WELCOME TO CS256 31427

Please begin to read your syllabus for this class when

you receive it.
Find answers to the following questions:
1. How many points will be deducted if my assignment
is not in a pocket folder?
2. Can I make up homework, quizzes, or tests?

1
 Monday, January 28
• TODAY
• Speaking Mathematically -- Sections 1.1 & 1.2 in your text
• Be sure you have a copy of the syllabus for the course
• NEXT CLASS
• Read your syllabus
• Study Sections 1.1 & 1.2 in your text
• Quiz 1 covers the homework assignment
• Complete the homework assignment #1:
– Exercise Set 1.1 #3, 5, 8, 10, 12 page 6
– Exercise Set 1.2 #1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 11 page 13
• AND: List the elements in #2c & #2d
– Obtain two pocket folders (they need not be new ones)
– Put your name and class on the outside in the upper right-hand
corner
– Place your homework assignment in one pocket
– Place the signed last page of your syllabus in the other pocket.

2
Variables
There are two uses of a variable. To illustrate the first use,
consider asking

Is there a number with the following property: doubling it

and adding 3 gives the same result as squaring it?

In this sentence you can introduce a variable to replace the

potentially ambiguous word “it”:

Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x2?

3
Variables
The advantage of using a variable is that it allows you to
give a temporary name to what you are seeking so that you
can perform concrete computations with it to help discover
its possible values.

To illustrate the second use of variables, consider the

statement:

No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater

than 2, then its square is greater than 4.

4
Variables
In this case introducing a variable to give a temporary
name to the (arbitrary) number you might choose enables
you to maintain the generality of the statement, and
replacing all instances of the word “it” by the name of the
variable ensures that possible ambiguity is avoided:

No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater

than 2, then n2 is greater than 4.

5
Example 1 – Writing Sentences Using Variables

Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more

formally.
a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum?

b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Solution:
a. Are there numbers a and b with the property that
a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

Or : Are there numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

6
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Or : Do there exist any numbers a and b such that

a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

b. Given any real number r, r2 is nonnegative.

Or : For any real number r, r2 ≥ 0.

Or : For all real numbers r, r2 ≥ 0.

7
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Three of the most important kinds of sentences in

mathematics are universal statements, conditional
statements, and existential statements:

8
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Universal Condition Statements

Universal statements contain some variation of the words

“for all” and conditional statements contain versions of the
words “if-then.”

9
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is

both universal and conditional. Here is an example:

For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

One of the most important facts about universal conditional

statements is that they can be rewritten in ways that make
them appear to be purely universal or purely conditional.

10
Example 2 – Rewriting an Universal Conditional Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square _____.

b. For all nonzero real numbers x, ____.

c. If x ____, then ____.

d. The square of any nonzero real number is ____.

e. All nonzero real numbers have ____.

11
Example 2 – Solution
a. is positive

b. x2 is positive

c. is a nonzero real number; x2 is positive

d. Positive

e. positive squares (or: squares that are positive)

12
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property
is true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential
because its second part asserts the existence of
something. For example:

Every real number has an additive inverse.

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse”

applies universally to all real numbers.
13
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

“Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of

something—an additive inverse—for each real number.

However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the

real number; different real numbers have different additive
inverses.

14
Example 3 – Rewriting an Universal Existential Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots _____.

b. For all pots P, there is ____.

c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that _____.

Solution:
a. have lids

b. a lid for P

c. L is a lid for P
15
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is

existential because its first part asserts that a certain object
exists and is universal because its second part says that
the object satisfies a certain property for all things of a
certain kind.

16
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

For example:

There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to

every positive integer:

This statement is true because the number one is a

positive integer, and it satisfies the property of being less
than or equal to every positive integer.

17
Example 4 – Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three

different ways:

There is a person in my class who is at least as old as

every person in my class.

a. Some _____ is at least as old as _____.

b. There is a person p in my class such that p is _____.

c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for

every person q in my class, p is _____.
18
Example 4 – Solution
a. person in my class; every person in my class

b. at least as old as every person in my class

c. at least as old as q

19
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Some of the most important mathematical concepts, such

as the definition of limit of a sequence, can only be defined
using phrases that are universal, existential, and
conditional, and they require the use of all three phrases
“for all,” “there is,” and “if-then.”

20
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

For example, if a1, a2, a3, . . . is a sequence of real numbers,

saying that

the limit of an as n approaches infinity is L

means that

for all positive real numbers ε, there is an integer N such

that
for all integers n, if n > N then –ε < an – L < ε.

21
 Exercise Set 1.1 #1
• Is there a real number whose square is -1?
• Is there a real number x such that x2 = -1? Or,
• Is there a real number x such that the square of x
is -1?
• Does there exist a real number x such that x2 = -1?

22
The Language of Sets
Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor (1845–1918). For most
mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as
Cantor did, simply as a collection of elements.

For instance, if C is the set of all countries that are currently

in the United Nations, then the United States is an element
of C, and if I is the set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the
number 57 is an element of I.

23
The Language of Sets

The axiom of extension says that a set is completely

determined by what its elements are—not the order in
which they might be listed or the fact that some elements
might be listed more than once.
24
Example 1 – Using the Set-Roster Notation

a. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}.

What are the elements of A, B, and C? How are A, B, and
C related?
b. Is {0} = 0?
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
d. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, –n}. Find U1,
U2, and U0.

Solution:
a. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2,
and 3. Therefore, A, B, and C are simply different ways
to represent the same set.
25
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. {0} ≠ 0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0,

whereas 0 is just the symbol that represents the number

zero.

c. The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the set whose
only element is 1.

d. U1 = {1, –1}, U2 = {2, –2}, U0 = {0, –0} = {0, 0} = {0}.

26
The Language of Sets
Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that
they are given special symbolic names. These are
summarized in the following table:

27
The Language of Sets
The set of real numbers is usually pictured as the set of all
points on a line, as shown below.

The number 0 corresponds to a middle point, called the

origin.

A unit of distance is marked off, and each point to the right

of the origin corresponds to a positive real number found by
computing its distance from the origin.
28
The Language of Sets
Each point to the left of the origin corresponds to a
negative real number, which is denoted by computing its
distance from the origin and putting a minus sign in front of
the resulting number.

The set of real numbers is therefore divided into three

parts: the set of positive real numbers, the set of negative
real numbers, and the number 0.

Note that 0 is neither positive nor negative.

29
The Language of Sets
Labels are given for a few real numbers corresponding to
points on the line shown below.

The real number line is called continuous because it is

imagined to have no holes.

The set of integers corresponds to a collection of points

located at fixed intervals along the real number line.
30
The Language of Sets
Thus every integer is a real number, and because the
integers are all separated from each other, the set of
integers is called discrete. The name discrete mathematics
comes from the distinction between continuous and
discrete mathematical objects.

Another way to specify a set uses what is called the

set-builder notation.

31
Example 2 – Using the Set-Builder Notation

Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set
of all integers, and Z+ the set of all positive integers,
describe each of the following sets.
a.

b.

c.

32
Example 2 – Solution
a. is the open interval of real numbers
(strictly) between –2 and 5. It is pictured as follows:

b. is the set of all integers (strictly)

between –2 and 5. It is equal to the set
{–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

c. Since all the integers in Z+ are positive,

33
Subsets
A basic relation between sets is that of subset.

34
Subsets
It follows from the definition of subset that for a set A not to
be a subset of a set B means that there is at least one
element of A that is not an element of B.

Symbolically:

35
Example 4 – Distinction between ∈ and
⊆
Which of the following are true statements?

a. 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3} b. {2} ∈ {1, 2, 3} c. 2 ⊆ {1, 2, 3}

d. {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3} e. {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}} f. {2} ∈ {{1}, {2}}

Solution:
Only (a), (d), and (f) are true.

For (b) to be true, the set {1, 2, 3} would have to contain

the element {2}. But the only elements of {1, 2, 3} are 1, 2,
and 3, and 2 is not equal to {2}. Hence (b) is false.
36
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

For (c) to be true, the number 2 would have to be a set and

every element in the set 2 would have to be an element of
{1, 2, 3}. This is not the case, so (c) is false.

For (e) to be true, every element in the set containing only

the number 2 would have to be an element of the set
whose elements are {1} and {2}. But 2 is not equal to either
{1} or {2}, and so (e) is false.

37
Cartesian Products

38
Example 5 – Ordered Pairs
a. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)?

b. Is ?

c. What is the first element of (1, 1)?

Solution:
a. No. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,
(1, 2) = (2,1) if, and only if, 1 = 2 and 2 = 1.
But 1 ≠ 2, and so the ordered pairs are not equal.

39
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

b. Yes. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,

if, and only if, and

Because these equations are both true, the ordered

pairs are equal.

c. In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the second
elements are both 1.

40
Cartesian Products

41
Example 6 – Cartesian Products
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}.
a. Find A × B

b. Find B × A

c. Find B × B

d. How many elements are in A × B, B × A, and B × B?

e. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Describe R × R.

42
Example 6 – Solution
a. A × B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}

b. B × A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}

c. B × B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}

d. A × B has six elements. Note that this is the number of

elements in A times the number of elements in B.

B × A has six elements, the number of elements in B

times the number of elements in A. B × B has four
elements, the number of elements in B times the number

of elements in B.
43
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

e. R × R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where both x

and y are real numbers.

If horizontal and vertical axes are drawn on a plane and

a unit length is marked off, then each ordered pair in

R × R corresponds to a unique point in the plane, with
the first and second elements of the pair indicating,
respectively, the horizontal and vertical positions of the
point.

44
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

The term Cartesian plane is often used to refer to a plane

with this coordinate system, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.1.

A Cartesian Plane
Figure 1.2.1
45