ENDOCORINE SYSTEM

 Composed of glands and cells

that secrete hormones
 Helps coordinate functions
between cells
 Critical for maintaining
homeostasis
 Helps regulate:
o growth and
development
o metabolism and water
balance
o reproduction and stress
responses
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
ENDOCORINE VS. NERVOUS 1. Growth Hormone (Somatotropin):
ENDOCORINE NERVOUS - Target tissues: muscles and bones
Chemical Signals only Chemical and Electrical Signals - Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and
Slower to respond and stop Responds and stops quickly organs
Hormones go everywhere Targets specific organs - Abnormalities:
Adapts relatively slow Adapts quickly o Too much GH causes gigantism
Sometimes widespread effects Usually local effects o Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
FUNCTIONS - Target tissues: thyroid gland
 Controls homeostasis - Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
 Maintains water balance - Abnormalities:
 Controls uterine contractions o Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
 Controls milk production o Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks
 Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium) 3. GONADOTROPINS
 Regulates metabolism and growth
 Regulates heart rate and blood pressure LH (Luteinizing hormone) for females:
 Monitors blood glucose levels - Target tissue: ovaries
 Aids the immune system - Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone production
 Reproductive functions
LH (Luteinizing hormone) for males:
MAJOR GLANDS - Target tissue: testes
Major glands that make up the endocrine system are: - Function: sperm maturation and testosterone production
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary gland FSH (Follicle-Stimulating hormone) for females:
- Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
3. Thyroid gland
- Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
4. Parathyroid gland
5. Adrenal gland FSH (Follicle-Stimulating hormone) for males:
6. Pineal gland - Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
7. Ovary - Function: sperm production
8. Testes
4. Prolactin:
ENDOCORINE VS EXOCRINE GLANDS
- Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
Exocrine glands
• release secretions to tissue by ducts - Functions: milk production
Endocrine glands 5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):
• ductless, release into blood - Target tissues: adrenal glands
- Functions: help the body react to stress
TYPES OF HORMONES 6. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH):
Water soluble - Target tissues: melanocytes of the epidermis
- includes proteins, peptides, amino acids - Functions: stimulates production of melanin
- most common - resulting in darkening the skin.
- Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone, and prolactin
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Lipid hormones: 1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
- includes steroids and eicosanoids - Target tissues: kidneys
- Ex. Luteinizing hormone, Follicle stimulating hormone, and - Functions: conserve water
androgens - Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus:
 o low ADH  DM Type II: Insulin independent, often found in obese
o kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute (watery) people, can be treated with diet but can turn into
urine type I
o can lead to dehydration and thirst
TESTES
Testosterone:
2. Oxytocin: - Target tissues: most tissues in the body
- Target tissues: uterus - Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ development
- Functions: and function
o increases uterine contractions during labor.
OVARIES
o enhances flow of milk in the mammary glands.
Estrogen/Progesterone:
- Target tissues: most tissues in the body
THYROID GLAND
- One of largest glands - Functions: involved in uterine and mammary
- Requires iodine to function - gland development and menstrual cycle 21
- Thyroid hormones: PINEAL GLAND
o Target tissues: most organs in the body Melatonin:
o Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for - Target tissues: hypothalamus Functions:
growth - plays a role in onset of puberty - controls circadian rhythms
- light affects its function

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Basic Processes of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion - taking food into the mouth.
2. Secretion - release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the
lumen of the GI tract.
3. Mixing and propulsion: churning and propulsion of food through
the GI tract.
4. Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
ADRENAL GLANDS
5. Absorption: passage of digested products from the GI tract into
- On top of each kidneys
the blood and lymph.
- 2 regions: Adrenal medulla and Adrenal cortex 6. Defecation: the elimination of feces from the GI tract.
1. Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):
 Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Organs of the Alimentary Canal
o Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells • Mouth
o Functions: released as part of “fight or flight” • Pharynx
response • Esophagus
2. Adrenal Cortex (outer portion): • Stomach
 Aldosterone: • Small intestine • Large intestine • Anus
o Target tissues: kidneys
Processes of the Mouth
o Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and
• Mastication (chewing) of food
K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with blood • Mixing masticated food with saliva
pressure and blood volume

PANCREAS
- Insulin:
o Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
o Functions:
 regulates blood glucose levels
 after meal glucose levels are high and
insulin is secreted
 extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

Abnormalities:
1. Diabetes mellitus (DM):
 Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
Symptoms: exaggerated appetite, excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue
 DM Type I: Insulin dependent (daily injections
required)
• Initiation of swallowing by the tongue • Allowing for the sense of Simple columnar epithelium
taste • Chief cells – produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens) •
Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid

Small Intestine
• Completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids,
• Absorbs about 90% of nutrients that pass through the digestive
system.
• Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter to the
ileocecal valve.
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery.

Duodenum - 25 cm
- receives chyme from the stomach and digestive secretions from
the
pancreas and liver
- from the stomach, the duodenum curves in a C that encloses the
pancreas
• Jejunum - 1 meter
- bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
• Ileum - 2 meters
- final segment of the small intestine and is also the longest - ends at
the ileocecal valve

Functions of the Large Intestine

• Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive the
contents of the colon into the rectum.
• Absorbing water, ions, and vitamins.
• Forming feces.
Mastication or Chewing • Defecating (emptying the rectum)
• Mechanical digestion of food to facilitate enzymatic digestion average length of about 1.5 meters and a width of 7.5 cm. • three
• Breaks food into smaller pieces parts:
• Mixes food with saliva (contains enzymes) (1) cecum - pouchlike first portion
• Brings food into contact with taste receptors and releases odors (2) colon - largest portion
(3) rectum - last 15 cm (6 in.) and the end of the digestive tract
Esophagus
• Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm Cecum
• Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) • Collects and stores materials from the ileum and begins the
process of compaction.
• Vermiform appendix is attached to the posteromedial surface of
the cecum = organ of the lymphatic system
- normally about 9 cm long, but its size and shape are quite variable.

Colon
• Larger diameter and a thinner wall than the small intestine
• Pouches, or haustra: permit the colon to expand and elongate.
• Four regions: Øascending colon Øtransverse colon Ødescending
colon Øsigmoid colon

Rectum
• Forms the last 15 cm of the digestive tract
• Expandable organ for the temporary storage of feces • Anus, or
anal orifice, is the exit of the anal canal

Accessory Digestive Organs

• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gall Bladder
Stomach
• Site for the partial digestion and absorption of food Pancreas
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins • Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Delivers chyme (acidic form of partially digested food) to the small • Pancreatic enzymes: ØPancreatic trypsin ØPancreatic lipase
intestine ØPancreatic amylase ØSodium bicarbonate

Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach Liver

• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm. •
Produce the Bile for emulsification of fats.
• Connected to the Gall bladder via the common hepatic duct

Gall Bladder
• the pear-shaped organ lying beneath the liver,
• where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the
small intestine.