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Structure and properties of the triangular numbers modulo m

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 Structure and properties of the triangular
numbers modulo m
L.K. Mork1 , Drew Rutherford2 , Keith Sullivan1 , Darin J. Ulness*2 ,
and Trenton Vogt1
1
Department of Mathematics, Concordia College, Moorhead, MN
2
Department of Chemistry, Concordia College, Moorhead, MN

July 11, 2019

Abstract
The structure and properties of the triangular numbers modulo m are
discussed. Several theorems regarding the triangular numbers modulo m
are proven. In addition, use is made of modern computing power to illus-
trate some unproven conjectures, which might be useful in applied settings
such as statistical mechanics or computer science. A brief discussion of
the self-similarity and scaling characteristics of the triangular numbers
modulo m is given. Application to harmonic analysis and, in particular,
to lacunary trigonometric systems is discussed.

1 Introduction
The set of triangular numbers (also called triangle numbers) has been the subject
of a long history of study [3, 5], of which major insight has been provided by
Gauss himself [6]. In spite of this, it is the observation of the current authors that
there is a dearth of literature focused on the triangular numbers mod m ∈ N+
[7]. The purpose of this work is to provide that focus. In addition to presenting
some theorems regarding the triangular numbers modulo m, use is made of
modern computing power to illustrate some unproven conjectures, which might
be useful in applied setting such as statistical mechanics or computer science.
Then a brief discussion of the self-similarity and scaling characteristics of the
triangular numbers modulo m is given. Finally, application to harmonic analysis
and, in particular, to lacunary trigonometric systems is discussed.

2 Structure
The most striking and important structural feature of the triangular numbers
mod m is their cyclic nature which holds for any m. The structure of the

1
triangular numbers modulo m is discussed in this section.

2.1 General structure

The general structure of the triangular numbers modulo m is captured in the
following theorems.
Definition 2.1. Triangular numbers. The set of triangular numbers is, for
k ∈ N,  
k(k + 1)
T ≡ T (k) = . (1)
2
Here T (k) denotes the k th triangular number. The set of triangular numbers
modulo m is denoted Tm ≡ {T (k) mod m}.
Theorem 2.1. The sequence of triangular numbers mod m is a 2m-cycle. And
the sequence is symmetric about the “midpoint” of the 2m-cycle. That is, the
last m elements are the reverse sequence to that of the first m elements.
Proof. The 2m-cycle part. Define 4 ≡ T (2m + j) − T (j). Then,

(2m + j)(2m + j + 1) (j)(j + 1)

4= − .
2 2
Expansion and simplification leads to

4 = 2m2 + 2mj + m.

Under modulo m, 4 mod m = 0.

The symmetry part. Again define a difference, but now 4 ≡ T (m + j) −
T (m − j − 1). This is written out as

(m + j)(m + j + 1) (m − j − 1)(m − j)
4= − .
2 2
Expansion and simplification leads to

4 = 2m + 2mj.

Under modulo m, 4 mod m = 0.

The last two sentences of the theorem as well as the last sentence of the proof
requires some context. Of course given a cycle, one could start the cycle at any
point thus breaking the symmetry and then the sequence would no longer begin
and end with zero. The context here is that the statements about symmetry
hold true when the cycle is initiated with the first member being T (0) = 0.
There are some situations when it is also natural to initiate the cycle with the
first member being T (1) = 1. In those situations, the cycle ends with two
consecutive zeros.
Two related theorem are the following.

2
Theorem 2.2. For odd values of m, the triangular numbers modulo m form an
m-cycle.
Proof. As in the previous theorem define a difference: 4 ≡ T (m + j) − T (j).
Now one can take advantage of the fact that 2 has an inverse when m is odd.
As such one can consider

24 = (m + j)(m + j + 1) − j(j + 1).

Expansion and simplification leads to

24 = m2 + 2mj + m.

Under modulo m, 24 mod m = 0. This implies 4 mod m = 0 (because 2 has

an inverse) and thus proves the assertion of the theorem.
Theorem 2.3. For even values of m, those triangular numbers modulo m that
are m elements apart in the 2m-cycle differ by m
2.

Proof. Again one defines a difference: 4 ≡ T (m + j) − T (j). This is written

out as,
(m + j)(m + j + 1) j(j + 1)
4= − .
2 2
Expansion and simplification leads to
m2 m
4= + mj + .
2 2
m2
writing 2 as m m
2 and applying modulo m yields 4 mod m =
m
2.

The 2m cyclic nature of the triangular numbers mod m form a natural set
of equivalence classes (indicated by underline). A given equivalence class is
denoted as τk = {T (k + 2mj) mod m|j ∈ (N )}.
As a couple of examples, T10 = {0, 1, 3, 6, 0, 5, 1, 8, 6, 5, 5, 6, 8, 1, 5, 0, 6, 3, 1, 0}
and T5 = {0, 1, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 3, 1, 0, }.
Definition 2.2. The 2m member set of
 equivalence
classes for the triangular
numbers modulo m is denoted by Tm = τk .
One notes Tm is an ordered set. Further, distinct τk may have the same value
as is easily seen in the T10 and T5 examples above. The collection of distinct
values is defined as follows.
Definition 2.3. The (unordered) set of unique values of τk is denoted as T̂m
(the underline will be dropped from the specific values).
So, T̂10 = {0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8} and T̂5 = {0, 1, 3}.
Considering again the ordered set Tm , we define multiplicity as follows.
Definition 2.4. Multiplicity. The multiplicity, λj , is the number of times j
appears in Tm .

3
 So, for T̂10 , λ1 = 4, λ3 = 2, etc.
Theorem 2.4. If m is odd, then Tm is further symmetric about m0 = m−1
2 .
That is, T (m0 − j) = T (m0 + j) where 0 < j < m0 ∈ N+ .
Proof. Define 4 ≡ T (m0 + j) − T (m0 − j). Then, by explicitly writing the
triangular summation out and subtraction like terms gives
4 = (m0 + j) + (m0 + (j − 1)) + . . . + (m0 + 1) + m0 + (m0 − 1) + . . . + (m0 − (j − 1)).
Match the terms on the right hand side as
m0 + j + (m0 + (j − 1)) + . . . + (m0 + 1)
+ (m0 − (j − 1)) + . . . + (m0 − 1) + m0
This gives
4 = m0 + j + 2(j − 1)m0 + m0
= 2jm0 + j.
Substituting in for m0 gives
4 = j(m − 1) + j = jm.
Modulo m gives 4 = 0.
Lemma 2.5. The triangle numbers modulo m are the values of a ∈ Zm that give
solutions to either of the following two congruence relations: i) n(2n + 1) = a
and ii) n(2n − 1) = a.
Proof. The k th triangle number is given by k(k+1)
2 . Note that k(k + 1) is always
even and breaks into two cases. First, when k is even, define n = k2 thus T (2n) =
n(2n + 1). Second, when k is odd, define n = k+1 2 thus T (2n − 1) = n(2n − 1).
T (k) mod m then becomes n(2n + 1) mod m or n(2n − 1) mod m. Thus
n(2n+1) = a mod m and n(2n−1) = a mod m define the congruence relations
in Zm which gives the allowed values of a ∈ Zm .
Theorem 2.6. The set of unique triangle numbers modulo m ∈ N+ , T̂m , are
all a ∈ Zm such that 1 + 8a mod m = n2 mod n for some n ∈ Zm . That is,
all a for which 1 + 8a mod m is a perfect square under the modulo.
Proof. One notes that from Lemma 2.5 the members of Tm will be all a such
that either n(2n + 1) = a or n(2n − 1) = a yield solutions. It turns out one can
more succinctly consider n(2n ± 1) = a and deal with both congruence relations
at once.
Considering the solutions to the quadratic congruence 2n2 ± n − a = 0, one
can write p
4n = ∓1 ± (1 + 8a).
p
The important part of this relation is (1 + 8a). The set of solutions to the
above congruence is given precisely by those values of a in which 1 + 8a is a
perfect square under modulo m. This completes the proof.

4
 At first glance, it seems as though the problem of finding the allowed a might
well degenerate into a number of “solvable” cases involving primes, powers of
primes, etc. as is often the case when considering quadratic congruences. This
is not the case here, however, because one is not looking for a solution to the
quadratic congruence per se, but only looking to determine if a particular a
yields a solution. These values will be precisely the set listed in Theorem 2.6.
As an illustrative example of the use of Theorem 2.6, consider the case of
modulo 10. Here the set of perfect squares are {0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9} while the set of or-
dered pairs (a, 1 + 8a mod 10) = {(0, 1), (1, 9), (2, 7), (3, 5), (4, 3), (5, 1), (6, 9),
(7, 7), (8, 5), (9, 3)}. The intersection of the perfect square set and the set
of 1 + 8a values is {1, 5, 9}. These values correspond to the set of a values
{0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8}. Thus T̂m = {0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8} (note the entries are not underlined
because the ordered set is not determined by the theorem). These are indeed
the values that appear for the triangular numbers modulo 10.
It is also noteworthy that Theorem 2.6 does not have a great deal of power
in the applied setting because it does not give a specific mechanism for finding
which a make up the τk , nor does it give the multiplicity of a. That is, T̂m loses
information about the ordered set Tm

Theorem 2.7. If m is even, there is an equal number of even and odd numbers
in the first m members of the 2m-cycle of theorem 2.1.
Proof. Let m = 2n and consider the size 2n set
  
(2n − j − 1)(2n − j)
A= mod 2
2

for j = 0 to j = 2n − 1. The role of modulo 2 is to make A simply a set of even

(0) and odd (1) numbers. Expanding the above expression gives
  
2 j(j + 1)
A= 2n + 2nj − n + mod 2 .
2

The first two terms vanish under the mod. Considering j(j+1) 2 mod 2 and
Theorem 2.1 yields the 4-cycle {0, 1, 1, 0, repeat}. Regardless of whether n is 1
or 0, there is the same number of even and odd entries in set A.

2.2 Specific structure

Some specific characteristics of the structure of the triangular numbers mod m
are discussed here. First, the case of m = 2j , where j ∈ N+ . Then the cases
involving m prime are presented.
Theorem 2.8. If m 6= 2n , n ∈ N+ then the first time 0 reappears is at a
position less than or equal to the m − 1 position. The converse is also true
Proof. Write m = 2j c and observe that 2j and c are relatively prime. Conse-
quently, the Chinese remainder theorem implies that there exists a nonzero a ∈

5
N+ such that a mod 2j+1 = 0 and a mod c = −1 and that a is uniquely deter-
mined modulo 2j+1 c. Since 2j+1 c = 2m, 0 < a ≤ 2m−1. Now, a mod 2j+1 = 0
and a + 1 mod c = 0. Thus, a(a + 1) mod 2j+1 c = a(a + 1) mod 2m. This
implies a(a+1)
2 mod m = 0. This leads to two cases: i) 0 < a ≤ m−1, then T (a)
mod m = 0 directly. ii) m < a ≤ 2m − 1. Here one can define b = 2m − 1 − a
so that 0 < b ≤ m − 1. Then
b(b + 1)
T (b) mod m = mod m
2
(2m − 1 − a)(2m − a)
= mod m
2
4m2 − 2m − 4am + a + a2
= mod m
 2 
2 a(a + 1)
= 2m − m − 2am + mod m = 0.
2

Finally, c = a or b appropriately such that 0 < a ≤ m − 1 and T (c) mod m = 0.

The converse follows quickly because if 0 reappears prior to the m−1 position
in the sequence then it has appeared at least twice overall (the first time being
at position 0 itself). Then by Theorem 2.9, m 6= 2n , as is shown next.
Theorem 2.9. All values of Zm appear once and only once in the first m
members of the 2m-cycle if and only if m = 2n , n ∈ N.
Proof. The if part of the proof will be by induction. In general, one is given that
m = 2n . For the base case m = 2 and under these conditions T (i) mod m = 0
or 1. Hence the base case is true. One then assumes it is true that all values
appear once and only once in the first m members of the 2m-cycle if m = 2j
and one consider the case when n = j + 1.
Let m = 2j and a, b ∈ Z such that 0 ≤ a ≤ m − 1 and b = 2m − 1 − a. This
implies m ≤ b2m − 1. Now define 4 ≡ T (b) − T (a). Then,

b(b + 1) a(a + 1)
4= −
2 2
(2m − 1 − a)(2m − a) − a(a + 1)
=
2
4m2 − 2m − 4ma + a + a2 − a2 − a
=
2
2
= 2m − m − 2ma.

Now 4 mod m = 0 and thus T (b) = T (a) for all 0 ≤ a ≤ m − 1 modulo m

and by the assumption of the j th inductive step all values appear once and only
once. However, 4 mod 2m 6= 0 for all 0 ≤ a ≤ m − 1. Since m ≤ b2m − 1, all
new values up to 2m − 1 must appear once and only once. Because 2m = mj+1 ,
this completes the if part of the proof.
The only if part follows from Theorem 2.8. Given: all values appear once
and only once in the first m members of the 2m-cycle. Let m = 2j m0 then by

6
Theorem 2.8 there exists an a such that 0 < a ≤ m − 1 and T (a) mod m = 0.
But 0 is also the first value. This poses a contradiction and completes the
proof.
Corollary 2.10. If m 6= 2n then at least one value has a multiplicity greater
than one (appears more than once). The converse is also true.

Proof. Follows immediately from the pigeonhole theorem and the converse fol-
lows from Theorem 2.9.

2.2.1 Theorems involving cases when m is prime

Lemma 2.11. If m is prime, then T (a) mod m 6= 0 for 0 < a < m − 1.

Proof. Assume T (a) = a(a+1)

2 = 0 mod m. Because m is prime, Zm is a field.
Together, this implies either a = cm or (a + 1) = cm where c ∈ Z. But this
contradicts the stipulation on a in the theorem.
m−1
Theorem 2.12. If m is an odd prime, then T (a) 6= T (b) for a < b ≤ 2 .

Proof. Begin with 4 ≡ T (b) − T (a) and since m is odd, we can consider 24 =
2T (b) − 2T (a). Writing out the triangle numbers gives,

24 = b2 + b − a2 − a
24 = b2 − a2 + b − a.

Expanding and factoring out a b − a yields,

24 = (b + a)(b − a + 1).

The imposed limits on a and b ensures (a + b) 6= m and (b − a + 1) 6= 0. Further,

because m is prime, Zm is a field, thus 4 =
6 0. This completes the proof.

Theorem 2.13. If m is an odd prime, then T (a) 6= T (a + 1) for 0 < a < m − 1.

Proof. Since m is odd, 2 has an inverse. Thus one considers 2T (a) = a(a+1) and
2T (a + 1) = (a + 1)(a + 2). These terms share (a + 1) as a factor. Consequently,
2T (a) and 2T (a + 1) must lie in either the same row or same column of the
+
multiplication Caley table. Since Zm is a field (multiplication in Zm forms a
group), T (a) 6= T (a + 1).

3 Properties
Several properties of the triangular numbers modulo m are collected and dis-
cussed in this section.

Theorem 3.1. If m is even, then (T (k) + T (k + 1)) mod m = (T (k + m) +

T (k + m + 1)) mod m.

7
Proof. As has been done often prior, define 4 ≡ T (k + m) + T (k + m + 1) −
T (k) + T (k + 1). Writing everything out and simplifying gives

4 = m2 + 2mk + 2m. (2)

Applying modulo m gives 4 = 0 and completes the proof.

m−1
Theorem 3.2. If m is odd, 0 ≤ a ≤ 2 , and b = m − 1 − a, then T (b)
mod m = T (a) mod m.
Proof. That m is odd implies that 2 has an inverse. With that, the direct route
is taken. Upon substitution,

2T (b) = b(b + 1)

leads to
2T (b) = (m − 1 − a)(m − a)
Expanding and simplifying gives

2T (b) = m(m − 1) + ma + a(a + 1),

which becomes 2T (b) = 2T (a) under modulo m. Since 2 has an inverse the
proof is completed.
Theorem 3.3. If m = q 2 where q is odd, then T q−1 mod m = T q−1



2 2 + jq
mod m, where j ≥ 0 ∈ Z.
Proof. Noting that m must be odd and using the fact that 2 has an inverse, the
direct route is taken.
       
q−1 q−1 q−1
2T + jq = + jq + jq + 1
2 2 2
 2    
q−1 q−1 q−1
= + + 2jq + jq + (jq)2
2 2 2
 2  
q−1 q−1
= + + jq(q − 1) + jq + q 2 j 2
2 2
(3)

The first two terms constitute 2T q−1

2 , while the last three become q 2 (j + j 2 )
2
which vanish under modulo m = q . Thus,
   
q−1 q−1
2T + jq = 2T , (4)
2 2

where upon multiplying by 2’s inverse completes the proof.

Theorem 3.4. If m is even, then T (m − 1) mod m = m/2.

8
Proof. The direct route is taken.

(m − 1)m
T (m − 1) mod m = mod m
2
m2 −m
= mod m + mod m
2 2
m −m
=m mod m + mod m
2 2
m
=0+
2

Theorem 3.5. For m = 2q where q is odd. a) T (q) mod m = 0 if m = 4n − 1

and b) T (q − 1) mod m = 0 if q = 4n + 1.

Proof. Both a) and b) will be proven simultaneously. Let a = m − j where

−q < j < q. Then, by Theorem 2.8, one can certainly set T (q − j) mod m = 0.
One then solves for j.

0 = T (q − j) mod m
(q − j)(q − j + 1)
= mod m
2
q 2 + q − 2qj + j 2 − j
= mod m
2
q(q + 1) j(j − 1)
= mod m + qj mod m + mod m
2 2
For this relation to hold for any q, either j = 0 or j = 1, because the last term
must always vanish. These give the two cases T (q) mod m = 0 and T (q − 1)
mod m = 0 respectively.
Consider the first case. This implies

(q)(q + 1)
= nm.
2
Since m = 2q, q(q + 1) = 4nq. Solving for q gives q = 4n − 1, which proves case
a).
Consider the second case. This implies

(q − 1)q
= nm.
2
Since m = 2q, (q − 1)q = 4nq. Solving for q gives q = 4n + 1, which proves case
b).
Corollary 3.6. In Theorem 3.5 for case a) T (q − 1) mod m = q and T (q + 1)
mod m = q + 1 and for case b) T (q − 2) mod m = q + 1 and T (q) mod m = q.

9
Proof. Case a). 0 = T (q) mod m = (T (q − 1) + q) mod m. So T (q − 1)
mod m = q. And 0 = T (q) mod m = (T (q + 1) − (q + 1)) mod m. So T (q + 1)
mod m = q + 1.
Case b). 0 = T (q − 1) mod m = (T (q) − q) mod m. So T (q) mod m = q.
And, 0 = T (q − 1) mod m = (T (q − 2) + (q − 1)) mod m. So T (q − 2)
mod m = q + 1.

One question that largely remains open is that of the size of Tˆm compared
to the size of Zm . This defines saturation.
|Tˆm |
Definition 3.1. Saturation. The saturation, sm = |Zm | .

One is able to prove conjectures about saturation in a couple of specific cases

but beyond that the conjectures are born out of computer calculations to very
high (often 30,000 or more) m values.
Conjecture 3.7. The saturation, sm = 1, when m = 2n .
Proof. This follows immediately from Theorem 2.9.
2m+1
Conjecture 3.8. The saturation, sm = 2 , for m an odd prime.
Proof. This follows directly from Theorems 2.12 and 2.4.
Conjecture 3.9. For prime numbers, p, p1 , and p2 ,
Pn
1 + j=1 (−1)(j+1) pj
sm = (5)
2pn
when m = pn and n is odd. And,
Pn j j
2+ j=1 (−1) p
sm = (6)
2pn
when m = pn and n is even. Finally,
p1 p2 + p1 + p2 + 1
sm = (7)
4p1 p2
when m = p1 p2
Conjecture 3.10. sm = s2n m .

4 Self-similarity and scaling

One method for generating the triangular numbers is to write out the positive
integers starting with k = 1 in rows of a table, where the first row contains only
one column. Each subsequent row contains one additional column. It is obvious
that the right most entries in such a table will be the triangular numbers. One

10
can now replace each integer in the table by is corresponding value modulo
m. Then the rightmost entries are the triangle numbers modulo m. The three
tables below are for m = 4 (left), m = 5 (middle), and m = 6 (right).

1 1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 1 2 4 0 1 4 5 0
3 0 1 2 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
3 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 0 5 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 0 1 1 2 3 4 0 1 4 5 0 1 2 3
2 3 0 1 2 3 0 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3
2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3
2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4

The vertical line in these tables demarks the first 2m cycle. The self-
similarity of the triangular numbers modulo m is nicely exposed in this ar-
rangement. One quickly notices that if the columns to the left of the vertical
line are deleted the resulting table is identical with the original.
Figure 1 is a visual representation of the scaling nature of the triangular
numbers modulo m. The graph shows the (grayscale normalized) T (k) mod m
(horizontal dimension) versus m (vertical dimension). The dark band running
from the origin to the point (1000, 500) is the manifestation of the terminal zeros
in each cycle. The alternating dark/light band running along the 45 degree line
is a manifestation of the odd (zero) and even ( m 2 ) value at the mid-point of the
cycle.
The repeated pattern appears in the upper right portion of the graph. One
sees a scaling of the visual features seen in the lower left portion of the graph.

5 Application to harmonic analysis

An interesting application of the triangular numbers mod m is the consideration
of the lacunary function
X∞
f (z) = z T (k) . (8)
k=0

Associated
 N with such a function is the sequence of partial summations, F ≡
f , where N ∈ N and
N
X
f (N ) (z) = z T (k) . (9)
k=0
iπ
The special cases of z = e gives rise to an interesting family of lacunaryn

trigonometric functions [4]. Here,

∞ 
 iπ  X T (k) X∞
iπ iπT (k)
fn e n = en = e n . (10)
k=0 k=0

11
Figure 1: Visual representation of the structure of the triangular numbers mod-
ulo m for 0 ≤ m < 1000. The vertical axis is the m value and the horizontal
axis is the value of T (k) mod m. The scaling structure is seen quite clearly as
the eye sweeps from the lower left corner to the upper right corner of the plot.
Gray represents low values and white represents high values (values normalized
by 1/m to show better contrast).

The triangular lacunary trigonometric function can be written as a Jacobi theta

function [1]. Writing,
∞
iπq 2
e 2n (k +k) .
X
fn =
k=0
Completing the square in the exponent, extending the dummy index to −∞ and
dividing by 2 yields,
∞
1 iπq X iπq 1 2
fn = e 8n e 2n (k+ 2 ) ,
2
k=−∞

where the summation is recognized at the second Jacobi theta function [1],
1 iπq  iπq

fn = e 8n ϑ2 0, e 2n . (11)
2
While the above relation is helpful in putting these triangular lacunary
trigonometric systems in a larger mathematical context, it is as interesting to
study the sequence of partial summations associated with the lacunary function.
The N th member of the associated finite summation is
N
 iπ  X iπT (k)
fn(N ) e n = e n . (12)
k=0

The 2π periodic nature of eix gives rise to T (k) mod 2n. Thus the machinery
of the above theorems can be brought to bear on these functions.

12
 A consequence of Theorem 2.1 suggests the sequence of finite sums of a
given n are 4n-cycles (bounded but not convergent). This suggests that a useful
representation of fn is a 4n member ordered set that consists of one cycle.
Definition 5.1. 4n-cycle representation. The 4n-cycle representation of fn is
iπT (k)
denoted by Fn . The auxiliary set of individual terms, e n , is denoted by En .
As a first example, consider f1 :
N
(N )
X
f1 eiπ = eiπT (k) . (13)
k=0

It is immediate to see that one need only consider T2 = {0, 1, 1, 0} to determine

that Fn = {1, 0, −1, 0}. f1 itself is the infinite summation, f1 = 1 + 0 − 1 + 0 +
1 + 0 − 1 . . ..
As a second example consider f4 . Here T4 = {0, 1, 3, 2, 2, 3, 1, 0} leads to
F2 = {1, 1 + i, 1, 0, −1, −1 − i, −1, 0}.
While not convergent, one can see that the fn are Cesàro summable and
Cesàro converge to zero [2].
Several theorems regarding fn follow quickly from the theorems in the above
sections.
Lemma 5.1. The j th element of En has its additive inverse at the 2n + j th
element of En 0 ≤ j ≤ 2n
Proof: Given that the j th element of En is eiπT (j)/n The 2n + j th ele-
ment is eiπT (2n+j)/n . Expanding and simplifying the expression leaves one with
−eiπT (j)/n . This is the additive inverse of the j th term.
Theorem 5.2. The sum of the elements of Fn is zero.
Proof. From Lemma 5.1, one notices that each term j in En will have its additive
inverse at the (2n + j)th term. From Theorem 2.1, one also recognizes the
(2n + j)th term =(2n − j)th term. Remembering that Fn is a 4n cycle, it is
clear to see that the sum of Fn will be zero at the 2nth term. Therefore the
j th term will have its additive inverse at the (2n + j)th term. This leads to the
summation of all the elements of Fn being zero.
Interestingly, this is related to the theory of Gaussian summations [8, 9, 10].

6 Conclusion
This work focused on the structure and properties of the triangular numbers
modulo m. The most important aspect of the structure of these numbers is
their cyclic nature. It was proven that the triangular numbers modulo m form
a 2m-cycle for any m. Additional structural features and properties of this
system were presented and discussed. The triangular numbers modulo m have

13
 self-similarity and scaling features which were briefly discussed as well. Finally,
an application to lacunary trigonometric systems was presented. It is hoped
that this work serves to collect some of the characteristics of the important case
of triangular numbers modulo m.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Douglas R. Anderson for valuable discussion. This
work was supported by the Concordia College Chemistry Undergraduate Re-
search Endowment and by the Concordia College Office of Undergraduate Re-
search.

References
[1] M. Abramowitz, I.A. Stegun, Handbook of mathematical functions New
York, Dover Publications, 1972.

[2] G. H. Hardy, Divergent series New York, AMS Chelsea Publishing, 1991.
[3] V. E. Hoggatt, Jr., M. Bicknell “Triangular Numbers” Fibonacci Quarterly,
12 (1974): 221–230.
[4] Y. Katznelson An introduction to harmonic analysis New York, Dover Pub-
lications, 1976.
[5] K. Ono, S. Robbins, P. T, Wahl “On the representation of integers as sums
of triangular numbers” Aequationes mathematicae, 50 (1995): 73–94.
[6] M. R. Schroeder Number theory in science and communication Berlin,
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[7] Z-W. Sun “On sums of primes and triangular numbers” J. Combinatorics
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[9] R. B. Paris “An asymptotic approximation for incomplete Gauss sums” J.

Comp. Appl. Math., 212 (2008) 16–30.
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(1988) 1–26.

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