which have filling and
tank rear end discharge openings and a door. The bottom structure consists of at least
bottom outlet ISO frame 20’x8’x8.6’ remote shut off control handle two strong longitudinal H-beam girders,
for emergeny operation of bottom outlet foot valve Another type of bulk container is the connected by transverse stiffeners and
Tank container hopper type for horizontal discharge. These lined with solid wooden boards. Strong
268 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 269

which cannot be stacked when loaded with

cargo. Therefore, on board ships, they are 6.8
usually loaded in the top tier on deck or in
the hold. The labelling and marking of containers
Platforms consist solely of a floor structure
with an extremely high loading capacity; The international standard dealing with The mandatory requirements were limited
they have no side or end walls. This high the coding, identification and marking of to the marking of the owner’s code, the
40 foot flatrack with collapsible end walls loading capacity makes it possible to carry containers is ISO Standard 6346. equipment category, serial number, check
heavy weights in small areas. The platform The first edition of the Standard was digit, size and type codes. There was no
lashing points are welded to the outer consists of a steel frame and a wooden floor published in 1984 and an amended way to distinguish non-ISO containers
sides of the longitudinal bottom side rails. structure and are used mainly for oversized edition was published in 1995. The 1995 from ISO containers through the type
Flat racks may be provided with stanchions and very heavy cargo. amendment not only included a new codes used.
when carrying certain types of cargo. The regulatory regime on the mandatory status
maximum payload can be used only if the A combination of two or more platforms for marking, but also completely revised As already mentioned, this changed with
load is distributed evenly over the floor can be used to form a temporary platform the marking and identification codes. the 2012 amendment and the introduction
structure. If the weight of the cargo is to load very large items which cannot be In 2012 the Standard was amended of type codes for non-ISO.
applied to only a small proportion of the placed in containers. This way, cargo to be again to accommodate and distinguish
floor, it must be distributed evenly and the transported on board a cellular container non-ISO containers. The above changes resulted in two sets
manufacturer of the flat racks may have vessel on a ‘port to port’ basis is carried as of size codes and three sets of type codes
to be consulted on safety issues. Platform it would have been on board a conventional The ISO Standard 6346 and its changes can being in use today. The first set of codes
containers are the only ISO type containers break bulk vessel. be summarised as follows: will be found on containers built between
The ISO 6346 Standard of 1984 did not 1984 and 1995. The second set of type
contain a mandatory requirement to mark codes is found on containers built after
the containers. It only provided a standard 1995, whilst the third set of type codes
to be used if marking the containers. applies to containers which are approved
Therefore, it is possible that ISO containers under the requirement of the Convention of
built before 1984 will not carry size and Safe Containers (CSC) but do not meet the
type codes. requirements of ISO standard 1496-1.
Identification system ISO 6346
This changed with the 1995 edition of ISO
Standard 6346, published on 12 January TRIU 044668 0
40 foot flatrack with collapsible end walls 1995. It stated that every ISO container shall
owner serial
be marked with the appropriate size and code number
type codes described in the Standard.
category check
identifier digit

ISO Standard 6346

270 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 271

Below is a summary of the mandatory size and type code code RO a mechanically refrigerated stated on the CSC plate. If there are any
requirements of the latest ISO 6346 container with full stacking and variations, the mass mentioned on the CSC
Standard. 22G1 racking capability plate will prevail.
code RA same as R0 but with reduced
Identification system stacking and / or racking Another mandatory marking applies to
This consists of the following four elements: capability. containers with heights in access of 2.60 m,
size code type code
The owners code – three letters e.g. high-cube containers. These must be
22 G1
Every container owner has a unique 20 foot long general purpose ISO 6346:1995 / Amd.3:2012 requires marked as follows:
number registered with the Bureau 8 foot wide that containers with reduced stacking or » On both sides, the height in metres and
8,5 foot high
International des Conteneurs, based reduced racking strength shall have the size feet, to one decimal / inch, rounded off
in Paris. Size and type code type code marks on the front (blind end) to the highest decimal / inch. This mark
The equipment category – one letter and on the roof at either end. should be displayed at both ends of
» This is the letter U for all freight Example (2012 edition): the container
containers. code 22 20 foot long, 8 foot wide and Weight markings (mandatory) » An area of yellow and black stripes on
The serial number – six numerals 8.5 foot high According to ISO 1496, other mandatory the top members of each end container
This number consists of six numerals, eg. code L5 45 foot long, 8 foot wide and markings are those that indicate the frame and side wall, e.g. to warn
123456, or 001234. 9.5 foot high maximum gross mass and the tare crane drivers that the container is a
The check digit – one numeral code 2N 20 foot long, more than 2,500 mm (empty) mass of the container. It is not high-cube container.
The check digit is the result of a wide and 9.5 foot high mandatory to show the permissible
mathematic formula, derived from the payload of the container, but this is usually Other markings
owner’s code, the equipment code and Type code done in practice. All other permanent markings on
the container number, and is ten digits This is also a two digit code. The first containers are optional under the ISO 6346
long. The calculation of the check digit is digit represents the container type whilst The maximum gross mass of the container Standard. A container can display many
to verify that the entire serial number of the second character indicates the main must always be in accordance with the value markings, labels or placards required by
the container, e.g. when entered into a characteristics of this container type. various regulatory bodies or imposed
computer, has been entered correctly. The latest ISO 6346 Standard provides the by international regulations to display
coding of 67 different types of containers. warnings or information about the cargo
Size and type codes in the container. An obvious example is
This is a four digit code, e.g. 22G1. Example (1995 / amd.3:2012 edition): the hazardous cargo labels as required by
code G1 a general purpose container the IMDG Code. The ISO Standard 6346
Size code with full stacking and racking only requires that these other markings are
The first two digits indicate the container capability, without ventilation but displayed in such a way that they do not
size. The first digit represents the length with passive vents at the upper interfere with the marks required under
of the container whilst the second digit part of the cargo space Weight markings the Standard.
represents the width and height of the code GB same as G1 but this container
container. has been designed and tested
with reduced stacking and / or
racking capability
272 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 273

to be taken out of service immediately or » be free from nails in the floor or other
6.9 when the movement of the container was protrusions which could damage the
to be restricted. For example, the new cargo, etc.
In-service inspections of containers regulations stated that a container with a
corner casting that was deformed or worn These are the responsibility of the container
beyond certain defined criteria (in mm), had operator / carrier who makes the container
In service-inspections of containers can this inspection, all load bearing parts and to be taken out of service immediately. This available to the shipper of the goods,
be divided into statutory inspections and structural components should be examined was an important step in promoting safe however, the container operator will mostly
routine operational inspections. and checked for corrosion, mechanical container handling as such measures were rely on the container depot contracted
damage, wear and tear etc. The condition of not mentioned in the previous editions of to store and inspect the containers for
Statutory inspections (CSC) the welding and riveting should be checked the CSC. these tasks. The reality is, however, that
Statutory inspections must be carried visually as well. containers may move directly from the
out for the container to comply with the Routine operational inspections consignee to the next packing station
IMO Convention of Safe Containers. This The container owner must keep a record In addition to these standard periodical without passing through a depot or
Convention requires that a party operating of the findings of the examination and to inspections, containers are inspected for intermediate inspection.
containers internationally by sea, has in retain these records until the completion various other reasons, each inspection
place a system of examination, maintenance of the next inspection. The CSC delegated serving a particular purpose: This carrier’s responsibility for maintaining
and record keeping, to ensure that the the control of the movement of unsafe the containers does not discharge the
container fleet is maintained and operated containers to governments. Such unsafe Cargo worthiness inspections packing station / shipper from their
safely. This system must be approved by a containers may be allowed to proceed These inspections verify that the container obligation to inspect the containers prior
competent government authority. to the place of unloading, but cannot be is not only fit and safe for international to stuffing. The inspection is fairly easily
loaded again until a further examination, transport but that it is also suitable to load undertaken and is based on common sense.
As described above, this system can repairs and updating have taken place. the intended cargo. The purpose of the For example the weather tightness can be
be either an Approved Continuous inspection is to minimise the risk of damage checked using a day-light check, preferably
Examination Programme (ACEP) or a Until 2005, the CSC did not specify when to the cargo during the voyage. with the container doors closed. Some
Periodic Examination Scheme (PES). a container was to be classified as ‘unsafe’. container operators have warnings posted
In 2005, an amendment to the CSC (IMO Taking a standard dry box container as inside the container, informing the shipper
Evidence of the container being in Circular CSC / Circ. 134 of 27 May 2005) an example, for the container to be cargo to ensure that the container is fit for use
compliance with the CSC, and thereby identified the critical safety components of worthy it must: before loading.
approved for use under either of these a container and the maximum permissible » have a valid CSC plate
inspection regimes, is the CSC plate being deformation to these components. This list » be weathertight Responsibility inspections / Equipment
stamped with the Next Examination Date was referred to as the ‘Serious Structural » have properly closing doors Interchange Report (EIR)
(NED) for a container operating under a PES Deficiencies’. » be free from adhesive labels, e.g. IMDG During a normal journey, the container
regime, or with an ACEP approval decal. placards from previous cargo crosses many lines of responsibility.
In a new amendment, which entered into » be free from cargo residues The general principle of responsibility is
The CSC inspection is a visual inspection force in July 2015, the subject of out of » be free from infestation by animals, that any damage to a container requiring
only to be carried out by a competent service determinations was further specified insects or any other living organisms repair or cleaning will have to be paid by the
person. With the exception of tank in a new Annex III to the CSC. These new » be neutral in odour party in whose custody the container was at
containers, tests are not required. During guidelines set out when containers were the time of the incident. It is therefore in the
274 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 275

container being loaded. The speed of the world to make containers easily and
loading, together with the large number readily available to container operators.
of containers passing the ship’s railing When a leasing company (lessor) delivers
moved by multiple cranes working a container to a client (lessee), the latter
simultaneously have made inspections will want to assess the condition of the
by the crew practically impossible. The container. The opposite is the case when
vessel’s crew relies on the stevedores’ deck the client redelivers the container to the
men to find and report any damage to the leasing company.
container during the loading or discharge
operations. This is not always the case and Surveyors are usually engaged at the
the damage to the container may only be hand over points to carry out condition
found when the container is landed ashore assessments for and on behalf of their
at the next port. At that time, a dispute client. This can be a survey conducted by
Daylight test may arise between the vessel, the loading two different surveyors appointed by either
and discharge terminal as to the exact time party, or may be one independent surveyor
interest of all parties involved that there is found on the container. During delivery or when the damage occurred. acting jointly for both the lessor and lessee.
system in place for accurate documentation redelivery of a container, an EIR can serve as
of container damage at the points of any a valid contract between the shipping line, On / off-hire inspections The contract between the leasing
hand-over. These are the points where, or appointed sub-contractor, and the road Container leasing companies keep large company and the client sets out the criteria
for instance, the road truck delivers a carrier. amounts of containers in stock for leasing for these inspections and when damage will
container at a depot or where a container is to container operators. These stocks piles require repair or not. See Inspection and
discharged from a vessel or barge. An EIR is not necessarily issued every time. are situated at strategic points all over repair criteria.
For example, large container terminals use
Equipment Interchange Reports (EIR) are cameras with Optical Character Recognition
usually issued at the various hand-over (OCR) at the entry gates. The cameras
points. A container interchange report automatically identify and record the
is a document that provides a detailed arriving container using its unique 7-digit
description of the external condition of reference number, seal status, direction of
the container at the time of transfer of the door, and any container damage. If the
responsibility from one party to another. system detects any irregularities with the
By preparing an interchange report for each container, it can automatically prevent the
transfer, it can easily be established when container from entering the terminal.
any damage to a container occurred, and
identify the party who had the container in There is one party in the transport chain
his possession during that period and can which does not inspect every container
be held responsible. This document can be entering their area of responsibility.
either in an electronic format or in paper That is the vessel itself. In the past when
form and contains diagrams to be used loading rates were low, it was still customary
for marking where the defects have been for the on board crew to inspect every
276 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 277

Container repair terminology

6.10
Several specific terms are used when dealing with container repairs although some degree of variation in these
definitions may exist depending on the standard being used: Maintenance and repair
Straightening To mechanically or hydraulically restore a damaged component as close as possible to its
original shape without the removal of any portion of the component, although in certain cases
adjacent components may have to be unfastened from the component being straightened. All containers must be maintained in a safe container loaded with cargo, particularly
Welding To fuse two separated pieces of metal together using heat and a third piece of metal. condition and must be repaired to comply if the damage is such that the container
Inserting To restore a damaged component to its original size, shape and strength by cutting out a with mandatory regulatory requirements can no longer be transported safely. In
portion of the component that is less than the full-profile section and welding or fastening valid at the location in which they were such an event, the cargo may first have
replacement material of the original size, shape and strength in place. The replacement part placed at the time, including but not to be re-stuffed into a replacement
itself is called an insert. limited to CSC requirements. container before the damaged container
Patching The same as inserting, except that the replacement material is slightly larger than the material can be transported to a repair facility. To
being removed, and its edges overlap the parent material. The replacement part itself is called a Only a few container owners have demonstrate a certain minimum standard,
patch. Note: Except for on panels, patching is mostly not allowed. preventive maintenance programmes repair facilities may decide to apply for
Sectioning To restore a damaged component to its original size, shape and strength by cutting out a in place for their container fleet. Such accreditation by a classification society.
portion of the component that extends through its full profile and welding or fastening preventive maintenance, if undertaken, Most repair shops in large container ports
replacement material of the original size, shape and strength in place. The replacement part is usually limited to the treatment of rust are in possession of such an accreditation.
itself is called a section. spots, fixing paint damage etc. A more During the accreditation process, the repair
Replacement To remove an entire damaged component and weld or attach a complete new component of common way of maintenance is to carry out facility must demonstrate knowledge of
the original size and strength. In some cases, a different shape may be permitted. repairs in accordance with in-service repair the supply of materials, quality and the
Wear & tear An unavoidable change or deterioration of the container brought about by routine standards. The reporting mechanisms will manufacturers’ specifications. Furthermore,
operational use. ensure that the container owner is informed an inspection system must also be in place
about any damage to the container which providing satisfactory quality control of all
will require repair. the repairs performed. To ensure that the
right level of quality control is maintained,
Repair facilities the classification society will conduct
Container terminals do not usually allow regular audits, e.g. annually or every
container repairs to be carried out at their two years.
premises. This means that the container
has to be taken out of service temporarily
and brought to a repair facility. These
repair facilities are usually located at, or in
the close vicinity of the empty container
depots. The most inconvenient situation
for a carrier is repairs required to a

Repair workshop
278 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 279

Repair standards and procedures repairs are to be carried out. The IICL Company specific requirements The usual procedure when containers need
Container repairs are needed when: has the strictest repair criteria for Several of the major shipping lines repairs is that the repair company prepares
» any damage to the container which used containers. maintain their own inspection and repair a cost estimate to be approved by the
affects the safe handling, structural requirements. These may well differ from container owner prior to commencement of
integrity or cargo worthiness of the Since 1971, the IICL has produced over the more universally applied standards the repairs. Container owners may also have
container, or twenty publications covering container referred to above. their own in-house inspectors or engage
» the repair is identified as being inspection, repair, cleaning and the services of independent surveyors to
necessary by industry in-service repair refurbishment, chassis inspection and monitor and check the repairs.
standards, or because of specific maintenance, as well as other topics.
instructions / requirements by the The latest edition for container repairs is
Technical Reference for Freight container equipment interchange
container owner or manufacturer. the IICL-5 standard which was introduced
receipt – TR39:2015
in 2007. The publication is over 100 pages
All necessary repairs must be undertaken long, describing in great detail how repairs On 29 January 2015, the Manufacturing Standards Committee (MSC) under the purview of the Singapore
in accordance with the applicable repair are to be carried out for each individual Standards Council (SSC), SPRING Singapore and Singapore Manufacturing Federation Standards Development
standards. There are different standards in item of a freight container. Organisation (SMF -SDO) launched the Technical Reference TR 39: 2015 for freight container equipment
use in the industry. The standard to be interchange receipt.
used will be stated in the contract with CIC (Common Inspection Criteria)
the container owner. The standards differ In 2005, a group of leasing companies This TR serves as a reference and guide on the conduct of visual survey and inspection, accurate reporting and
from one another quite significantly began a study to determine if the updating of the condition of the freight container at each point of handing and taking over. It establishes the
with regard to the tolerances and list inspection standards used for the baseline on common definitions and terminologies, visual qualitative and quantitative survey and dissemination
of permitted damages. There are also interchange of containers between leasing of the information on the conditions of the freight container to minimise disputes and delays at each point of
separate repair standards for refrigerated companies and shipping lines could be the interchange.
and tank containers. revised to bring them more in line with
the standards used by shipping linesin This TR is expected to be referred to by the shipping lines, container owners, container lessors, terminal
UCIRC (Unified Container Inspection the in-service operation of their operators, logistics service providers, container depot operators, consignees and shippers. TR39:2015, Technical
and Repair Criteria) container fleets. Reference for freight container equipment interchange receipt covers the following:
This is the main standard used by most » The scope of the TR
container shipping lines. The last edition The revised inspection criteria used under » Definitions of all the terms for the purpose of the TR
of the Standard dates from 2004. For the CIC standard are based on UCIRC, the » Reporting criteria for the condition of freight containers
refrigerated containers a separate standard shipping industry’s in-service inspection » Guidelines on the conduct of visual survey and inspection on freight containers
may be used: the Unified Reefer Inspection standard, and the Institute of International » Relay and acceptance of the condition of freight containers
and Repair Criteria (URIRC). Container Lessors’ IICL-5 interchange » Standardised container equipment interchange receipts forms – for both General and Tank containers
standard. This alignment between container » The various types of reportable container conditions
IICL – Institute of International operators and leasing companies has » A feedback form.
Container Lessors simplified operations by improving the
This organisation includes some of the efficiency of repair depots and reducing
largest container and chassis leasing the number of unnecessary repairs, whilst
companies worldwide. The IICL sets repair lessening the confusion among surveyors
standards for its members by which all and estimators.
280 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 281

The Container Security Initiative (CSI)

6.11 This program is led by the United States
Customs and Border Protection (CBP) within
Container security the Department of Homeland Security cleared for entry into the United States and
(DHS) focussing on screening containers can be loaded. For this purpose, foreign
whilst still located at foreign ports. The CSI ports may apply for approval to become a
Since their first appearance in the 1950’s In particular the threat of a Chemical, programme is part of the CPB’s layered CSI port. One of the conditions that must
the shipping container has revolutionised Biological, Radiological or Nuclear (CBRN) cargo security strategy. be fulfilled in order to achieve this status
the international transport of goods to the weapon being delivered in an anonymous is to have approved scanning equipment.
extent that most of the world’s non-bulk shipping container has become the primary CSI deploys expert teams to address the The World Customs Organization (WCO),
cargo is now carried in freight containers. terrorism threat to containerised transport. threat to US border security and global the European Union (EU), and the G8
One of the reasons for its success is the This has become the principal driver of trade posed by the potential terrorist support CSI expansion and have adopted
strength of the container box, shielding international transport security policy use of a maritime container. These teams resolutions implementing CSI security
the cargo from the environment and since 2001. Understandably, after 2001 the target and examine high-risk cargo before measures introduced at ports throughout
protecting the goods. United States’ government in particular it is laden on board a vessel bound for the the world. At the time of publication, over
implemented a set of new regulations. United States. The practical implication of 80 per cent of all maritime cargo imported
However, this closed construction can also this rule is that, at least 24 hours prior to into the United States is subject to pre-
be a disadvantage from a security point of Generally speaking, the measures put into loading, the shipping lines have to send screening.
view. In the absence of scanners that scan place following the September 11 attacks the manifest data for all cargo destined for
the entire box, it is practically impossible fall into the following five categories: the US to the CBP. The CBP transmits the
to establish exactly the contents of the » Measures seeking to scan or otherwise data to the US National Targeting Centre
container. The only option would be to physically confirm the contents of Cargo (NTCC) for screening to identify
open the doors and to carry out a manual the container high-risk cargoes. When suspicious cargo
inspection, in practice, a time consuming » Measures seeking to ensure the physical is identified, US CSI officials exchange
and virtually impossible task to conduct on integrity of the container information and work closely together
large numbers of containers. » Measures aimed at ensuring the with the customs of the host country.
security of the container environment as This cooperation is usually confirmed in a
The security of the container has been a it moves and is handled in the container declaration of intent between the custom
major problem ever since its introduction. transport chain administrations of the host country and
The main issues involve the theft of goods, » Measures seeking to track and trace the the United States of America and is based
illegal immigration, smuggling of illegal container in the supply chain on legislation and mutual administrative
goods, weapons and drug trafficking. In » Measures centred on the provision and assistance. It enables customs in the host
addition to these criminal matters, a new use of information relating to country to make a better selection of
security threat was revealed after the the shipments. containers that have to be screened or
September 11 attacks in the United States. scanned before leaving the port bound for
Many countries realised that they had This chapter provides an overview of the United States. Non-suspicious cargo is
relatively little control over the possible the most relevant security regulations Container scanner
misuse of the maritime container by and how these impact the international
international terrorists. container trade.
282 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 283

The Customs Trade Partnership receiving nation, based upon a comparable procedures, security patrols, establish their shipments often opt to travel in
against Terrorism (C-TPAT) risk targeting methodology, the sending restricted areas, personnel identification convoys, employing armed guards and
This is a voluntary compliance program nation’s Customs administration will procedures, access control measures, and/ storing the containers at protected
for companies to improve the security of perform an outbound inspection of high or installation of surveillance equipment. parking spaces. Another method used to
their corporate supply chains. It is led by risk cargo and/or transport conveyances, Another requirement of the ISPS Code steal goods in containers is through fraud.
US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) preferably using non-intrusive detection was the installation of an Automatic Forged documents are used to obtain the
and focusses on improving the security equipment such as large-scale X-ray Identification System (AIS) on board release of the containers from ports or
of private companies’ supply chains with machines and radiation detectors. And ships. The AIS requires vessels to have a container yards.
respect to terrorism. The program was lastly, the SAFE Framework suggests the permanently marked and visible identity
launched in November 2001 with seven benefits provided by Customs to number and a record must be maintained It is worth noting that the techniques used
initial participants, all large US companies. businesses that meet minimal supply chain on board of its flag, port of registry and for gaining access to containers can also be
The program has more than 10,000 security standards and best practices. address of the registered owner. Ships used for placing items into a container.
members today. Amongst others, the SAFE Framework fitted with AIS must maintain the AIS In order to prevent this from happening,
recommends that customs implement a in operation at all times except where the Customs Convention on Containers
Companies who achieve C-TPAT container integrity programme involving international agreements, rules and (1972) and the TIR Convention (1975) set
certification must have a documented the use of high security seals meeting ISO standards provide for the protection of out technical specifications on secure
process for determining and alleviating risk Standard 17712. navigational information. containers and sealing. This may also
throughout their international supply chain. involve the sealing of an empty container.
This allows companies to be considered The Global Container Control Container security measures
low risk, resulting in expedited processing Programme (CCP) The shipping container, in its basic form, is ISO Security Standards
of their cargo, including fewer customs This is a joint United Nations Office on a simple reinforced steel box with one point In 2004 ISO published the Publicly Available
examinations. Drugs and Crime (UNODC)/World Customs of entry – a double sided door on one end Specification (PAS) for mechanical door
Organization (WCO) initiative. The objective - that is closed using a locking bar system. seals. This standard was replaced by ISO
The SAFE Framework of this initiative is to establish effective Once the container is stuffed and leaves Standard 17712 in 2007. ISO Standard 17712
The World Customs Organization (WCO) container controls at selected ports across the shipper’s premises, the container is describes three types of mechanical seals:
adopted the Framework of Standards the globe with the aim of preventing vulnerable to interception and tampering » High security seals
to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade in the trafficking of drugs, chemicals and with its content. » Security seals
2005. This framework consists of supply other contraband and to facilitate trade » Indicative seals.
chain security standards for customs by strengthening cooperation between The most common method used to steal
administrations. The SAFE Framework the customs, trade and enforcement the contents is to break the seal on the
consists of four core elements. Firstly, it communities. container door and to replace or repair
harmonises the advance electronic cargo it afterwards. There are ways a seal can
information requirements on inbound, The IMO International Ship and Port appear to be intact when it has in fact been
outbound and transit shipments. Secondly, Facility Security (ISPS) Code tampered with.
countries joining the SAFE Framework This Code came into force on 1 July 2004.
commit to employing a consistent risk Under the Code, vessels and port facilities A not uncommon method for stealing
management approach to address security must conduct vulnerability assessments containers is simply to hijack the truck
threats. Thirdly, the framework requires and develop security plans that may include carrying it. Road truckers trying to protect
that, at the reasonable request of the passenger, vehicle and baggage screening Security door seal
284 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 6 THE CONTAINER 285

The Standard sets out best practices for containers. The objective of this
seal manufacturers. The objective of these amendment was to address the vulnerability
recommendations is to ensure that seals are of the traditional door handle seal location
only delivered to bona fide users and that a and to impose additional requirements for
record is kept of the seals delivered and the door seals.
numbering of seals.
ISO 18185 deals with the specific
In 2006, ISO published a fifth amendment requirements for electronic door seals.
to ISO 1496-1 applicable to new built
 7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 287

chapter 7

Container Insurance
(by Geir Kjebekk, Gard)

Container and Equipment Insurance different in that respect as it is intrinsically

Gard’s container and equipment cover (CEI) linked to the cargo-carrying equipment.
has been developed to meet the insurance For example, an overriding condition for
needs of owners, operators or lessees of the P&I cover to apply is that the liability
containers, which are typically liner vessel has arisen in direct connection with the
operators or non-vessel operating common operation of the entered ship – see Rule 2.4
carriers (NVOCCs). of the Gard Rules for Ships.

Scope of cover Types of property covered

The CEI cover is a property cover and The CEI cover is tailored to cover cargo-
responds to the damage to and loss, carrying equipment, which is in practice
including theft, of containers, flat racks, primarily containers. However, the cover
MAFIs and similar equipment used for also includes other cargo-carrying
carrying goods. The cover also responds equipment such as MAFIs, roll trailers,
to the container owner’s duty to contribute bolsters, bogies etc., whether on or off a
to salvage and/or general average. The ship at the time of the insured event.
CEI cover is not limited to loss or damage
occurring during sea transport as it also Amounts recoverable
responds to loss of or damage to containers Owned containers and equipment
stored at a shore-side terminal or during Loss: The replacement value of the
inland transport by truck. Being property container or other equipment, but not
insurance, the CEI complements liability exceeding the insured value at the time of
covers such as P&I and the Comprehensive the loss.
Carriers Cover (CCC). However, whilst
marine liability insurance is normally closely Damage: The reasonable repair costs of
linked to the insured ship, the CEI cover is the container or other equipment, but
not exceeding the replacement value or
288 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 289

insured value, whichever is less, at the time » Mechanical/electrical breakdown or Underwriting Department for updated » Delivery of cargo without production (at
of damage. malfunction information. the time of delivery) of negotiable bills of
» Mysterious disappearance or lading or other documents
Leased containers and equipment inventory loss Comprehensive Carrier’s Liability » The issue of ’ad valorem’ bills of lading
Loss: The amount payable to the owner » Inherent vice, quality or defect Cover » Vessel dry-docking with cargo onboard
under the terms of the lease agreement, or » Insolvency or financial default Gard’s Comprehensive Carrier’s Liability » Contracting on terms more onerous to
the replacement value of the container or » Unfitness of conveyance for safe carriage Cover (CCC) is a named risk insurance, the carrier than those of the Hague or
other equipment, whichever is less, but not » Embargo, requisition or compulsory which covers a number of liabilities arising Hague-Visby Rules.
exceeding the insured value at the time of order of any authority. from events on or off the ship, and which fall
the loss. outside standard P&I cover. The CCC cover Furthermore, the CCC cover provides cover
Limit and deductible is only available to Members with ships for liabilities in respect of cargo, property,
Damage: The reasonable repair costs, or The following limits and standard entered in Gard for P&I. personal injury and pollution arising under
the amount payable under the terms of deductibles apply: various approved contracts with:
the lease agreement, or the replacement » For any and all claims arising from any Scope of cover » Shippers and receivers of cargo
value of the container or other equipment, event off the ship: limit of USD 50 million The CCC cover provides cover for liabilities » Terminal operators and owners
whichever is less, but not exceeding the per event in respect of cargo, lost or damaged » Ship agents
insured value at the time of damage. » For any and all claims arising from any property, personal injury and pollution that » Clean-up contractors
event on board the ship: limit of USD 30 arise in connection with, or result from: » Shipowners/charterers in connection with
Conditions million per event » Transshipment of cargo in breach of blending operations
The assured is covered for the loss, » For any and all claims arising out of any contract of carriage » Shipyards
damage, costs or expenses that have arisen one event, including any legal and other » Land carriage of cargo in breach of » Port authorities
out of the activities and/or operations costs and expenses a deductible of contract of carriage » Sub-contractors, including rail and
customarily carried on by, or at the risk USD 25,000. » Prolonged landside storage of cargo trucking companies
and responsibility, of the assured in his » Geographic deviations from the » Tug owners.
capacity as an owner, lessee, or operator The limit of cover may be tailored to meet contractual voyage in breach of contract
of the containers and/or other equipment. the needs of the insured, but subject to of carriage Exclusions
Otherwise, Conditions and Exclusions a maximum limit of USD 50 million for all » Carriage of cargo on deck in breach of Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses
apply as set out in Gard’s Additional claims arising out of one and the same contract of carriage arising from performance guarantees
Covers Standard Terms and Conditions, event. The amount of compensation will » Cargo loading at a port other than provided by the assured.
Section 17.F. be based on insured values as declared by that named in the bill of lading/contract
the assured. If the market value of the lost of carriage Liabilities arising from warranties given by
Special exclusions or damaged property is higher than the » Delivery of cargo at a port other than the assured of the assured’s or any other
Loss, damage, costs or expenses arising insured values the CEI cover will be limited that named in the bill of lading/contract party’s strict compliance with applicable
from or attributable to: to the insured values. of carriage laws and regulations.
» Wear and tear, corrosion, rottenness, » Lightering of cargo in breach of the
inadequate maintenance and similar USD 50 million is the maximum limit at the contract of carriage Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses
» Errors in design/manufacture or faulty time of publication. This may be subject to » Cargo carried on vessels other than resulting from delay, including but not
material change over time. Please contact the Gard’s those stated in the bill of lading/contract limited to, the vessel’s delayed arrival.
of carriage
290 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS 7 CONTAINER INSURANCE 291

Operational costs and expenses including uniquely positioned to understand how

but not limited to taxes, fees or charges. risks fit together, and identify the best
choice of products, ensuring seamless
Liabilities, losses, costs and expenses coverage and service. Innovation has always
arising out of the assured’s products or been a cornerstone of Gard’s business
reliance upon a warranty or representation model and, over the years, we have refined
made in respect thereof. and extended our standard products
and introduced a range of additional
Providing the widest range of risk products, responding to special needs and
solutions requirements from different parts of the
In a world of increasing complexity, marine industry.
Gard’s objective is to help our Members
and clients manage the totality of Further information can be found on our
their exposures – both to existing and webpage (www.gard.no) under
developing risks. Products, or from the Association’s
underwriting department.
As a multi-line insurer – with the strongest
rating in the marine market – Gard is
292 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 293

Glossary of Terms

Acceptance of goods
The process of receiving a consignment for on-carriage from a consignor, usually against the
issue of a receipt. As from the time and at the place stated the carrier’s responsibility for the
consignment begins.
Accompanied transport
Transport of road vehicles by another mode of transport, e.g. train or ferry etc., accompanied by
their respective drivers.
Ad valorem
Meaning ’in proportion to the value’; a phrase used to describe freight or customs duties levied
on goods, property, etc., calculated as a percentage of their value.
ADR
The European agreement covering the international carriage of dangerous goods by road.
The letters stand for Accord européen relatif au transport international des merchandises
Dangereuses par Route.
Advance freight
Freight paid in advance of the actual carriage.
Advanced interline
An interline carrier that picks up cargo from the shipper and delivers it to another carrier for
shipment to the consignee.
Anti-rack device
Hardware normally attached to doors to provide additional strength and stiffness to the
container door and end frame assembly. The device enables containers to withstand greater
twisting transverse (racking) forces.
Apparel
- A vessel’s outfit, such as rigging, anchor and life boats.
- A term used to describe a single piece of clothing, a garment, in the distribution/transport of
clothing.
ACEP Approved continuous examination programme
Agreement between the owners of the equipment and the responsible government body to
allow the continuous examination of the equipment, i.e. containers.
Arrival notice
A notice sent by a carrier to a nominated party advising the arrival of a given shipment (ANF in
US).
Automated Ctr/B/L tracking and tracing
These allow the customer to check the latest status of his cargo and/or documents at any time.
Automated guided vehicle system
Unmanned vehicles fitted with automatic guidance equipment which follow a prescribed
path, stopping at each station for automatic or manual loading or unloading of containers at a
terminal.
Automatic container landing systems
Fitted to modern gantry cranes to achieve precise motion control of the container during
landing on the terminal vehicle.
Automatic track control
Fitted to modern gantry cranes which allows the spreader to follow set paths along the trolley to
automatically position the spreader above the container stacks. The driver takes control during
the last few metres before the spreader is lowered on to the container or into the cell guides.
294 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 295

Average adjusters Booking reference number

A person who calculates and apportions the cost of damage to or loss of a ship or the cargo it The number assigned to a booking by the carrier or his agent.
carries for insurance purposes between the parties with an interest in the maritime venture. They Bordereau
also prepare the claims being submitted to hull and machinery insurers. Document used in road transport, listing the cargo carried by a road vehicle, often referring to
Average appended copies of the road consignment note.
In marine insurance: loss or damage to or in respect of goods or equipment. Bottom lift
Axle loading Handling of containers with equipment attached to the four bottom corner fittings (corner
The total downward pressure exerted through any given axle, which may be transmitted through castings).
two or four wheels. Bottom slamming
Ballast Also referred to as ’pounding’: the ship’s bottom suffering a severe impact upon re-entering
Materials solely carried to improve the trim and the stability of the vessel. Water is usually carried after it has emerged from the water.
in tanks specially designed for this purpose. Bow flare slamming
BAPLIE When the upper flared part of the ship’s bow is forced deeper into the wave, the buoyancy of the
The electronic data interchange (EDI) message contains information on vessels’ bay plans to bow section increases proportionally over time, thereby progressively dampening the downward
be used for the exchange of information between agents, ships planners, terminals and vessels movement of the bow.
about the stowage of containers on board including their cell positions and place of loading/ Bridge fitting
discharge. A fixture with integrated turnscrew to keep top sides of adjacent containers together. Part of the
Bar coding lashing equipment.
Electronic tracking of goods using bar code and bar code readers. Bulk container
Barge A container designed for the carriage of free-flowing dry cargoes, which are loaded through
Flat bottomed inland cargo vessel with or without own propulsion, used on canals and rivers for hatchways in the roof of the container and discharged through hatchways at one end of the
the purpose of transporting goods. container.
Bay plan Bunker
A stowage plan showing the locations of all the containers on the vessel. Tank spaces on board a vessel to store fuel.
Bay Bushing
A vertical division on a vessel used as a part of the indication of container’s stowage location. A synthetic or non-ferrous lining located between the hinge and hinge pin on a container to
The bay number indicates the stowage position along the vessel’s length. Bay numbers run from reduce electrolytic corrosion and provide ease of rotation. A synthetic lining does not need
forward to aft. lubrication.
Bending moment Cabotage
The result of vertical forces acting on a ship due to local differences between weight and Pricing packages designed to encourage repositioning of containers into areas with a container
buoyancy. The total of these forces should be zero, as otherwise a change in draft of the vessel deficit. Also refers to foreign vessels operating in domestic trade.
will occur. At sea the bending moment will change due to wave impact which will periodically Cabover
change the buoyancy distribution. Style of truck that has a vertical front or ’flat face’, with the cab of the truck sitting above, or
Berth forward of, the front axle, offering greater manoeuvrability and a better overview for the driver.
A location in a port where a vessel can be moored, often indicated by a code or name. This contrasts with a conventional truck, where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. Also
Berthing window known as a ’flat-nose’ truck.
Period of time that a vessel is allowed to berth, usually agreed between the terminal operator Cam retainer
and the shipping line to grant a vessel some degree of guaranteed berthing time. Female component which retains the cam locking device, sometimes called a ’keeper’.
Bimodal trailer Cam
- A road semi-trailer with retractable running gear to allow mounting on a pair of rail boogies. The part of the door securing device (locking bar) that engages the female retainer (see cam
- A trailer capable of carrying different types of standardised units and loads, e.g. a chassis retainer above) which, by a lever action, together forms the cam lock.
suitable for the carriage of one FEU or two TEUs. Camber
Block train Slightly arched container floors used to strengthen the construction.
A number of railway wagons loaded with containers, departing from a location and running Cargo closing time
straight to a place of destination, without marshalling, transhipping or any coupling or Containers for export are not allowed to enter the terminal after this time. The terminal’s data
decoupling of wagons. control centre will verify that all the booked containers have arrived at the terminal.
Bogie Cargo opening time
A removable, self-contained assembly of axles, wheels, springs, suspension and brake Usually approximately one week before the vessel’s expected date of arrival. The terminal grants
components built specifically to be used as rear wheels under a chassis. Assemblies which are trucks access to deliver the containers for export, and the container gate system assigns a
not removableare known as undercarriages or running gear. section of the stacking area to the vessel’s berth.
Bonded Cargo restriction code
The storage of goods in the custody of customs, i.e. under customs’ seal, until the import duties A code indicating that the use of the container is restricted to a particular type of cargo.
are paid or until the goods are exported. Cargo tracer
- Bonded warehouse – a place where the goods can be placed under bond. A document sent by the agent to all the relevant parties, stating that cargo is either missing or
- Bonded goods – goods for which customs duties have not yet been paid, i.e. goods in transit or overhauled.
warehoused pending customs clearance.
296 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 297

Cargo Commodity box rate

- Goods transported or to be transported, and all goods carried on a ship covered by a bill of A rate classified by type of commodity and quoted per container.
lading. Commodity code
- Any goods, wares, merchandise, and articles of any kind whatsoever carried on a ship, other Code used in the harmonised system for the classification of the most commonly produced and
than mail, ship’s stores, ship’s spare parts, ship’s equipment, stowage material, crew’s effects, traded goods.
containers and passengers’ accompanied baggage (IMO). Commodity
Carriage Indication of the type of goods. Commodities are coded according to the harmonised system.
The process of transporting (conveying) cargo from one point to another. Cones
Carrier haulage Devices for facilitating the positioning and lashing of containers. The cones are inserted into
The inland transport service performed by the sea carrier under the terms and conditions of the the bottom castings of the container. A cone does only provide sideward restraint, no vertical
tariff and the relevant transport document. restraint. Synonym: locating pins.
Carrier Conference
The party undertaking transport of the goods from one point to another. Also referred to as a liner conference. A group consisting of two or more vessel-operating
CAD Cash against documents carriers, providing regular services for the carriage of cargo on a particular trade route and
Terms of payment; the buyer of the goods pays for the goods against transfer of the documents, which has an agreement or arrangement to operate under uniform and common freight rates
entitling him to obtain delivery of the goods from the carrier. and any other agreed conditions. e.g. FEFC = Far Eastern Freight Conference.
Cattle container Consignee
A partly open container equipped with rails, boxes, and cribs for the transport of livestock. The party stated in the transport document to whom the goods, cargo or containers are to be
Cell guides delivered.
The guidance system enabling containers to be lowered into and lifted from the hold of the Consignment
vessel. The holds have vertical guides into which the containers are lowered to form secure A separate identifiable number of goods to be or being transported from one consignor to one
stacks restrained at all four corners. consignee using one or more than one modes of transport and specified in one single transport
Cell document. Synonym in the USA: Shipment.
Stowage location on board a container vessel for one container. Consignor
Cellular vessel Also referred to as ’shipper’. The person by whom, in whose name or on whose behalf a contract
A vessel fitted with cell guides and specially designed and equipped for the carriage of of carriage of goods has been concluded with a carrier or any party by whom, in whose name
containers. or on whose behalf the goods are actually delivered to the carrier in relation to the contract of
Central planner carriage.
A planner or planning centre, usually located at the ship’s operators’ offices, preparing a pre- Consolidate
stow plan with the input from booking forecasts, slot-charterers and booking information from To group and stuff several shipments together in one container.
their own agency. Consortium
Centre of gravity A form of co-operation between two or more carriers to operate in a particular trade.
Point at which the weight of a body may be considered as concentrated so that if supported at Container bolster
this point the body would remain in equilibrium in any position. A container floor without sides or end walls which does not have the ISO corner fittings and is
Certificate of origin generally used for Ro/Ro operations.
A certificate, showing the country of original production of goods. Frequently used by customs Container chassis
to assess duties under preferential tariff programmes or when regulating imports from specific A vehicle specially built for the purpose of transporting a container so that when the container
sources. and chassis are assembled, the complete unit serves as a road trailer.
CWE Cleared without examination Container depot
Cleared by Customs without inspection. Storage area for empty containers.
COU Clip on unit CFS Container freight station
A portable refrigeration unit designed to clip on to insulated containers which normally rely on a A facility at which (export) LCL cargo is received for loading (stuffing) into containers or at which
central refrigeration system for their cold air supply. (import) LCL cargo is unloaded (stripped) from containers and delivered.
Closed ventilated container Container head
A closed container, similar to a general purpose container, but specially designed for the Refers to the end opposite to the doors. Also known as the container front or bulkhead.
carriage of cargo requiring natural or mechanical (forced) ventilation. Container lift truck
Cofferdam Container terminal equipment used to lift containers. Rubber-tyred vehicle powered by a diesel
An empty space between two bulkheads or two decks on board a vessel separating oil tanks or hybrid diesel-electric engine, using a telescopic lifting frame in front of the vehicle to lift fully
from each other and/or the engine room or other compartments. loaded containers. Containers are lifted vertically using the side apertures of the top corner
Collapsible container castings.
A container with walls that are hinged, at the front and back ends in collapsible flat racks, or Container load plan
removable so that its volume may be reduced for transporting in an empty condition. A list of items loaded in a specific container and, where appropriate, their sequence of loading.
Combined transport operator Container load
A forwarder providing combined transport and operating as carrier (see MTO). A consignment which fully occupies the internal capacity of one container or reaches the
Commercial invoice maximum payload for that particular unit.
A document showing the commercial value of the transaction between the buyer and seller.
298 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 299

Container manifest Customs seal retainer

The document specifying the contents of freight containers or other transport units, prepared Retainer to which customs seal is affixed, usually positioned by the door handle on inner bar of
by the party responsible for their loading into the container or unit. closure door.
Container moves Customs
The number of actions performed by one container crane during a given period. The department within the Civil Service that deals with the levying of duties and taxes on
Container number imported goods from foreign countries and the control of the export and import of goods, e.g.
Identification number of a container, consisting of a prefix, serial number and check digit. quotas, prohibited goods etc.
Container part load Dangerous Goods Declaration
A consignment which neither occupies the full capacity of a container nor equals the maximum Document issued by a consignor in accordance with applicable conventions or regulations,
payload and will, therefore, allow the addition of other part loads. describing hazardous goods or material for transport purposes, and stating that the latter have
Container platform been packed and labelled in accordance with the provisions of the relevant conventions or
A container floor without sides or walls, which can be loaded by a spreader and is used for Lo-Lo regulations.
operations. Dangerous goods
Container pool Goods which must be considered dangerous if the transport of such goods might cause harm,
Stock of containers used by several container carriers and/or leasing companies. risk, peril, or other danger to people, the environment, equipment or any other property
Container Safety Convention whatsoever.
International convention for safe containers 1972. Data plate
Container service charges A plate affixed to a container giving details of gross and tare weights and the external
Charges to be paid by cargo interests according to the agreed tariff. dimensions of the container.
Container yard Deadfreight
Location at container terminal where containers are stored temporarily and which links the Slots paid for but not used.
waterside and landside operations. Also known as a ’storage area’. Deadload
Container The difference between the actual and calculated ship’s draft.
An item of equipment as defined by the Convention of Safe Containers and International DWT Deadweight
Organisation for Standardization (ISO) to be used for transport purposes. The total weight of cargo, cargo equipment, bunkers, provisions, water, stores and spuare
Controlled atmosphere parts which a vessel can lift when loaded to her maximum draught as applicable under the
Can be used in addition to temperature control to prolong the storage life of fruit. circumstances. The deadweight is expressed in tonnes.
Convention International concernant le transport des Marchandises par chemin de fer (CIM) Decal
International agreement between 19 European railway companies setting out the conditions for Pressure sensitive label printed with the appropriate numbering, letters or symbols for
international railway transport of goods and the liabilities of the carrier. identification purposes.
Convention relative au contrat de transport international de Marchandise par Route (CMR) Demurrage
The Convention for the international carriage of goods by road, setting out the conditions of Fees charged when containers are left inside the terminal for longer than the agreed free days,
carriage and the liabilities of the carrier. and applies to all containers that remain at the terminal.
Converter dolly Depot
An auxiliary undercarriage assembly consisting of a chassis, fifth wheel and towbar used to The place designated by the carrier where empty containers are kept in stock and received from
convert a semi-trailer or a container chassis into a full trailer. or delivered to the container operators or merchants.
Corner fitting Design gross weight
A corner fitting is a fixture consisting of standard apertures and faces which provide a common The weight rating on which the structural design of the container is based, and is to be equal to
interface for handling and securing containers. or greater than the maximum gross weight.
Corner post Design load factor
Vertical structural posts at either side of container’s end frame joining a top and a bottom corner Takes into account, insofar as practicable, the static and dynamic loads and other applicable
fitting and thereby forming a ’corner structure’. considerations.
Corrugated container Design load
A container with corrugated walls and ends for added strength. The minimum statically applied load which the container is designed to withstand.
CSC plate Detention
Refers to the plate affixed to the door of a container recording the container’s serial number, Fees charged when containers are held outside the terminal longer than the agreed free time.
technical data (MGW, tare, payload etc.), as well as information on its manufacture, owner and All units will continue to incur a daily charge while in the custody of the consignee until returned
the date of last CSC inspection. to the shipping line.
Curbside Devanning
The side of the container/chassis nearest to the curb when the container/chassis is on the Sometimes used for the process of unpacking a container.
road driving on the right-hand side; i.e. the right hand side when travelling in the USA. and the Direct interchange
European continent. Opposite to ’roadside’. Transfer of leased (container) equipment from one lessee to another.
Customs seal protection cover Disbursement
Rain cover fastened over door handle retainer to which the customs seal is affixed. Sums paid by a ship’s agent at a port and recovered from the carrier.
Dispatch bays
The point from which containers are physically loaded or unloaded.
300 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 301

Displacement ETD Estimated Time of Departure

The weight of the water displaced by the vessel. The displacement of the vessel on her light The expected date and time of departure from a given port.
draft represents the weight of the vessel ready for use including stores etc. Fairway
Dispositioning A navigable channel for vessels, often the regular or prescribed track a vessel will follow to avoid
All activities relating to the inland movement of empty and/or full containers. hazards.
Distribution Feeder ship
Activities which ensure the availability of goods in customers’ desired quality, quantity, place A container vessel used in coastal trade serving ports where deep-sea containerships do not
and time. call.
Dock leveller Feeder
A device used to span the difference in level between the loading bank and the container floor. A vessel normally used for local or coastal transport, for the carriage of cargo and/or containers,
It also bridges the gap between the bank and the container. to and from ports not scheduled to be called by the larger oceangoing vessel, directly
Dolly connecting these ports to the oceangoing vessel.
A set of wheels placed under the front of a container to provide support when the unit is Fetch
disconnected. The horizontal distance over which wind blows from one constant direction.
Door-to-door transport Fifth wheel
The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises of the consignee. A device used to connect a truck tractor to a chassis in order to permit articulation between
Known as house-to-house in Europe or point-to-point in the US. the units. It usually consists of a trunnion plate and latching mechanism mounted on the truck
Double stack train tractor.
Railway wagons, usually a block train, on which containers can be stacked two-high. Fish plate
Draft A plate which is welded or bolted across the joint of two connecting members in order to
Also referred to as ’draught’. The draft of a vessel is the vertical distance between the waterline provide structural continuity at the joint.
and the underside of the keel of the vessel. During the construction of a vessel the marks Flash point
showing the draft are welded on each side of the vessel near the stem, the stern and amidships. The lowest temperature at which a product or substance produces enough vapour to form a
Drayage flammable mixture with air.
Road transportation between a railway terminal and the stuffing/stripping place. Flat bed trailer
Dricon A wheeled trailer or a semi-trailer with a flat cargo carrying surface or deck but without any
A chemical used in the treatment of timber against wood-boring insects. superstructure.
Drop off charge Flat rack container
Charge made by the container owner and/or terminal operators for delivery of a leased, or pool A container with two end walls and open sides. Synonym: flat.
container into depot stock. Flat
Dry port A container with two end walls and open sides. Synonym: flat rack container.
An inland terminal which is directly linked to a maritime port. ) Flat-nose truck
Dual trolley system Body style of truck that has a vertical front or ’flat face’, with the cab of the truck sitting above (or
A dual trolley gantry crane with a manned main trolley which moves the container from the forward of) the front axle, offering greater manoeuvrability and a better overview for the driver.
vessel on to a platform and an automatic trolley which moves the container from the platform to This contrasts with a conventional truck, where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. Also
the quay (or in reverse). called a cabover.
Dunnage Floor load
Stowage material, mainly timber or boards, used to prevent damage to cargo during carriage or The combined static and dynamic load imposed on the floor by the cargo and by the wheels of
to spread the load. the handling equipment.
Duty free zone Floor loading
An area where goods or cargo can be stored without paying import customs duties, awaiting The static and dynamic loads imposed on the floor by the payload and the wheels of the
further transportation or manufacturing. handling equipment.
EDI link Footprint
Connection between customer and carrier, allowing electronic data interchange (EDI). The area of the tyre which comes into contact with the surface on which it is operating under a
EDI Electronic Data Interchange given load, measured in square inches. For the purposes of container floor design, the footprint
The electronic transfer of structured data, by agreed standards from applications on the of a pneumatic and cushion tyre is estimated at 22 square inches.
computer of one party to the applications on the computer of another party. Fork lift truck
End load Container terminal equipment used to lift containers. Rubber-tyred vehicle powered by a diesel
The end load is the combined static and dynamic load imposed by the cargo on the container or hybrid diesel-electric engine, used to lift fully loaded containers. Containers are lifted by
walls or doors, or both, which are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the container. inserting the prongs into the forklift pockets in the container’s base frame.
EDR Equipment Damage Report Fork pockets
Written statement covering damage to the equipment, based on a physical inspection. Openings or recesses in a side of a container for insertion of the forks of a fork lift truck.
EIR Equipment Interchange Receipt FEU Forty foot equivalent unit
Physical inspection and transfer receipt. Unit of measurement equivalent to one forty foot container.
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
The expected date and time of arrival in a given port.
302 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 303

Forwarder Groupage
The party arranging the carriage of goods including connected services and/or associated The collection of several small consignments and the formation of one large shipment from
formalities on behalf of a shipper or consignee. these smaller consignments.
Forwarding instruction Hard-top container
Document issued to a freight forwarder, giving instructions to the forwarder for the forwarding A closed container with a roof that opens or lifts off.
of the goods described therein. HS Harmonised System
Franchise A numeric multipurpose system, developed through customs co-operation.
The amount which will have to be borne by the assured in a claim for damage. Hatch cover
Free In and Out Means of closing the hatchway of a vessel.
Transport condition denoting that the freight rate excludes the costs of loading and discharging Haulage
and, if appropriate, stowage and lashing. The inland carriage of cargo or containers by truck between named locations/points.
Freeboard of a vessel Header bar
Vertical distance from the main deck to the surface of the water measured at the middle of the A beam or bar, usually above the end doors of an open-top container, which may be swung to
vessel’s length. one side or removed to improve access.
Freight collect Heave
Freight and charges to be paid by the consignee. Linear motion: vertical, or up and down movement of a vessel.
Freight prepaid Hinterland
Acknowledgement of payment of freight by shipper. The inland area served by a port.
Freight Hogged
The amount of money due for the carriage of goods and payable either in advance or upon The loaded condition of a vessel in such a way that the centre of the vessel is slightly raised -
delivery. arching upwards at the centre.
Front pin locking device Hold
A container securing device that, when locked, prevents the container from disengaging from The space below the deck of a vessel, used to carry cargo.
the chassis. Home port
FCL Full container load The vessel’s the port of registration.
A container stuffed or stripped under risk and for account of the shipper and/or the consignee. Horn
Full tilt container A structural part on the front of a chassis that serves as a gathering device for guiding a
A container with full sides and roof, occasionally also the ends, covered by tarpaulin, drop sides container into its proper place on the chassis for securing. In transit, the horn provides a
notwithstanding. mechanical stop to prevent forward movement of the container with respect to the chassis. The
Fumigation horn frequently serves as a mounting place for the connection box. Also known as ’container
Exposing the insides of a container to toxic gas, in line with regulations, to prevent certain guide’ or stop.
parasites and bacteria from entering a country. House Bill
Gantry crane A bill of lading issued by a groupage/consolidating agent to his customers for goods
A crane or hoisting machine mounted on a frame or structure spanning an intervening consolidated into one container, for which the carrier issues a bill of lading to the agent.
space, which often travels on rails. Designed for loading / discharging containers onto / from House-to-house transport
containerships. Term used in Europe. The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises
Garments on hangers of the consignee. Also termed door-to-door, or point-to-point (US).
Garments prepacked onto hangers and hung from rails during transit, reducing any handling of House-to-pier
the garments. A container packed inland but unpacked at the pier of the destination port.
Gen-set Hub
Motor generator set as power source for, e.g. thermal containers. Major ports where containers are transferred between oceangoing containerships and feeders.
Gooseneck Hull girder theory
The upper level of the front of the chassis and the structure which connect the chassis to the Theory which thinks of a vessel’s hull as a floating single steel beam. Applies to strength load
lower level. The gooseneck rails normally fit into the tunnel recess of containers constructed for calculations.
this purpose. Hull
GRT Gross Tonnage Outer shell of a vessel, made of steel plates or other suitable material to keep water on the
The measure of the overall size of a vessel determined in accordance with the provisions of outside of the vessel.
the International convention on tonnage measurement of ships 1969, and usually expressed in Husbanding
registered tons. Taking care of a vessel’s non cargo related operations as instructed by the master or owner of
GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating the vessel.
The structural capacity of a chassis supported at the kingpin and axles with the load uniformly Idle time
distributed along its length. In some countries other than the United States this includes the The amount of ineffective time whereby the available resources are not used, e.g. a container in
weight of the tractor. a yard.
Gross weight
The weight of a chassis and a container together with the weight of its entire contents.
304 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 305

Importer ILO International Labour Organisation

The party responsible for the import of goods. For customs purposes, it is the party who makes, A United Nations agency, dealing with employment rights and working conditions both at sea
or on whose behalf an agent makes, an important declaration. This party may be the party who and in ports.
is entitled to possession of the goods or to whom the goods are consigned. IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
In transit Classification of dangerous goods as defined by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
The status of goods or persons between the outward customs clearance and inward customs and in compliance with international legal requirements.
clearance. IMO International Maritime Organization
Incoterms A United Nations agency concerned with safety at sea. Its work includes codes, conventions
Provides internationally accepted definitions and rules of interpretation for most common and rules relating to the tonnage measurement of vessels, load lines, pollution and the carriage
commercial terms. First published by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936, and have of dangerous goods. Previously the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization
been regularly updated since that time. (IMCO).
Indemnification ISO International Organisation for Standardization
Compensation for loss, damage and/or expenses incurred. A world-wide federation of national standards institutes (ISO member bodies).
Infrastructure Itinerary
System of roads, waterways, airfields, ports and/or telecommunication networks. The route undertaken by a transport carrier, indicated by the names of the ports of call or other
ICD Inland clearance depot locations, often including estimated arrival and departure dates.
A common-user inland facility with public authority status, equipped with fixed installations and Joinable container
offering services for the handling and temporary storage of goods, including containers, carried A container whose dimensions and specifications are fixed to permit the loading of the
under customs transit by any applicable mode of inland surface transport, and placed under containers onto a container flat enabling the complete unit to be handled as one ISO container.
customs control to clear goods for home use, warehousing, temporary admission, re-export, Jones Act
temporary storage for onward transit, and outright export. Merchant Marine Act of 1920. US federal rule that supports the promotion and maintenance of
Inland Container Depot the American merchant marine. Regulates, amongst others, matters of maritime commerce in US
A common-user facility with public authority status equipped with fixed installations and offering waters and between US ports.
services for the handling and temporary storage of import/export laden and empty containers Keel
carried under customs transit by any applicable mode of transport and placed under customs Longitudinal girder at the lowest point of a vessel from which the framework is built.
control. All the activities related to clearance of goods for home use, warehousing, temporary King pin
admissions, re-expert, temporary storage for onward transit and outright transport, and The coupling pin, welded or bolted in the centre of the front underside of a semi-trailer chassis,
transhipment take place from such facilities. which joins it to the fifth wheel of the towing tractor or dolly converter.
Inland freight terminal Land bridge
Any facility, other than a port or an airport, operated on a common-user basis, at which cargo in Overland transit between two ocean passages during a container’s journey from starting point
international trade is received or dispatched. to destination.
Inland port Landing gear
Located inland, generally far from seaport terminals; and supplies the region with an intermodal Devices, generally adjustable in height, used to support the front end of a chassis in an
terminal offering value-added services or a merging point for different modes of traffic involved approximately level position when disconnected from the towing vehicle. Also known as
in distributing merchandise that comes from ports. supports.
Inland Waterways Bill of Lading Landing legs
Document made out to a named person, to order or to bearer, signed by the carrier and handed Vertically adjustable supporting legs on landing gear to which sandshoes or wheels are
to the sender after receipt of goods to be carried by inland waterways craft. attached.
Insulated container Landside area
A container with insulated walls, roof, floor, and doors which reduce the effect of external Location at a container terminal where containers are delivered or leave the terminal by road, rail
temperature on the cargo without the use of cooling and/or heating devices. or barge.
Interface Latticed-sided
The point at which two systems meet, i.e. road transport and terminal – terminal and ship. An open or closed container with at least one side consisting of elements with openings
Intermodal freight centre between them.
A combination of financially independent freight and supplementary service companies located LCL Less than Container Load
within an area where a change of transport units between traffic modes can take place. An LCL container is a container in which multiple consignments or parts of consignments are
Intermodal transport shipped, and where the carrier is responsible for packing and/or unpacking the container.
The movement of goods (containers) in one loading unit or vehicle using several modes of Lessee
transport without need for handling of the goods themselves when changing transport mode. The party to whom the possession of property has been transferred for a period of time in return
IACS International Association of Classification Societies for rental payments.
An organisation where the major classification societies are members, and whose principal aim is Liner conference
the improvement of safety at sea standards. Also referred to as a ’conference‘. A group of two or more vessel-operating carriers, which
ICS International Chamber of Shipping provides regular services for the carriage of cargo along a particular trade route and which has
A voluntary organisation consisting of national shipowners’ associations with the objective of an agreement or arrangement to operate under uniform and common freight rates and any
promoting the interests of its members, primarily within the technical and legal areas of shipping other agreed conditions (e.g. FEFC = Far Eastern Freight Conference).
operations.
306 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 307

LIFO Liner In Free Out On-carriage

Transport condition denoting that the freight rate is exclusive of the sea carriage and the cost The carriage of goods (containers) by any mode of transport after discharge from the ocean
of loading, the latter in accordance with the custom of the port. It also excludes the cost of going vessel (the main means of transport) at the port (place) of discharge to the place of
discharging. delivery.
Liner terms Open-sided container
Condition of carriage stating that costs for loading and unloading are borne by the carrier Container with wire-mesh frames at the sides covered by a tarpaulin which can be rolled up to
subject to the custom of the port concerned. give unrestricted access to the sides of the container for loading or discharging.
Loading list Open-top container
List of containers to be loaded and discharged, containing information such as unique container A freight container similar in all respects to a general purpose container except that it has no
identification numbers, weight, and other references such as IMO class and if necessary, the rigid roof, but may have a flexible and movable or removable cover (called a tilt).
required setting temperature. The list is provided by the local ship’s agent of each slot charterer OOG cargo Out-of-gauge cargo
to the terminal operator. Cargo of a size exceeding the standard dimensions of a 20 or 40 foot container, e.g. overlength,
Loadmaster overwidth, overheight, or a combination thereof.
A load calculator designed for a specific vessel and approved by its classification society for Packing list
calculation of the vessel’s stability. Document specifying the contents of each individual package.
Locating pins Pallet
Devices for facilitating the positioning and lashing of containers. The cones are inserted into the A platform on which goods can be stacked in order to facilitate movement by a fork lift or sling.
bottom castings of the container. Synonym: cones. Panamax size
Logistic centre/freight village The maximum measurements and dimensions of a vessel able to go through the Panama Canal.
Group of independent companies and bodies involved with freight transport (for example Parametric rolling motion
freight forwarders, shippers, transport operators, customs) and accompanying services (for Large unstable rolling motion suddenly occurring in head or stern seas.
example storage, maintenance and repair), including at least a terminal. Payload (container)
Logistics The maximum weight of cargo that can be loaded in a container (payload = MGW – tare)
The planning, execution and control of the movement and placement of people and/or goods, Payload
and the support required to perform those tasks. P or payload is the difference between R and T and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds.
Mafi trailer Payment against documents
German brand name of a roll trailer used for RoRo purposes. Instructions given by a seller to his bank to the effect that the buyer may collect the document
Malaccamax necessary to obtain delivery of the goods only upon payment of the invoice, i.e. a documentary
Term used by naval architects when referring to the largest ship capable of passing through the collection.
25 metre deep Strait of Malacca. Pendulum motion control
Maximum gross weight Equipment found in modern gantry cranes which eliminates the effects of wind and container
R or rating is the maximum permissible combined mass of the container and its cargo for which imbalance.
the container ihas beens tested and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds. Piggyback
Merchant haulage The carriage of road vehicles and trailers on railway wagons.
Inland transport of cargo in containers arranged by the merchant. Pilferage
MTO / Carrier Multimodal Transport Operator / Carrier Theft of goods from a ship’s hold, container, cargo shed or warehouse.
The party on whose behalf the transport document or any document evidencing a contract Pitch
of multimodal carriage of goods is issued and who is responsible for the carriage of goods Rotational motion: movement along the transverse axis, causing the bow and stern of the ship to
pursuant to the contract of carriage. move up and down.
Multimodal transport Place of acceptance
The carriage of goods (containers) by at least two different modes of transport. The location where a consignment (shipment) is received by the carrier from the shipper, i.e.
Net tonnage the place where the carrier’s liability for the goods commences. Also referred to as the ’place of
The measure of the useful capacity of a vessel determined in accordance with the provisions of receipt’.
the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Vessels 1969. Place of delivery
Net weight The location where a consignment (shipment) is delivered to the consignee, i.e. the place where
The weight of goods, excluding all packaging. the carrier’s liability for the goods ends.
NVOCC Non Vessel Operating Common Carrier Place of receipt
A party who undertakes to carry goods and issues in his own name a bill of lading for such The location where a consignment (shipment) is received by the carrier from the shipper, i.e.
carriage, without using own means of transport. the place where the carrier’s liability for the goods commences. Also referred to as the ’place of
Notice of Readiness acceptance’.
Written document or telex issued by the master of a vessel to the charterers advising them the Plymetal
when a vessel is ready to load or discharge. Panel construction consisting of a plywood core and galvanised steel or aluminium facing.
Notify Address Point-to-point transport (US)
Address of the party other than the consignee to be advised of the arrival of the goods. The transport of cargo from the premises of the consignor to the premises of the consignee.
Known as house-to-house in Europe, or door-to-door.
308 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 309

Poop Reach stacker

Aft part of a vessel where the steering engine is located. Also called a ’top picker’. Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Rubber-
Portainer (crane) tyred vehicle powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid diesel-electric engine, and used to lift
A port (vessel) container gantry crane. fully loaded containers. A telescopic arm with a spreader device attached to the top lifts the
Pounding container by the top corner castings. Can stack containers five tiers high.
Also referred to as ’bottom slamming’: the ship’s bottom suffering a severe impact upon Reconditioning
re-entering after it emerging from the water. All activities connected with restoring and/or adjusting the packaging of a product in such a
Precarriage manner that it can be presented to the customer in the required form.
The carriage of goods (containers) by any mode of transport from the place of receipt to the port Reefer cargo
(place) of loading onto the oceangoing vessel. Cargo requiring temperature control during the carriage.
Precarrier Reefer container
The carrier used to move the goods prior to the main transport. A thermal container with refrigerating appliances (mechanical compressor unit, absorption unit,
Precision vehicle positioning etc.) to control the temperature of cargo.
Equipment on modern gantry cranes used to align the vehicles on the quay in an optimal Reference mass
position for loading or unloading. The mass which is to be multiplied by the design load factor to obtain the design load.
Prefix Regroupage
Container alpha prefix which forms part of the containers’ identification number. The 4 letters The process of splitting up shipments into various consignments (degroupage) and combining
that proceed the 6-digit serial number and check digit on a container. these small consignments into other shipments (groupage).
Preliminary stowage plan Road carrier
Stowage plan produced by the terminal planner based on the pre-stowage plan, the inbound The party undertaking the transport by road of goods from one point to another as set out in the
stowage plan from the previous port of call, and the loading list with the containers to be contract (also known as a haulier).
loaded. Purpose of the preliminary stowage plan is to assign container numbers to positions on Roadside
board the vessel by adhering to general principles of stowage. The preliminary stowage plan is The side of the container/chassis furthest away from the curb when driving on the road on the
compiled shortly before the vessel’s arrival. right-hand side. Opposite to ’curbside’.
Pre-shipment inspection Roll trailer
Goods are surveyed by an independent surveyor (the inspection company) before shipment Special trailer for terminal haulage and stowage on board Roll-on Roll-off vessels. Also known as
for the purpose of determining the quantity and/or quality of the goods and for phytosanitary, a Mafi trailer.
sanitary and veterinary controls. Roll
Pre-stowage plan Rotational motion: movement along the longitudinal axis of the ship, causing the port and
Prepared by the terminal’s planning centre on the basis of booking information received to starboard sides to move up and down.
ensure that all containers can be carried on board in a safe manner and that the cargo is loaded RORO Roll-on Roll-off
in such a way as to avoid re-stows in future ports of call. Loading and discharging a vessel whereby the cargo is driven on and off the vessel by means of
Pre-trip inspection a ramp.
Technical inspection of reefer containers prior to positioning for stuffing. Roof bows
Process of quay planning Transverse components attached to the container’s top side rails, supporting the roof.
Booking an intended quay position and allocating cranes to a vessel, taking into account the Roof load
vessel’s technical requirements and the restrictions at the berthing place, such as air draught, The combined static and dynamic load imposed on the roof of a container.
water draught, outreach of the crane, etc. Roof reinforcement plate
Protection and indemnity (P&I) association An additional plate attached to the container roof, adjacent to the top corner fittings, providing
An association of shipowners providing insurance protection against liabilities incurred by additional roof protection from handling equipment.
carriers on a mutual basis. Rotation
Prototype The sequence in which a vessel calls at the ports on her itinerary.
A representative unit of a series of identical containers built under conditions which duplicate, Row
insofar as is practicable, the conditions under which all of the containers in the series are to be A vertical division of a vessel from starboard to port side, used as a part of the indication of a
manufactured. stowage place for containers. The numbers run from midships to both sides.
Racking force Russian stow
One of three strength criteria for containers: force that changes the shape of a container from a Stowage where a 40 foot container is placed on top of two 20 foot containers. The basic
rectangle to a parallelogram, ultimately folding it flat. principle behind this type of stowage is that containers can only be stacked with the ISO corner
Rails castings resting on top of one another.
Main horizontal frame components attached to the corner fittings and corner posts at top and SWL Safe working load
bottom of a container. The maximum load any lifting appliance can handle.
Rating STC Said to contain
A crew member who is not an officer. Term used in a bill of lading to indicate that the carrier is unaware of the nature or quantity of the
contents of, e.g. a container, carton, crate, container or bundle and is relying on the description
furnished by the shipper.
310 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 311

Seal Slot
A device used on containers, locker, trucks or lorries to prove to the relevant parties that they The amount of space on board a vessel required by one container, mainly used for administrative
have remained closed during transport. purposes.
Semitrailer Snake loading
A vehicle without motor power and with one or more axles designed to be drawn by a truck Loading a product into a container in the sequence that the goods will be unloaded and stored
tractor and constructed in such a way that a portion of its weight and that of its load rest upon, at its destination.
e.g. the fifth wheel of the towing vehicle. Specified dimensions
Service bill The length, width, and height of a container which are the maximum permissible external
A contract of carriage issued by one carrier to another carrier for documentary and internal dimensions.
control purposes only. Spreader
Setting/air delivery temperature - Device used for lifting containers and unitised cargo.
Content of the bill of lading stating the air supply temperature to the container. - Beam or frame that holds the slings vertical when hoisting a load, to prevent damage to the
Shear forces cargo.
Vertical forces acting along the length of a ship which are locally not balanced with the overall Springing
buoyancy force acting on the exterior of the ship’s hull, and which will cause the hull girder to Strong hull girder vibration due to oscillating wave loads.
shear. Stack car
Ship operator Railroad car designed to carry containers used in intermodal freight transport. Also known as a
A ship operator is either the shipowner or the (legal) person responsible for the management of ’well car‘ or ’double-stack car’.
the vessel and its crew. Stack
Shipowner An identifiable number of containers stowed in an orderly way in one specified place at an
The (legal) person officially registered as such in the vessel’s certificate of registry. (ocean) terminal, container freight station, container yard or depot.
Shipment (USA) Stacking cone
Also referred to as ’consignment’. An identifiable number of pieces of goods (available to be) A fitting piece between two containers located at each corner, to provide sideways restraint
transported from one consignor to one consignee via one or more modes of transport and listed only.
in one single transport document. Staggers Rail Act
Shipper Deregulation law covering rail transport in the US (1980), providing rail operators with the
Also referred to as ’consignor’. The merchant (person) by whom, in whose name or on whose possibility of establishing their own rates and contracts with shippers. The Act was named after
behalf a contract of the carriage of goods has been concluded with a carrier or any party by its sponsor, Harley O. Staggers.
whom, in whose name or on whose behalf the goods are actually delivered to the carrier in Stem
relation to the contract of carriage. The foremost part of a vessel.
Shipping line booking system Stern slamming
System used to book cargo shipments finding the best route for each shipment to its final The underside of the vessel’s stern impacting with the water surface.
destination. Input supplied by shipper and shipping line’s agency. Stern
Shipping marks The aftermost part of a vessel.
Marks shown on individual packages in order to identify them and to enable the cargo to be Stevedore
checked against transport documents. A party running a business involved in the loading, stowing and discharging of vessels.
Side load Still water bending moment
The combined static and dynamic load imposed by the cargo on the container’s walls or doors, Result of an unevenness in the weight distribution acting downwards and the buoyancy force
or both, which is perpendicular to the transverse axis of the container. distribution acting upwards, causing the hull girder to bend.
Side loader Storage area
A lift truck with the lifting equipment for handling containers operating to one side. Location at a container terminal where containers are stored temporarily and which links
Significant wave height waterside and landside operations. Also called ’container yard’.
Statistical term, indicative of a certain range of wave heights which is an average of the largest Storage on chassis
waves, meaning that individual waves may be higher. Terminal storage system where containers are placed on a chassis consisting of a simple steel
Single trolley system frame resting on supporting legs, with guides to allow easy and correct positioning of the
System whereby a single trolley crane transports the container in one move from its stowage container. Particularly popular in the US.
position on board to the quay or on to a terminal vehicle. Stowage factor
Skeletal trailer Ratio of a cargo’s cubic measurement to its weight, expressed in cubic feet to the tonne or cubic
Road trailer consisting of a frame and wheels, specially designed to carry containers. metres to the tonne, used to determine the total quantity of cargo which can be loaded in a
Slamming certain space.
A ship’s hull impacting heavily with the water surface. Stowage
Slot charterer The placing and securing of cargo or containers on board a vessel, or of cargo in a container.
A charter where the shipowner agrees to place a certain number of container slots Straddle carrier
(TEU and / or FEU) at the charterer’s disposal. Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Straddle carriers pick and carry
containers while straddling their load and connecting to the top lifting points of the container
using a container spreader. Can stack containers up to four tiers high.
312 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS GLOSSARY OF TERMS 313

Straddle crane Top picker

A crane, usually running on rails and spanning an open area such as rail tracks, roadways or Also called a ’reach stacker’. Container terminal equipment used to stack containers. Rubber-
container yards. tyred vehicle powered by a diesel engine or a hybrid diesel-electric engine, used to lift fully
Stripping loaded containers. A telescopic arm with a spreader device attached to the top lifts the
A term sometimes used for unpacking a container. container by the top corner castings. Can stack containers five tiers high.
Stuffing Torsional stresses
A term sometimes used for packing a container. Forces twisting the ship’s hull along the longitudinal centre line.
Surf riding Track & trace
Acceleration of a ship located on the steep forefront of a high wave in following and quartering The pro-active tracking of the product along the supply chain, and the flow of paper information
seas. relating to the other.
Surge TOFC Trailer on flat car
Linear motion: longitudinal (fore to aft) movement. Carriage of piggyback highway trailers on specially equipped railway wagons.
Swap body Trailer
Separate unit without wheels used to carry cargo by road, sometimes equipped with legs and A vehicle without engine power, designed for the carriage of cargo and to be towed by a motor
used to carry intermodal cargo within Europe. vehicle.
Sway Tramp vessel
Linear motion: lateral (side to side) movement. A vessel not operating on a regular schedule.
Synchronous rolling motion Trans Siberian Landbridge
Large rolling motions of a ship, occurring when its natural rolling period coincides with the wave Overland route from Europe to the Asia via the Trans Siberian Railway (TSR).
encounter period in following and quartering seas. Transhipment
Tandem lift A shipment under one bill of lading, whereby sea (ocean) transport is divided into two or more
The lifting of two (or three) containers side by side. parts. The port where the sea (ocean) transport is divided is the transhipment port.
Tank container Transit cargo
A tank, usually surrounded by a framework with the overall dimensions of a container for the Cargo located between outward customs clearance and inward customs clearance.
transport of liquids or gasses in bulk. TIR Transport International by Road
Tare mass of container: A set of rules developed following a customs convention to facilitate the international European
Mass of an empty container including all its fittings and appliances associated with that transport by road with minimal interventions under cover of TIR carnets.
particular type of container in its normal operating condition. Also referred to as ’tare weight of Truck tractor
container’. A motor vehicle used for pulling a chassis or semitrailer which carries part of the chassis weight
Tare weight of container and load.
Mass of an empty container including all its fittings and appliances associated with that Tugmaster
particular type of container in its normal operating condition. Also referred to as ’tare mass of Brand name of tractor units used in ports to pull trailers. They are equipped with a fifth wheel or
container’. a gooseneck type of coupling.
Tare weight TEU Twenty foot Equivalent Unit
The weight of a chassis without the container. Unit of measurement equivalent to one 20-foot container.
Tare Twin lift
T or tare is the mass of the empty container, including its normal complement of fittings, The lifting of two 20-foot containers at the same time in a 40-foot spreader.
equipment and devices, and is expressed in kilogrammes and pounds. Twistlock
Terminal planner A securing device consisting of a rotatable head and fixed collar that is inserted into the bottom
Vessel planner at the terminal’s planning department responsible for preparing the preliminary aperture of a bottom corner fitting to prevent the disengagement of the container from the
stowage plan and the division of work between the gantry cranes and other related equipment. chassis when the rotatable head is in the locked position.
Central point of contact for all planning activities during the vessel’s stay at the terminal. Undercarriage
Terminal Consists of the complete subframe suspension, with one or more axles which may be
A location at either end of a transportation line which includes servicing and handling facilities. interconnected, together with wheels, tires and brakes.
Tier UN / ECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
A horizontal division of a vessel from hold bottom to top. The numbers run from hold bottom The UN/ECE is one of a number of Economic and Social Commissions established by the
to deck and from deck upwards and are used as a part of the indication of a stowage place for General Assembly of the United Nations. Despite its name it embraces both Europe and North
containers. America. The aim is to advance the economic development of Europe and associated countries
TCT Timber component treated through trade facilitation and common agreements.
The treatment of all exposed wood components in containers to protect them from insect Vanning
infestation is a requirement of the Commonwealth of Australia. Permanent protection is usually An American term sometimes used for packing a container.
accomplished by treatment with approved preservatives. A list of approved preservatives and Vendee
the minimum retention requirement can be found in Quarantine Aspects and Procedures’ issued Buyer.
by the Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health. Vendor
Seller.
314 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS ABBREVIATIONS 315

Ventilated container Abbreviations

A container with openings in the side or end walls to allow for the ingress of outside air when the
doors are shut.
Vertical compression forces
One of the three strength criteria for containers: force acting vertically on the compression side ABS American Bureau of Shipping CLNI Convention on the limitation of liability
of a container through the corner posts. ACEP Approved Continuous Examination in inland navigation on the Rhine and
Vertical tandem lift Programme elsewhere
The lifting of two containers locked one above the other in one operation. ACP Panama Canal Authority CLP Container load plan
Vertical tension forces ADR Accord européen relatif au transport CMNI Convention on the contract for the
One of the three strength criteria of containers: force acting on the container through the international des merchandises Dangereuses carriage of goods by inland waterway
corner posts, causing a container to tip or pull out of its corner fittings and/or from the bottom par Route. (The European agreement CMR Convention relative au contrat de
foundation on the hatch covers. concerning the international carriage of transport international de Marchandise par
Waterside area dangerous goods by road.) Route
Location at container terminal with quay wall, apron and cranes where ships and barges are AF Advance freight COARRI Container arrival message
discharged and loaded. AGV Automated guided vehicle COC Carrier owned container. A container
Wave height AGVS Automated guided vehicle system owned or leased by a shipping line – new or
Distance measured from the trough to the crest of a wave. AHR Antwerp-Hamburg range (of ports) used – to transport goods by providing both
Wave length ALV Automated lifting vehicle the container and the transportation service.
Distance between successive wave crests or troughs. AND Agreement on the transport of COC is the opposite of an SOC
Wave period dangerous substances by inland waterway CODECO Container departure confirmation
The time that elapses between the passing of successive wave crests or troughs. ANSI American National Standards COFC Container on flat car
Wave steepness ARMG Automated rail mounted gantry crane COG Centre of gravity
The slope determined by the ratio between wave height and wave length. (also referred to as ASC) COPARN Container pre-arrival notice
Waybill ARTG Automated rubber-tired gantry crane COPRAR Container pre-arrival message
Non-negotiable document evidencing the contract for the transport of cargo. ARTUBAR Articulated tug barge COREOR Container Release Order
Well car ASA American Standards Association CORTEN or COR-TEN is a registered trade
Railroad car designed to carry containers used in intermodal freight transport. Also known as a ASC Automatic stacking crane (also referred to mark of the United States Steel Corporation.
’stack car’ or ’double-stack car’. as ARMG) Commonly referred to as CORTEN, this
WWT Wind and water tight – repair criteria B/L Bill of lading type of steel is carbon enriched to make it
Criteria under which containers would literally be ‘wind and water tight’. This commonly used BIC Bureau International des Containers. Paris stronger (than mild steel) and more resistant
criteria makes no reference to the quality of the understructure of the container and should based organisation that maintains the official to corrosion
therefore not be considered as safe for the transport of cargo unless it was explicitly confirmed registry of alpha container prefixes used to COTIF Convention Concerning International
that the containers meet the CSC. identify containers. Carriage by Rail (CIM/CIV)
Yard crane BSC British Shippers’ Council COU Clip on unit
Container terminal equipment used to stack containers, consisting of a steel portal frame, a BSI British Standards Institution CRS Croatian Register of Shipping
trolley and a spreader. The crane drives on either rubber tyres (TG – rubber tyred gantry) or BV Bureau Veritas CSC Container Safety Convention. The
moves on a rail system (RMG – rail mounted gantry). CA Controlled atmosphere 1972 Convention for Safe Containers
Yard CAD Cash against documents to maintain a high level of safety of
Fenced off, outdoor storage and repair area. CAF Currency adjustment factor human life in the transport and handling
Yaw CCS China Classification Society of containers by providing generally
Rotational motion: movement along the vessel’s vertical axis, causing the bow and stern to move CCTV Closed-circuit television acceptable test procedures and related
sideways. CDIC Container damage inspection criteria strength requirements and to facilitate
CDNI Convention on the treatment of waste the international transport of containers
produced during inland navigation by providing uniform international safety
CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation regulations
CFO Container flow operation CSM Cargo securing manual (IMO/SOLAS)
CFS Container freight station CSS Safe practice code for cargo stowage and
CIC Container inspection criteria securing (IMO)
CIF Cost, insurance and freight CTO Combined transport operator
CIM Convention International concernant le CW Cargo-worthy certificate. Certificate
transport des Marchandises par chemin de issued by a surveyor pursuant to an
fer inspection confirming a container is suitable
CINS Cargo Incident Notification System (see for transportation under TIT/UIC/CSC
www.cinsnet.com) CWE Cleared without examination (at
Customs)
CY Container yard
316 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS ABBREVIATIONS 317

DNV GL Classification society, result of IACS International Association of Classification NHTSA US National Highway Traffic Safety TCT Timber component treatment.
merger between Det Norske Veritas and Societies Administration quarantine regulations established by the
Germanischer Lloyd, 2013 ICC International Chamber of Commerce NK Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ClassNK) Australian health ministry (AQIS = Australian
DPP Damage protection plan. Damage ICCO International Council of Containership NMB National Maritime Board Quarantine and Inspection Service
protection offered by containers lessors who Operators NVO(C)C Non vessel operating (common) Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
are not technically allowed to offer insurance ICD Inland clearance depot carrier Forestry). Includes detailed requirements for
which is a regulated market ICHCA International Cargo Handling OH Over height the treatment of container’s wooden floors
DWT Deadweight Coordination Association OHB Overhead bridge crane to avoid the proliferation of pests. Required
ECE Economic Commission for Europe (UN) ICS International Chamber of Shipping OOG Out of gauge for the containers to be able to transit
ECH Empty container handler (front loaders IICL Institute of International Container OOGC Out of gauge cargo through Australia
capable of up to 9-high stacking ashore) Lessors. Washington DC based organisation OSHA US Occupational Safety and Health TEN-T Trans-European transport networks
EDI Electronic data interchange which groups the largest container and Administration TEU Twenty foot equivalent unit. Usually refers
EDIFACT Electronic data interchange for chassis leasing companies in the world P&I Association Protection and indemnity to a standard (although could be special)
administration, commerce and transport ILO International Labour Organization association container of 20 feet in length. Commonly
EDP Electronic data processing IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous P&I Protection and indemnity used to express vessel capacity or
EDR Equipment damage report Goods Code PHA Port health authority throughout at container factories and ports
EIR Equipment interchange receipt. IMGS International Medical Guide for Ships PLOD Place of delivery TIF International transit by rail
Document established at the time a IMO International Maritime Organization (UN) PLOR Place of receipt TIR Transports Internationaux Routiers
container arrives in or leaves from a depot INSA International Shipowners’ Association POD Port of discharge; place of delivery (International Road Transport). An
that will serve to document the transfer IRS Indian Register of Shipping POL Port of loading international harmonised system of customs
of responsibility. While not systematic, ISM The International Safety Management PRS Polish Register of Shipping control that facilitates trade and transport
most EIRs will record the verification of a code (IMO) PSI Pre-shipment inspection whilst effectively protecting the revenue
container’s condition at the time of transfer ISO International Organization for PTI Pre-trip inspection of each country through which goods are
EMS Guide Emergency response procedures Standardization. International organisation RAO Response amplitude operators carried. In order for containers to be able
for ships carrying dangerous goods based in Geneva that works towards RHA Road Haulage Association to transport goods under custom seal they
EMS Emergency medical service harmonising worldwide technical standards RID International Regulations concerning the need to meet TIR requirements
EMS European modular system including those governing the construction International Carriage of Dangerous Goods TOFC Trailer on flat car
EMSA European Maritime Safety Agency of shipping containers by Rail TOS Terminal operation system
ESN European shortsea network ITF International Transport Workers’ RINA Registro Italiano Navale TTU Terminal tractor with trailer unit
ESPO European Sea Ports Organisation Federation RMG Rail mounted gantry crane UCC Ultimate container carrier
ETA Estimated time of arrival KR Korean Register of Shipping RORO Roll-on roll-off UCIRC Unified container inspection and
ETD Estimated time of departure L/C Letter of credit RS Russian Maritime Register of Shipping repair criteria. An International Chamber
FAL Fully automatic lock LCL Less than container load RTG Rubber-tired gantry crane of Shipping guide available to be used for
FCC Fully cellular containership LCV Long combination vehicle, or road train. SAT Semi-automatic twistlock in-service and on/off hire inspections
FCL Full container load There are several different arrangements: SC Straddle carrier UIC Union International de Chemins de fer
FCR Forwarder’s certificate of receipt B-double (20 + 40 or 20 + 20) SCA Suez Canal Authority (International Union of Railways). Containers
FEFC Far Eastern Freight Conference B-triple (20 + 20 + 40) SDR Special Drawing Rights need to meet UIC requirements in order to
FEU Forty-foot equivalent unit (2 TEU = 1 FEU) Double road train / ‘pocket train’ (40 + 40) ShC Shuttle carrier be able to transport goods on the rail.
FILO Free in liner out AB-triple (40 + 20 + 40) SLBS Shipping line booking system UN / ECE United Nations Economic
FIO Free in and out BAB Quad (20 + 40 + 20 + 40) SOC Shipper owned container. A container Commission for Europe
FOB Free on board ABB Quad (40 + 20 + 20 + 40) owned or leased by the shipper – new UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on
FOT Free on truck. Generally accepted Triple road train (40 + 40 + 40) or used – to transport goods. SOC is by International Trade Law
acronym (not an INCOTERM) that implies 2AB Quad (40 + 20 + 20 + 40) opposition to COC. UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade
that containers are delivered on to the truck Powertrain (40 + 40 + 40 + 20 + 40 + 40 + 40) SOLAS International Convention on the Safety and Development
and implies that the seller is responsible for LIFO Liner in free out of Life At Sea UNECE United Nations Economic Commission
the cost of loading the container on to the LOC Letter of compliance STC Said to contain for Europe
truck. LR Lloyd’s Register STS Ship-to-shore, for instance STS crane (a UR Unified requirement
FWC Fully-loaded weight and capacity MFAG Medical First Aid Guide for use in type of quay crane) WWT Wind and water tight repair criteria
GA General average accidents involving dangerous goods SWL Safe working load
GIWW Gulf intracoastal waterway MH Merchant haulage SWSF Still water shear forces
GL Germanischer Lloyd (Classification society) MOS Motorways of the sea
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety MSC Maritime Safety Committee
Service (Signal) MTO Multimodal transport operator
GRT Gross tonnage MTS Multi trailer system
GVWR Gross vehicle weight rating MTU Multi trailer unit
HS Harmonised system
318 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS BIBLIOGRAPHY 319

Bibliography Pinder, D., Slack, B., – Shipping and Ports in the Twenty-first Century: Globalisation,
Technological Change, and the Environment, Routeledge, 2004.
Prager, H.G., – Zu Schiff durch Europa, Koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft, 1973.
Rath, E., – Container Systems. Materials Handling and Packaging Series, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
1973.
Books Ritter, L., Barrett, J.M., Wilson, R., – Securing Global Transportation Networks. The McGraw-Hill
Agney, J., Huntley, J., – Container Stowage, A Practical Approach, White & Farrell (London) Ltd., Companies, 2007.
1972. Rodrigue, J.P., Comtois C., Slack B., – The Geography of Transport Systems, Third Edition,
Antapassis, A., Athanassiou, L., Rosaeg, E., – Competition and Regulation in Shipping and Routledge, 2013.
Shipping Related Industries, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009. Steenken, D., Voss, S., Stahlbock, R., – Container Terminal Operation and Operations Research –
Bose, J.W. , Brinkmann, B., – Handbook of Terminal Planning, Springer Media, 2011. a Classification and Literature Review, Springer Verlag, 2004.
Branch, A.E., – Elements of Shipping, Eight Edition, Routledge, 2007. Strauch W., – Container Handbook (Volume I & II), Gesamtverband der Deutschen
Brodie, P.R., – Illustrated Dictionary of Cargo Handling, Lloyds of London Press Ltd, 1991. Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. (GDV), 2002.
Broeze, F., – The Globalization of the Oceans: Containerisation from the 1950’s to the Whittaker, J., – Containerization, Hemisphere Publishing, 1975.
Present, International Maritime Economic History Association, 2002. Wijnolst, N. & Wergeland, Tor, – Shipping Innovation, IOS Press, 2009.
Brolsma, J.U., – Havens, Kranen, Dokken en Veren. De Gemeentelijke Handelsinrichtingen en Zuidhoek, A., – De mooiste schepen van de Nedlloyd, Uitgeverij Aprilis, 1990.
het Havenbedrijf der Gemeente Rotterdam 1882 – 2006, Uitgeverij Matrijs, 2007.
Carpenter, R., – Container Ships, Model & Allied Publishers, 1971.
Chung-Yee Lee, Qiang Meng, – Handbook of Ocean Container Transport Logistics. Making Publications, papers and theses
Global Supply Chains Effective, Springer International Publishing, 2015. Andersson, L., – Container Lashing, Swedish National Testing and Research Institute Mechanics,
Cudahy, B.J., – Box Boats. How Container Ships Changed the World, Fordham University Press, 1997.
2006. Avriel, M., Penn, M., – Exact and Approximate Solutions of the Container Ship Stowage
De Boer, D., – Piggyback and Containers, Golden West, 1992. Problem, Computers and Industrial Engineering 25, 1993.
De Haan, H., – The Transport of Refrigerated Containers, BMT, 2007. Basedow, J. et al., – The Hamburg Lectures on Maritime Affairs, Springer- Verlag, 2009.
Dear, I.C.B., Kemp, P., – The Oxford Companion to Ships and The Sea, Oxford University Press, Belamaric, G., – Theoretic Approach of Ship’s Motion and Lashing Forces, 2014.
2006. Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal. BIC Code Register 2014.
Dong-Wook Song, Panayides, P.M., – Maritime Logistics. A complete Guide to Effective Cederqvist, H., – Container Terminal Yard Automation, Port Equipment Manufacturers
Shipping and Port Management, Kogan Page Limited, 2012. Association, 2012.
Donovan, A., Bonney, J., – The Box that Changed the World. Fifty Years of Container Shipping – Chan, C., – IACS Develops New Rules after MOL Comfort Casualty. IHS Maritime, 2015.
An Illustrated History, Commonwealth Business Media, 2006. De Haas, J., – Container Transport to Africa, Thesis, University of Antwerp, 1990.
Duijnen, M., Pastoor, H., Verploegh, G., – Maritieme Meteorologie en Oceanografie, DeBoer De Haas, J., – Tying down the cargo. Container Lashing and Securing, The Naval Architect, 2010.
Maritieme Handboeken, 1971. De Haas, J. – A Benchmarking Study of Classification Rules for Lashing and Securing of
George, R., – Ninety Percent of Everything: Inside Shipping, the Invisible Industry that Puts Containers, Lloyds Register of Shipping, 2012.
Clothes on Your Back, Gas in Your Car, and Food on Your Plate, Metropolitan Books, Henry De Haas, J., Brown, D., – Effect of Eccentric Container Loads on Base Twistlocks and Container
Holt and Company, LLC, 2013. Foundations, The Naval Architect, 2010.
Gibney, R., – Container Lines: The Strategy Game, Lloyds of London Press, 1984. De Haas, J., Burnay, S., – Going Large, The Naval Architect, 2010.
Groen, P., – De Wateren van de Wereldzee, Unieboek b.v., 1974. Ducruet, C., Notteboom, T., – Developing Liner Service Network in Container Shipping. A
Hartog, A., – Bremerhaven. Tor zur Welt. 80 Jahre Columbuskaje Bremerhaven, Edition Complete Guide to Effective Shipping and Port Management, Kogan Page, 2012.
Temmen, 2008. Fricke, W. Koster, D., – Strength Aspects of Large Container Ships, Transactions STG. Vol. 86,
Hecht, H., Pawlik, T., – Maritime Container Shipping, Hanseatic Lloyd Reederei GmbH. & Co. KG, 1992.
Bremen, 2007. Fruin, J., – Moving Containers on the Mississippi River, University of Minnesota, 2004.
Jephson, C., Morgen, H., – Creating Global Opportunities Maersk Line in Containerisation 1973- Gabrysch, J., – Containerverluste auf See – Eine statistische Analyse der Jahre 1990 bis
2013, Cambridge University Press, 2014. 2005, Thesis Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik und Internationale Wirtschaft, 2006.
Jones, G., Zeitlin, J., – The Oxford Handbook of Business History, Oxford University Press, 2007. Gard, – Containers, A selection of articles previously published by Gard AS, 2004.
Kemme, N., – Design and Operation of Automated Container Storage Systems, Springer-Verlag, Germanischer Lloyd, – Small Container and Feeder Vessels, 2007.
2013. Ham, J.C. van, – The Feasibility of Mega Container Vessels, European Transport, Delft University
Kunadt, T., – Hamburger Reeder und Ihre Schiffe, Koehlers Verlagsgeselschaft GmbH, 2010. of Technology, 2005.
Levinson, M., – The Box - How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World – Handbook Customs Convention on Containers, 1972, World Customs Organisation, 2004.
Economy Bigger, Princeton University Press, 2006. ICHCA Int. Ltd., – An Illustrated Guide to Container Marking Codes, Second edition, 2014.
McKenzie, D.R., North, M.C., Smith, D.S., – Intermodal Transportation - the Whole ICHCA Int. Ltd., – Provision for the Safe Lashing of Deck Containers, 2011.
Story, Simmons-Boardman Books, 1989. Johansen, R.S., – Container Terminal Planning: Improving System Productivity to Service Larger
Oisterwijk, B., – Op een koers. Royal Nedlloyd, Deltadruk, 1988. Container Vessels, JWD Group in Port Technology, 2013.
Oisterwijk, B., Regt, de W., – Terug op koers. Thieme Grafi Media Groep, 2004. Kallas, S. et all, – New Markings of Intermodal Loading Units in Europe, International Union of
Pearson, R., Fossey, J., – World Deep-Sea Container Shipping: A Geographical, economic and Combined Road-Rail Transport Companies, 2011.
Statistical Analysis, Marine Transport Centre, University of Liverpool, 1983. Kang J-G, Kim Y-D, – Stowage Planning in Maritime Container Transportation, Journal of the
Petzold, E., Grobecker, K., – Reederei Blue Star. Renaissance einer Flotte, Convent Verlag, 2004. Operational Research Society 53, 2002.
320 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS PHOTO CREDITS 321

Magelssen, W., Dohlie, K., Rongland, E., – Cost Effective Design and Safety of Container
Ships, Det Norske Veritas AS, 1998.
Photo Credits
Mahoney, J.H., – Intermodal Freight Transportation, ENO Foundation for Transportation, 1985.
Mathai, A., – Shear Strength Assessment of Ship Hulls, International Journal of Engineering and
Innovative Technology, 2013. Introduction / Chapter 1 Michel Uyttebroeck Piccaya sprl
Munchener Re Group, – Containers Transport. Technology. Insurance, 2000.
Murdoch, E., Tozer, D., – A Master’s Guide to Container Securing, The Standard P&I Club and
Lloyds Register Group, 2012.
Mischa Keijser Maersk Line
Nash, B.J., – The Voyage to Containerization. How a North Carolina Trucker Freed the
World, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, 2012.
Notteboom, T., Konings, R., – Network Dynamics in Container Transport by Barge, Belgeo, http://korabli.ucoz.ru/
2004.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), – Container Transport
Security across Modes, European Conference of Ministers of Transport, 2005.
US Air Force - gallery, National Museum Groeneveld
Pacino, D., – Fast Generation of Container Vessel Stowage Plans, using Mixed Integer
Programming for Master Planning and Constraint Based Local Search for Slot
Planning, Thesis for University of Copenhagen, 2012.
Chapter 2 Chatchawan / Shutterstock
Rathje, H., – New thinking on container losses, The Naval Architect, Feature on Design and
Construction of Containerships, 2008.
Rizvi, Z.H., – The Containership – how big: What are the Prospects for Malacca-Max? Port
ECT Bangsbo Museum. Frederikstad
Technology International, 2007.
Rodrigue, J-P., Notteboom, T., – The Geography of Containerization: Half a Century of
Revolution, Adaption and Diffusion, Hofstra University, 2008.
– Safe Transport of Containers by Sea. Guidelines on Best Practices, International Chamber of Bangsbo Museum. Frederikstad
Shipping and World Shipping Council, Marisec Publications, 2008.
Seidelman, C., – 40 Years of Road-Rail Combined Transport in Europe. From Piggyback System
to the Intermodal Transport System, International Union of Combined Road-Rail Transport Danish Maritime Museum Unknown source
Companies, 2010.
Shi, B., Liu, D., Wiernicki, C., Tang-Jensen, P., – Technology Advances in Design and Operation of
Large Container Carriers, Paper presented on behalf of American Bureau of Shipping during Archive de Haas Ivan Meshkov
RINA Conference, 2006.
Shipowners P&I Club, – Basic Stability for Small Vessels, 2007.
– ShortSea NL, Factsheet Short Sea. Voorlichtingsbureau Short Sea, 2014. NOAA www.kelvindavies.co.uk
Storhaug, G., Drummen, I., – Fatigue damage due to springing / whipping of large container
vessels, Paper presented during Boxship 2007, Hamburg.
Svitzer, – Overview of Salvage cases, 2015. GeorgHH Nightman 1965 / Shutterstock
Tanaka, N., – Container Shipping and Container Ports of the World in Recent Times, NKK Line,
1994.
Tang-Jensen, P., Shi, B., – It’s not Just a Matter of Size. Applied Technology will Differentiate Alf van Beem Klaus Kehrls / Fleetmon.com
Operational Efficiency of Ultra Large Container Ships, American Bureau of Shipping, 2007.
– The new CTU Code, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2014.
– The Ultra Large Container ship (ULCS): Original Conceptualist Lloyd’s Register Predicts the Chapter 3 Gerard Koudenburg / Shutterstock
Future, The Baltic, 2001.
Ting, E., – Introduction to Transportation and Navigation, National Taiwan Ocean University,
Department of Transportation and Navigation Science, 2012. Richard Thornton / Shutterstock Tim Roberts / Shutterstock
Tozer, D., – Design Challenges of Large Container Ships, Paper presented during 2006 ICHCA
Conference, Singapore, 2006.
Wijnolst , N., Scholtens, M., Waals, F., – Malacca- Max – The Ultimate Container Carrier, Delft Gerard 's-Gravendijk
University Press, 1999.

Tumarkin Igor - ITPS / Shutterstock Dirk Tscherniak / Shutterstock

Huhu Uet / Shutterstock Osprey Line

322 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS PHOTO CREDITS 323

Ian Law / Shutterstock Christophe Eyquem Aeroview-Rotterdam Public domain

Ste Kruebe Anneka / Shutterstock DP World London Gateway J2R / Shutterstock

Joop van Houdt / foto Rijkswaterstaat Port of Cleveland BMT BMT

Port of Virginia Dave Gingrich London Gateway BMT

Oliver Laumann PRILL / Shutterstock Wikimedia Commons / Stefan Bundes SOMKKU / Shutterstock

Oliver Laumann Henry vb Daniel Linsbeuer / Wikimedia Commons BMT

sspopov / Shutterstock Mafi.eu BMT

JPMueller99 US Public domain Chung King / Shutterstock ECT

alenvl / Shutterstock Doug Wertman Chapter 5 EXT

Wesseltje14 Maersk Sheila Fitzgerald / Shutterstock Hapag-Lloyd

Sean Lamb J. de Haas tcly / Shutterstock

S.Oleg / Shutterstock Joedamadman MAN-B&W BMT

Taina Sohlman / Shutterstock Thomas Isle Alexkol Photography / Shutterstock

Johan Bouma 20th Century Fox Shutterstock ptnphoto / Shutterstock

Corbis Cheng H Unknown source Evren Kalinbacak / Shutterstock

Chapter 4 Mischa Keijser BMT BMT

Public domain BMT BMT

Mandritoiu / Shutterstock ECT bartuchna@yahoo.pl / Shutterstock Fair Use; New York Times
324 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 325

Index
Danny Cornelissens / Wikimedia Commons BMT

BMT BMT
A B
ACEP 231, 238 –239, 272 , 293, 315 BAPLIE 138, 150, 215, 294
BMT BMT
ACONCAGUA m.v. 218 BARELI m.v. 220
ADN agreement 80 Barge see Inland navigation
ADRIAN MAERSK m.v. 30 BARZAN m.v. 218
BMT Crown © 2011, NZ Defence Force
AFAM 264 Bay of Biscay see Biscay, the Bay of
AGV 131–132 , 135 –136, 315 Bay-row-tier system 182
beeldbank Rijkswaterstaat BMT AIS 283 Beam tank 265
Alliance 114, 140, 146 –147, 164 BELLATRIX m.v. 218
2M 164 Berthing window 140 –141, 294
Chapter 6 IANS, Marine Traffic.com CKYHE 164 bilge system 157, 219
G6 164 Bilge systems 157, 219
Ocean Three 164 Biscay, the Bay of 179 –180
My name is boy / Shutterstock ISO ALSTER EXPRESS m.v. 38 Block storage 125
ALULA m.v. 218 Blue Star Holding 162
ALVA STAR m.v. 220 BNSF Railway 91
Nico Blaauw
American Interstate Highway 101 Booking system 148, 310, 317
American President Lines see APL SLBS 148
Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons AMERICAN RACER m.v. 29 Broaching 175
AMSTERDAM BRIDGE m.v. 218 Brush, Graham 22
Anchoring points, in container 206, 243, 256 Bulk containers 49, 69, 100, 231, 252 , 267
BMT Public domain ANGELN m.v. 222
ANL 33 C
APL 32–33, 40 – 41, 92– 93, 164, 220, 225, 244 Cabotage 73, 295
CIMC CIMC APL CHINA m.v. 225 Cabover 104
APL PANAMA m.v. 220 CAFER DEDE m.v. 220
APM terminals 62 , 98, 117–119, 130 Call-size 114, 141, 143
CIMC CIMC
Approval and certification 235 Canadian National Railway 91
CSC approval plate 236 Canadian Pacific 91
design type approval 236 CAPE MORETON m.v. 218
James Marshall Studios Gazouya / Wikimedia Commons
of new containers 235 Capsizing / loss of stability
of the manufacturing process 235 container height 223
BMT CIMC prototype test 236 container’s centre of gravity 223
Approved Continuous Examination container weights 223
Program see ACEP loading sequence 222
BMT BMT ASC 134 –136, 315 reduction in freeboard 222
end-loading system 135, 137 vessels involved 222
side-loading system 135, 137 Cargo closing time, terminal 143, 149
Chapter 7 Lars Heineken Automatic Stacking Cranes see ASC Cargo opening time, terminal 143, 295
Cargo Securing Manual 150, 167, 197, 212 , 214,
232 , 240
Mischa Keijser
Annex 13 213
container securing manual 211
legislation 212
326 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 327

MSC Circular 1/Circ. 1353  213 Connectivity  56 CSS Code  210, 212 , 232 ESPO  68, 316
preparation and approval  213 Connectors  72 Annex 13  213 EUGEN MAERSK m.v.  218
user limitations  213 Construction of containers  243 Annex 14  210 European E-road system  102
Carrier haulage  54 height  246 CSX Transportation  91 European Modular System  see EMS
CBP  281–282 length  243 C-TPAT  282 European Sea Ports Organisation  68, 316
CCC  287, 289 Container, definition of a  228 CTU Code  228, 234, 320 European Shortsea Network  68
CCNR  80 height  246 Customs and Border Protection  see CBP Evergreen  30, 162–164
CCP  282 length  243 Customs Trade Partnership against EXCELSIOR m.b.  222
CDNI convention  80 Container Equipment Insurance  see CEI Terrorism  see C-TPAT Explorer Class  see CMA CGM Explorer Class
CEI  287–288 Container On Flat Car  see COFC
CELIA m.v.  220 Container owner  238, 270, 272 , 277–279, 287, D F
Cell guides  38 –39, 69, 79, 130, 157, 166, 184, 300 Daylight test  274 FAIRLAND m.v.  29
197–199, 208 –209, 244, 251, 293, 296 Container Securing Manual  212–215, 244 Deep sea transport  55 FAL Convention  233
Central Commission for the Navigating of the Container Security Initiative  see CSI Delmas  33 FCL/FCL  50
Rhine  see CCNR Container transport by barge  see Inland DENEB m.v.  222 FedEx  54
Certification of containers  see Approval and navigation Department of Homeland Security  281 Fifth wheel coupling  105
certification CONTI SEATTLE m.v.  220 Design and construction of containers  243 Fire and explosion  217
CHARLOTTE MAERSK m.v.  218 Controlled atmosphere  262 , 298, 315 height  246 causes  217
Check digit  269 –270, 298, 308 AFAM  262 DG HARMONY m.v.  218 IMDG Code  219
China  21, 32 , 57, 62 , 64 – 66, 73, 75, 86 – 90, 98 – 99, temperature controlled container  260 DHS  281 vessels involved  218
103, 117–119, 159, 164, 167, 180, 214, 220, 229, CONTSHIP FRANCE m.v.  218 Dimensions of ISO freight containers  243 Fire-fighting systems  157, 219
315 Convention Dohle, Peter  162 Flag state  71, 166 –167, 213, 219
China Merchants Holding Int.  see CMHI ATP  233 Dolly  105, 298, 305 Flat / Flat rack  301
Chongqing  66, 86 – 87 CDNI  80 DONGEDIJK m.v.  222 Flexilash  207
CIC  278, 315 CLNI  80 Door-to-door  300 Flexi-tanks  258
Classification society  71, 166, 168, 171–172 , CMNI  80 Double-stack  93 – 94, 97– 99, 311, 314 Floor strength  253
181, 192 , 196, 213, 215, 235 –236, 240, 277, 306 CSC  243 Douglas Sea Scale  174 Florens  229
CLNI convention  80 FAL  233 DP World  62 , 117, 119 Forces, container
CMA CGM  33, 44, 46, 162 , 164, 218, 220 MARPOL  219 DSR Senator Lines  33 compression  196
CMA CGM Explorer Class  44 SOLAS  219 Dual trolley  130 dynamic  186, 193
CMA CGM LILAC m.v.  218 STCW  233 Dwell time  120 racking  194, 308
CMA CGM MARCO POLO m.v.  44, 46 TIR  233 shear  150, 195
CMA CGM NORMANDIE m.v.  220 UNCITRAL  233 E static  186, 251
CMA DJAKARTA m.v.  218 WCO  233, 281 EC Directive tension  195, 198
CMHI  62 , 117 Convention for Safe Container  243 96/53  104 wind load  187, 193 –194, 220
CMNI convention  80 Corner castings  21, 28, 70, 128, 133 –134, 183, 2006/87/EC  81 Forklift pockets  133, 243, 250, 256, 301
Coastguard  166 184, 194, 203, 205 –207, 211, 243, 254 –256, 295, Edifact  215 Forklift truck  260
Code 297, 309, 313 EIR  273 FOWAIRET m.v.  220
CSS  210 Corridors  72 ELBE EXPRESS m.v.  38 Frame tank  265
CTU  228 Costamare  162 ELLY MAERSK m.v.  44 Freight forwarder  54, 165, 302
IMDG  232 CP VALOUR m.v.  220 EMMA MAERSK m.v.  33, 46 – 47, 159 Fuel consumption  46, 96
ISM  233 Crane sequencing  144 Empty container depot  120, 277
ISPS  233 Crane split  144 EMS  104, 219 –220, 316 G
COFC  91, 315 Crew  81, 146, 153, 159 –160, 162 , 165 –166, 173, EMSA  167–168, 316 Gantry crane  123, 127–128, 130, 136, 300, 308,
Collaboration  163 179, 206, 209 –212 , 214, 216, 221, 224, 232 , 262 , ENCOUNTER BAY m.v.  39 315, 317
Collar tank  265 274, 275, 296, 308, 310 End-loading system  135, 137 dual trolley  130
Comanav  33 Crossings  72 Engine room  44, 158 –160, 182 , 217, 262 , 296 single trolley  130
Common Inspection Criteria  see CIC CSC Equalash  208 tandem lift  129
Comprehensive Carriers Cover  see CCC approval plate  236 –237, 238 Equipment Interchange Report  273 twin lift  129
Conference  56, 79, 297, 305, 316 –317, 320 CSI  281 ESN  68, 316 vertical tandem lift  129
328 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 329

Gateway  31, 52 , 62 , 64, 111, 121, 123 IMDG Code  150, 219, 232 , 271, 305, 316 interchange reports (EIR)  274 L
GATEWAY CITY m.v.  24, 38 Container Packing Certificate  219 maintenance  277 Labelling and marking of containers
Gateway terminal  123 Dangerous Goods Declaration  219 on/off hire inspections  317 category identifier  269
General purpose container  258 –259, 270, 296, Document of Compliance  219 PES  238, 272 check digit  269, 270
307 EMS Guide  219 responsibility inspections  273 development  279
anchoring points, in container  243 hazardous cargo classes  219 routine operational inspections  272 identification system  283
definition  255 ignition  217 Serious Structural Deficiencies  272 owner’s code  269
dry cargo container  255 incidents  217–218 statutory  272 reduced stacking capability  270 –271
forklift pockets  256 MFAG  219 unsafe containers  272 serial number  269
gooseneck  247 spontaneous combustion  217 Institute of International Container size code  270
grappler pockets  256 Inland navigation Lessors  see IICL type code  270
lashing points  256 ADN agreement  80 Insurance, container and equipment  287 weight markings  271
particular modifications  257 Brazil  88 CCC  287, 289 Land-bridge  92– 93
Global Container Control CCNR  80 CEI  289 Lashing and securing  197
Programme  see CCP CDNI convention  80 conditions  288 anchoring points  206, 243, 256
Gross tonnage  161 CEMT classes  79 exclusions  289 Annex 14, CSS Code  210
Grounding  217, 220 –221 China  86 limit and deductible  288 block  208
causes  220 Chongqing  66, 86 – 87 scope of cover  287, 289 breaking load  195 –196, 206
vessels involved  220 CLNI convention  80 special exclusions  288 Cargo Securing Manual  212
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway  82 CMNI convention  80 Intermodalism  23, 28, 49 cell guides  198, 208
Container on Flat Barge  85 International Labour Organisation  see ILO container lashing routines  208
H EC Directive 2006/87/EC  79 International Organization for Container Securing Manual  213
Hall, Herbert  27 Europe  76 Standardization  see ISO dual mode  207
HANJIN GREEN EARTH m.v.  218 Gulf Intracoastal Waterway  82 International Transport Workers’ Equalash  208
HANJIN PENSYLVANIA m.v.  218 Kieserling  76 Federation  209 equipment and systems  200
HANSA BRANDENBURG m.v.  218 lashing and securing  80 ISLAND INTREPID m.v.  220 fixed lashing equipment  201
HANSA CLIPPER m.v.  218 Main Donau Canal  76 ISO  19, 26, 231, 240 –241, 250, 252–254, 298, 305 Flexilash  207
Hapag-Lloyd  38, 162 , 164 Mekong  89 definition  240 forces  198–216
Hard-top container  260, 303 Montreal  83 organisation  241 ILO  209
Height of container  246 North America  82 overview of standards for containers  242 independent stacks  199
tolerance  246 Operations Manual US  85 ISO gap  184 ITF  209
HEINRICH BEHRMANN m.v  220 regulations  80 ITF  209 lashing bridges  189–199, 206
Hinterland  31, 52 , 62 , 65, 97, 111, 126 Rhine  77–78 lashing points  201–216
Hogging  170 Ruhr area  52 J lashing rods  197–216
HPH  62 , 117 Russian Federation  88 Janney coupler  99 lashing software  215
Hub  50, 55 – 56, 62– 64, 67, 87, 111, 123 Saint Lawrence Seaway  83 Jones Act  73 loose lashing equipment  202
Hub function  62 Scheldt Rhine Canal  78 Jones, Fred (Frederick McKinley)  73, 263, 305, maximum securing load  195
Hull  156, 223, 303 South East Asia  89 318 methods of lashing and securing  197
construction  156 stability requirements  81 JUTLANDIA m.v.  39 OSHA  203
hull failure  224 Three Gorges Dam  87 Paralash  207
Hutchinson Port Holdings  62 , 117 transport volumes Rhine  77 K proof load  195
HYUNDAI FORTUNE m.v.  218 Volkerak Locks  78 KAMALA m.v.  218 routines  208
Inland terminal Kansas City Southern Railway  91 ship’s crew  209
I empty container storage  65 Kingpin  70, 105, 302 shore labour  209
IACS  14, 167, 171–172 , 190, 192 , 224 –225, 304, Inspections of containers  272 KOORINGA m.v.  39 single mode  207
316, 319 ACEP  272 Kühne & Nagel  54 stacking cones  197–198, 202 , 208
IDEAL X m.v.  24, 25, 115 by buyer  237 strength  195–216
IICL  278, 316 cargo worthiness  273 supervision  211
ILO  209, 228, 233 –234, 305, 316 daylight test  274 terminal stacker  202
in service-inspections  272 transverse  208
330 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 331

turnbuckles  206 Montreal  66, 83 – 84 Payload  237, 240, 247, 252–253, 265, 268, 271, India  98
twistlock  201, 203 –205, 211, 317 Motor boating effect  108 297–298, 301, 307 Janney coupler  99
vertical mode  207 MSC  30, 33, 44, 46, 63, 117, 162 , 164, 175, 177, Periodic Examination Scheme  see PES Kansas City Southern Railway  91
Lashing bridge  199 213, 218, 223, 248 –249, 279, 316 PES  238, 272 land-bridge  92– 93
Lashing points, in container  256 MSC CARLA m.v.  223 Piggyback  91, 307, 318, 320 L-type cars  100
Lashing software  215 MSC Circular 1/Circ. 1353  213 Planner  137 Norfolk Southern Corporation  91
Leasing company  54, 229, 275 MSC DANIELA m.v.  44 central planner  146 –150, 153, 219 Piggyback  91
Legislation  73, 103, 240, 248, 281 MSC FLAMINIA m.v.  218 quay planner  139, 141 Russia  90
Length of container  243 MSC NAPOLI m.v.  223 resource planner  143 –144 slack action  100
design requirements  243 MSC OSCAR m.v.  46 terminal planner  143 –144, 146, 149 –150, 308 stack car  98
ISO gap  244 Planning  137 Staggers Rail Act  93
modular system  243 N crane sequencing  144 S-type cars  100
tolerance  245 National Targeting Centre Cargo  281 planning process  147 swap body  96
Line load  183 Nedlloyd  33, 41, 97, 318 –319 quay planning  141, 143, 308 TOFC, Trailer On Flat Car  91
Liner Shipping Connectivity Index  56 NEDLLOYD DEJIMA m.v.  40 resource  144 Union Pacific Railroad Company  91
LIVERPOOL BAY m.v.  39 NEDLLOYD DELFT m.v.  40 stowage plan  144 United States  91
Logistics management  53 Nicaragua Canal  57 Platform containers  267 wagonload service  97
Loss of containers  225 Non Vessel Operating Common Point load  183 well car  98
average per year  225 Carriers  see NVOCC P&O Nedlloyd  33 RAO  189
causes  217–225 Norasia  41 Portainer  127 Rated weight  251–252
vessels involved  217–225 Norfolk Southern Corporation  91 Porthole container  261 Reach stacker  133
LSCI  56 NTCC  281 Port of Singapore Authority  62 Reefer  see Thermal containers, reefers
Numero, Joe  263 POTRERO HILLS m.v.  24 Refrigerated containers  see Thermal
M NVOCC  54, 162 , 164 –165, 306 Powertrain  103 containers, reefers
MacAndrews  33 NYK ARGUS m.v.  218 PRESIDENT KENNEDY m.v.  40 REGINA MAERSK m.v.  41
MAERSK KAMPALA m.v.  218 PRESIDENT TRUMAN m.v.  40 Regulations, transport of containers  230
Maersk Line  33, 41, 44, 63, 97, 162 , 164, 318 O Propeller  44, 158 –160 AAR  233
MAERSK MCKINNEY MOLLER m.v.  34, 46 OCR  122 , 274 Propulsion  74, 158 –160, 170, 178, 294 ADR Agreement  233
MAFI trailer  132 Offen, Claus-Peter  162 PSA  62 ATP Convention  233
Magnum, container  264 On/off hire inspections, UCIRC  317 CSC Convention  230
Main Donau Canal  76 OOCL  41, 164, 225 Q CSS Code  232
Maintenance of containers  238 OOCL AMERICA m.v.  225 Quay planner  139, 141 CTU Code  234
ACEP  238–279 Open-top container  259 Quay planning  141 FAL Convention  233
PES  238, 272 Optical Character Recognition  see OCR FRA  233
requirements  238 OT Africa Line  33 R Hague-Visby Rules  233
Malaccamax  60, 306 Owner of a ship  148, 165 Racking strength  238, 240, 259, 271 Hamburg Rules  233
MARENO m.v.  218 Owner of container  238  see Container owner Rail, container transport by ILO  233
Marine Highway  72 Owner’s code  269 AAR coupler  99 IMDG Code  232
Maritime and Coastguard Agency  166 Betuweroute  97 IMO Regulations  231
Marking of containers  see Labelling and P block-train  97 ISM Code  233
marking of containers PACIFIC VOYAGER m.v.  220 BNSF Railway  91 ISPS Code  233
MARLENE S. m.v.  218 Pallet-wide  245, 246 Canadian National Railway  91 MARPOL Convention  233
Matson  24, 26, 30 Panama Canal  32 , 39 – 40, 44 – 45, 56 – 59, 95, 307, Canadian Pacific  91 OPRC-HNS Protocol  233
MCA  166 315 China  98 OSHA Regulations  233
McLean, Malcolm  22–24, 33, 38, 91, 93, 115 Panamax  37, 39 – 42 , 44, 159 –160, 177, 224, 307 Container On Flat Car, COFC  91 RID Regulations  233
Merchant haulage  54 Paralash  207 CSX Transportation  91 Rotterdam Rules  233
Modal split  52 Parallel lashing, external  208 double-stack  93, 94, 97– 99, 311, 314 SOLAS Convention  231
MOL COMFORT m.v.  223, 224 –225 Parallel lashing, internal  207 Europe  95 STCW Convention  233
MOL CONTRIBUTION m.v.  218 Parametric rolling motion  176 European Rail Shuttle  97 TIR Convention  233
MOL EXPRESS m.v.  220 flat car  91 UIC  233
332 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 333

UNCITRAL Convention  233 Sea state  174 hull failure  224 Short sea  67
WCO Convention  233 Douglas Sea Scale  174 Laker  84 Caribbean  73
RENA m.v.  220 –221, 225 fetch  173 layout  155 China  73
seas  173
Repair, container  277 loadicator  172 Europe  73
swell  173 –174
CIC  278 Malaccamax  60 Far East  73
waves  173 
container repair terminology  276 motion  see Ship motion Indonesia  73
see also Wave
IICL  278 Seatrain  22–23 navigation and ship handling  173 North America  72
repair facilities  277 Securing  see Lashing and securing navigation bridge visibility  45 Side-loading system  135, 137 
Singapore Standards Council  279 Security  280 nominal TEU capacity  47 see also ASC
standards and procedures  278 24 hour rule  281 owners  33, 77, 93 Sietas  71
Technical Reference  279 AIS  283 Panamax  37–47  Singapore, the port of  33 –34, 55, 60 – 64, 117,
UCIRC  278 CBP  281 see also Panamax 162 , 220, 224, 279, 320
wear & tear  276 CCP  282 Post New Panamax  37, 44 Single trolley  130 
CSI  281
Response Amplitude Operators  189 propeller  see Propeller see also Gantry crane
C-TPAT  282
Rhine  52 , 76 –78, 80, 222 , 315 propulsion  see Propulsion Size code  270
DHS  281
Road, container transport by  101 registration  166 Slamming  169, 175, 177–178, 295, 308, 311
ISPS  282
accidents  106 measures  283 sagging  170 SLBS  148
American Interstate Highway  101 NTCC  281 SeawayMax  84 Smoke detection systems  219
Australia  103 SAFE Framework  282 shear forces  172 , 189 SOUVEREIGN MAERSK m.v.  41
European E-road system  103 scanning  281 smoke detection systems  219 Springing  178
European Modular System, EMS  104 seals  283 stability  176 –177 Stability  187
history and development  101 standards  283 strength loads  169 centre of buoyancy  187
powertrain  103 SELANDIA m.v.  38 –39 Super Post Panamax  37 centre of gravity  187
Serious Structural Deficiencies container  231
road trains  103, 105 thrusters  161 free surface effect  188
Service  56
Rocky Mountain doubles  103 two island configuration  44, 160 metacentre  187
Door-to-door  300
stability  108 Ultra Large Container Ship  44 STADT COBURG m.v.  40
End to end  56
turnpike doubles  103 Pendulum  56 – 57 weight curve  170 Staggers Rail Act  93
Road train  103, 316 Round the World  56 Ship motion  175 Storage area, terminal  125
Rocky Mountain doubles  103 Shanghai, the port of  34, 63 – 64, 73, 86 – 87, 98, broaching-to  175 Stowage  144
Rods, lashing  197–216 119 heave  187, 250 approval  150
ROKIA DELMAS m.v.  220 Shenzen, the port of  65 linear motions  187 BAPLIE  138, 150, 215
Roll motions  192 Ship  37 parametric rolling motion  176 bay-row-tier system  182
amplitude  192 accommodation  44–47, 159 pitch  187, 250 blind sector  45
Baltic Max  71
period  192 roll  171, 176 –177, 181, 187–188, 192 , 215 –216, blind sector loading  47
bending moments  169
Roof strength  253 253, 287, 306, 317 booking forecast  148
bilge system  157, 219
Russian stowage  184 rotational motions  187 castle stowage  47
buoyancy curve  169 –170
ISO gap  184 capacity at 14 metric tonnes  47 slamming  177 central planner  see Planner
cargo holds  156 springing  175, 178, 320 final stowage plan  147
S classification  157 surge  187 IMDG  147–151
SafMarine  33 crew  see Crew sway  187 ISO gap  184, 244
SAFMARINE AGULHAS m.v.  220 deck / hatch covers  157 synchronous rolling motion  176 limitations  184
Sagging  170 effective TEU capacity  47 whipping  175, 178, 320 line load  183
Saint Lawrence Seaway  83 engine room  158 yaw  187 loading list  149
fire  157, 217–218
Salvage  221, 225, 287 Shipping line booking system  see SLBS on deck  197–216
fire-fighting systems  219
Scheldt Rhine Canal  78 Shipping lines  162 planning  122
forward visibility requirements  45
Scope of cover  287, 289 alliance  see Alliance point load  183
fuel consumption  46
Sea-Land  22 , 24, 26, 28 –30, 33, 39 – 40, 91– 93, generations  38–47 collaboration  163 preliminary stowage plan  149
116 gross tonnage  161 conferences  163 pre-stow plan  149
SEALAND EXPRESS m.v.  220 grounding  220 –221 Russian stow  184
Seaspan Corporation  162 hogging  170 terminal planner  see Planner
hull  156
334 GARD GUIDANCE ON FREIGHT CONTAINERS INDEX 335

under deck  197 hub  see Hub Truck  101 W

verification  122 Hutchinson Port Holdings  117 cabover / flat nose  104 Wave
Stowage patterns of pallets  246 inland terminal  50, 65 – 66, 79, 95, 120, 300 kingpin  105 energy  175
Straddle carriers  125 –126, 135 –136 landside operation  123, 125 –126 Turnbuckle  206, 208 height  174
Strait of Malacca  37, 58, 60, 64, 306 lane storage  125 Turnpike doubles  103 length  174
Strength container structure  249 moves  125–134 Twin lift  129 mean  175
floor load  253 planner  see Planner Twistlock  203 median  175
panel loads  252 Port Newark Elizabeth Marine Terminal  115 conventional  203 mode  175
racking  253 Port of Singapore Authority  62 fullly automatic  205 period  174
requirements  249 productivity  117–118, 141 inventor  204 steepness  174
roof load  253 quay planning  141  see also Planning operations  210 Wear & tear  276
stacking  250 ranking  119 semi automatic  205 Weighing containers  248
Strength criteria, container  249 storage area  125, 128, 134, 298 Type code, container  270 legislation  249
racking force  253 storage on chassis  126, 132 Types, container  254 Weight of container  247
stacking  250 stowage planning  122  bulk container  267 floor load  249
Strength, side panels  252 see also Planning coffee container  258 gross weight  247
Stripping of container  121 TIL  117 dry cargo container  255 payload  247
Stuffing of container  121 TOS  see TOS fantainer  258 rating  247
Suez Canal  59 – 60 waterside area  62 , 123 flat rack / flat  267 tare weight  247
SUNRISE m.v.  220 Textainer  229 flexi-tank container  258 weight markings  271
Superfreezer  264 Thermal containers, reefers  260 general purpose container  254 Well car  93 – 94, 98 – 99, 311
SVENBORG MAERSK m.v.  225 clip-on unit  261 hangtainer  257 WESTERHAVEN m.v.  220
Swap body  96 controlled atmosphere  262 hard-top container  260 Whipping  175, 178, 320
Swap tank  265 description, terminology  260 integral reefer container  261 Width of container  245
Synchronous rolling  176 genset  261 open-top container  259 container dimensions  243
integral container  261 platform container  267 pallet-wide  245 –246
T Magnum  264 porthole container  261 stowage patterns of pallets  246
TAL International  229 porthole container  261 refrigerated container  260 tolerance  245
Tandem lift  129, 314 Superfreezers  264 tank container  265 Window
Tank container  265 Thermo King  263 thermal container  260 berth allocation  138 –139
Beam tank  265 Thermo King  263 ventilated container  258 berthing window agreement  140
Collar tank  265 TOFC, Trailer On Flat Car  91 confirmation  143
description and terminology  265 Tolerance container dimensions  243 U
Frame tank  265 height  246 Underrun Protection System  105, 107 Y
swap tank  265 length  244 Unified Requirement  172 , 190 YM GREEN m.v.  218
Ten tank  265 width  245 Union Pacific Railroad Company  91 YUSUF CEPNIOGLU m.v.  220
Tantlinger, Keith  204 TOS  137, 144, 317 UPS  54
Tare weight  247 Trailer  101–109 URIRC  278
TEN-T  68, 317 centre of gravity  108 US Lines  33
Ten tank  265 construction  108
Terminal dolly  105 V
APM terminals  see APM terminals fifth wheel coupling  105 Ventilated containers  258
block storage  125 full trailer  105 coffee container  258
cargo closing time  143 load securing  108 fantainer  258
cargo opening time  143 MAFI trailer  132 one door-off  259
central planner  147 motor boating effect  108 Vertical tandem lift  129
CMHI  147 poor load distribution  108 Vietnam War  29
Cosco Pacific  117 semi trailer  105 Volkerak locks  78
crane sequencing  117 stability  108
data control  122 Underrun Protection System  107
demurrage fee  151 Trans-European Transport Networks  68 
DP World  117, 119 see also TEN-T
ECT Delta terminal  116 Triton Container Int. Ltd.  229
ECT Delta Terminal  115 Trolley  123, 128 –130, 134, 293, 300, 310, 314
functions  121
gateway  see Gateway
GARD’S GLOBAL NETWORK

Lingard Limited Gard (Greece) Ltd Gard (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Trott & Duncan Building 2, A. Papanastasiou Avenue 72 Anson Rd
17A Brunswick Street 185 34 Kastella, Piraeus #13-02 Anson House
Hamilton HM 10 Greece Singapore 079911
Bermuda Singapore
Tel + 30 210 413 8752
Tel +1 441 292 6766 Email gard.greece@gard.no Tel +65 3109 1800
Email companymail@lingard.bm Email gardsingapore@gard.no
Gard (HK) Ltd
Gard AS Room 3505, 35F Gard (UK) Limited
P.O. Box 789 Stoa The Centrium, 60 Wyndham Street 85 Gracechurch Street
NO-4809 Arendal Central London EC3V 0AA
Norway Hong Kong United Kingdom
Tel +47 37 01 91 00 Tel +852 2901 8688 Tel +44 (0)20 7444 7200
Email companymail@gard.no Email gardhk@gard.no Email garduk@gard.no

Gard AS Gard (Japan) K.K. Gard Marine & Energy – Escritório

Skipsbyggerhallen Shiodome City Center 8F de Representação no Brasil Ltda
Solheimsgaten 11 1-5-2 Higashi Shinbashi Rua Lauro Muller 116 – Suite 2402
NO-5058 Bergen Minato-ku Botafogo, 22290-160,
Norway Tokyo 105-7108 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Japan Brazil
Tel +47 37 01 91 00
Email companymail@gard.no Tel +81 3 5337 7266 Tel +55 (21) 3544-0046
Email gardjapan@gard.no Email gardbrasil@gard.no
Gard AS
Støperigt 2, Aker Brygge Gard (Japan) K.K.
NO-0250 Oslo Vogue 406, Emergency Telephone Number
Norway 3-9-36 Higashimura, Imabari-City, +47 90 52 41 00
Ehime 799-1506,
Tel +47 37 01 91 00
Japan
Email companymail@gard.no www.gard.no
Tel +81 8 9835 3901
Oy Gard (Baltic) Ab Email gardjapan@gard.no
Bulevardi 46
FIN-00120 Helsinki Gard (North America) Inc.
Finland 40 Fulton Street
New York, NY 10038
Tel +358 30 600 3400
USA
Email gardbaltic@gard.no
Tel +1 212 425 5100
Email gardna@gard.no