Applied Poultry

Nutrition

By: Ing. Ernst Beitler

Trainer Poultry production and Animal Nutrition

1 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

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Table of contents

1 Feeding of local and commercial chickens 4

1.1 Type of feed and feed structure: 8
1.2 Nutritive value of feeds 9
1.3 Kinds of feed 10

2 Applied layers Nutrition 12

2.1 Feed requirement and feed consumption of layers 12
2.2 Practical WORKSHEET 14
2.2.1 Exercise: 17
2.2.2 STONES (grit) 19
2.2.3 Calcium 19
2.3 Rearing layers 21
2.3.1 General 21
2.3.2 Bodyweight 21
2.4 Weighing procedure 22
2.4.1 Variation in bodyweight and uniformity 23
2.4.2 Regular growth 25
2.4.3 Restricted feeding 25
2.4.4 Kind of feed during rearing period 26
2.4.5 Cereals or scratch feed 26
2.5 Feeding management of broilers in the tropics 27
2.5.1 Additional factors affecting feed efficiency 28
2.5.2 How can feed cost be reduced? 28
2.5.3 Diseases 29
2.5.4 Temperature affects feed consumption 29
2.6 Water requirements and water quality 30
2.7 Water intake 30
2.8 Water restriction 33
2.9 Water quality 33
2.10 General management considerations with water 35

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1 Feeding of local and commercial chickens
Rural poultry farmers are generally interested to increase the production of their local
chickens to obtain more eggs and /or more meat.
Management is very important if you want to increase production but the one of the most
important factors are the quantity and quality of feed given to the chickens.

Good quality and sometimes the right quantity of feed, which should be well balanced, will
give better performance.
Either more eggs or more meat or both.

The type of chicken is also very important.

Improved breeds don't produce well unless the feed given to them contains a proper nutrient
balance. Local chicks can survive under less than ideal feeding conditions.
Local chicks may produce quite well on locally produced feed because these birds produce
generally fewer eggs. They also will lay more eggs or produce more meat if the situation of
feed supply is improved.

Poultry feed is based on the following components:

Energy:
A chick needs energy to stay alive; this is called maintenance of the body, to walk, to breath
or to grow or to look for insects or to run away in case of danger.
Energy is also required for egg production.
Sources of energy are grains like maize, sorghum, wheat, oats, barley or rice e.g.
Energy can also be found in crop by-products after the starch is removed for human
consumption. By products are : Rice bran, wheat bran, millet bran, maize bran. Or by-
products of a 2nd polishing like wheat middling ,maize germ meal.
Another energy source are all kinds of root crops like cassava, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes.

Protein:
A chick needs protein to grow from day old chick to a real layer or broiler.
Also to produce eggs and to grow, to stay strong and healthy.
Protein sources are plant protein sources; soybeans, peas, cow peas or soybean meal.
Leaves of several plants. You can think of cassava leaves, cow pea leaves or legumes like
alfalfa or leucaena leaves e.g.
Also crop by-products of oil production like cotton seed cake, coconut cake or copra cake or
groundnut cake.
Protein coming from animal protein sources are also very important like fishmeal, blood meal,
meat and bone meal, insects or termites.

Vitamins and Minerals:

A chick needs various vitamins and minerals for all kinds of functions in the body to stay
healthy and for a good performance. Vitamins as a precaution for diseases and minerals to
develop strong bones and to produce a good quality egg shell, but also in body enzymes.

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Vitamins are found in fruits, fresh plants, sunlight, seeds and other products.
It is of great importance that vitamins are provided in a balanced way and in sufficient
quantities.

The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorus for the production of egg shell and
the growth of bones.

A good poultry feed is a mixture of all raw materials and well balanced.
All the ingredients are equally important and when one nutrient is missing there is a problem
in the body; with the digestion, lower production or a higher disease risk.
This means a good poultry feed has various ingredients and is a mixture of energy, plant
protein, animal protein and including minerals and vitamins .If a farmer wants to mix his own
feed but in an improved way than he needs to know how to process local available materials
and how much to use in a poultry feed.
Try to give a variation of energy sources because only maize or sorghum or millet in the diet
has also limiting factors.

For plant protein it is nice to pick green leaves, dry them in the sun and when you need them
grind or crush them to a powder and mix them with the other ingredients.

For animal protein it is possible to use blood meal.

Collect blood from a processing plant and boil it with a bit salt for about 5 minutes and than
dry it on a plastic or iron sheet in the sun.
Don't store it too long and give only small quantities because the taste of blood is very bad.

5 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

An other way of getting protein is to go to a processing plant or a slaughter house and collect
the rumen content of a cow or other ruminants.
Dry it in the sun and don't mix it through the feed but give it separately. (see illustration)

Worms, insects, ants or termites are a good source of protein but when scavenging time the
birds are catching them themselves.

Fish is a very eminent protein source but cooking drying in the sun and chopping before
feeding of fish is recommendable.

If birds are confined it is necessary to provide enough vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins can be supplemented by giving green leaves or fruits or germinated grains like maize
or sorghum. If you put maize in water for one night and the next 4 days you put it on a flat
surface in the dark than it is a good source of vitamins.

Bone meal is a good mineral source because it contains a lot of calcium and phosphorus.
Boil the bones for half an hour and then put them outside in the sun until they are dry and
then smash them up.
Never throw away egg shells of consumed eggs crush them and feed them to your layers.
Oyster shells(sea shells) or snail shells you could use as an calcium source too.

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You have to smash them up to small pieces and offer them separately or mix them in the
feed. (see illustration)

Salt should also be given regularly to keep the birds healthy.

In hot climates this is even more important than in colder environments.

Very important is the way how the feed is supplied in the feeder.
After grinding or chopping the feed (not to fine, also not to coarse for younger birds) it is
necessary to have a good feeder and don't throw it on the floor to avoid wastage.

If a farmer needs a larger quantity or a well balanced feed and against a reasonable price
than he should consider commercial feed.
Also the availability of raw materials and the negotiation about the price of the individual
materials and besides storage, planning and transport can make it more economical to buy
commercial feed.
It is always a matter of costs and revenues, also in feed preparation.

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1.1 Type of feed and feed structure:
Mash: Is the product after mixing several raw materials.
The mixing can be done before or after grinding. (single or mixed grinding)

Crumbs: Is the product after pressing mash into pellets and then a special way of
breaking the pellets. This is done primarily to increase the feed intake (density
of nutrients) and growth of young and also sometimes grown up birds. This
crumb feeding is also done to avoid feed wastage and de-mixing of a feed. The
crumb (particle) size is 2 to 3 mm. maximum. Crumbled feed is normally more
expensive than mash feed.

Pellets: Is the product after pressing the mash into bigger parts.
For poultry between 2.5 and 6.0 mm. The pellets used for broilers are broken
into shorter pieces because young broilers need a smaller particle size.
Positive effects of pellets and crumbles:
- Increased feed consumption.
- higher density of nutrients
- Less feed wastage and de-mixing of feed.
- Reduced bulkiness of feed.
- Feeds are more homogeneous.
- Destroys toxic organisms. (mycotoxins)
- Facilitates handling.
Negative effect:
- Price of feed.

It is advisable to feed pellets to all poultry for meat production but pellets should be available
in the country or region. Ducks and layers in hot environments can be fed pellets too to
increase nutrient intake.
Size of particles
Birds prefer big, rounded, bright coloured particles. The size of the feed particles can be
determined at the feed mill. A coarsely ground product is recommendable for poultry. The
screen size of a hammer mill should be 3-8 mm for chicks, 8-10 mm for pullets and 10-15
mm for layers. If a feed is too dusty, feed intake will be slow and difficult.
The particle size after grinding is normally 0.7-1.0 mm for chicks, 10.-1.5 mm for pullets and
1.5-2.0 mm for layers. The structure of dusty feed can be improved by adding a bit of
molasses or fat. Whether a poultry keeper chooses mash or crumbs or pellets also depends on
the feeding equipment he uses and the environmental temperature. Some equipment is more
suited to crumbs than to mash. Another advantage of crumbs and pellets is that the birds are
not able to select certain ingredients in the feed while leaving the others. It is especially
important to avoid this when chain-feeders are used or when components are included which
make the feed dusty.

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1.2 Nutritive value of feeds
The figures given below should be considered as guidelines and may be applied with flexibility.

Optimum nutritive values of the most common poultry feeds, also called the nutrient requirements

ME/kg Maximum
c.
Feed MJ Kcal cp c.fat fibre lysine meth M+C Ca P Pav
Chick 11.7 2800 20.0 6.0 5.0 1.00 0.45 0.80 1.0 0.7 0.50
Grower 11.7 2800 16.0 6.0 6.0 0.80 0.32 0.70 1.0 0.6 0.35

Layer:
complete 11.5 2750 16.0 8.0 8.0 0.70 0.28 0.60 3.8 0.7 0.50
High Energy 11.9 2850 17.0 8.0 7.0 0.75 0.36 0.65 4.0 0.7 0.50
Low calcium 11.3 2750 16.0 8.0 8.0 0.70 0.28 0.60 2.5 0.7 0.50

Broiler:
starter 12.5 3000 22.0 9.0 5.0 1.20 0.50 0.90 1.0 0.8 0.50
finisher 1 13.4 3200 20.0 10.0 5.0 1.00 0.45 0.80 1.0 0.7 0.50
finisher 2 12.9 3100 19.0 10.0 5.0 0.95 0.44 0.76 0.9 0.7 0.50

Parent stock:
Broiler.p.stock 11.3 2750 16.0 8.0 9.0 0.70 0.30 0.60 3.2 0.7 0.45
Layer.p.stock 11.5 2750 16.5 8.0 8.0 0.70 0.28 0.60 3.8 0.8 0.50
Pre-breeder 11.5 2750 16.0 8.0 8.0 0.70 0.30 0.60 2.0 0.65 0.40
Cocks> 22 11.5 2750 13.0 8.0 8.0 0.48 0.22 0.40 0.9 0.65 0.40
wks
Ducks:
starter 11.8 2825 20 7.0 5.0 1.00 0.50 0.80 0.9 0.6 0.35
Finisher 12.3 2950 16 8.0 5.0 0.90 0.40 0.70 0.7 0.5 0.32

Note: Energy is expressed per kg of feed; other nutrients as % of feed.

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1.3 Kinds of feed
Feed for Rearing pullets:
- Chick feed: Feed that is fed to layer chicks up to the age of six or seven weeks.
- Grower feed: Grower feed is gradually substituted for the chick feed (no sudden
changes). Grower feed may be fed to pullets until the point of lay
Layer feed: Layer feed is fed from the point of lay until the end of the production
period. Different kinds of feed can be used if phase feeding is applied.
- "Complete" Means that it contains all nutrients and that there is no need to supply
the birds with additional feed stuffs.
- "HE" Means High Energy; this feed is especially meant for high producing
layers and layers having a very low feed intake due to high
environmental temperatures.
- "Low calcium" Means that it contains all nutrients except not enough Calcium and
that should be supplemented in the form of oyster shells or limestone
or ground bones.
Broiler:
- Starter Broiler starter is fed to broilers up to the age of 2-4 weeks.
- Finisher 1 Broiler starter is gradually changed to broiler finisher. If only one feed
is used during the whole growing period, the nutritive value should be
the average of the starter and finisher.
- Finisher 2 without
coccidiostats At least 5 days before slaughtering it is advisable to give a finisher
feed without coccidiostats (if you use it in the normal finisher) to avoid
residues of the coccidiostats on the meat that is going to be consumed.
Parentstock:
- pullet feed Parent stock rearing pullets consume until 18 weeks of age the same
feed as the layer pullets. Only feeding method is different.
- Pre-breeder feed From 18- 20 weeks until point of lay or at 23 weeks of age to supply
them if possible a pre-breeder feed.

- breeder feed This feed is meant for heavy birds and is fed to them from
point of lay onwards the end of lay.

- Layer Parent stock Parent stock birds for white and brown layers should receive the same
feed and feed composition as fed to commercial/ hybrid layers.

- cock feed From 20 weeks of age it is possible to supply special cock feed when
separated sex feeding is practised.

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B. Name of the feed - Feeding method - Feed quantity

Feed quantity per bird

Name of the poultry period Feeding
feed (in method Daily Total consumption
weeks) (in g.) in lifetime (in kg)
birds bodyweight is
Light-Medium-Heavy
Chick feed Chick 0-8 Ad Lib 0 – 50 1.5 -2- 2.5
1
Grower light 9 - 18 Ad Lib 50 - 90 6.5
Grower feed
2 Grower 9 - 18 Mostly Ad 50 - 100 8
Medium Lib
Grower Heavy 9 - 22 Restricted 50 – 100 10
(♀♀+♂♂)
Layer, mash 110 - 130 40 - 45
3 low calcium (+ shells)
Complete layer 19 - 80 Ad Lib or 110 - 130 40 - 45
4 feed Layers (± 15 controlled
months)
High energy 90 - 110 34 – 40
5 layer feed
Broiler start- Broilers 0-2 Ad Lib 0 - 75 1
6 er feed
Broiler finish- Broilers 2–7 controlled or 95 - 160 2-3
7 er feed ad-lib
8 Broiler finisher Broilers At least controlled or 170 1
without last 5 days ad-lib
coccidiostats
Broiler breeder Broiler 23 - 65 Restricted1 140 – 170 45
9 feed parent stock (9 months)
Layer breeder Layer 19 - 65 Ad Lib 110 - 130 35 - 40
10 feed parent stock
11 cock feed cocks 20 - 65 Restricted2 125-140 40

1 Follow the guidelines of the breeding company when possible

2 Follow the guidelines of the breeding company when possible

11 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

 2 Applied layers Nutrition

2.1 Feed requirement and feed consumption of layers

A layer needs feed for:
- Maintenance of the body = feed for maintenance.
- Egg production = feed for production.

Feed for maintenance mainly depends on:

- Bodyweight (type of bird)
- Medium type is brown or black feathered bird
- Light type is a white feathered bird
- Heavy type is a white feathered broiler parent stock bird
- Energy value of feed
- 1 Mj = 239 Kcal.
- 1 Kcal= 4.184 KJoule
- Ambient temperature
- Temperature in the birds surrounding area.(environmental temperature)
- Housing system
- different housing systems like full Litter, slatted floor or in cage system.
( a criteria is exercise or no exercise).

Feed for production depends on:

- Laying percentage.
- Egg weight.(starting point/ assumption 62 g/ egg)

Calculation method for feed requirement and feed consumption of layers:

Assumptions for calculation:

- Body weight of the bird 2 Kg
- Ambient temperature 20°C
- Energy value(ME level) 2750 Kcal.
- Feed requirement for maintenance is 70 grams per bird per day based on exercise.

Corrections:
- Per 50 grams body weight difference higher or lower than 2 kg bodyweight
respectively increase or decrease the standard with 1 gram per bird per day.
- Per 1°C temperature higher or lower than 20°C respectively decrease or increase the

standard with 1.5 grams per bird per day.

- Per 50 Kcal difference higher or lower than 2750 Kcal ME respectively decrease or
increase the standard with 1 gram per bird per day.

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- Birds housed in cage system: subtract from the standard 5 grams per bird per day.

Feed for egg production:

Per 1 % laying percentage per bird per day the requirement is 0 .7 grams of feed per bird
per day. Based on an average egg weight of 62 gram.

Total feed requirement = feed for maintenance + feed for production.

Feed consumption of layers in general depends on different factors:

- Age of the birds.
- Type of the birds.
- ME of the feed.
- Feed structure (fine, coarse, crumbs, pellets)
- Temperature.
- Feeding space (standard is 10- 12 cm/bird for a long feeder or 4 cm/bird for a round feeder)
- Health of the birds.
- Water quality and quantity.
- Housing system.

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2.2 Practical WORKSHEET

Body weight: Weigh 10 birds and calculate the average bodyweight per bird
...……Kg : 10 = …….... Kg average bodyweight per bird.

Laying percentage: Total number of eggs in 7 days ....... eggs.

Average number of layers is: ...... birds.
(average number of layers is: Add the number of present hens at the
beginning of the week and the end of the week and divide the sum by
2.)

Laying percentage = total eggs x 100

7 days x av.nr.of layers

......eggs x 100 = ......%

.....days x ...... av.nr.of layers

Egg mass: Weight a sample of eggs.

......Kg : ...... eggs = ....... grams.(average egg weight)

Egg mass per bird per day is:

laying percentage x av.egg weight
100
.....% x .....gr = ...... Egg mass.
100

Feed intake: Total feed intake the last 7 days is .....Kg.

Feed consumption per bird per day is:

.……...Kg of feed x 1.000 = ...... gr/bird/day.

......days x Av.number of layers

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The calculated feed requirement for a layer:

Calculation worksheet
Feed for maintenance in grams per bird per day
correction factor in grams
Standard - 70
Correction body weight
Correction temperature
Correction housing system
Correction ME level
Total feed for maintenance
Feed for production in grams per bird per day
Egg prod. X 0.7 g feed -
Total calculated feed requirement per bird per day
Feed for maintenance & feed for production
Real Feed distributed
Conclusion feed given too high3
feed given too low

3 Tick or circle the right answer.

15 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

The possible causes when the feed intake (feed supplied) is:

Too high:
1. Human errors (recording or weighing)

2. High egg weight (much heavier than 62 g)

3. Parasites (endo-parasites, ecto-parasites)

4. Luxurious consumption

5. Wastage

6. Lost eggs (without shell)

7. Feed accumulation

8. Rats, mice, wild birds

Too low:
1. Human errors (wrong weighing or recording)

2. Low egg weight (much lower than 62 g/egg)

3. Palatability of feed (moulting)

4. Water quality ( not clean)

5. Run system (Free range)

6. Feeding kitchen leftovers

7. Birds going to top production

8. Not enough given

9. Disease problems.

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2.2.1 Exercise:
The average body weight of 50 layers in a deep litter housing system is 1.7 Kg at an age of 27
weeks. The average ambient temperature is 24 C, the number of eggs collected was 280 in a
week with an average egg weight of 58 g. The amount of layers feed given during a week is
37.5 Kg, with 2650 Kcal ME, Cp 16% , c.fibre 5%,c.fat 3.5% and 3.5% Ca.

a. How much was the feed consumption too high or too low per bird per day compared
with the requirement per bird per day.
b. Mention 4 reasons for this difference ?

Calculation worksheet
Feed for maintenance in grams per bird per day
correction factor in grams
Standard - 70
Correction body weight
Correction temperature
Correction housing system
Correction ME level
Total feed for maintenance
Feed for production in grams per bird per day
Egg prod. X 0.7 g feed -
Total calculated feed requirement per bird per day
Feed for maintenance & feed for production
Real Feed distributed
Conclusion feed given too high4
feed given too low

Reasons:

4 Tick or circle the right answer.

17 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

In countries with a tropical climatic conditions, where during daytime temperatures raise
above 28°C, it's is not possible to maintain a high feed consumption and also for the laying
hen to maintain high egg production.
Increasing feed intake under this circumstances is not easy but sometimes possible by:
- Providing feed at the proper time of day.
This means early in the morning and late in the afternoon when it is cooler.

- Stirring the feed frequently.

This means to move two or three times a day with your hand through the feeder or
run an automatic system and the birds start eating again and it will increase feed
intake.

- Providing cool and fresh water.

This means that at least two times a day but even better three times a day a supply of
fresh and cool water will increase feed intake. Cool water means a few degrees under
the environmental temperature. If a bird doesn't drink it will also not eat. It is possible
with ice cubes to cool water for drinking.

- Make the feed wet.

This is done to make the feed less dusty and easier to consume only in hot climates
after a few hours the feed is not tasty any more.

- Providing feed in pellet form.

If possible it is advisable to give pellets to layers because a pellet is easier to consume
and less dusty so the feed intake in total will increase, nutrient density of a pellet is
higher than of mash also, and the objective is met.

One other solution:

- Feeding high energy diets.
A bird needs a certain amount of energy during a day, so when there is more energy
in the feed it is known that with a lower feed intake the bird can reach its
requirement.

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2.2.2 STONES (grit)
Stones or grit is made up of small broken stones or pebbles which do not dissolve in the
digestive tract and which have the function of grinding in the gizzard. It isn't always necessary
to include grit in the diet. However, grit should be fed if:
- the birds are having digestive problems (diarrhoea) with no apparent reason;
- the birds are being reared on litter, where they might consume some litter particles.
(most of the time seen because there is lacking something in the feed)
- the birds are fed cereals in addition to the normal feed.
- If you notice that there is cannibalism you can give the birds a bucket with sand mixed
with stones and in some cases the problem will be solved.
- To solve problems with cannibalism some other factors have to be considered
also like, level of tryptophan in the feed, light intensity and colour, dustiness of
the feed, birds per m2, breed of the birds, stress, etc.

The quantity of grit given to the birds is 450 g. per 100 birds every two weeks.
Birds 4 to 10 weeks old 450 g. per 100 birds grower size grit.
Birds 10 to 20 weeks old or older birds 450 g per 100 birds hen size grit.
If it is not possible to weigh the grit you supplement 1 day a week ad libitum grit to be sure
that you do everything to solve the digestive problems.

2.2.3 Calcium
Calcium is very important for young and older birds but specially for layers it is known that
they need enough calcium for egg shell formation.
If is layer is receiving sufficient calcium it has a positive influence on egg shell quality.

There are two possibilities:

a. One gives complete layer feed to the birds. This means the total Ca requirement of
the bird is in the compound feed. The most easy way to give.
b. One gives low calcium layer feed to the birds, so there is only a basic calcium
quantity in the feed mixture and the rest of the requirement of Ca is given separately
in the form of bone ash, shells or limestone.

The first possibility is the most simple, but also the least attractive, because there are two
objections:
1. We must add than so much powder form limestone that the feed becomes too dusty
and the feed intake will be lowered because it increases the overall fineness, so higher
% Ca required again.
2. The feed intake will be during day time and so the Ca comes available during day time
in the blood, while the egg shell is made more often in night time. We don't have a
regular and direct egg shell formation. The bird is storing the calcium, in the form of
calcium phosphate, in the bones, so called medullar leg bone reserve, to redeposit it
during night from the bones to use it for egg shell formation.

19 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

We have to learn the second possibility and to work practically with this system. You calculate
the Ca deficiency and how much shells or limestone must be add to meet the calcium
requirement. A too high intake of shells or limestone is bad for layers (kidney damage
resulting in wet manure during the laying period) and the egg production (lower feed intake)
and there is more chance that the birds lay more eggs with a deformed egg shell.

The Ca requirement per layer per day is 4.6 g. with a laying % of 100.
The actual Ca requirement is laying % x 4.6 g/bird/day.
100

How much Ca does the layer receive through the feed?

For that calculation we have to know:
1. % Ca in the feed
2. The feed intake/bird/day.

The difference between requirement and intake can be given in the form of shells, which
contain about 38 % Ca. (absorption, digestibility is included in the 4.6 g)

100
Ca deficiency x = quantity shells / bird / day in grams.
38

It is known that it is better to mix 2 calcium sources in the feed for layers, like limestone and
oyster shells. The difference in particle size is the main factor for this approach.

Exercise:
45 layers
270 eggs in a week
35 Kg feed intake per week
2.5 % Ca in the layer mash.

Questions:
1) How much shells will be used per week?
2) How much grit will be used per week?

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 2.3 Rearing layers

2.3.1 General
The aim of the rearing period is to produce a layer which will be able to produce a high
number of good quality eggs during its production period with a low feed conversion rate. The
following processes take place during rearing:
1. development of the skeleton, muscles and organs;
2. development of resistance against diseases;
3. development of laying capacity.

The above processes take place simultaneously and they should be in accordance with each
other i.e. there should be a well-balanced growth to maturity. A way of controlling the growth
process is the monitoring of the body weight development of a flock.

2.3.2 Bodyweight
Not only the age, but also the bodyweight of a pullet has an influence on the moment the first
egg is laid (point of lay) and on its total production. The pullet will only start laying after a
certain minimum weight has been reached. It is known that layers which enter production
with a low bodyweight remain light during production and layers which enter production with a
higher bodyweight remain heavy.

There are three aspects of weight that are important:

1. the average bodyweight of the flock;
2. the variation in weight within flock;
3. the development of the weight over time: how do the birds reach the final weight?

The breeding company indicates what the optimal weight for pullets at the end of the rearing
period is (i.e. at 18 weeks). If the average body weight of a flock differs too much from the
optimal weight given by the breeding company, it may have a detrimental effect on
production.

If birds are too heavy:

- a larger amount of feed is needed for maintenance resulting in a higher feed
conversion ratio (fcr);
- the point of lay comes earlier and there is a greater chance of pullets suffering a
prolapse and of them laying shell-less eggs.

If birds are too light:

- they start production later;
- eggs are light;
- less eggs are laid in total.

21 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

2.4 Weighing procedure
Start weighing when hens are 6 to 8 weeks of age.
- Weigh 2% of the hens in each pen/ house; with a minimum of 50 birds per pen/house.
- Weigh every week, on the same day, at the same time, preferably before feeding in
the morning, or 6 hours after feeding.
• make sure you weigh at the same time of day each time you weigh.
- Take the sample in the middle of the house. If the house is more than 15m long, take
two samples: one at the front and one at the rear of the house (both samples should
contain at least 25 birds).
Weigh the hens individually and register the body weights individually if the weighing
is done to determine uniformity.
- If you need the average bodyweight only for adjusting the feed quantity per week
than it is possible to weigh 10 to 12 birds in a crate at the same time until all the birds
are weighed within the catching screen.
(Don't forget to subtract the weight of the empty crate from the total weight.)
- Males (sexing failures in layer pullets or in broiler parent stock) are not included in the
weighing procedure. They are expected to take care of themselves, at least in mixed
rearing. If rearing is done separately, it is advisable to weigh the males in the same
way as the females only the sample will be smaller.

For weighing to determine uniformity of the flock, a scale and the body weight record sheet
are needed.
- Hang or place your scale in the house, close the place where you collect your hens.
- Collect the required number of hens using the catching screen.
- Remove the males from the screen 6 hens are more quiet!
- Take one hen out of the screen and weigh her. This can be done in two ways:

1. With a rope
Take a rope of approx. 50 cm long.
Take the hen by one leg and turn the rope around the leg in such a way that
the loose end crosses over the fixed end. Hold the hen in one hand slowly
lower the hen. Now the rope slips around the leg. The hen can now be let go
and when she is hanging with her head downwards at the weighing scale you
can read the body weight.

2. With a cone
• Hang a weighing cone (both sides open) on the scale. The distance
between the cone and the scale should be big enough to allow the bird to
be put in the cone!
• Put one hen in the cone, head downwards!
• Read the body weight!

Whatever method is used, it is absolutely necessary for the hen to hang as quietly as
possible. Therefore hold the hen by the thigh and not by the shank!

22  PTC+
 - After the body weight has been recorded, release the hen quietly and place her on the
floor again. Do not drop her from a height of 100 cm as this can be the cause of foot
and/or hock joint injuries.
- Weigh all the hens you have caught in the catching screen!
- The body weight is recorded as accurately as possible, with an accuracy of up to 10-20
grams.
- Think of the weight of the rope or cone, be sure to subtract it from the total weight in
order to be left with the body weight.
On some scales it is possible to set the needle back to zero, to eliminate the weight of
the rope or cone.

2.4.1 Variation in bodyweight and uniformity

The figure that is given for the uniformity of a flock indicates how much the bodyweight of
individual animals differs from the flock average. It is a measure of variation.
An example of good uniformity would be: 80% of the birds have a bodyweight that does not
deviate more than 10% from the average bodyweight of the flock.

If the uniformity is too low, it may have a negative effect on the performance of a flock during
the laying period:
- irregular start of production;
- peak production later than expected and lower than expected.
Good uniformity is not a guarantee for good technical results but rather an indication of the
quality of rearing. One cannot expect excellent performance from a flock with a low
uniformity. At the layer farm the flock will be treated as a single unit, which is only really
possible if all the birds are at the same stage of development at the end of the rearing period.

23 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

 Bodyweight and Uniformity sheet

Farm : at : House :

Born : Date of weighing : Age :

Number of birds : Standard bodyweight : grams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Number Total weight

00 00
20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

00 00

Total
Number of animals having a bodyweight of Average weight
between 90 and 110 % : 110 % average weight
Uniformity : % 90 % average weight

24  PTC+
2.4.2 Regular growth
In general, the body weight development of the birds should follow a regular line. Breeding
companies indicate how heavy their pullets should be at the end of each week in the breeding
period on average. Originally, the companies recommended a regular weight gain up to 18
weeks of age. Nowadays, views on this matter have changed and in order to keep feed costs
low, the companies recommend a low growth rate until 14-15 weeks of age. At 15 weeks of
age the reproductive organs start to develop. In order not to disturb this development, no
further restricted feeding should be practised after the birds reach the age of 15 weeks.
Additional reasons for practising partial feed restriction between 6 and 15 weeks of age and
switching to ad lib feeding after the birds reach 15 weeks of age are:
- stimulation of early maturity(development of the reproductive organs).
- decrease of weight variation within the flock (increase uniformity);
- faster recovery from vaccinations.

2.4.3 Restricted feeding

In some cases medium type layers(brown or black) and always in broiler parent stock rearing
pullets and broiler parent stock layers restricted feeding is practised
The growth rate should be regular. The feeding programme is directly related to weight gain.
The breeding company can only give an indication of the amount of feed that is to be fed per
day because this amount largely depends on factors like feed quality, climate, housing
system, health, management etc.
If the average body weight differs from the standard, one should adjust the amount of feed
being fed, however, the amount should never be reduced! If the birds are becoming too heavy
too fast, keep the amount of feed being fed at the same level until the average bodyweight is
standard again.

When restricted feeding is being practised, it is advisable in moderate climates to restrict

water intake as well because if you don't, the birds tend to fill their stomachs with water
resulting in wet droppings and low utilisation of the feed. In tropical countries water restriction
is not possible, birds need to drink water to cool the body. Under moderate/normal conditions
you can generally cut off the water supply one hour after the birds have finished the feed. If
the ambient temperature is high, the birds should have water available longer. If in the
afternoon (or 4 hours after feeding)the crop is feeling soft then it is not necessary to give
more water but if the crop is feeling hard more water is needed. If the crop is feeling watery
then the next day the water supply should be closed earlier.

25 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

2.4.4 Kind of feed during rearing period
The nutrient requirements of the chick and pullet change with age. The same holds for feed
intake. The nutritive value of the feed should be adapted to the needs of the bird. In general,
the rearing period is simply divided into two stages. Also phase feeding in rearing pullets is
known and than we recognise 4 or 5 different stages with matching feed compositions.

For the nutritive value of the different kind of feed you have to consult the table on one of the
first pages of this book.

2.4.5 Cereals or scratch feed

In layer flocks on floor/ litter system it is advisable to supply some cereals or scratch feed.

Feeding cereals as part of their ration has two reasons:

- Keeping the birds busy by spreading the cereals over the litter. The birds will have to search
and scratch for the grains, and this will create a drier litter, additionally.
- The birds get extra filling of their stomach, whole cereals contain Crude fibre, which makes
them more satisfied and quiet. In order to restrict the supply of nutrients, one should use
cereals with a high fibre content for example oats or paddy (hulled rice). Chopped forage will
have the same effect but the intake might be more variable.
• Also in countries where animal welfare has a high priority cereals are used once a day to
contribute to natural behaviour of birds.
Oats can be used and has the advantage that it is high in vitamin E and vit.E is for a better
fertility specially in mature breeding stock.
During the rearing period at 8 – 10 weeks of age, one can start with a little bit of cereals in
the litter. Gradually the daily amount can be increased from 2 until 5 grams per bird per day.
This may be continued throughout the rearing and laying period.
Adjustment of the feed ration according to the weight development should be done with the
compound feed and not with the cereals. The amount of cereals is a fixed amount of 2 –5
grams per bird per day.

26  PTC+
2.5 Feeding management of broilers in the tropics
Since broilers have to grow as quickly as possible and the meat must have a good quality and
taste while the feed conversion must be as low as possible one has to pay much attention to
the quality of the feed and the supply of feed.

Feeding method:
Broilers are in general on an ad-Libitum feed program this means that the feed troughs are
never complete empty only once a week to avoid too much dust in the feeder.
Due to diseases like ascitis in modern broiler production controlled feeding programmes are
introduced. According to growth and bodyweight broilers do get a certain quantity of feed,
sometimes in combination with a light scheme. To control the feed has 2 main advantages:
- Feed saving because over consumption of feed is impossible.
- Less health problems like ascitis, leg problems and Sudden Death Syndrome.

Ad libitum feed quantity does not mean that the feed level in the trough should be increased
(never more than 1/3 of the depth of the trough), but the frequency of filling should be
increased. The more often you give a little bit of palatable feed the more the bird will eat and
the quicker the broiler will grow.

Type of feed:
It is possible to use the following types mash - crumbs or pellets.
Some farmers prefer starter mash and than crumbs or pellet form as finisher feed.
It is possible to feed the whole growing period mash or pellets. It is proved that birds getting
pelleted feed have in general better technical performance.

Pellets with a diameter of 3 mm maximum for broilers. Also the length of the pellet should be
not longer than 3 mm, so breaking the pellets in the feed mill is necessary.
If the day-old-chicks are small it is preferred to supply starter feed in mash form.

Kind of feed:
A general used feeding program is feeding of a starter and finisher ration.
- Broiler starter mash/crumbs/pellets from day-old until 2 weeks of age with a
nutritional value of ME 3000, CP 22%
- Broiler finisher pellets from 2 weeks until the end (between 6 and 8 weeks) with a
nutritional value of ME 3200, Cp 20%.
- Broiler finisher without coccidiostats from at least 5 days before delivery until delivery.
With the same nutritional value as the broiler finisher with coccidiostats.

Phase feeding is also known in broilers, so different stages in life are recognised and matching
feed .

27 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

 Feed use and feed efficiency: the feed conversion ratio (FCR) is ranging from 1.8 up to 2.5 by
an average body weight of 1.4 up to 2.0 kg. This means that a bird used 1.8 - 2.5 kg feed for
1 kg body weight gain. The total feed consumption will be between 3 and 5 kg per delivered
bird. Broiler starter mash will be about 1 kg and the rest 1 up to 4 of the broiler finisher mash.

2.5.1 Additional factors affecting feed efficiency

1. Adequate supply of fresh, cool, clean water
2. Formulation (ME, CP) and form of feed used
3. Wrong or incorrect adjusted feeder equipment
4. Feed wastage
5. External and internal parasites
6. Ambient temperature and ventilation
7. Diseases and stress
8. Rats and mice(Rodents)
9. Mortality % and in which stage of the birds life
1.0 Breed, sex and size of broilers marketed

2.5.2 How can feed cost be reduced?

In the poultry industry it is a well known fact that feed cost is the biggest expenditure. With
present high feed prices, the feed consumption for the production of broilers and eggs plays
an even greater part than ever before. When considering feed utilisation, wastage of feed is
one of the most important things one has to pay attention to.

Feed wastage can be divided into two categories:

A. Direct waste of feed; is easy to notice.
B. Indirect waste of feed, the symptoms of which are harder to prove and may thereby
cost more money and not easy to solve.

The direct factors are:

- Too much feed in the feeders (not more than 1/3 filled).
- Overflowing of feeders because of mechanical failures of the feed equipment. Tests
have shown that overloading of troughs occurs frequently and may result in loss of
feed of about 5% to 7%.(assuming that a loss of 2% is a normal loss percentage)
- Feed stolen by rats, mice and birds and contaminated by them as well as moulded
feed. The latter problem may be solved by accurate control of feed storage and
feeding systems.

As said before, the indirect factors may facilitate a greater loss than the direct and visible
factors. That is why we are going into detail further.

28  PTC+
 The indirect factors are:
- Diseases
- Temperature
- Too high nutritional value
- Feeding schemes/Formulations
- Non-application of feed restrictions.

2.5.3 Diseases
Spreading of diseases, latent or chronic infections, that often remain unnoticed, may result in
a loss of feed efficiency of 3% to 7% at least. A clear example is the lasting result of a
coccidiosis outbreak damaging the epithelial cells of the intestines and decreasing the
absorptive ability to digest feed stuffs. On the other hand, smaller infections, such as chronic
respiratory disturbance, can already be recognised on forehand, long before asserting their
bad impact on the digestion. The poultry farmer must always be aware of the fact that the
condition of his animals can greatly affect the feed costs.

2.5.4 Temperature affects feed consumption

A large portion of the feed needed to keep the body temperature under normal conditions, can
sometimes be considered as feed wastage. Tests have shown that each variation of 1ΕC. in
house temperature (starting from 20ΕC) is attended with a difference in metabolizable energy
intake of 4 kcal (equal to approx.1.5 gr. feed/bird/day). The best results, both with regard to
production and to feed consumption, seem to be obtained at temperatures between 21ΕC and
23ΕC. (house temperatures > 25ΕC. gives lower egg weight and poor egg shell quality,
certainly in older layers). But it should be emphasised that the absolute energy requirement
changes with a change in house temperature. To be sure of a sufficient feed intake, the feed
composition could be liable to change. This especially applies to layers and is explained in the
following table:

Cal. intake/day Environmental Feed % CP in feed

(Kcal ME) temperature in C intake/bird/day* needed for daily
protein
consumption of 17
to 18 g
360 16°C 130 15-16
340** 20°C 124 16-17
325 24°C 118 17-18
310 26°C 113 17.5-18

* Average feed intake with a ME of the feed 2750 Kcal.

** It is assumed that this is the calorie requirement of a medium type layer (Brown layer
of 2.0 kg) with 90% production. If production levels are lower also feed intake should
be lower.

29 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

 Too high nutritive value may cost you money.
Another important form of feed wastage considered to be of little importance in the past, is
waste of feed-stuffs by supplying feed with a too high protein or energy content.

Choice of breed
Good hens with a healthy appetite and genetic potential for egg production can maintain a
high egg production. The ability to take up sufficient nutritive substances from different feed
compositions means that relatively cheap sources of good quality protein with good amino
acid levels may form an important part of the ration.

Feeding schedules/schemes
It has been proven that, when part of the necessary calcium is added to the feed in the form
of limestone granules or broken shells, we do not only get a better shell but also some decline
in feed consumption. The reason for this declining feed consumption is the fact that the hen -
unlike most other productive animals - has a cyclic instead of a constant need of feed-stuffs
during the day. It has also been proved that the hen has two eating peaks per day. First about
2-3 hours after the light (day light or artificial) goes on and just before laying eggs and the
second eating peak at the end of the afternoon. These observations have been done at a light
period of 16 hrs (day light and artificial light). The second eating peak is probably caused by
the fact that the hen wants to meet her needs of calcium for the egg shell formation. A
separate gift of calcium in the afternoon besides the feed may therefore result in a reduction
of feed intake. In view of these two eating peaks we must see to it that feed is available in
these periods. We also like to emphasise that these figures can only be used as guidelines
after all other factors have been considered thoroughly.

2.6 Water requirements and water quality

Water as a nutrient
Water is the most critical nutrient that we consciously supply to birds, yet in most instances, it
is taken completely for granted. Water often receives attention only when mechanical
problems occur. Water is by far the largest single constituent of the body, and represents
about 70% of total body weight. Of this body water, about 70% is inside the cells of the body
and 30% is in the fluid surrounding the cells and in the blood. The water content of the body
is associated with the protein content. This means that as a bird ages, and its body fat content
increases, then its body water content as a percent of body weight will decrease. The bird
obtains its water by drinking, by eating and by catabolism of body tissues which is a normal
part of growth and development.

2.7 Water intake

a. Drinking water
Water intake of a bird increases with age, although it decreases per unit of body weight.
Drinking behaviour is closely associated with feed intake, and so any factors affecting feed
intake will indirectly influence water intake. At moderate temperatures birds will consume
twice as much water by weight , as they eat as feed. Any nutrients that increase mineral
excretion by the kidney will influence water intake. For example salt or an ingredient high in
sodium, will increase water intake. Similarly, feeding an ingredient high in potassium such as
molasses or soybean meal, or calcium/phosphorus sources contaminated with magnesium,
will result in increased water intake. Such increases in water intake are of no major concern to

30  PTC+
the bird itself, but obviously result in increased water excretion and so wetter manure.
Environmental temperature is perhaps the major factor influencing fluctuation in water intake.
Layers at 30 C will consume twice as much water as birds housed at 15 C. Because feed
intake decreases at higher temperatures, then the water feed ratio increases dramatically
under these conditions leading again to wetter manure. The table on the next page indicates
average water consumption of various poultry species maintained at 20 or 32 C. These figures
indicate approximate water usage values and will very with the stage of production, health
and feed composition.

In calculating the water needs of egg producing stock, it should be realised that water intake
is not constant throughout the day, rather it varies depending upon the stage of egg
formation. There is a peak in water consumption immediately after egg laying, and again, at
the time just prior to the end of a normal light cycle. This means that water needs must be
accommodated during these peak times, because most birds will be in the same stage of egg
formation as dictated by the light programme.

b. Dietary water
The contribution of feed is not usually considered in calculating water balance, yet most feeds
will contain around 10% of free water. Other so-called bound water may become available
during digestion and metabolism, such that 7 - 8% of total requirements can originate from
the feed.

c. Metabolic water
Water is created in the body as a by-product of general metabolism. If fats are metabolised,
then about 1.2 g of water are produced from each gram of fat. Likewise protein and
carbohydrate will yield about 0.6 and 0.5 g per gram respectively. Total metabolic water can
be more easily estimated from the bird's energy intake because on average 0.14 g of water is
produced for each kcal of energy metabolised. This means that for a laying hen consuming
280 kcal ME/day, about 39 g of metabolic water will be produced. Feed and metabolic water
together therefore account for about 20% of total water needs, and so are very important in
the calculation of water balance.

31 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

 Table - Daily ad-lib water consumption of poultry (litres per 1000 birds)

20°C 32°C

Leghorn pullet 4 wk 50 75
12 wk 115 180
18 wk 140 200
Laying hen 50% prod 150 250
90% prod 180 300
Non-laying hen 120 200

Broiler breeder 4 wk 75 120

pullet 12 wk 140 220
18 wk 180 300
Broiler breeder hen 50% prod 180 300
80% prod 210 360
Broiler chicken 1 wk 24 40
3 wk 100 190
6 wk 240 500
9 wk 300 600
Turkey 1 wk 24 50
4 wk 110 200
12 wk 320 600
18 wk 450 850
Turkey breeder hen 500 900

Turkey breeder tom 500 1100

Duck 1 wk 28 50
4 wk 120 230
8 wk 300 600
Duck breeder 240 500

Goose 1 wk 28 50
4 wk 250 450
12 wk 350 600
Goose breeder 350 600

These figures indicate approximate water usage values and will very with the stage of
production, health and feed consumption.

32  PTC+
 Drinking water temperature

Water offered to birds is usually at or higher than ambient temperature. This means that for
laying birds housed under controlled environmental conditions, the temperature of drinking
water is held fairly constant, while for broiler chickens, water temperature should decreases
with age corresponding to a reduction in brooding temperature. It is only for the first few days
of a chick's life that drinking water temperature is specified, where traditional management
recommendations suggest the use of "warm" water. Birds drink more water at higher
environmental temperatures, yet the cooling of water may result in even higher intakes. When
birds received cool water for a 4 week period, they were able to maintain peak egg
production, possibly due to a less severe reduction in feed intake. Under commercial
conditions. However, it does show the importance of trying to keep the water as cool as
possible, and in this regards, the usual practice of placing water tank reservoirs on high
towers in direct sunlight should be avoided.

Table - Layer performance at 33°C with hot versus cold drinking

water
Water temperature

33°C 2°C

Feed/bird/day (g) 63.8 75.8

Egg production (%) 81.0 93.0

Egg weight (g) 49.0 48.5

Source: commercial poultry feeding

2.8 Water restriction

Most birds should have continuous access to clean water. Some breeders recommend water
restriction of laying hens as a means of preventing wet manure problems, especially in hot
climates, although serious consideration should be given to other preventative measures prior
to this last resort. Production may drop as much as 30% when hens are deprived of water for
24 hours, and it may take as long as 25 to 30days before production returns to normal.
Similar results have been reported for broilers where decreases in water supply have resulted
in marked depressions in weight gain.

2.9 Water quality

The quality of water is something that should be given careful consideration when evaluating
the performance of a flock. Chemical contaminants are the most serious problem affecting
water quality.
However, poultry usually adjust to high levels of certain minerals after a period of time, and
so only in a relatively small number of cases, does the mineral content of water significantly
affect the performance of a flock. There are certain areas where the water salinity is high
enough to adversely affect flock performance. In such cases, it may be necessary to remove
some of the added salt from the diet. However, this should be done only after careful
consideration to ensure that there will be a sufficient salt intake because performance can be
severely reduced if dietary salt levels are too low.

33 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

Any bacterial contamination of water is an indication that surface water is entering the water
supply and steps should be taken to correct the situation. Alternatively the water may be
chlorinated to eliminate contamination. Another problem that can exist with water is a build-
up of nitrates or nitrites. Such contamination is usually an indication of run-off from animal
wastes or fertilisers leaking into the water system. Although the standard for human water
supply is 10 to 20 PPM of nitrate nitrogen, higher levels can usually be tolerated by animals.
Levels beyond 50 PPM need to be present before water is suspected as a factor in the poor
performance of poultry. As nitrites are 10 times more toxic than nitrates, and because
bacteria in the intestinal tract and in the water supply can convert nitrates to nitrites, levels of
these two contaminants in the water supply should be kept to a minimum. Super chlorinating
of the water will quickly oxidise nitrites to nitrates thereby reducing their toxicity. Before
initiating a super chlorinating programme, check with a local pathologist to ensure a proper
level of chlorinating in order not to interfere with the performance or efficiency of vaccines or
other drugs.

Table – Water quality standards for poultry in Mg per litre unless other indicator is used and
concentration of water minerals above which problems may occur with poultry

standard maximum

Total soluble salts (hardness) <15 > 20

Chloride < 100 > 250

Sulphate (SO4) < 30 > 50

Iron < 0.2 > 1.0

Ammonia (NH3) < 0.2 > 0.5

Organic matter (potential oxidation = KMnO4) < 50 > 100

adult > 1000

Sodium (NaCl) < 350
young > 500

Nitrate (NO3) < 25 > 50

pH 5-8 <4 and >9

34  PTC+
2.10 General management considerations with water
Where continuous flow water troughs are used for caged birds, one must be sure that the
birds at the end of the trough obtain sufficient water. A rise in house temperature will result in
increased water consumption, and unless the water supply can be adjusted accordingly,
shortages of water may result for the birds at the far end of the line.

It has also been demonstrated that poorly beak-trimmed birds may not be able to drink
sufficient water to sustain maximum production. Where the lower beak of the bird is too long,
up to 20% loss in egg production can occur, compared with properly beak-trimmed birds.
When disease or stress occur, a decrease in water consumption is usually noted a day or two
before a decrease in feed consumption. For this reason, managers should consider installing
water meters on all water lines to each pen or cage row and have the attendant keep a daily
record of water consumption. Such records can give early warning of potential problems with
the flock.

A note of caution should be given when moving pullets to laying cages. It has been observed
on a number of occasions that when pullets are moved near to point of lay, they seem to have
more difficulty adjusting to new watering equipment. This is especially true where nipple
drinkers are used. If possible, pullets should be moved to laying cages 2 to 3 weeks before
production commences because the immature bird has reduced water turn-over. With ever
decreasing age a maturity, this management technique is now more difficult to implement.

General requirements for good drinking water:

- Fresh and cool
- Colour less
- Taste less
- Clean
- Without harmful sediments

If an animal is not feeling well or really ill it doesn't take feed any more but it does drink.
The best method to supply medicines is through the drinking water.
However we make demands on the quality then.

The 3 main factors that influence the quality are:

- Salt content of the water.
- The Iron percentage of the water.
- Acidity of the water.

Salt level.
Salt level smaller than 350 mg per litre is good.
Salt level ranging from 350- 500 mg per litre for young chicks is acceptable.
Salt level ranging from 350- 1000 mg per litre for young chicks is acceptable.
salt level higher 500 mg per litre for young and 1000 mg per litre for adult birds is bad.

35 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION

A bit too high salt content of the drinking water can lead to wet droppings and dirty eggs or
wet litter also.
A very high salt content of the drinking water can lead to:
- Lower performance like growth stagnation, higher mortality and nephritis.
- Failures in vaccinations.
- Bad taste that results in a lower intake of water and a lower laying percentage.
- Shell-less eggs.

Iron level
Iron level in drinking water for poultry should not exceed 1 mg per litre.
Iron level higher than 2-3 mg per litre, will block up nipple drinkers and other automatic
drinking systems.
Iron level higher than 5 mg per litre, improper to supply medicines through the drinking
water.
Iron level higher than 10.0 mg per litre water, the taste is bad so poultry doesn't like the
water.

Very high amounts of iron in water is making some medicines inactive it is possible to prevent
this unwanted result by adding some sodium carbonate.
Iron has also a negative influence on vaccinations done through drinking water with an alive
vaccine.
It is advisable to add 2.0 % pasteurised skimmed milk or 0.2 % of pasteurised skimmed milk
powder to the water used for the drinking water vaccination. Also as a carrier for the
vaccines.

Acidity of water (pH)

A normal pH of water is ranging between 5.0 and 8.0.
If the acidity of water is too high it useless to give medicines through the drinking water.
If the pH is too low of water(lower than 4.0) then it is possible to neutralise it by adding
sodium carbonate.

Also dirty water equipment has a negative influence on the result of a vaccination done
through drinking water and also on the water intake of the chicks.

Also remaining disinfectant, after cleaning and disinfecting the water equipment, can make
the vaccines given through drinking water useless.

If it is possible it is good to send once a year water samples to a laboratory to know the
quality of the drinking water.

36  PTC+
Temperature of drinking water
The optimal temperature for drinking water is 10 C – 14 C.
Water temperature below 5 C the intake is too low.
Water temperature above 35 C the intake is too low.
What is cool drinking water?
Cool water has a temperature 7-8 degrees below the environmental temperature.
This has a positive effect on feed consumption on laying percentage and egg weight.

The water consumption depends upon:

- Type of feed.
- Feed quantity.
- Feeding method applied.
- Environmental temperature.
- Water temperature.
- Water quality.
- Air humidity.
- Health of the birds.
Under optimal circumstances (temp.20 C) the feed-water ratio is 1 to 2-3.
This means the birds drink 2 to 3 times the amount of feed they consume.
(1 kg of feed and 2 to 3 litres of water, see table.)

The relation between environmental temperature and water consumption.

Environmental Feed - water ratio.

temperature.
4°C 1 : 1.7

15°C 1 : 1.9

20°C 1 : 2.2

26°C 1 : 3.0

35°C 1 : 5.0

What could be the results of no water supply for:

1 day :
________________________________________________________________________

2 days:
________________________________________________________________________

3 days:
________________________________________________________________________

37 APPLIED POULTRY NUTRITION