SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS

KELLER

Problem 1

(a). We see that x2 − x − 1 is irreducible as it has no roots, since the

only possible roots are ±1 by the Rational Root Theorem.
As x3 − x − 1 has discriminant −23, we deduce that the Galois group
of this polynomial is S3 as −23 is not a perfect square in Q.

(b). x3 − 10 is irreducible by Eisenstein’s criterion for p = 2 (or 5).

This has discriminant −2700 which is not a perfect square in Q. Thus
the Galois group is S3 .

(c). We first show that x3 − 10 is irreducible. If we assume there exist

√
a, b ∈ Q such that a + b 2 = 101/3 , we take traces on both sides to
find that a = 0. Then we may solve to find
101/3
b= √
2
The above is certainly not rational however, so we conclude that x3 −10
is irreducible. As the discriminant is −2700, which is not a perfect
√
square in Q( 2), the Galois group is S3 .
√
(d). We again see that x3 − 10 is irreducible over Q( −3), using the
√
exact proof as in part (c). Observe now that −2700 = (30 −3)2 , so
√
the discriminant is a perfect square in Q( −3). Thus the Galois group
is A3 .
Date: January 14, 2020.
1
2 KELLER

(e). We see that x3 − x − 1 remains irreducible; as the discriminant is

√
−23 = ( −23)2 , which is a perfect square, we deduce that the Galois
group is A3 .

(f ). We see that x4 − 5 has splitting field Q(α, i), where α = 51/4 .

This is a degree 8 extension with Gal(Q(α, i)/Q) generated by the
automorphisms
σ : α 7→ iα

τ : i 7→ −i

We see that
τ σ(α) = i3 α

= σ 3 (α)
Thus the Galois group is nonabelian and has an element of order 4.
The only possibility left is that Gal(Q(α, i)/Q) = D8 . By the Galois
correspondence,
√
Gal(Q(α, i)/Q( 5)) = Z/2Z
√
Gal(Q(α, i)/Q( −5)) = Z/2Z

Gal(Q(α, i)/Q(i)) = Z/4Z

(g). By the part (f ), we immediately generalize and see that x4 −a has

splitting field Q(α, i) with α = a1/4 . Thus, this is a degree 8 extension
with Gal(Q(α, i)/Q) = D8 .

(h). Observe first that x3 − a is irreducible. We also see that the

discriminant is 27a, and since a is squarefree, this is not a perfect
square implying the Galois group is S3 .

(i). By part (g), this has Galois group over Q isomorphic to D8 . By

the Galois correspondence, over Q(i) this has Galois group Z/4Z.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 3

(j). The splitting field is of course

√ √ √ √
Q( 2, 3, 5, 7)

And as the above individual fields intersect trivially, we know that the
Galois group is the product of the Galois groups of each extension in
the compositum. Each of the above are quadratic extensions, so we see
that
√ √ √ √
Gal(Q( 2, 3, 5, 7)/Q) = (Z/2Z)4

(k). Precisely as in part (j), this has splitting field

√ √
Q( p1 , . . . , pn )

in which case we see that the Galois group is

(Z/2Z)n

(`). Since the splitting fields intersect trivially, we find may find each
Galois group separately and then take the product. We see that x3 − 2
has Galois group S3 . Similarly, x3 − 3 has Galois group A3 since the
√
discriminant is a perfect square over Q( −3). Similarly, x2 − 2 has
Galois group Z/2Z.
Thus the compositum has Galois group

S3 × A3 × Z/2Z ∼
= S3 × Z/6Z

(m). By transcendentality of t over C, we see that xn − t is irreducible.

Adjoin any α such that αn = t; then

[C(α) : C(t)] = n

and the Galois group is generated by the automorphism induced by

sending α 7→ ζn α, where ζn is a primitive nth root of unity. Thus,

Gal(C(α)/C(t)) = Z/nZ
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(n). Choose α such that α4 = t in some extension. Then the splitting

field is R(α, i); moreover this is a degree 8 extension over R(t) whose
Galois group is generated by

σ : α 7→ iα

τ : i 7→ −i

And precisely as in part (f ), this means the Galois group is isomorphic

to D8 .

Problem 2

(a). Observe that x3 +x+1 is irreducible since the only possible rational
roots are ±1 by the Rational Root Theorem. We see as well that the
discriminant is −31; as this is not a perfect square, the Galois group is
isomorphic to S3 .

(b). We see that x3 −x+1 is irreducible by the Rational Root Theorem.

This also has discriminant −23, which is not a perfect square whence
the Galois group is S3 .

(c). We have that x3 + 2x + 1 is irreducible by the Rational Root

Theorem. The discriminant is −59, so the Galois group is S3 .

(d). Observe that x3 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x − 1). Since x2 + x − 1

has discriminant 5, the Galois group is S2 .

(e). By the Rational Root Theorem, x3 − x − 1 is irreducible with

discriminant −23. Thus the Galois group is S3 .

(f ). By the Rational Root Theorem, we see that x3 − 12x + 8 has no

rational roots and is hence irreducible. We also see that this polynomial
has discriminant 5184 = 722 , so the Galois group is A3 .
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 5

(g). Using the Rational Root Theorem, the polynomial x3 + x2 − 2x − 1

is irreducible since it has no root. The discriminant is 49 = 72 , so the
Galois group is S3 .

Problem 3

(a). Note that irreducibility over C(t) is the same as irreducibility over
C[t] by Gauss’ Lemma. As x3 + x + t is linear in t, this is certainly
irreducible. We also see that the discriminant is −27t2 − 4, which is
not a perfect square in C(t). Thus the Galois group is S3 .

(b). By the same reasoning of part (a), we see that x3 − x + t is linear

in t and hence irreducible. The discriminant is 4 − 27t2 , which is not a
perfect square in C(t), so the Galois group is S3 .

(c). By the same reasoning as in part (a), we know that x3 + tx + 1 is

irreducible over C(t) since it is linear in t. The discriminant is −4t3 −27,
which is not a perfect square so the Galois group is S3 .

(d). By the same reasoning as in part (a), the polynomial x3 − 2tx + t

is irreducible over C(t) since it is linear in t. The discriminant is 32t3 −
27t2 , which is not a perfect square in C(t), which is not a perfect square
so the Galois group is S3 .

(e). By the same reasoning as in part (a), x3 − x − t is irreducible since

it is linear in t. The discriminant is 4 − 27t2 , which is not a perfect
square so the Galois group is S3 .

(f ). We have by Gauss’ Lemma that irreducibility over C(t) is equiva-

lent to irreducibility over C[t]. Suppose now that x3 + tx − t3 is factors
6 KELLER

nontrivially:
x3 + t2 x − t3 = (x − f (t))(x2 + g(t)x + h(t))

=⇒ f (t)h(t) = t3

h(t) − g(t)g(t) = t2
This forces f (t) = t, h(t) = t2 , and g(t) = 0; this however implies
the above has root t, which is a contradiction. Thus x3 + t2 x − t3 is
√
2
irreducible. As this has discriminant −31t6 = −31t3 which is a
perfect square, the Galois group is A3 .

Problem 4
√
(1) =⇒ (2): Suppose E/k is Galois. We ahve that α has minimal
polynomial f (x) := x4 − 2ax2 + a2 − b2 c. By definition of a Galois
extension, adjoining any other root of f induces the same extension.
Thus,
√
F ( α0 ) = E
√
Since α0 is another root of f .
√ √
(2) =⇒ (3): Assume F ( α) = F ( α0 ). Then, the nontrivial
σ ∈ Gal(E/F ) acts by
√ √
α 7→ − α
√ √
α0 7→ − α0
√ √ √ √
Implying α · α0 is fixed by σ; that is, α · α0 ∈ F .
Similarly, the only nontrivial σ ∈ Gal(F/k) is such that
√ √
c 7→ − c
√ √ √ √ √ √
and either α · α0 remains fixed or α · α0 7→ − α · α0 . If σ fixes
√ √ 0
α · α , then by definition α · α0 ∈ k 2 . If not, we see:
√ √ √ √
σ( c · αα0 ) = c · αα0
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 7

whence cαα0 ∈ k 2 .
(3) =⇒ (2): Suppose αα0 ∈ k 2 or cαα0 ∈ k 2 . In either case, this
√ √ √
tells us that αα0 ∈ F , implying α0 ∈ E. However, [F ( α0 ) : F ] = 2,
√ √ √ √
and F ( α) ⊇ F ( α0 ), so that F ( α) = F ( α0 ).
(2) =⇒ (1): Let σ ∈ Embk (E, E) where E denote an algebraic
√ √
closure of E. We have that σ( c) = ± c since it must be a root of
x2 − c.
√ √ √ √
If σ( c) = c; this implies σ(α) = α, so σ( α) = ± α.
√ √ √
Similarly, if σ( c) = − c, we have that σ(α) = α0 so that σ( α) =
√
± α. The above also tells us that for any σ ∈∈ Embk (E, E),

 √  √  √  √
σ F ( α) = F ( α) or σ F ( α) = F ( α0 )

√ √ √
As we have assumed F ( α) = F ( α0 ), this tells us that F ( α) is
invariant under any embedding into E; that is, E is Galois over k.
√
Assume that Gal(E/k) is cyclic; note that it is order 4 since α has
a degree 4 minimal polynomial. Let σ be a generator of the Galois
√ √
group; σ is completely determined by its action on c and α. We
√ √
must have σ( c) = − c, since else σ 2 = id. This also implies that
√ √ √ √
σ( α) = ± α0 ; by condition (3), either αα0 ∈ k or cαα0 ∈ k.
√ √ √ √
If αα0 ∈ k, then we must have that σ 2 ( α) = α and σ 2 ( α0 ) =
√
α0 . This would again imply σ 2 = id, which is a contradiction.
√
This leaves the only possibility cαα0 ∈ k as contended. Conversely,
consider the automorphism

√ √
σ : c 7→ − c
√ √
α 7→ α0
8 KELLER
√ √
Then σ 2 ( α) = − α, in which case we deduce that σ must be an
order 4 automorphism of the Galois group Gal(E/k). Thus, Gal(E/k)
is cyclic and generated by σ as above.

Problem 5

(a). Observe first that since D1/2 ∈

/ k, we have that [k(β) : k] = 6. Let
α be a root of g, so that k(α) = k(c1/2 ); then k(α, β) is Galois over k
with automorphisms induced by Gal(k(α)/k) × Gal(k(β)/k). This acts
on k(α, β) ∼
= k(α) ⊗k k(β) via (σ1 , σ2 )(u ⊗ v) = σ1 (u) ⊗ σ2 (v).
Taking cardinalities of the above Galois group, we immediately see
 
that Gal(k(α, β)/k) = 12, implying [k(α, β) : k] = 12.

(b). Set γ := α + β. By the Galois correspondence, [k(γ) : k] = |G/H|

where G = Gal(k(γ)/k) and H is the subgroup of fixing automorphisms
of k(γ). By part (a), |G| = 12, so it suffices to show that |H| = 2.
As Gal(k(β)/k) = S3 , there exists σ ∈ Gal(k(β)/k) such that σ fixes
β and transposes the other 2 roots of the minimal polynomial of β over
k. This is the only fixing automorphism of k(β), and we may extend
this to Gal(k(α, β)/k) as σ × id. This autormorphism must generate
H, so that H has order 2. Combining this with the above,

[k(γ); k] = 12/2 = 6

as contended.

Problem 6

(a). Consider the element z := σ(α)/α. Observe that E is the fixed

field of σ 2 , so that in order to show z ∈ E we only need show σ 2 (z) = z.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 9

Since α is a root of x2 − γ over E, we know that σ 2 (α) = −α. Thus,

σ 3 (α)
σ 2 (z) =
σ 2 (α)
−σ(α)
=
−α
=z
whence z ∈ E. By definition of z, we also know that σ(α) = zα just
by clearing denominators. Also, by the homomorphism property,
σ(α)2
z2 =
α2
σ(γ)
=
γ
It remains to show zσ(z) = −1. Applying σ to the equality zα = σ(α),
we see that σ(z)σ(α) = −α. Dividing by α, we find:

σ(z)z = −1

as desired.

(b). Suppose that zτ (z) = −1. Squaring both sides of this equality,
we find that z 2 τ (z 2 ) = 1. Observe that z 2 τ (z 2 ) = NE/k (z 2 ); employing
Hilbert’s Theorem 90, we deduce that there exists some γ ∈ E such
τ (γ)
that z 2 = γ
.
Let α denote a root of x2 − γ in some algebraic closure and set
K = k(α). Denote by mα,k (x) the minimal polynomial of α over k;
we must have that mα,k (x) is separable since else mα,k (x) = (x2 − γ)2 ,
implying γ ∈ k. This is a contradiction, and we deduce K is Galois as
it is the splitting field of a separable polynomial, namely mα,k (x).
To see cyclicity, let σ be any extension of τ to k(α). Since τ 2 ≡ id, we
have that E is the fixed field of σ 2 . Thus, σ 2 (α) must be sent to another
root of x2 − γ, implying σ 2 (α) = −α. Since σ is not order 2, it must be
10 KELLER

an order 4 automorphism. As the Galois group has cardinality 4, the

τ (γ)
only possibility is that our Galois group is cyclic. Now, as z 2 = γ
,

σ(α)2
z2 =
α2
 σ(α)  σ(α) 
=⇒ z − z+ =0
α α
=⇒ σ(α) = ±zα

Then, replacing z by −z as necessary, we may arrange that σ(α) = zα

as desired.

Problem 7

(a). Suppose for sake of contradiction that we have an embedding

√
Q → Q( α) ,→ F

where F/Q is a cyclic extension such that 4 | [F : Q] =: n. Note that

by definition we see

Gal(F/Q) = Z/nZ
√
Since α < 0, we know that α is pure imaginary. Consider the au-
tomorphism τ : F → F corresponding to complex conugation. This
has order 2 and hence by cyclicity is the unique such element. By the
Galois correspondence, we have the following diagram:

F 1

√
Q( α) hσ 2 i

Q hσi
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 11
√
So that [F : Q( α)] = n/2. Since n/2 remains even, the fixing auto-
√
morphisms of Q( α) must contain complex conjugation. But this is a
contradiction, whence we conclude that no such embedding can exist.

(b). Note that this is a degree 4 extension since f is irreducible by

p √
Eisenstein for p = 5. We see that α = −15 + 6 5, and furthermore:
√ √ √
5 · 152 − 180 = 5 · 45

= 15 ∈ Q
By Problem 4, this immediately tells us that the Galois group is cyclic
of order 4.

(c). Note that f is irreducible by Eisenstein’s criterion for p = 2. We

p √
have root α = −2 + 2. Consider:
√ √ √
2· 4−2= 2·2

=2∈Q
By Problem 4, we deduce that the Galois group is cyclic of order 4.

Problem 8

(a). Let α and β denote two roots of our polynomial. Consider the
following diagram:

α β

−β −α
Then every automoprhism of Gal(K/Q) induces a symmetry of the
above square. By definition of the dihedral groups, this implies that
Gal(K/Q) is a subgroup of D8 , whence

Gal(K/Q) ∼
= D8 , Z/4Z, or Z/2Z/2Z × Z/2Z
12 KELLER

(b). Let us first consider the case for Gal(K/Q) = Z/4Z. We have
that Q(α) = Q(β) by the Tower law. If D := a2 − 4b2 , we know
√
that |bbq( D) is contained in both of the aforementioned fields. Let σ
generate Gal(K/Q); then σ(α) = β and
√
−a + σ( D)
2
σ(α ) =
2
2
=β
√
−a − D
=
2
√ √
=⇒ σ( D) = − D

The above also tells us that σ(β 2 ) = α2 , implying σ(β) = ±α. If

σ(β) = α, then σ is order 2. Thus σ(β) = −α. Combining all of this,
we see:
α β β −α
σ − = −
β α −α β
α β
= −
β α

Thus σ fixes α
β
− αβ ; since our fixed field is Q, we have that α
β
− αβ ∈ Q.
Assume now that Gal(K/Q) = Z/2Z × Z/2Z. We have two cases:
in the first case we have generators φ, ψ such that:

φ : α 7→ −α

β 7→ β

ψ : α 7→ α

β 7→ −β

Then α2 − β 2 is fixed by both of the above generators, in which case

we deduce that α2 − β 2 ∈ Q.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 13

In the second case, we have generators |phi and ψ such that:

φ : α 7→ β

β 7→ α

ψ : α 7→ −β

β 7→ −α

In this case, φ(αβ) = αβ and ψ(αβ) = (−β)(−α) = αβ. Thus αβ is

fixed by Gal(K/Q) so that αβ ∈ Q as desired.
If Gal(K/Q) is isomomorphic to neither Z/4Z nor Z/2Z × Z/2Z,
part (a) guarantees that we then have Gal(K/Q) = D8 .

(c). Let f (x) := x4 − 4x2 − 1. We have roots

√ √ √ √
q q q q
2 − 5, − 2 − 5, 2 + 5, − 2 + 5

Set
√ √
q q
α := 2− 5, β := 2+ 5

As α ∈
/ R, this is a degree 8 extension with splitting field Q(i, β) and
Gal(Q(i, β)/Q) = D8 . With the standard notation for the dihedral
group,

D8 = hr, s | r4 = s2 = 1, rsrs = 1i

We have that

r(α) = β, r(β) = −α

and

s(α) = β, s(β) = α
14 KELLER

We have the subgroup diagram:

D8

2
4 4
hri 4

4 hsi hsri hsr3 i

2
2
2
1

Let us first examine the fixed field of hri. Note that r should always
√ √
fix D · αβ, in which case we deduce that the fixed field is Q( D · αβ)
since it will be a quadratic extension.
Next, consider hsi. We know that s(α) = β, s(β) = α, and we see
that the fixed field is

Q(α + β)

Consider hsri. We have that

sr(α) = α, sr(β) = −β

So our fixed field will be Q(α).

Finally, for hsr3 i, we have

sr3 (α) = −α, sr3 (β) = β

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 15

so our fixed field is Q(β). By the Galois correspondence, our diagram

becomes:

Q(α, β)
2
2
2

4
Q(α + β) Q(α) Q(β)

√
Q( Dαβ) 4
4 4
2

Q
And this completes the problem.

Problem 9

Set Ei := k(θi ). We may embed the splitting field of θi into its Galois
closure F . Consider the equivalence relation

θi ∼ θj ⇐⇒ Ei = Ej

By definition, this relation must be preserved by the action of the

Galois group G, since

σ(Ei ) = σ(Ej ) =⇒ k(σ(θi )) = k(σ(θj ))

As the set of roots has order p, with p prime, we know that Gal(F/k)
either acts transitively or trivially. It cannot be a trivial action since
else all θi ∈ k; thus Gal(F/k) acts transitively.
As we have assumed θ1 ∼ θ2 , we use transitivity to deduce that all
roots are related. That is, k(θ1 ) = k(θi ) for all i > 2. This tells us that
k(θ) is normal and separable, hence Galois. Moreover, as [k(θ) : k] = p,
the Galois group is cyclic of order p, so this is a cyclic extension.
16 KELLER

Problem 10

(a). Note that Gal(K/Q) acts transitively on the set of roots of f . This
is equivalent to equivalent to irreducibility of f , so f is irreducible as
contended.

(b). By part (a), we know that [Q(α) : Q] = n. Recall that the

equivalence relation α ∼ β ⇐⇒ Q(α) = Q(β) is preserved under
the action of Gal(K/Q). If there were some nontrivial automorphism,
then σ(α) = β for some other root β of f . This implies Q(α) = Q(β),
and by transitivitity of the action we then deduce that Q(α) = Q(β) for
all roots α, β of f . This implies that the Galois group can have order
at most n, which is a contradiction. Thus there can be no nontrivial
automoprhisms of Q(α) for any α.

(c). Suppose αn = a ∈ Q. By definition, α is a root of g(X) := X n −a.

Let ζn denote a primitive nth root of unity; g has spliting field Q(α, ζn ),
and this is Galois.
Observe that this forces f (X) = g(X), since these polynomials have
the same degree. However, we know that

[Q(α, ζn ) : Q] = nφ(n)

6 n(n − 1)

< n! for n > 4

This contradicts our assumption, in which case we must have that

αn ∈
/ Q.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 17

Problem 11

Since f ∈ k[X] for k ⊂ R, we see that f (α) = 0 ⇐⇒ f (α) = 0 since

the coefficients of f are fixed by complex conjugation. Since |α| = 1,
we also know that α = α1 .
Let F be a splitting field for f . Observe that NF/k (α) = ±1 since

1 = NF/k (1)

= NF/k (αα)

= NF/k (α)2

Recall that any σ ∈ Embk (F, k) preserves the relation α ∼ β ⇐⇒

1
β = 1/α. Thus, σ(α) is a root ⇐⇒ σ(α)
is a root for all σ. This
implies that σ is reciprocal.
To see that f has even degree, observe that every reciprocal polyno-
mial has palindromic coefficients. If f has odd degree, then f (−1) = 0
for every palindromic polynomial. Since we have assumed irreducibil-
ity, we deduce that f must have even degree as contended.

Problem 12

Set f (x) := x5 − 4x + 2. Note that f is irreducible by Eisenstein’s

criterion for p = 2.
By Descartes’ rule of signs, f has 6 2 positive roots and precisely 1
negative root. This means that there is either 2 or 4 complex conjugate
roots.
This polynomial is separable; consider the splitting field of f over Q,
denoted F . Complex conjugation acts as a transposition i Gal(F/Q).
 
Also, Gal(F/Q) must contain a 5-cycle since 5 | Gal(F/Q). As
18 KELLER

5 is prime, this information is enough to allow us to conclude that

Gal(F/Q) ∼
= S5 identically.

Problem 13

For each part of this problem, recall that there exists an embedding
Gal(F/Fp ) ,→ Gal(F/Q) as this will not be mentioned explicitly.

(a). Reducing mod 3, we first see:

x4 + 2x2 + x + 3 ≡ x(x3 − x + 1)

The term x3 − x + 1 is irreducible, in which case we deduce that

Gal(F/Q) contains a 3-cycle. Similarly, if we reduce mod 2, we see:

x4 + 2x2 + x + 3 ≡ x4 + x + 1

This is irreducible in F2 since it has no roots, and if we assume

(x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d) = x4 + x + 1

then, a = c, a2 = b + d, bd = 1, and ad + bc = 1. This forces b = d = 1,

a2 = 0 =⇒ a = 0, and c = 0. But then ad + bc = 0 6= 1. Thus, no
such factorization can occur, implying x4 + x + 1 is irreducible.
The splitting field over F2 is thus F16 , and the Galois group of this
splitting field over F2 is isomorphic to Z/4Z. This implies Gal(F/Q)
contains a 4-cycle. We then see that Gal(F/Q) 6 S4 has a 3-cycle and
a 4-cycle. This is enough to conclude that

Gal(F/Q) ∼
= S4

(b). Consider the polynomial x4 + 3x3 − 3x − 2. Reducing mod 2,

x4 + 3x3 − 3x − 2 ≡ x(x3 + x2 + 1)
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 19

Then, x3 + x + 1 is irreducible as it has no roots so that Gal(F/F2 ) ∼

=
Z/3Z. Similarly, reducing mod 3, this becomes

x4 + 3x3 − 3x − 2 ≡ x4 − 2 = (x2 + x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 2)

Both of these factors are irreducible, so that Gal(F/F3 ) = Z/2Z×Z/2Z.

Thus Gal(F/Q) contains a 3-cycle and the product of 2 transpositions.
The only subgroup of S4 with this property is S4 itself, so we deduce
that

Gal(F/Q) = S4

(c). We first reduce mod 2 to find

x6 + 22x5 − 9x4 + 12x3 − 37x2 − 29x − 15 ≡ x6 + x4 + x2 + x + 1

This is irreducible, in which case we see that Gal(F/Q) contains a

6-cycle.
Similarly, reducing mod 3:

x6 +22x5 −9x4 +12x3 −37x2 −29x−15 ≡ x6 +x5 −x2 +x = x(x5 +x4 +2x+1)

and x5 + x4 + 2x + 1 is irreducible, so Gal(F/Q) contains a 5-cycle.

Reducing mod 5, we find

x6 + 22x5 − 9x4 + 12x3 − 37x2 − 29x − 15 ≡ x6 + 2x5 + x4 + 2x3 − 2x2 + x

= (x + 4)(x + 2)(x + 1)x(x2 + 2)

In which case we see that Gal(F/Q) contains a 2-cycle as well. Com-

bining all of the above, we may conclude that Gal(F/Q) contains a
copy of S5 aong with a 6-cycle. This is enough to conclude

Gal(F/Q) = S6
20 KELLER

Problem 14

Let us first choose an irreducible polynomial f1 over F2 with deg(f1 ) =

n
n. Note that this is always possible as x2 − x has splitting field of de-
gree n over F2 . Similarly, choose a monic irreducible polynomial f2
over F3 with degree n − 1 and consider (x − 1)f2 (if n = 2, then choose
f2 6= (x − 1)).
Next, we choose a monic irreducible f3 of degree 2 over F5 . We now
have two cases to consider:
Case 1: If n − 2 is odd, we may choose a monic irreducible of degree
n − 2 over F5 , denoted φ1 . Set

g := φ1 · f3

Case 2: If n − 2 is even, then of course n − 3 is odd. Choose a monic

irreducible of degree n − 3 over F5 , denoted φ1 . Set

g := (x − 1)φ1 f3

Again in the case n − 3 = 1, choose φ1 6= (x − 1). Also, if n = 2 then

the above is unnecessary since any irreducible degree 2 polynomial has
Galois group S2 .
Now, let us consider the polynomial

f := −15f1 + 10(x − 1)f2 + 6g

We see that f is monic since −15 + 10 + 6 = 1/ Reducing mod 2,

f ≡ f1 , so we know that Gal(F/Q) contains an n-cycle.
Reducing mod 3, we see that f ≡ f2 (x − 1), so that Gal(F/Q)
contains an (n − 1)-cycle. Lastly, reducing mod 5, we have that f ≡ g.
Then, depending on the parity of n, Gal(F/Q) contains the product of
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 21

a transpositions an an (n − 2)-cycle or the product of a transposition

and an (n − 3)-cycle.
In these cases, we may raise the product to the (n − 2) and (n −
3) power respectively to see that Gal(F/Q) contains a transposition.
Then, this is enough to conclude that

Gal(F/Q) = Sn

as desired.

Problem 15

Define

H := {σ ∈ Gal(K/k) | σ(F ) = F }

Let σ ∈ H, τ ∈ Gal(K/F ). For any α ∈ F ,

στ σ −1 (α) = σ(σ −1 (α))

=α
Whence σ ∈ NG (Gal(F/k)). Conversely, suppose σ(F ) 6= F for some
σ ∈ Gal(K/k). Thus for all τ ∈ Gal(K/F ), there exists α ∈ F such
that σ(α) ∈
/ F , implying τ (σ(α)) 6= σ(α).
Inverting, σ −1 τ σ(α) 6= α so that σ ∈


/ NG Gal(K/F ) . Thus we


conclude that H = NG Gal(K/F ) as contended.

Problem 16

Problem 17

(a). Suppose that the characteristic of k does not divide 2n. If ζn is

a primitive nth root of unity, then we see that −ζn will be a primitive
2nth root of unity since (−ζn )n = (−1)n = −1. Thus (ζn )2n = 1.
22 KELLER

(b). Note that if [F : Q] = n, then the only roots of unity that could
be contained in F are the kth roots of unity for which φ(k) 6 n. The
set of integers k for which φ(k) 6 n is finite, so that F can only contain
finitely many roots of unity.

Problem 18

(a). Observe that i is a primitive 4th root of unity, so that Q(i) contains
a 4th root of unity.
√
For Q( −2), there are no roots of unity other than −1. The same
√
holds for Q( 2).
√ √ √ √
In Q( −3), we see that −1
2
+ i 2
3
∈ Q( −3), so that Q( −3) has a
primitive 3rd root of unity and hence a primitive 6th root of unity by
Problem 17 part (a).
√ √
In Q( 3) there are no nontrivial roots of unity. Also, in Q( −5)
there are no nontrivial roots of unity.

(b). The only integers for which an mth root of unity can be of degree
2 are such that φ(m) = 2, so that m = 3, 4, or 6.

Problem 19

(a). We have that n = pr . Then,

[Q(ζ) : Q] = pr − pr−1

Note that

Gal(Q(ζ)/Q) = (Z/pr Z)×

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 23

is cyclic. Then,
Y

NQ(ζ)/Q (1 − ζ) = 1 − σi (ζ)
i
= Φpr (1)

= Φp (1) = p
(b). By part (a), NQ(ζ)/Q (1 − ζ) = Φn (1). Recall that by Möbius in-
version,
Y
Φn (x) = (xd − 1)µ(n/d)
d|n
We want to show that Φn (1) = 1 for all n such that n has multiple
distinct prime factors, with base case for n = 6. Since Φ6 (x) = x2 −
x + 1, we see that Φ6 (1) = 1.
In the general case, write n = pm with m > 1 and p prime. We see:
Φm (xp )
Φn (x) =
Φm (x)
So that Φn (x) = Φm (1)/Φm (1) = 1, and we conclude that NQ(ζ)/Q (1 −
ζ) = 1 as desired.

Problem 20
Pn
Suppose f (x) = i=0 ai xi . Without loss of generality we may as-
sume a0 is nonzero since else f (p) ≡ 0 mod p for all p. Now,
 n−1
X 
i+1 i
f (a0 x) = a0 1 + x · a0 x ai+1
i=0
Now set
n−1
X
g(x) := ai+1 ai+1
0 x
i

i=0
Then there are only finitely many solutions to 1 + xg(x) = 1 and
1 + xg(x) = −1. Let M > 0 and choose N ∈ N such that N > M and
N ! is greater than any solution to the above system. Then there must
exist a prime p such that p | 1 + N !g(N !).
24 KELLER

If p | N , then p | N ! in which case we see p 6 |1 + n!g(N !), a con-

tradiction. Thus p 6 |N !, implying p > N ! > M ; as M was arbitrary,
we deduce there are infinitely many primes dividing f (a) as a ranges
through all integers.

Problem 21

(a). Recall that we always have:

Y
xn − 1 = Φn (x) · Φd (x)
d|n,d<n

Taking this relation mod p, we see that if p | Φn (a), then an − 1 ≡ 0

mod p. Thus the order of a divides n; if the order is strictly less than
n, then p | Φd (a) for some d < n. By the Lifting the Exponent Lemma,

vp (an − 1) = vp (ad − 1) + vp (n/d)

where vp denotes the p-adic valuation. By assumption, p 6 |n, so that

vp (n/d) = 0. Thus vp (an − 1) = vp (ad − 1); this is a contradiction
however, since if p | ad −1 and p | an −1, then we must have vp (an −1) >
vp (ad − 1). We thus conclude that a has order precisely n.
Conversely, suppose a has order n mod p. Note that the above
Q
argument tells us that Φn (a) ≡ 0 or d|n, d<n Φd (a) ≡ 0. Let m denote
the largest proper divisor of n; we see that
Y
Φd (x) = xm − 1
d|n, d<n

So that if p | am − 1, by definition we see that a has order 6 m. This

is a contradiction with our assumption since m < n, in which case we
must have that p | Φn (a) as desired.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 25

(b). By part (a), we know that

Φn (a) ≡ 0 mod p ⇐⇒ an ≡ 1 mod p

Note that by Fermat’s little theorem or standard group theoretic facts,

we always have ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p for a coprime to p. Thus, n | p − 1 so
that p ≡ 1 mod n.
Suppose now that the set of primes ≡ 1 mod p is finite. Enumerate
these primes as p1 , . . . , pk . For M ∈ N sufficiently large, we have that

Φn (M np1 · · · pk ) > 1

so that p | Φn (M np1 · · · pk ) for some prime p. Moreover, we see that

p 6= pi for any i = 1, . . . , k since

Φn (M np1 · · · pk ) ≡ 1 mod pi

We then see that we have found a new distinct prime divisor, implying
that the set of primes dividing Φn (a) as a ranges through all integers
is infinite.
Combining this with part (a), we see that there are infinitely many
primes such that p ≡ 1 mod n, which yields a special case of Dirichlet’s
theorem on primes in arithmetic progression.

Problem 22

We show first that k contains subfields of arbitrarily large degree.

Let q be a prime and r > 1; consider any prime divisor ` of
r
pq − 1 q r−1

q−1 q r−1

q−2
r−1 = p − 1 + q p − 1 + ··· + q
pq − 1
r−1 r
If ` 6 |pq − 1, we immediately have pq ≡ 1 mod ` by selection.
26 KELLER
r−1
If ` | pq − 1, we have that p | q. Since q is prime, ` = q; this forces
r
2 pq − 1
q 6 | qr−1
p −1
in which case there exists another prime divisor of the above quotient.
This new prime divisor must satisfy the first case, in which case we can
r
always find a prime ` with pq ≡ 1 mod `.
n
In particular, the above argument shows that the polynomial X q −1
n
splits for all primes q, and consequently X p − X splits since if pn − 1 =
αi
pα1 1 · · · pαk k , then each X pi − 1 splits.

Problem 23

(a). By the structure theory of finite abelian groups,

G∼
Y
= Z/di Z
i

with di | di+1 . Choose pi with distinct primes such that pi ≡ 1 mod di ;

note that by Problem 21 this is possible.
Q
Set n := i pi and consider
 Z ×
Gal(Q(ζn )/Q) ∼=
nZ
Y  Z ×
∼
=
i
pi Z

∼
Y Z
=
i
(pi − 1)Z

By construction,
Y Z
G6
i
(pi − 1)Z
Moreover we may find H 6 Gal(Q(ζn )/Q) such that

Gal(Q(ζn )/Q)/H ∼
=G
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 27

Let K denote the fixed field of H. By the Galois correspondence,

Gal(K/Q) = Gal(Q(ζn )/Q)/H ∼

=G

whence G is isomorphic to some Galois group.

(b). By Problem 21, there are infinitely many primes satisfying the
conditions imposed in part (a). Thus, there are infinitely many abelian
Galois extensions of Q with Galois group G.

Problem 24

Consider G := Z/3Z. By Problem 23 part (b), there are infinitely

many finite extensions whose Galois group is Z/3Z.
For each of these fields, they are of the form Q(α) for some α ∈ Q.
Consider the minimal polynomial mα,Q (x) of α over Q. This is a cubic
of the form mα,Q (x) = x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 . Under the change of
variable x 7→ x − a2 /3, we convert the above to a depressed cubic:

mα,Q (x + a3 /3) = x3 + ax + b

for a, b ∈ Z. Recall now that the Galois group of a cubic polynomial is

completely determined by whether or not the discriminant is a perfect
square in Z. Since Gal(Q(α)/Q) = A3 , our discriminant is a perfect
square in Z. As the discriminant is invariant under a linear change of
variable, the discriminant of x3 + ax + b is a perfect square. However,
this is precisely 4a3 − 27b2 , in which case there are infinitely many
integers a and b such that the above is a perfect square as desired.
28 KELLER

Problem 25

Consider the set

S := {(E, σE ) |E/k is an extension and

σE ∈ Aut(E) with fixed field k}

We have a partial order 6 on S defined by

(E, σE ) 6 (E 0 , σE 0 ) ⇐⇒ E ⊂ E 0 and σE 0 |E = σE

Observe that every chain under the above partial relation has upper
bound
[
( Eλ , σ)
λ
with σ ∈ Aut(E) such that σ|Eλ := σEλ . By Zorn’s Lemma, S has a
maximal elements (M, σ). It remains only to show that M = k a .
Toward this end, suppose not. We may choose α ∈ k a \M with
[M (α) : M ] minimal. We may extend σ to an automorphism σ 0 of the
algebraic closure k a . Then there exists β ∈ k a such that β ∈
/ k and
σ 0 (β) = β by maximality of M . Consider the minimal polynomial of
β over M , denoted f . The coefficients of f are fixed by σ 0 ; moreover,
f (x) ∈ M [x] so that σ 0 (f ) = σ(f ). This tells us that f (x) ∈ k[x] since
the fixed field of σ is k.
By the assumption that all finite extensions are cyclic, we deduce
that k(β) is the unique extensions of k with degree [k(β) : k]. Choose
any automorphism mapping β to another root of f , denoted τ .
Like before, τ (γ) = γ for some γ ∈
/ M . We also have that mγ,M (x) ∈
k[x] and hence [k(γ) : k] = [k(β) : k], implying k(γ) = k(β) by cyclicity.
However, by definition of τ , this automorphism fixes β, implying τ
fixes γ. This contradiction implies that M = k a , and hence σ is an
automorphism of k a with fixed field k, as desired.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 29

Problem 26
√
Set α := 2 and note that α can in fact be any algebraic number in
this proof.
Claim: E(α) = Qa . To see this, suppose not. Then, there exists
β ∈ Qa \E(α) such that E(β) ⊃ E properly and α ∈
/ E(β). However,
this containment contradicts maximality of E, whence we must have
E(α) = Qa .
As α is algebraic, [k(α) : k] < ∞ so that [E(α) : E] 6 [k(α) : k] < ∞.
Thus, the algebraic closure Qa is a finite extension of E. By Corollary
9.3 of the book, this forces

Qa = E(i)

whence
[Qa : E] = 2

implying any extension of E is either degree 1 or 2, so that in particular

every extensions is cyclic as desired.

Problem 27

We first want to show that k a /F is a Galois extension. By definition,

we will then have Gal(k a /F ) = hσi. Define G := hσi and let α ∈ k a .
By definition of algebraic closure, α is algebraic over k, whence the
orbit G(α) is a finite set. Enumerate this set as α1 , . . . , αn and consider
the polynomial
n
Y

f (x) := x − αi
i=1
By selection of our αi , we know that f is invariant under the action
of G, implying f (x) ∈ F [x]. This gives that α is separable over F ; as
α ∈ k a was arbitrary, we deduce that k a is a separable extension of F .
30 KELLER

It remains to see that k a /F is normal. We have that k a /k is a normal

extension just by definition, in which case k a /F is a normal extension
since F is an intermediate subfield. Thus k a /F is a Galois extension,
and Gal(k a /F ) = G.
Now let F ⊂ E ⊂ k a be any intermediate subextension. In par-
ticular, the fixing automorphisms H of E are a subgroup of G. As
G is cyclic, hence abelian, every subgroup of G is normal. Thus ev-
ery intermediate extension is Galois over F . Moreover, by the Galois
correspondence we deduce that

Gal(E/F ) = G/H

and as the quotient of any cyclic group remains cyclic, we see that E/F
is a cyclic extension as desired.

Problem 28

As suggested by the hint, we split the proof into the cases where E
is a separable extension and E is purely inseparable. Suppose first that
E is a separable extension.
Let f (x) ∈ k[X] monic and irreducible. By assumption, some root
of f denoted α is contained in E. Observe that by definition, f (x) is
the minimal polynomial of α over k. Let F denote the splitting field of
f.
Since f is separable, the primitive element theorem implies that F =
k(β) for some β ∈ F . Consider the minimal polynomial mβ,k (x) of β
over k. By assumption, E contains some root γ of mβ,k (x); as [k(β) :
k] = [k(γ) : k], k(β) and k(β) are isomorphic as k-vector spaces.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 31

As k(γ) ⊂ E, we see that E contains a splitting field for f . Thus, E

is algebraically closed.
Next, we move onto the purely inseparable case. Assume k has
characteristic p > 0. Our goal is to construct an intermediate field
extension

k⊂F ⊂E

such that E is separable over F and every polynomial f ∈ F [x] has a

root in E. Define
n
F := {α ∈ E | αp ∈ k for some n > 0}

If we can show that the Frobenius endomorphism is an automorphism of

F , we conclude that F is perfect, whence E/F is a separable extension.
n
Let α ∈ F . By definition, we may find n > 0 with αp ∈ k, so that
n+1 n
Xp − αp ∈ k[x]

By hypothesis, there exists a root β to the above polynomial. Whence,

n+1 n
pn
β p − αp = β p − α =0

=⇒ α = β p
n+1
Since β p ∈ k, we see that β ∈ F . Thus the Frobenius endomorphism
is surjective, hence an automoprhism of F . By definition, F is perfect
so that E is a separable extension of F .
It remains to show that every g ∈ F [x] has a root in E. By definition
m
of F , there exists m > 0 such that g(x)p ∈ k[x]. Thus there exists
n
α ∈ E with g(α)p = 0, implying g(α) = 0. We then see that E/F is
a separable extension with the property that every polynomial in F [x]
has a root in E. By the first part of the proof, E is an algebraic closure
of F . That is, E is algebraically closed as desired.
32 KELLER

Problem 29

(a). Note that since we are working over a field of characteristic p > 0,
X
Tr(β p ) = σ(β p )
σ∈G
X
= σ(β)p
σ∈G
= Tr(β)p
Whence
Tr(β p − β) = 1p − 1 = 0

By the additive form of Hilbert’s Theorem 90, there exists α ∈ k such

that
σ(α) − α = β p − β

(b). Let θ denote any root of f (X) := X p − X − α. Then, either θ ∈ K

or f is irreducible by Artin-Schreier. Assume for sake of contradiction
that θ ∈ K. By definition α = θp − θ so that

σ(α) − α = (σ(θ) − θ)p − (σ(θ) − θ)

On the other hand, by part (a)

σ(α) − α = β p − β

=⇒ (σ(θ) − θ − β)p − σ(θ)θ − β) = 0

=⇒ σ(θ) − θ − β ∈ F
Note that since [K : F ] = pm−1 , Tr(γ) = pm−1 γ = 0 for all γ ∈ F .
Thus
Tr(σ9θ) − θ − β) = 0

=⇒ Tr(σ(θ) − θ) = Tr(β)

Note that Tr(σ(θ) − θ) = 0, so that the above says 1 = 0. This is a

contradiction, in which case we deduce that f must be irreducible.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 33

(c). Observe that F (θ) is the splitting field of a separable polynomial,

hence a Galois extension of F . We also know that [F (θ) : F ] = p, so
that [F (θ) : F ] 6 pm . We know that Gal(F (θ)/F ) ∼
= Z/pZ is generated
by the automorphism θ 7→ θ + 1.
Viewing Tr(X) as a polynomial in X of degree pm−1 , we have that θ
is a root of

Tr(X)p − Tr(X) − Tr(α) ∈ F [x]

The derivative of this polynomial is identically 1, so this is separable.

The degree is pm and hence has pm distinct roots. Since θ + σ k (β)
is another root for every k, we deduce that there are pm−1 distinct
conjugates of β. By definition, this shows that [F (β) : F ] = pm−1 ,
implying F (β) = K and [F (θ) : F ] = pm .
Since this extension is degree pm , we deduce that Tr(X)p − Tr(X) −
Tr(α) is the minimal polynomial of θ over F . Then, σ ∗ (θ) = θ + β is
another root. As σ ∗ extends σ, it has order > pm−1 . It suffices to show

pm−1
that σ ∗ 6≡ id to deduce that

Gal(F (θ)/F ) = hσ ∗ i

pm−1
We see that σ ∗ (θ) = θ + β + 1 6= 0, implying σ ∗ has order pm−1
and hence generates our Galois group.

Problem 30

For this problem, it will be more conenient to think of a cocycle as

a function f : G → A such that

f (gh) = gf (h) + f (g)

34 KELLER

Let σ generate G and suppose |G| = n so that

n
X
Tr(x) = σ i (x)
i=1

Observe that f (σ) completely determines all values of f since

f (σ k ) = σf (σ n−1 ) + f (σ)

and we may continue inductively to see that f (σ) completes determines

the above. It suffices then to show that Tr(f (σ)) = 0.
We see:
n
X
Tr(f (σ)) = σ i (f (θ))
i=1
Xn
= f (σ i+1 ) − f (σ i )
i−1
=0

Thus we have a map

φ
ATr / H 1 (G, A)

a / f

where f (a) = a. This is surjective by the above argument. It remains to

compute the kernel, so assume that a 7→ f ∈ B 1 (G, A). By definition,
this tells us that f (σ) = σ(β) − β for some β ∈ A. Furthermore, this
tells us that

a = σ(β) − β ∈ (1 − σ)A

whence Ker φ ⊂ (1 − σ)A. Conversely, if a = β − σ(β) for some β ∈ A,

we can show by induction that f (σ k ) = σ k (β)β. For the base case
when k = 1, this is just by definition.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 35

Assume k > 1. Then,

f (σ k ) = σf (σ k−1 ) + f (σ)

= σ σ k−1 (β) − β + σ(β) − β

σ k (β) − β

Whence we conclude that Ker φ = (1 − σ)A. By the first isomorphism

theorem, we deduce

ATr
H 1 (G, A) =
(1 − σ)A

Problem 31

Recall that the group of units of a finite field is cyclic. Choose a

generator α of K × . We have that |K| = q n and |F | = q where q is
some power of a prime p. Moreover,
n−1
NK/F (β) = β · β q · · · β q
q n −1
=β q−1

q n −1
So that N (α) = α q−1 ; this element has order q − 1 in F × and hence
generates the entire unit group. Noting that N (0) = 0, we deduce that
N : F → K is a surjective map.
Next we look at the trace Tr; recall that this is an F -linear map
of vector spaces. Thus the image of Tr has dimension either 0 or 1.
Observe that
n−1
Tr(α) = α + αq + · · · + αq

is a polynomial of degree q n−1 and hence has at most q n−1 zeroes.

Thus the image cannot have dimension 0, implying the dimension of
the image is 1 and our map is surjective.
36 KELLER

Problem 32
P
(a). Suppose that wi = jcij vj . We then have that
X
σk (wi ) = cij σk (vj )
j

for each embedding σk ∈ Embk (E, k a ). But then we see that W = CV ,

whence taking the determinant and squaring yields

DE/k (W ) = det(C)2 cdotDE/k (V )

(b). Consider
σ(DE/k (W ))

for any σ ∈ Embk (E, k a ). This has the action of interchanging the


columns of the matrix σi (wj ) i,j , implying



σ σi (wj ) i,j = ± σi (wj ) i,j

And upon squaring the above equality,

σ DE/k (W ) = DE/k (W )

Thus the discriminant is fixed by every embedding into k a , implying

DE/k (W ) ∈ k.

(c). When E = k(α), any automorphism of E maps α to another root

of the minimal polynomial Irr(α, kX). Enumerating these roots as


α = α1 , α2 , . . . , αn , the matrix σi (αj ) i,j is of the form
1 α1 α12 · · · α1n−1
 
 ... . . . .. 
.
1 αn αn2 · · · αnn−1
The determinant of the above is the standard Vandermonde determi-
nant, so that
Y
2
DE/k (1, α, . . . , αn−1 ) = αi − αj
i<j
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 37

We may rewrite the above product as

YY
2 Y

αi − αj = (−1) · αi − αj · αj − αi )
i<j i<j i<j

n


Since there are 2
pairs of indices (i, j) we have a factor of (−1)n(n−1)/2
pulling out. We compute:
Y Y
(−1)n(n−1)/2 · αi − αj · αj − αi ) = (−1)n(n−1)/2 (αi − αj )


i<j i6=j
Y n Y 
= (−1)n(n−1)/2 (αi − αj )
i=1 j6=i
n
Y
= (−1)n(n−1)/2 f 0 (αi )
i=1
n Y
Y n
σi f 0 (α)


=
i=1 i=1
n
Y
NkE f 0 (α)


=
i=1

This is precisely what we wanted to show, so we are done.

(d). Observe:
X
Tr(wi wj ) = σ(wi wj )
σ∈G
X
= σ(wi )σ(wj )
σ∈G

But this is precisely the (i, j) entry of the product t AA, so that
 
det Tr(wi wj ) = det(t AA)
i,j

= det(A)2

= DE/k (W )

As desired.
38 KELLER

Problem 33

We see that
σ 3 (x) = ζ 3 x

=x

τ 2 (x) = (x−1 )−1

=x

Whence σ 2 = τ 2 ≡ id. Similarly,

τ σ(x) = τ (ζx)

= ζ −1 x−1

= ζ −1 τ (x)

= σ −1 τ (x)

Implying τ σ = σ 1 τ . As these are the relations for the generators on

S3 , we deduce that the automorphism group is precisely S3 .
Consider y = x3 + x−3 ; we see that

τ (y) = τ (x3 ) + τ (x−3 )

= x−3 + x3

=y

σ(y) = σ(x)3 + σ(x)−3

= ζ 3 x3 + ζ −3 x−3

= x3 + x−3

=y

Thus C(y) is contained in the fixed field of the above automorphism

group. Anticipating the result of problem 35, we have that [C(y) : C] =
6.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 39

Since the fixed field is degree 6 as well, we deduce that we must in

fact have equality.

Problem 34

Let x be any transcendental element over C and define K := C(x),

E := C(x2 ), and F := C(x2 + x). We know that

[C(x) : C(x2 )] = [C(x) : C(x2 + x)] = 2

Since x has minimal polynomial t2 − x2 and t2 + t − x2 − x over C(x2 )

and C(x2 + x), respectively.
If we can show that E ∩ F = C, we will be done since C(x) is not
algebraic over C. Consider the Galois groups

Gal(K/E), Gal(K/F )

We see that Gal(K/E) is generated by the automorphism σ1 : x 7→ −x.

Similarly, Gal(K/F ) is generated by the automorphism σ2 : x 7→ −1 −
x.
This tells us that Gal(K/E ∩ F ) contains the subgroup hσ1 σ2 i. Ob-
serve that σ1 σ2 (x) = x − 1, which has infinite order. Thus the above
Galois group contains a subgroup of infinite order and is hence itself
infinite. But then E is not algebraic over E ∩ F , as desired.

Problem 35

(a). Consider the polynomial

P (t) := f (t) − Y g(t) ∈ k(Y )[t]

By construction, P (X) = 0. We also see that as a polynomial in t,

deg(P ) = max{deg(f ), deg(g)}

40 KELLER

It remains to show that P is irreducible, since then P is the minimal

polynomial of X over k(Y ).
By Gauss’ Lemma, irreducibility over K(Y ) is the same as irre-
ducibility over k[Y ]. As P is linear in the variable Y , P is irreducible
in k[Y, t]. Thus, P is the minimal polynomial of X over k(Y ) and by
definition
[k(X) : (Y )] = max{deg(f ), deg(g)}

As contended.

(b). If φ is an automorphism, we must have that [k(X) : k(φ(X))] = 1.

Thus, deg(φ) = 1, implying φ is of the form
aX + b
φ(X) =
cX + d
with ad − bc 6= 0.

(c). As matrices in GL2 (k),

 
1 b
τb =
0 1
 
a 0
σa =
0 1
 
0 1
i : X 7→ X −1 =
1 0
Where the above representation comes from the induced map GL2 (k) →
Aut(k(x)) from the action
 
a b aX + b
(X) :=
c d cX + d
The above matrices generate GL2 (k) as a multiplicative group, since
 
a b
τa/c ◦ σ bc−ad ◦ i ◦ τd/c =
c2 c d
where c 6= 0. If c = 0, we have a similar decomposition. Thus the
automorphism group is generated by the given maps.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 41

Problem 36

(a). By Problem 35, we have that

Aut k(X) ∼


= PGL2 (k)

If k has q elements, recall that

 
GL2 (k) = (q 2 − 1)(q 2 − q)

Since PGL2 (k) ∼

=
GL2 (k)
Z(GL2 (k))
, we take cardinalities to find

 
PGL2 (k) = |GL2 (k)|
|Z(GL2 (k))|
(q 2 − 1)(q 2 − q)
=
q−1
3
=q −q

As contended.

(b). By Problem 35, we know that deg(Y ) = q 3 + q. Thus it suffices

to show Y is fixed by each of the generators by each of the generators
in Problem 35 part (c). We first show it is fixed under inversion:

2 2
(X −q − X −1 )q+1 X q+1 (1 − X q −1 )q+1
2 =
(X −q + X −1 )q +1 X q2 +1 (1 − X q−1 )q2 +1
2
(X − X q )q+1
=
(X − X q2 )q+1
=Y
42 KELLER

We also see:
 (X q2 − X)q+1  2
q+1
(X + b)q − (X + b)
τb =
(X q − X)q2 +1

q2 +1
(X + b)q − (X + b)
2
q+1
Xq + b − X − b
=
q2 +1
Xq + b − X − b
=Y
 (X q2 − X)q+1  2
q+1
(aX)q − aX
σa =
(X q − X)q2 +1

q2 +1
(aX)q − (aX)
2
aq+1 (X q − X)q+1
= q2 +1 q
a (X − X)q2 +1
a2
= 2Y = Y
a
Whence Y is fixed by all generators of Aut(k(X)). As [k(X) : k(Y )] =
q 3 + q and Y is fixed, we know that k(Y ) is the fixed field.

(c). Observe first that H1 is generated by σa and τb . We can also

explicitly find the order of H1 as
(q − 1)(q 2 − q)
= q2 − q
q−1
We also see that deg(T ) = q 2 − q. It thus suffices to show that T is
fixed by the generators, similar to part (b). We compute:

q2 −1
τb (T ) = (X + b)q − (X + b)
2 −1
= (X q + b − X − b)q

=Y

q2 −1
σa (T ) = (aX)q − aX
2 −1 2 −1
= aq (X q − X)q

=T
Thus T is fixed by H1 and

[k(X) : k(T )] = q 2 − q
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 6 SOLUTIONS 43

whence the fixed field of H1 is k(T ).

(c). We see that H2 has order

q2 − q
=q
q−1
And τb generates H2 , so it suffices to show that Z is fixed by τb . We
see:
τb (X q − X) = (X + b)q − (X + b)

= Xq + b − X − b

=Z
Thus precisely as in parts (a) and (b), we see that H2 has fixed field
k(Z), so we are done.

Problem 37

Choose c ∈ E × and γ such that γ n = c. Then the map

σ(γ)
σ 7→
γ
is a map from Gal(E/k) → µn . Given any φ ∈ Hom(Gal(E/k), µn ).
Observe that Gal(E/k)/ Ker φ must be the Galois group of a cyclic
extension. Moreover, the order divides n so that if φ(σ) = ζ, we may
find some γ in the fixed field of Ker φ with σ(γ) = ηγ. This gives that
γ n ∈ E × , hence determines a class in

n
E ×/ E ×

The above correspondence tells us that the subgroups of E/(E × )n cor-

respond bijectively to finite abelian extensions with degree dividing
n. Since (E × : (E × )n ) < ∞, there are only finitely many subgroups.
Thus there can only be finitely many degree n extensions, where more
precisely, we map a subgroup H 7→ k(H 1/n ).
44 KELLER

Problem 38

Let ζp denote a primitive pth root of unity, and a1/p the real number
with a = (a1/p )p . We have that Q(a1/p , ζp ) is the splitting field of the
polynomial X p − a, and this is a degree p(p − 1) extension.
If km = p|m kp , we know that kp = Q(a1/p , ζp ) and for coprime
Q

integers m and n,

Q(a1/n , a1/n ) = Q(a1/mn ), Q(ζm , ζn ) = ζmn )

Thus km = Q(a1/m , ζm ) and

Y
[Q(a1/m , ζm ) : Q] = mφ(m) = kp
p|m

Now, for the even case, assume m = 2n. By the above,

√
km = Q( a, a1/m , ζm )
√
If a ∈
/ Q(ζm ), then [km : Q] = mφ(m) in which case we find that
d2n = 2dn , since n is odd and φ(n) = φ(2n).
√
Suppose instead that a ∈ Q(ζm ). We have that km = Q(a1/n , ζm ),
implying
[Q(a1/n , ζm ) : Q] = nφ(m)

= nφ(n)

= dn
So that d2n = dn .

Problem 39