ChE-205 Particle Technology

Size Reduction

Saeed GUL, PhD

Professor

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar, PAKISTAN
 Introduction
Size reduction is a process of reducing large solid unit masses
into small unit masses, coarse particles or fine particles
 The size reduction of solids is an energy
intensive and highly inefficient process
 5% of all electricity generated is used in size
reduction
 Based on energy required for the creation of
new surfaces, the industrial scale processes is
generally less than 1% efficient

Comminution is a generic term for size reduction,

crushers and grinders are type of comminuting
equipment
 Introduction

 Raw materials often occur in sizes that are too

large to be used and, therefore, they must be
reduced in size

 The term size reduction is applied to all the

ways in which particles of solids are cut or
broken into smaller pieces

 The reason that size reduction or

comminution is usually carried out is to
increase the surface area of the material
 Benefits of Size Reduction
maximize the area of solid in contact with the liquid or gas
phase around it which enhances:
 Reactivity

 Dissolution

 Catalytic effects

 Permits separation of unwanted ingredients by mechanical

methods

 Easy handling
 Mechanisms of Size Reduction
There are four mechanisms by which size reduction
may be achieved:

 Impact

 Attrition (rubbing) Impact Attrition (rubbing)

 Compression

 Cutting
Cutting Compression
 Impact
(Mechanisms of Size Reduction)
In crushing terminology, impact refers to the sharp,
instantaneous collision of one moving object against another

Impact crushing can be of two variations:

 Gravity Impact
 Example of gravity impact would be dropping
a rock onto a steel plate
 Dynamic Impact
 Dynamic impact could be described as
material dropping into a rapidly turning rotor
where it receives a smashing blow from a
hammer or impeller
Coarse, Medium or Fine Products
 Attrition
(Mechanisms of Size Reduction)

Attrition is a term applied to the reduction of materials by

scrubbing it between two hard surfaces
 consumes more power and exacts heavier
wear on hammers and screen bars
 practical for crushing the less abrasive
materials such as pure limestone and coal

most useful in the following circumstances

 when material is friable or not too abrasive

 when a closed-circuit system is not desirable
to control top size
 Compression
(Mechanisms of Size Reduction)
crushing by compression is done between two surfaces, with
the work being done by one or both surfaces
 if the material is hard and tough
 if the material is abrasive
 if the material is not sticky
 where the finished product is to be relatively
coarse, i.e., 11/2" (38mm) or larger top size
Intermediate to fine crushing
 Cutting (Shear)
(Mechanisms of Size Reduction)
Shear/cutting consists of a trimming or cleaving (chop, slice, cut etc)
action rather than the rubbing action associated with attrition
 Cutting gives a definite particle size and some time a
definite shape, with few or no fines
 Shear is usually combined with other methods. For
example, single-roll crushers employ shear together
with impact and compression
 when material is somewhat friable and has a
relatively low silica content
 for primary crushing with a reduction ratio of 6 to 1
 when a relatively coarse product is desired, usually
larger than 11/2" (38mm) top size
 Crushing Efficiency, ƞc
The ratio of the surface energy created by crushing to the
energy absorbed by the solid
e ( A − Awa ) es ( Awb − Awa )
η c = s wb
Wn = Wn =
ηc

es : Surface energy per unit area Work done per unit area to
create a new surface area in
Awb : Product area per unit mass the material is called surface
energy
Awa : Feed area per unit mass
Wn : Energy absorbed by a unit mass of material
Ideal Crusher
 Ideal Crusher should have large Capacity
 Require a small power input per unit of product
 Yield a product of single size or the size distribution required
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPg7wv4Ifjg
 Mechanical Efficiency, ƞm
The ratio of the energy absorbed to the energy input
Wn
ηm =
W

es ( Awb − Awa ) es : Surface energy per unit area

Wn =
ηc Awb : Product area per unit mass
Awa : Feed area per unit mass
es ( Awb − Awa )
ηm = Wn : Energy absorbed by a unit mass
Wη c of material

Wn es ( Awb − Awa )
W= =
ηm η mηc
 Power Requirements
If m
 is the feed rate , the power required by the
machine is: P = Wm
6
As volume-surface mean diameter DS is defined as: DS ≡
Φ S AW ρ P

Wn es ( Awb − Awa ) es : Surface energy per unit area

W= =
ηm η mηc m : Feed flow rate
DS : As volume-surface mean diameter
6m eS  1 1 
P= 
 −  Wn : Energy absorbed by a unit mass
ηCη m ρ P  Φ b DSb Φ a DSa  of material
This relation tells that the power requirement for crushing will be more
for particles having higher surface energy and also the higher flow rate
 Empirical Relationships for Crushing

 it is impossible to predict from any theory the energy

consumed in size reduction
 there are a number of empirical rules which allow data from
one process to be extrapolated to another
 All are based on the premise that the energy dE required to
affect a small change in size; dL for unit mass of solids is a
simple power function of the size i.e.:

dE
= −CLP
dL
 Rittinger’s law (1867)
The energy required for size reduction is directly proportional
to the change in surface area (new surface created)

This leads to a value of –2 for P

 1 1 
E = C − 
 L1 L 2 

where E is the energy required per unit mass of solid

Crushing efficiency is constant
 Rittinger’s law Continue…..

Writing C = KRfc
Where

fc is the crushing strength of the material in N/m2

KR is Rittinger's constant for the material gives

1 1 
E = K R f C  − 

 L1 L2 

KR is not dimensionless
 Kick’s law(1885)
The energy required to reduce a material in size is directly
proportional to the size reduction ratio dL/L, that is the ratio
of the initial particle size to the finial particle size

This implies that P equal to -1.

If P = -1 then
L1
E = C ln
L2
putting C = KKfc gives:
L1
E = K K f c ln
L2
KK is not dimensionless
 Applications of Kick’s & Rittinger’s Laws

Kick's law is more appropriate to coarse crushing

for the grinding of coarse particles in which the increase in
surface area per unit mass is relatively small

Rittinger's law is more appropriate to fine grinding

the size reduction of fine powders, in which large areas of new
surface are being created, Rittinger's Law fits the
experimental data better
 Bond crushing law(1952) and work index
(intermediate relationship with P = -3/2 = -1.5)

The work required to form particles of size Dp from very large

feed is proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume
ratio of the product, sp/vp.

 1 1  100  1 
E = 2C  −  E = Ei 1 − 
 L L  L2  q 
 2 1 

where q = L1/L2
C = 5Ei
 Ei the work index

The work index, Ei, is defined as the gross energy required in

kWH per ton of feed to reduce a very large feed to such a size
that 80% of the product passes a 100 µm screen

C = 5Ei

100  1 
E = Ei 1 − 
L2  q 

In all these equations the particle sizes are defined as the size
of square hole through which 80% of the material will pass.
 Factors Influencing Choice of Size Reduction Equipment

1. Feed and Product Size

Feed Size Product Size
Coarse Crushers 1500 - 40mm 50 - 5mm
Intermediate Crushers 50 - 5mm 5 - 0.1mm
Fine Crushers. (Grinders) 5 - 2mm <0.1mm
Fine Milling <0.2mm down to 0.01µm
 Factors Influencing Choice of Size Reduction Equipment

2. Nature of Material
 Hardness - very hard materials are better in low speed or low
contact machines
 Structure - fibrous materials need tearing or cutting action
 Moisture content - materials with 5 - 50% moisture do not
flow easily and can be difficult to process
 Stickiness - sticky materials need easily cleaned machines
 Soapiness - if coefficient of friction is low crushing may be
difficult
 Explosives - need inert atmosphere
 Hazardous to health - need good confinement
 Crusher Selection Criteria

When selecting a crusher, the following criteria must be considered:

 Will it produce desired output size and shape at the required capacity?
 Will it accept the largest input size expected?
 What is its capacity?
 Will it choke or plug?
 Can it pass uncrushable debris without damage to the crusher?
 How much supervision of the unit is necessary?
 Will it meet product specifications without additional crushing stages
and auxiliary equipment?
 Crusher Selection Criteria

 What is the crusher’s power demand per ton per hour of finished
product?
 How does it resist abrasive wear?
 Does it operate economically with minimum maintenance?
 Does it offer dependable and prolonged service life?
 Is there ready availability of replacement parts?
 Does it have acceptable parts replacement cost?
 Does it have easy access to internal parts?
 Is the crusher versatile?
 How does the initial cost of the machine compare with its long term
operating costs?
 Is experienced factory service readily available?
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment

 A. Crushers (coarse and fine)

 B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)


 C. Ultrafine grinders

 D. Cutting machines
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Crushers (coarse and fine)

Crushers are slow speed machines for coarse reduction of large

quantities of solids

 Crusher do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid

material into small lumps

 A primary crusher operates on run-of -mine material accepting

anything that comes from mine face and breaking it into 150 to
250 mm lumps

 A secondary crusher reduces these lumps into particles perhaps

6mm in size
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Crushers
 Jaw crushers

 Gyratory crushers

 Crushing rolls
 Single Roll Crushers
 Double Roll Crusher
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Grinders (intermediate and fine)

reduce crushed feed to powder

 The product from an intermediate grinder might pass a 40-

mesh screen

 most of the product from a fine grinder would pass a 200-

mesh screen with a 74 µm opening
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment

Grinders (intermediate and fine)

 Hammer mills; impactors

 Rolling-compression mills

 Attrition mills

 Tumbling mills
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Ultrafine grinders
An ultrafine grinder accepts feed particles no larger than 6 mm
and the product size is typically 1 to 5 µm
 Hammer mills with internal classification

 Fluid-energy mills

 Agitated mills
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Cutting machines

Cutters give particles of definite size and shape, 2 to

10mm in length

Knife cutters
 Dicers
 slitters
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Jaw Crusher
A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particle. This
mechanical pressure is achieved by the two jaws of the crusher of
which one is fixed while the other reciprocates.
The volume or cavity between the
two jaws is called the crushing
chamber. The movement of the
swing jaw can be quite small, since
complete crushing is not
performed in one stroke

The inertia required to crush the

material is provided by a weighted
flywheel that moves a shaft
creating an eccentric motion that
causes the closing of the gap.
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Jaw Crusher
Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the
pivoting of the swing jaw
1. Blake crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the upper position
Less tendency of chocking
2. Dodge crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the lower position
Minimum movement at the bottom gives uniform product size
3. Universal crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at an intermediate position
 Jaw Crusher
 The swinging jaw makes an angle of 200 to 300 with the fixed jaw
 Feed opening may be up to 2.5m x 2.0m
 processing up to 1200 t/h
 Product size is adjusted by adjusting the gap size
 crushing is done by compression
 250 to 400 strokes per minute
 accept feed sizes up to 48" (1200mm)
 product size as small as 3/4" (19mm)
 Types of Size Reduction Equipment
Jaw Crusher
Toggle plate is the most simple and low-cost part of jaw crusher, which is
usually made by cast iron. It is the driving part of jaw crusher and has three
main functions. That is, transmit power, adjust opening and function as a
Safety device.
Transmit power
Toggle plate is a power transmission part of jaw crusher. It is used to support
movable jaw plate and transmit crushing force to the back of body frame.
Adjust discharge opening
Adjust the outlet of jaw crusher by way of changing the size of toggle plate. It
has two other ways to adjust the outlet. One is to change the gaskets
between supporting base of toggle plate and body frame, and the other is to
adjust the two Wedge blocks between
Function as a safety device
When hard materials or metals which can not be crushed are crushed
chamber, the toggle plate will disconnect automatically so as to stop the
machine and prevent other parts from being broken.
 Gyratory Crusher

 the head is carried on a heavy

shaft pivoted at the top of the
machine
 An eccentric drives the bottom
end of the shaft
 Size is controlled by raising and
lowering the cone
 The speed of the crushing head
is typically 125 to 425 gyrations
per minute
 the discharge from a gyratory
crusher is continuous
 Crushing Rolls
(Single Roll Crushers)
 typically used as primary crushers
 impact, shear and compression
 there are no screen bars
 the clearance between the
breaker plate and the roll
determines the product size

Applications include
petroleum coke, coal with rock,
coal, aggregate, limestone,
chemicals, phosphate rock,
shale and many other materials
 Crushing Rolls
(Double Roll Crushers: Design)

The limiting size Dp,max of particles that

can be nipped by the rolls, can be
estimated from the simple relation:
Dp,max = 0.08R + d
Where:
R = roll radius
d = half the width of the gap between
the rolls
The maximum size of the product is
approximately 2d
 Smooth roll crusher
(Roll Design)
For a particular operation where the ore/feed size is known, it is
necessary to estimate the diameter of rolls required for a specific degree
of size reduction. To estimate the roll diameter it is convenient to
assume that the particle to be crushed is spherical and roll surfaces are
smooth.
The nip angle F sin θ
The nip angle is defined as the angle r
that is tangent to the roll surface at R r F
the points of contact between the
rolls and the particle. It depends on Fµ Fµ cos θ
the surface characteristics of the rolls.
2d
Usually the nip angle is between 20° and 30° but in some large roll
crushers it is up to 40°
 Smooth roll crusher
(Roll Design)
Figure shows a spherical particle
F sin θ
about to enter the crushing zone of
a roll crusher and is about to be r
nipped. For rolls that have equal R r F
radius and length, tangents drawn at
the point of contact of the particle Fµ Fµ cos θ
and the two rolls meet to form the
nip angle 2d
From simple geometry it can be seen that for a particle of size r, nipped
between two rolls of radius R:
R+d
Cosθ =
R+r

d − r cos θ
R=
cos θ − 1
 Smooth roll crusher
(Roll Design)
F sin θ
Figure indicates that to estimate the
radius R of the roll, the nip angle is r
required. The nip angle on its part
R r F
will depend on the coefficient of
friction’µ’, between the roll surface Fµ Fµ cos θ
and the particle surface
2d
To estimate µ consider a compressive force, F, exerted by the rolls on
the particle just prior to crushing, operating normal to the roll surface,
at the point of contact, and the frictional force between the roll and
particle acting along a tangent to the roll surface at the point of
contact. The frictional force is a function of the compressive force F
and is given by the expression, Fµ
 Smooth roll crusher
(Roll Design)
If the vertical components of these F sin θ
forces considered, and neglect the r
force due to gravity, then it can be R r F
seen that at the point of contact for
the particle to be just nipped by the Fµ Fµ cos θ
rolls, the equilibrium conditions
apply where: 2d
F sin θ = Fµ cos θ
µ = tan θ
θ = tan −1 µ
The friction coefficient is roughly between 0.20 and 0.30 the nip
angle has a value of about 11°-17°
 Roller Mills

Roller mills are mills that use

cylindrical rollers, either in opposing
pairs or against flat plates, to crush or
grind various materials, such as grain,
ore, gravel, plastic, and others.
Roller grain mills are an alternative to
traditional millstone arrangements in
gristmills.
Roller mills for rock complement
other types of mills, such as ball mills
and hammer mills, in such industries
as the mining and processing of ore
and construction aggregate; cement
milling; and recycling.
Roller Mills
 Tumbling Mills
A cylindrical shell slowly turning about a horizontal axis and filled
to about half its volume with a solid grinding medium forms a
tumbling mill
The shell is usually steel, lined with high-
carbon steel plate, porcelain, silica rock, or
rubber
The grinding medium is metal rods in a rod
mill, lengths of chain or balls of metal,
rubber, or wood in a ball mill, flint pebbles
or porcelain or zircon spheres in a pebble
mill
For intermediate and fine reduction of
abrasive materials tumbling mills are
unequaled
 Tumbling mills
Ball Mill
In its simplest form, the ball mill
consists of a rotating hollow cylinder,
partially filled with balls, with its axis
either horizontal or at a small angle to
the horizontal.

The inner surface of the cylinder is

usually lined with an abrasion resistant
material such as manganese steel,
stoneware or rubber

the ratio of length to the diameter is

usually 1 or 1.5 : 1
 Tumbling mills
(Tube mill)
The tube mill is similar to the ball mill in
construction and operation, although the
ratio of length to the diameter is usually
3 or 4 : 1, as compared with 1 or 1.5 : 1
for the ball mill.

The characteristics of the two mills are

similar although the material remains
longer in the tube mill because of its
greater length, and a finer product is
therefore obtained.
 Tumbling mills
(Rod mill)
 In a rod mill, much of the reduction is done
by rolling compression and by attrition as
the rods slide downward and roll over one
another.
 The grinding rods are usually steel, 25 to
125 mm (1 to 5 in.) in diameter, with several
sizes present at all times in any given mill.
 The rods extend the full length of the mill.
 Rod mills are intermediate grinders,
reducing a 20-mm (3/4 in.) feed to perhaps
I0-mesh, often preparing the product from a
crusher for final reduction in a ball mill.
 Action in tumbling mills

 The load of balls in a ball or tube mill is normally such that when the
mill is stopped, the balls occupy about one-half the volume of the
mill.
 The void fraction in the mass of balls, when at rest, is typically 0.40.
 When the mill is rotated, the balls are picked up by the mill wall and
carried nearly to the top, where they break contact with the wall and
fall to the bottom to be picked up again.
 Centrifugal force keeps the balls in contact with the wall and with
each other during the upward movement.
 While in contact with the wall, the balls do some grinding by slipping
and roIling over each other, but most of the grinding occurs at the
zone of impact, where the free-faIling balls strike the bottom of the
mill.
 Forces on ball in ball mill
If the speed is too high, however, the balls
are carried over and the mill is said to be
centrifuging.
The speed at which centrifuging occurs is
called the critical speed.
Little or no grinding is done when a mill is
centrifuging, and operating speeds must be
less than the critical.
The speed at which the outermost balls
lose contact with the wall of the mill
depends on the balance between
gravitational and centrifugal forces
Consider the ball at point A on the periphery of the mill.
Let the radii of the mill and of the ball be R and r, respectively.
The center of the ball is, then R - r meters (or feet) from the axis of the mill.
 Forces on ball in ball mill

Let the radius AO form the angle α with the vertical. Two forces act
on the ball.
The first is the force of gravity:
mg/gC
where m is the mass of the ball.
The second is the centrifugal force:
(R - r) ω2/gC
where ω = 2πn and n is the rotational speed.
The centripetal component of the force of gravity is:
(mg/gC) cos α
this force opposes the centrifugal force. As long as the centrifugal
force exceeds the centripetal force, the particle will not break
contact with the wall.
 Forces on ball in ball mill
As the angle α decreases, however, the centripetal force increases, and
unless the speed exceeds the critical, a point is reached where the
opposing forces are equal and the particle is ready to fall away.
The angle at which this occurs is found by equating the two forces, giving

At the critical speed, α = 0, cos α = 1, and n becomes the critical speed n,. Then

Tumbling mills run at 65 to 80 percent of the critical speed, with the lower values
for wet grinding in viscous suspensions
 Open-Circuit & Closed-circuit Operation

In open circuit grinding, material

makes only one pass through the
mill and is conveyed to storage or
subsequent processing.

In closed circuit grinding each

pass through the mill is followed
by classification. The coarse
material is returned to the mill for
additional grinding while the fine
material is conveyed to storage or
subsequent processing
 Problem Solving Practice
PROBLEM 2.1
A material is crushed in a Blake jaw crusher such that the average size of
particle is reduced from 50 mm to 10 mm, with the consumption of energy of
13.0 kW/(kg/s). What will be the consumption of energy needed to crush the
same material of average size 75 mm to average size of 25 mm:
(a) assuming Rittinger’s Law applies,
(b) assuming Kick’s Law applies?
Which of these results would be regarded as being more reliable and why?
Solution
Rittinger’s law
 Solution of Problem 2.1 continued

Kick’s law:

The size range involved by, be considered as that for coarse crushing
and, because Kick’s law more closely relates the energy required to
effect elastic deformation before fracture occurs, this would be taken
as given the more reliable result
 Problem Solving Practice
PROBLEM 2.2
A crusher was used to crush a material with a compressive strength of
22.5MN/m2. The size of the feed was minus 50 mm, plus 40 mm and the
power required was 13.0 kW/(kg/s). The screen analysis of the product was:

What power would be required to crush 1 kg/s of a material of

compressive strength 45 MN/m2 from a feed of minus 45 mm, plus 40 mm
to a product of 0.50 mm average size?
 Problem Solving Practice
Solution
A dimension representing the mean size of the product is required.
Using Bond’s method of taking the size of opening through which 80
per cent of the material will pass, a value of just over 4.00 mm is
indicated by the data. Alternatively, calculations may be made as
follows:
 Problem Solving Practice

For the purposes of calculation a mean value of 4.0 mm will be used, which
agrees with the value obtained by Bond’s method

For coarse crushing, Kick’s law may be used as follows:

Problem Solving Practice
 Problem Solving Practice
PROBLEM 2.3
A crusher reducing limestone of crushing strength 70 MN/m2 from 6 mm
diameter average size to 0.1 mm diameter average size, requires 9 kW. The
same machine is used to crush dolomite at the same output from 6 mm
diameter average size to a product consisting of 20 per cent with an average
diameter of 0.25 mm, 60 per cent with an average diameter of 0.125 mm and a
balance having an average diameter of 0.085 mm. Estimate the power
required, assuming that the crushing strength of the dolomite is 100 MN/m2
and that crushing follows Rittinger’s Law.
 Problem Solving Practice
PROBLEM 2.4
If crushing rolls 1 m diameter are set so that the crushing surfaces are 12.5
mm apart and the angle of nip is 31◦ , what is the maximum size of particle
which should be fed to the rolls?
If the actual capacity of the machine is 12 per cent of the theoretical,
calculate the throughput in kg/s when running at 2.0 Hz if the working face of
the rolls is 0.4 m long and the feed density is 2500 kg/m3.
Solution of Problem 2.4
 Problem Solving Practice
Solution of Problem 2.4 Continued

1 hertz is equal to 1 RPS, 2 hertz is equal to 2 RPS

Each revolution advances one circumference and the circumference
is πD
AS the Diameter is 1 m, therefore , 3.14 meter/rev
2 rev/sec X 3.14 meter/rev = 6.28 m/sec

The volumetric flow rate is: m/s X m2 = m3 /s = 6.28 X 0.005

= 0.0314 m3 /s

The actual throughput = 0.0314 X 0.12 = 0.003768 m3/s

= 0.003768 m3/s X 2500 kg/m3 = 9.42 kg/sec

 Problem Solving Practice
PROBLEM 2.6
A ball-mill 1.2 m in diameter is run at 0.8 Hz and it is found that the
mill is not working satisfactorily. Should any modification in the
condition of operation be suggested?
SOLUTION
The actual speed of the ball mill is: 0.8 Hz = 0.8 rps = 0.8 X 60 = 48 rpm

1 9.8
The critical speed of the ball mill is: nc =
2 * 3.14 0.6

The critical speed of the ball mill nc= 0.64 rps = 38.4 rpm
 Problem Solving Practice

Actual speed is 48 rpm which is higher than the critical speed.

The optimum speed of the ball mill lies between 0.5 to 0. 75 of the
critical speed, say 0.60.

The optimum speed should be 38.4 X 0.60 = 23.04 = 23 rpm

The speed of rotation should be halved

 Dr. Saeed GUL, Department of Chemical
31 October 2019 71
Engineering, UET Peshawar, Pakistan