ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Prepared by: R. P. Chavan

Visiting faculty-LBSCAMSAR
June 2012
Annexure – II
Syllabus for MEOClass I Preparatory Course
Latest Technical Developments

Syllabus for MEO Class I Preparatory Course

21. Practical Electricity and Electronics
(i) High Voltage on Ships
(a) Define the high voltage & HV Systems on vessels & advantages of
high voltage applications
(b) Explain about the safety requirements while working on the high
voltage systems
(c) Explain Effects of short circuit and protection against short circuit
(d) Busbar arrangements and insulation requirements
(e) Benefits of HV systems, Explain typical marine HV systems with
diagrams
(f) Protection system for DG & TG (Turbo Generator), motor protection,
describe HV cargo switch board
(g) Procedure for meggering high voltage systems, Major Risk Factors
in HV systems
(h) Discuss inter electrode capacitances and HV inductances
(ii) Electrical Propulsion
(a) Concept of Electrical Propulsion
(b) Explain about the Azipod propulsion systems
(c) Discusses the advantages and disadvantages of electrical propulsion
system
(d) Use of synchronous motor for electrical propulsion
(e) Explain with the sketches, the construction of Azipod section.
(f) Discusses the maintenance requirement for such arrangement
(g) Discusses about the speed control by varying the frequency
(Pulse Width Modulation)
(iii) Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) and Vacuum Circuit Breakers
(a) Discusses the various circuit breakers normally used
(b) Use of SF6 and vacuum circuit’s breakers and their advantages are
discussed in regard to high voltage application.
(c) Arc sustaining and quenching methods are explained
………..

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21.(i) High voltage on ships
(a) Define the high voltage & HV Systems on vessels & advantages of high voltage
applications
(b) Explain about the safety requirements while working on the high voltage systems
(c) Explain Effects of short circuit and protection against short circuit
(d) Busbar arrangements and insulation requirements
(e) Benefits of HV systems, Explain typical marine HV systems with diagrams
(f) Protection system for DG & TG (Turbo Generator), motor protection, describe
HV cargo switch board
(g) Procedure for meggering high voltage systems, Major Risk Factors in HV
systems
(h) Discuss inter electrode capacitances and HV inductances

Welcome to this section of your training course, which is designed to

assist you the learner, understand the basics of how high voltage
systems operate and how they are connected to the supply.
INTRODUCTION:The history of electricity generation can be dated
back to 29th August 1831 when Sir Michel Faraday invented the
principle of “electromagnetic induction” and transmission, when
Thomas Alva Edison first introduced an economically viable model for
generating and distributing electric power–First Electric Power
System, Pearl Street, New York, in 1882. Edison's greatest achievement
was perhaps not the invention of the light bulb or any other single
application, but the universally applicable electricity transmission
system which has lit up the whole world.

George Westinghouse solved the transmission problem by introducing

a. c. generation using a transformer to boost the voltage entering
transmission lines and other transformers to reduce the voltage back
down to safe levels at the customer’s site.

Landmarks of Electric Motor Development

1820 – The discovery of electromagnetism, Hans Christian Oersted, Danish
1827 – Statement of the law of electric conduction, Ohm's law, George S. Ohm,
German
1830 – The discovery of electromagnetic induction, Joseph Henry, American
1831 – The discovery of electromagnetic induction, Michael Faraday, English
The practical induction motors were independently realized by Galileo
Ferraris, in Italy, and Nikola Tesla, in the United States.
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Nikola Tesla (1857–1943), a Yugoslav who immigrated to the USA in
1884, was a very famous electrical inventor. In 1888 he patented two-
phase and three-phase synchronous generators and motors.

Ward Leonard System Mr. H. Ward Leonard in 1891

George Simon Ohm obtained results by experiment, for which he received from
England in 1841, a gold medal for the “most conspicuous discovery in the domain
of exact investigation.” Ohm’s law gives the relationship between voltage, current,
and resistance in an electrical circuit. This law is accurate and absolute.

Recent advances in the development of “all electric ships” for the U.S.
Navy indicate that the total power requirements on large surface ships
could approach 100 MW.
As the demand for electrical power increases on ships, the supply
current rating becomes too high at 440V.

HV Aplications:-
 Passenger ferries,
 Cruise liners,
 LNG tankers,
 Special purpose ships,
 Specialist offshore vessels and platforms,
 Tugs and trawlers
 Dredgers
 Dynamic positioning vessels
 Cable laying ships
 Ice breakers
 Research ships
 Floating cranes

To reduce the size of both steady state and fault current levels, it is
necessary to increase the system voltage at high power ratings.
The main elements of an electrical power system are generators,
transformers, transmission lines, loads and protection and control
equipment. These elements are interconnected so as to enable the
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generation of electricity in the most suitable locations and in sufficient
quantity to satisfy the customer’s demand, to transmit it to the load
centres and to deliver good-quality electric energy at competitive prices.

The quality of the electricity supply may be measured in terms of:

• Constant voltage magnituse, e.g. no voltage sags
• Constant frequency
• Constant powewr factor
• Balanced phases
• Sinusoidal waveforms, e.g. no harmonic content
• Lack of interruptions
• Ability to withstand faults and to recover quickly
Rules, regulations and guidelines regarding high voltage systems
When a ship is built and manned, various associations defining the rules
and regulations should be followed. The same goes with the use of high
voltage equipment and training requirements of the crew. There are
several laws, rules and regulations that define the requirements for
safety and training on a ship with an HV system.
21.1 (a) First we need to define the high voltage onboard ship.
In chapter 8 of the ABS (ABS American Bureau of Shipping) rules point 7
Definition states,
7.3.1. Low Voltage:-Low Voltage in these Rules refers to voltages up to and
including 1000V AC and 1200 V DC.
7.3.2 High Voltage:-High Voltage in these Rules refers to voltages above 1000 V
up to andincluding 15 kV AC.

HIGH VOLTAGE ON SHIPS

What is a H.V. System?
In Marine Practice,
Voltages up to & Including 1000 V – L.V
Voltages above 1000V–up to 15kV– H.V
What is a H.V. System?

In Industrial Practice,
Voltage up to & including 220V – L.V. /L.T
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Voltageabove 220 V up to 11kV– M.V. /L.T.
Voltage above 11 kV up to 110 kV – H.V. /H.T
Voltages above 110 kV up to 1100 kV– E.H.V. /E.H.T
Voltages above 1100 kV up to 1500 kV–U.H.V. /U.H.T

IEC voltage range

AC DC defining risk
High voltage (supply system) > 1000 Vrms > 1500 V electrical arcing
Low voltage (supply system) 50–1000 Vrms 120–1500 V electrical shock
Extra-low voltage (supply system) < 50 Vrms < 120 V low risk

SAFETY VOLTAGE: RATED VOLTAGE NOT EXCEEDING 50 V AC.

The numerical definition of high voltage depends on context. Two

factors considered in classifying a voltage as "high voltage" are the
possibility of causing a ‘spark in air’, and the danger of ‘electric
shock’ by contact or proximity. The definitions may refer to the
voltagebetween two conductors of a system, or between any conductor
and ground.

Safety voltage is a protection provision and consists of a circuit with

rated voltage not exceeding 50 V AC, operated un-earthed and isolated
safely from supply circuits exceeding 50 V.

• Where portable equipment is to be used in dangerous, hot and damp

locations, it is advisable to operate at 55 V or even 24 V supplied again
by step-down transformer.

British Standard BS 7671:2008 defines high voltage as any voltage

difference between conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC or 1500 V
ripple-free DC, or any voltage difference between a conductor and
Earth that is higher than 600 V AC or 900 V ripple-free DC.

Why high voltage?

 At the moment the largest breaking capacity for a circuit
breaker is about 100kA RMS.
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  100kA breaking capacity equals about a nominal load current of
7500A.
 7500A at 50Hz and 440V gives 5MVA; at 60Hz about 6MVA.
 At 440V this could give an installation with three generators each
2000A or 1500kVA.
 This is the maximum power we can produce with a low voltage
system and one network.
 Higher power requirements have been necessitated by
development of larger vessels required for container transport
particularly reefer containers.
 Gas carriers needing extensive cargo cooling Electrical Propulsion.

Major features of a HV system compared to a LV system

High voltage versus low voltage in practice
1. HV systems have more extensive and complex networks and
connectionsCruise ship 6.6kV / 60Hz 8-9MW.
Only up to 5000 to 7000kW is possible with 440V/60Hz
2. Access to HV areas is often strictly limited and securely controlled
3. Isolation procedures are more involved and switching strategies have
to be formulated and recorded
4. Isolated equipment must be earthed down
5. Appropriate test probes and instruments must be used
6. Diagnostic insulation resistance testing is necessary
7. Sometimes HV systems are earthed neutral and use current limiting
resistors (NER)
8. Special HV circuit breakers are installed
9. Current magnitude is used for discrimination

POWER EQUATION AS PER OHM’S LAW

POWER = VOLTAGE x CURRENT (for d.c. and UPF 1 phase a.c.)
For a given Power, Higher the Voltage, Lesser is the Current
440 kW = 440,000 Watts = 440 Volts x 1000 Amps
= 1,100 Volts x 400 Amps
= 11,000 Volts x 40 Amps
= 1,10,000 Volts x 4 Amps

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IACS (International Association of Classification Societies)
Members make a unique contribution to maritime safety and regulation
through technical support, compliance verification and research and
development. More than 90% of the world's cargo carrying tonnage is
covered by the classification design, construction and through-life
compliance Rules and standards set by the Member Societies of IACS.
Each ship has been build according to some classification society's rules.
Classification society's set technical rules, confirm that design and calculation
meet these rules, survey ships and structures during the process of
construction and commissioning, and periodically survey vessels to ensure
that they continue to meet the rules. This means that all equipment installed
and de ship itself needs to fulfill the class requirements. In general all
electrical equipment is designed built and tested according to some
international standards prescribed by the classification society.
Equipment standardisation
In general all electrical equipment onboard of a ship is designed built and
tested according to some international standard prescribed by the
classification society. Most common standards for equipment performance
and construction are introduced below.
International standards:
 Mechanical standards
 Electrical standards
 IP Classification for enclosures
 Thermal class for insulation
 Temperature rise

TECHNOLOGY ARCHITECTURE
Battery, DC Generator, DC Motor, First Electric Power System, Pearl
Incandescent Lamp Street,New York, 1882
Transformer, Induction Motor, First 3 phase AC Power Supply,
Synchronous Generator Germany, 1891
High Power Rectification and First HVDC Power System,
Inversion Sweden, 1954
Superconductors, High Power ?
Processing, New Generators,
Computers

1. Generation: 3.3kV, 6.6kV, 11kV, 22kV& 33kV

2. Primary Transmission: 220kV & 400kV (765kV too has come)
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3. Secondary Transmission: 110kV & 132kV
4. Primary Distribution: 66kV & 33kV
5. Secondary Distribution: 22kV & 11kV
6. L.V.Distribution: 415V, 3 Phase & 240V, Single Phase
7. Use

Fig. 1.1, ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

Electricity grid simple- North America.svg

AC electric power distribution from generation stations to consumers.
Transmission system elements are shown in blue, distribution system
elements are in green.

Though electrical propulsion is normally used for smaller vessels, shipping

companies are now adopting this system for big size cargo vessels as well.

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Fig. 1.2a, General layout of electricity networks

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Fig. 1.2b, Electric Energy System
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Fig. 1.3, H. V. Power Supply System

Fig. 1. 4, Stator and rotor winding of 3 phase alternator

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Fig. 1.5 One Line Diagram

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Fig. 1.6, Conceptual One-line diagram for a Unit-connected Generator using
isolator/disconnect switch

Electric power must be produced at the instant it is used. Needed

supplies cannot be produced in advance and stored for future use.
Electrical energy possesses unique characteristics that made it an
extremelyvaluable form of energy. It has unique properties:
• It can be produced at one location and transmitted to
anotherinstantaneously;
• It can be transformed to other energy forms and thereby used in
avarietyof ways;
• It can be delivered by a system of wires, and control;
• It cannot be stored.

Bus Ties: Bus ties can be closed to interconnect ship service

switchboards so that one switchboard can feed power from its generator
to one or more of the other switchboards. Bus ties can also connect two
or more switchboards together to parallel their generator plants.

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 Fig. 1.7, H.V. Power System (13.8kV, 80MW)
As the motor kW ratings increase the supply voltage becomes limited
and a higher voltage will be needed. This is because large currents
cannot be carried in the stator windings. The design and fabrication of
the slots, windings and end connections become physically very difficult
when thecross-sectional area of the conductors becomes large. The
typical kW limits for various voltages are given in Table 5.12, see also
IEC60034 part 1 clause 29.

Table 5.12, Limits to motor ratings due to system voltage

Motor power rating (kW) Appropriate system line voltage (volts)
Up to 250kW LV e.g. 380 to 440V
150 to 3,000kW HV e.g. 2,400 to 4,160V
200 to 3,000kW HV e.g. 3,300 to 7,200V
1000 to 15,000kW HV e.g. 6,600 to 13,800V

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21.1 (e) Advantages of Using HIGH VOLTAGE ON SHIPS
Higher voltage means Lower current, resulting in:
(a) Reduction in size of cables etc. for a given Power
(b) Saving of Space and weight
(c) Reduction in cost of Installation
(d) Ease of Installation
(e) Lower losses – more efficient utilization of generated power
(f) Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the
design and application of the electrical equipment used in the power
system

Advantages of electrical propulsion system are:

 A large amount of power is generated by the system and the excess
power can be utilized by supplying it to cargo pumps, fire pumps and
other important auxiliary machinery
 The space required for installation of electrical propulsion machinery
is less and compact as compared to conventional systems
 There is no direct connection of propeller shaft and prime mover and
hence transmission of severe stresses such as torsional and vibration is
reduced
From long-term perspective, electric propulsions systems are promising
power sources for ships, considering their high efficiency and stringent
marine environmental norms.
 There is more flexibility in installation of machinery
 It provides improved maneuverability and high redundancy
 Increased payload through flexible location of machinery
components
 Environmental benefits from lower fuel consumption and emissions
 High performance in tough ice conditions due to maximum torque at
zero speed
 Reduces lifecycle cost by less fuel consumption and maintenance
costs
 Better comfort due to reduced vibration and noise

Disadvantages of Using H.V. Systems

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(a) Higher Insulation Requirements for cables and equipment used in the
system.
(b) Higher risk factor and the necessity for strict adherence to stringent
safety procedures.
(c) Creepage Distances and Clearance

Disadvantages of this system:

 The installation cost of electrical propulsion plant is much higher
 Improvised training for ship’s crew is required as the system is
completely different from mechanical system and involves major
automation
 From long-term perspective, electric propulsions systems are
promising power sources for ships, considering their high efficiency and
stringent marine environmental norms.

Major Risk Factors in H.V. systems

• High inter-electrode capacitances present in HV Systems
• Stored Energy in HV inductances
• Arcing, Sparks and creepage (Tracking) due to Moisture, Low
insulation, Lose connections etc.
• A Typical Power Cable
• Electric Propulsion and High Voltage Practice

Hazards of High Voltage:

Arcing:
An unintentional electric arc occurs during opening of a breaker,
contactor or switch, when the circuit tries to maintain itself in the form
of an arc. During an insulation failure when current flows to ground or
any other short circuit path in the form of accidental tool slipping
between conducting surfaces, causing a short circuit.

Results of an electric arc:

Temperatures at the arc terminals can reach or exceed 35,000° f or
20,000˚c or four times the temperature of sun’s surface. The heat and
intense light at the point of arc is called the arc flash.
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Air surrounding the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are
vaporised causing a pressure wave termed as ARC BLAST.

Hazards of an Arc Flash:

– During an arc flash, sudden release of large amounts of heat and light
energy takes place at the point of arc.
– Exposure frequently results in a variety of serious injuries and may
even be fatal, even when the worker is ten feet or more from the arc
center.
– Equipments can suffer permanent damage.
– Nearby inflammable materials may be ignited resulting in secondary
fires.

Hazards of Arc Blasts & ejected materials:

– An arc flash may be accompanied by an arc blast
– The arc blast causes equipment to literally explode ejecting parts with
life threatening force.
– Heated and vaporised conducting materials surrounding the arc expand
rapidly causing effects comparable to an explosive charge.
– They may project molten particles causing eye injuries. The sound that
ensues can harm the hearing.

Potential injuries:
– At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high enough to
instantly destroy skin and tissue. Skin temperatures above 100˚C (about
210˚F) for 0.1sec result in irreversible tissue damage, defined as an
incurable burn.
– Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause ordinary
clothing to burst into flames even if not directly in contact with the arc.
Synthetic fibers may melt and adhere to the skin resulting in secondary
burns.
– Even when safety goggles are worn, arc flash may cause severe
damage to vision and or blindness. Intense UV light created by arc flash
can damage the retina. Pressure created from arc blasts can also
compress the eye, severely damaging vision.
– Hearing can also be affected by the loud noise and extreme pressure
changes created by arc blasts. Sound blasts with arc blasts exceed 140dB
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which is equal to an airplane taking off. Sudden pressure changes
exceeding 720lbs/sq.ft for 400ms can also rupture eardrums. Even at
lesser pressure, serious or permanent damage to hearing may occur.

Short Circuit:

A short circuit (or a fault) is said to have taken place when the current is
not confined to its normal path of flow but diverted through alternate
path(s).

– During short circuit, the current rises much above the normal value.
– Short circuit level is the maximum possible current that flows at the
point of fault during a short circuit.

Effects of short circuit:

High currents during Short circuits can cause damage to electrical
installation by giving rise to excessive
Thermal Stresses, Mechanical Stresses , Arcing.

Methods adopted to prevent effects of short circuit in a system:

– A well-designed Protective Relay system trips out a breaker(s) and

isolates the faulty circuit from the power source within a short time to
prevent/minimise effects of high short circuit current, as and when it
occurs.
– The equipment in the system, the cables, the switchgear, the busbar,
and the generators are designed to withstand the effects of short circuit
during that short period.

Calculation of the short circuit levels in the system is therefore required

to help in:
a. Designing an appropriate Protective Relay System
b. Choosing the right switchgear with suitable short circuit withstand
capacity to be used in the system.

HIGH VOLTAGE ON SHIPS

HV levels of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11kV are regularly employed ashore
for regional power distribution and industrial motor drives. By
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generating electrical power at 6.6 kV instead of 440V the distribution
and switching of power above about 6 MW becomes more manageable.
e.g. A three phase 6 MW ships load on a HV system supplied by 3 x 2
MW, 0.8 p. f. diesel-generator units requires the switchboard fault level
to be about 90 kA and each generator circuit breaker and system
cabling has to handle a full-load current (FLC) of:
I = P/√3 V cosØ = 20,00,000W/√3 x 440 x 0.8 = 3300A.
Working at high voltage significantly reduces the relative overall
size and weight of electrical power equipment.

The main disadvantage perceived by the user/maintainer, when working

on an HV installation, is the very necessary adherence to stringent
safety procedures.
The same system at 6.6 kV requires the HV switchboard and cables to
be rated for a fault level of about 9 kA with generator circuit breakers
rated only for an FLC of 220A.
High voltage reduces the overall conductor size required or overall mass
of the cable, and so reduces handling labour.
To ensure that galvanic corrosion doesn't occur an isolation transformer
that provides galvanic isolation should be used, because the power grid
and on board earth potential may differ.

An economical HV system must be:

 simple to operate,
 reasonably priced and
 requires a minimum of maintenance over the life of the ship.
Experience shows that a 9 MW system at 6.6 kV would be about
20% more expensive for installation costs.
An example of a high voltage power system is shown in Fig. 1.3, 1.7and
1.8

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21.1 (d) BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS AND INSULATION REQUIREMENTS

Fig. 1.8, MSB Bus-bars

Fig. 1.9, NEURAL EARTHING IN HV SYSTEM

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Power Distribution on Ships:

Th ship’s power distribution system consists of different components for

distribution and safe operation of the system. The main components of
this system are:
Ship’s HV generator - consists of prime mover and HV alternator
 HV Main switchboard - a metal enclosure taking power from the
diesel generator and supplying it to different machinery systems
 HV Bus bars - acts as power carrier and allows transfer of load from
one point to another
 HV Circuit breakers - act as a switch, and in unsafe conditions can be
tripped to avoid breakdown and accidents
 HV Transformers - to step up or step-down the voltage; When supply
is to be given to the lighting system, a step down transformer is used in
the distribution system
 HV cables, large power consumers such as thrusters, propulsion
motors, air-conditioning (A/C) compressors and HV transformers
are fed directly from the HV switchboard.
 Fuses - safety devices for machinery

HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES

All safety rules presented in this document are intended to ensure safe
working conditions while working with potentially dangerous voltages.
It is assumed that all personnel working with potentially dangerous
voltages have been trained in basic electrical safety procedures.

 1. This guidance does not apply where equipment has been isolated,
discharged, disconnected and removed from the system or installation.
2. Equipment that is considered by an Authorised Person (HV) to be in a
dangerous condition should be isolated elsewhere and action taken to
prevent it from being reconnected to the electricity supply.
3. All working on, or testing of, high voltage equipment connected to a
system should be authorised by a permit-to-work or a sanction-for- test

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following the procedures as described in Practical Exercises no. 4
4. No hand or tool (unless the tool has been designed for the purpose)
must make contact with any high voltage conductor unless that
conductor has been confirmed dead by an Authorised Person (HV) in the
presence of the Competent Person (HV).
5. Where any work or test requires an Accompanying Safety Person
(HV) to be present, he/she should be appointed before that work or
testing can begin.
6. Voltage test indicators should be tested immediately before and after
use against a test supply designed for the purpose.
7. Where the procedures involve the application of circuit main earths,
the unauthorised removal of such earths should be prevented, wherever
practicable, by the application of safety locks.
8. Where the procedures involve the removal of circuit main earths, that
is, testing under a sanction-for-test, the earths will be secured with
working locks. The keys to these locks will be
retained by the Duty Authorised Person (HV), who will remove and
replace the earths as requested.

High Voltage Safety and Precautions

Making personal contact with any electric voltage is potentially

dangerous. At high voltage (>1000 V) levels the electric shock potential
is lethal. Body resistance decreases with increased voltage level which
enhances the current flow. Remember that an electric shock current as
low as 15 mA can be fatal. So, the risk to people working in HV areas is
greatly minimised by the diligent application of sensible general and
company safety regulations and procedures.

Personnel who are required to routinely test and maintain HV equipment

should be trained in the necessary practical safety procedures and
certified as qualified for this duty.

Approved safety clothing, footwear, eye protection and hard hat should
be used where danger may arise from arcs, hot surfaces and high voltage
etc.

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Safety equipment should be used by electrical workers includes
insulated rubber gloves and mats. These protect the user from electric
shock.

Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the

user. Testing companies can test at up 300,000 volts and offer services
from glove testing to Elevated Working Platform or EWP Truck testing.

 An insulated material or rubber mat can be used as a dead front of all
electrical installations and equipments.

The access to HV switchboards and equipment must be strictly

controlled by using a permit-to-work scheme and isolation procedures
together with live-line tests and earthing-down before any work is
started. The electrical permit requirements and procedures are similar to
permits used to control access in any hot-work situation, e.g. welding,
cutting, burning etc. in a potentially hazardous area.

Precautions prior to live voltage and phasing checks:

1. Where live phasing is to be undertaken, the area containing exposed

live conductors should be regarded as a high voltage test enclosure.
2. Approved equipment used for live voltage and phasing checking at
high voltage should be tested immediately before and after use against a
high voltage test supply.
3. Live voltage and phase checking on high voltage equipment may only
be undertaken by a Authorised Person (HV), with assistance if necessary
from a Competent Person (HV) acting on verbal instructions from the
Authorised Person (HV). Neither a permit-to-work nor a sanction-for-
test is required, but the Authorised Person (HV) and any assistant should
be accompanied by an Accompanying Safety Person (HV).

Testing at high voltage:

1. Where high voltage tests are to be undertaken, a sanction-for-test
should be issued to the Competent Person (HV) who is to be present
throughout the duration of the tests.
2. The areas containing exposed live conductors, test equipment and any
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high voltage test connection should be regarded as high voltage
enclosures.

High voltage test enclosures:

1. Unauthorised access to a high voltage test enclosure should be
prevented by, as a minimum, red and white striped tape not less than 25
mm wide, suspended on posts, and by the display of high voltage danger
signs. An Accompanying Safety Person (HV) or the Duty Authorised
Person (HV) should be present throughout the duration of the tests, and
the area should be continually watched while testing is in progress.

Work on busbar spouts of multi-panel switchboards

When work is to be carried out on busbar spouts, the following

operations should be carried out in strict sequence:

a. the Authorised Person (HV) should record the details of necessary

safety precautions  and switching operations on a safety programme and
produce an isolation and earthing diagram;
b.  the section of the busbar spouts on which work is to be carried out
must be isolated from all points of supply from which it can be made
live;
c.  the isolating arrangements should be locked so that they cannot be
operated, and shutters of live spouts locked shut. Caution signs should
be fixed to the isolating points;
d.  where applicable, danger signs should be attached on or adjacent to
the live electrical equipment at the limits of the zone in which work is to
be carried out;
e. busbars should be checked by means of an approved voltage indicator
to verify that they are dead, the indicator itself being tested immediately
before and after use. The checking with the voltage indicator should be
done on the panel to which the circuit main earths are to be applied. This
test should also be made on the panel on which the work is carried out;
f. circuit main earths should be applied at a panel on the isolated section
of the busbar other than that at which work is to be done using the
method recommended by the switchgear manufacturers. The insertion of
hands or any tool into the contact spouts for this purpose is not an
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acceptable practice;
g.  an earth connection should also be applied to all phases at the point-
of-work;
h.  the permit-to-work should be issued to cover the work to be done.
i. During the course of the work, where applicable, the earth
connection(s) at the point-of-work may be removed one phase at a time.
j. Each phase earth connection must be replaced before a second-phase
earth connection is removed;   on completion of the work, the permit-to-
work should be cancelled.

Definition of safety terms:

Definitions presented here are those deemed necessary and suitable for
electrical laboratory applications present in the Electronics and
Electrical Engineering Laboratory. They should not be assumed to be
directly related to definitions presented in other electrical standards or
codes.

High Voltage: Any voltage exceeding 1000 V rms or 1000 V dc with

current capability exceeding 2 mA ac or 3 mA dc, or for an impulse
voltage generator having a stored energy in excess of 10 mJ. These
current and energy levels are slightly below the startle response
threshold.

Moderate Voltage: Any voltage exceeding 120 V rms (nominal power

line voltage) or 120 V dc, but not exceeding 1000 V (rms or dc), with a
current capability exceeding 2 mA ac or 3 mA dc.

Temporary Setups: Systems set up for measurements over a time

period not exceeding three months.

Test Area: Area in which moderate voltages are accessible, and which
has been clearly delineated by fences, ropes, and barriers.

Troubleshooting: Procedure during which energized bare connectors

at  moderate or high voltages might be temporarily exposed for the
purpose of repair or problem diagnosis.
25
Inter lock: A safety circuit designed to prevent energizing high- or
moderate-voltage power supplies until all access doors are closed, and to
immediately de-energize such power supplies if the door is opened. Note
that this function does not necessarily ensure full discharge of stored
energy.

Bare Conductor: A conductor having no covering or electrical

insulation whatsoever.

Covered Conductor: A conductor enclosed within a material of

composition or thickness not defined as electrical insulation.

Insulated Conductor: A conductor encased within material of

composition and thickness defined as electrical insulation.

Exposed Conductor: Capable of being inadvertently touched or

approached nearer than a safe distance by a person. It applies to parts
that are not suitably guarded, isolated, or insulated.

Unattended Operation: The operation of a permanent setup for

electrical measurements for a time period longer than can be reasonably
attended by staff.

Enclosed: Surrounded by a case, housing, fence or wall(s) that prevents

persons from accidentally contacting energized parts.

Temporary Setups

When troubleshooting a setup with exposed or bare conductors at high

or moderate voltages, it may be necessary to temporarily bypass safety
interlocks. Such procedures may only be performed under two-person
operating conditions.
In instances where troubleshooting a system or particular equipment
becomes frequent (at least once every six months) Group Leader
approval is required. In all cases two staff members must be present
when high voltage is energized and the interlock(s) bypassed. When
troubleshooting a single piece of equipment in such a way that personnel
may have access to high or moderate voltage (for example, repairing an
26
instrument), two persons should be present.
The “keep one hand in the pocket” rule is strongly encouraged.

Modes of Operation
Two-person: Two-person operation is the normal mode of operation
where high or moderated voltages are present.

HV Insulation Requirements
The HV winding arrangements for generators, transformers and motors
are similar to those at LV except for the need for better insulating
materials such as Micalastic or similar. The HV windings for
transformers are generally insulated with an epoxy resin/powdered
quartz compound. This is a non-hazardous material which is
maintenance free, humidity resistant and tropicalised. Conductor
insulation for an HV cable requires a more complicated design than is
necessary for an LV type. However, less copper area is required for HV
conductors which allow a significant saving in space and weight for an
easier cable installation. Where the insulation is air (e.g. between bare-
metal live parts and earth within switchboards and in terminal boxes)
greater clearance and creepage distances are necessary in HV equipment
as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.10, Creepage and Clearance Distances

Air Clearance for H.V.
Phase-to-phase air clearances and phase-to-earth air clearances between
non-insulated parts are to be not less than those specified in Table 2.3.1.

Table 2.3.1
Nominal Voltage Minimum air
27
(kV) clearance (mm)
3 (3.3) 55
6 (6.6) 90
10 (11) 120
15 160

Existing maximum voltage level in transmission

HVAC
POWERGRID, India: 765kV
China: 1000kV
South Africa: 765kV
Brazil: 765kV

HVDC
POWERGRID, India: +/-500 kV
China: +/-800 kV
South Africa: 533kV (Monopolar)
Brazil: +/-600

Substation automation
POWERGRID, India: Yes
China: Yes
South Africa: Yes
28
Brazil: Yes

The following illustrate the differing electrical needs of different types

of ship:
Cargo handling equipment plays a dominant role in containerships,
and defines the special power requirement characteristics of the
electrical network
In tankers, cargo pumps and possibly compressors are significant
factors
In passenger ships large electricity consumers are air conditioning,
the galley equipment, stage equipment and lighting (also called hotel
load) and the transverse thrusters for manoeuvring in port
In ships with electric propulsion, the propulsion machinery itself
is the dominating factor.

29
Both the choice of propulsion machinery and the classification
regulations have an impact on the design of the electrical network.
The rules of SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea), the flag state and the harbour authorities specify the basic level of
safety, while the classification societies mainly specify the basic
navigational regulations. A redundant propulsion, unmanned engine
room, a ‘green’ ship, all set their own requirements.
Structure of the electrical network
Once the type of the propulsion machinery, diesel-mechanic or diesel-electric, has
been selected further clarifications and decisions have to be made, examples of
which are the following:
Maximum electrical power needed to be generated (the load
reservation is agreed with the customer).
Given that information on the ship’s electricity consumers can be
limited, load calculations are often based on relative values calculated
from reference ships. Also, different ship operating modes (sailing,
manoeuvring, loading, harbour, DP etc.) will affect the load calculations.
It is important that the load calculations are updated while the ship is
being built and that the ‘final’ actual consumption information is
received from the ship owner after the ship is delivered.
Generator size and number
Selection of main voltage and frequency
Voltage drop calculation
Short circuit calculation and network selectivity and structure

30
The sum of three equal magnitude phasors 120° apart in phase is zero.
The neutral current is zero in a balanced wye-wye system. Thus in theory, the
neutral wire can beinserted or removed without affecting load current or
voltages. This is not true if the load is unbalanced, which is often the case in real
power distribution systems.

UK, MEO Class I, July 2008, Q 11

Question
a. Explain why many modern cargo vessels are fitted with a.c. generators of
6,600 volts and above. (4)
31
b. Sketch a block diagram showing how a 6,600V generator system supplies
440 volts and 220 volt consumers. (6)
July 2008, Q 11 (a)
􀂃Very Large Electrical Loads: a.c. generators operating at high voltages (HV)
of 6,600 volts and above supply very large electrical loads.
􀂃Material Saving: In comparison with LV equipments, those operating at
HV provide material savings, since at such high voltages current size is
reduced and hence the size of conductors is also reduced.
Consequently equipment size is also reduced resulting in more cargo space.

32
33
34
35
Fig. 1.11 ‘Isochronus’ and “droop characteristics” of Diesel Engine Governor

36
1/ mech degree = p x 360 electrical degrees
1 pole pitch = 180 degrees electrical

37
 Fig 1.12, H.V. Power System (6.6kV)-HV Harmonic filter

In the example shown the HV generators form a central power station

for all of the ship's electrical services. On a large passenger ship with
electric propulsion, each generator may be rated at about 10MW or more
and producing 6.6 kV, 60Hz three-phase a.c. voltages. The principal
consumers are the two synchronous a.c. propulsion electric motors
(PEMs) which may each demand 12MW or more in the full away
condition. Each PEM has two stator windings supplied separately from
the main HV switchboard via transformers and frequency converters. In
an emergency a PEM may therefore, be operated as a half-motor with a
reduced power output. A few large induction motors are supplied at 6.6
kV from the main board with the circuit breaker acting as a direct-on-
line (DOL) starting switch.

38
Fig. 1.13, H. V. Power System Diagram (6.6kV)-LV Harmonic filter

Fig. 1.14, Generator Terminal Box

39
Fig. 1.15, Single Line Diagram for the Vessel and Power plant
These motors are:
 Two forward thrusters and one aft thruster, and
 Three air conditioning compressors
 Other main feeders supply the 440V engine room sub-station (ER
sub) switchboard via step-down transformers. An interconnector cable
links the ER sub to the emergency switchboard. Other 440V sub-stations
(accommodation, galley etc.) around the ship are supplied from the ER
sub. Some installations may feed the ships sub stations directly with HV
and step-down to 440V locally.

40
21.1 (e) INTER ELECTRODE CAPACITANCES AND HV INDUCTANCES
 HARMONIC DISTORTION
Harmonic distortion is defined in the National Electrical Code (NEC) as
“a load where the wave shape of the steady-state current does not follow
the wave shape of the applied voltage.”
Thenonlinear loads—such as audio equipment, computers, fluorescent
lighting with ballast, and variable-speed motors—will put AC-supplied
voltage out of phase with amperage. The net result is a waveform that
becomes slightly distorted when viewed with an oscilloscope.

Comparison of Capacitor and Inductor

Fig. 2.1, Power curve for a purely inductive circuit

41
Fig. 2.2, Magnetic field of an inductive circuit

Fig. 2.3, Power curve for a purely capacitive circuit

Fig. 2.4 Sinusoidal shape of voltage and current

Linear loads—such as a water heater or an incandescent lightbulb—will
not create this phase imbalance between voltage and current. What’s
important for the boat owner or technician to understand is that
excessive harmonic distortion can create problems with some common
onboard AC equipment.

42
Fig. 2.5, Voltage and current waveform of a resistive circuit

Fig. 2.6, Phasor diagram for a resistive circuit

The illustrations show a change in the relationship of voltage and current
in an inductive load scenario (top illustration), which could be a
transformer or a motor, and in a capacitive scenario (bottom illustration),
which could be a noise filtration circuit on something like an audio
amplifier.
In the inductive scenario, the voltage is leading the current. In the
capacitive scenario, the current leads the voltage. Again, what the boat
owner or technician needs to know is that things ending up a bit out of
phase and waveform distortion will occur as a result. (Remember that
resistive loads do not have these faults and are generally thought of as
linear; there is no inductance or capacitance to worry about.)
Regardless of whether an AC circuit is supplying an inductive load, a
capacitive load, or a resistive load, there are factors that will modify the
perfect AC current sine waveform Fig 2.1.

Fig. 2.7, AC current sine waveform

43
Fig. 2.8, Harmonics

44
 Fig. 2.9, Harmonic Analysis of Waveforms

Fig. 2.10, Voltage (V) is leading the current (shown as amperage, I) because it
takes time for the voltage to force the buildup of current to its maximum across an
inductive load.

45
Fig. 2.11, Another example is what happens in a capacitor as it charges and
discharges.
In this case the voltage lags behind the current because the current must flow to
build up the charge in the capacitor. The effect is known as capacitance, which
is the ratio of the electric charge transferred from one to the other of a pair of
conductors to the resulting potential difference between them.

Electric power quality and ship’s safety

The issue of electric power quality onboard ships has seemed of
utmost importance, in particular nowadays when a great progress in
implementation of electric drives for ship’s thrusters, propellers and
other smaller drives is evident. Ship’s electric power systems are
isolated power systems. Similar systems are installed on aircraft, oil
platforms and small islands, in industrial plants with seasonal character
of operation and also as emergency electric supply systems in banks,
hospitals, hotels, large supermarkets and skyscrapers.
Characteristics of those systems are: scarce in other cases proportion
of single consumer power to electric source power (some consumer
powers are often comparable to generator power supplying them) and
relatively high short-circuit impedance of generators installed in the
systems under consideration. Finally, electromagnetic disturbances
observed in isolated power systems are more serious than those observed
46
in large connected systems in their normal operation. What is unique in
ships power systems? Answer is simple. System is installed on mobile
object – the ship - and simultaneously is deciding for its operational
control. Effects of incorrect system operation can be very serious and
consequences of ship’s casualties are known very well from the news.
Indeed, question of the electromagnetic disturbances determining
electric energy quality in ship’s power systems has not only technical
aspect and / or vessel operational safety. Paltry quality of electrical
energy on ships has also its economic dimension. In spite of relatively
not big power (normally no more than few MVA) of a single electric
plant, large number of ships (30 395 of 1000 gt and above (as of
1.01.2003) shows the measure of presented problem excellently.

Electromagnetic disturbances in ship’s power networks

Wide spectrum of electromagnetic disturbances, radiated and
conducted, is present in the ship’s electric networks causing disorder in
their element operation. Typical conducted, and particularly prolonged
disturbances, as:
• voltage and frequency variations;
• voltage asymmetry;
• distortions caused by harmonics, inter-harmonics, transient pulse
disturbances;
• improper distribution of active and reactive power between generating
sets working in parallel.

47
Fig. 2.12, Current and voltage relationships for (a) a resistor (b) an inductor and (c)
a capacitor

48
HARMONICS

Harmonics
Ideally, voltage and current waveforms are perfect sinusoids. However,
because of the increased popularity of electronic and other non-linear
loads, these waveforms quite often become distorted. This deviation
from a perfect sine wave can be represented by harmonics – sinusoidal
components having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the
fundamental frequency. Thus, a pure voltage or current sine wave has no
distortion and no harmonics, and a non-sinusoidal wave has distortion
and harmonics. To quantify the distortion, the term total harmonic
distortion (THD) is used. The term expresses the distortion as a
percentage of the fundamental (pure sine) of voltage and current
waveforms. See PQC’s power note on Harmonics for more
information.

49
 Excessive harmonic distortion may cause equipment to overheat,
motor failure, capacitor failure (especially in motor circuits), and
excessively high, neutral conductor current. Commonly used devices
that may either contribute to or be affected by excessive distortion
include:
• fluorescent lights
• some HVAC systems
• computers, printers, and fax machines
• dimmer switches for lighting
• audio equipment
• video equipment
• UPS devices

Here’s an example of how harmonic distortion is created. In order to

work, a fluorescent light first requires a buildup of voltage. Once the
voltage is high enough, an arc occurs across its pair of electrodes. At this
point, current flows easily, especially when compared to the current flow
before the arc occurred. In effect, the light draws nearly no current
initially and much more current once the tube is activated and producing
light.
Multiply this effect by a power grid’s cumulative nonlinear loads and the
net effect is a distortedsine wave delivered to the boat. Extreme
distortion can be seen on an oscilloscope visually as a sine wave that has
uneven peaks and valleys, often with a “flattened” top to one of the
wave peaks.
Harmonic distortion can be cumulative within a power grid, and will be
distributed throughout the grid, potentially causing equipment problems.
Determining whether excessive distortion exists is one of the more
advanced troubleshooting exercises a boat owner or technician may
find themselves performing at some point.

50
Harmonic distortions cause a lot of damages in electrical power
system. Harmonic distortions can cause following typical damages to
and malfunction of most elements and units of ship’s power network:
• Electric power sources:
- Overheating and, in result, damage to bearings, winding and sheets
packages of generators, because of a premature thermal ageing of
insulation.
• Electrical power consumers:
- Overheating of the stator and rotor of fixed speed electric motors, risk
of bearing damage because of the motor high temperature, additional
rises of insulation temperature and its premature thermal ageing. A
special hazard is present in the case of explosion proof motors
operating in explosion hazardous areas. Unintentional tripping of
circuit-breaker protections, interference with all control, electrical and
electronic systems including radio- navigation and communication
equipment, lighting, etc
• Electrical energy networks:
- Overheating of cables as result of decreased ability to carry rated
current because of reduction of effective cable cross section area by
so called skin effect, also risk of cable damage due to resonance.
- Overheating and premature thermal ageing of transformer sheets
packages and winding insulation.
It is important that harmonic distortions are present together with
voltage and frequency variation and also voltage asymmetry, most
frequent. Negative synergy effect of above mentioned phenomena can
be expected for many power consumers. That kind of interference
synergy was discovered in tests of temperature rises in induction motor
windings at different supply conditions.

Harmonic distortion
(a) Equipment producing transient voltage, frequency and current
variations shall not cause malfunction of other equipment on board,
neither by conduction, induction or radiation.
(b) In distribution systems the acceptance limits for voltage harmonic
distortion shall correspond to IEC 61000-2-4 Class 2. (IEC 61000-2-4
51
Class 2 implies that the total voltage harmonic distortion shall not
exceed 8 %.) In addition no single order harmonic shall exceed 5%.
(c) The total harmonic distortion may exceed the values given in (b)
under the condition that all consumers and distribution equipment
subjected to the increased distortion level have been designed to
withstand the actual levels. The system and components ability to
withstand the actual levels shall be documented.
(d) When filters are used for limitation of harmonic distortion, special
precautions shall be taken so that load shedding or tripping of
consumers, or phase back of converters, do not cause transient voltages
in the system in excess of the requirements in 204. The generators shall
operate within their design limits also with capacitive loading. The
distribution system shall operate within its design limits, also when parts
of the filters are tripped, or when the configuration of the system
changes.

Harmonic distortion
All equipment shall be designed to operate at any load up to the
ratedload, with a supply voltage containingthe following harmonic
distortion:
– Total harmonic content not exceeding 8% of voltage root
mean square value
– No single harmonic being greater than 5% of voltage root
mean square value

52
Fig. L6: Values of cos Ø and tan Ø for commonly-used equipment
Sr. No Equipment and appliances cos Ø tan Ø
0% 0.17 5.80
25% 0.55 1.52
1
Common induction 50% 0.73 0.94
motor loaded at 75% 0.80 0.75
100% 0.85 0.62
2 Incandescent lamps 1.0 0
3 Fluorescent lamps (uncompensated) 0.5 1.73
4 Fluorescent lamps (compensated) 0.93 0.39
5 Discharge lamps 0.4 to 0.6 2.29 to
1.33
6 Ovens using resistance elements 1.0 0
7 Induction heating ovens (compensated) 0.85 0.62
8 Dielectric type heating ovens 0.85 0.62
9 Resistance-type soldering machines 0.8 to 0.9 0.75 to
0.48
10 Fixed 1-phase arc-welding set 0.5 1.73
11 Arc-welding motor-generating set 0.7 to 0.9 1.02 to
0.48
12 Arc-welding transformer-rectifier set 0.7 to 0.8 1.02 to
0.75
13 Arc furnace 0.8 0.75

53
High Voltage on Ships
For ships with a large electrical power demand it is necessary to utilise
the benefits of a high voltage (HV) installation. The design benefits
relate to the simple Ohm’s law relationship that current size (for a given
power) is reduced as the voltage is increased. Working at high voltage
significantly reduces the relative overall size and weight of electrical
power equipment. HV levels of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11kV are regularly
employed ashore for regional power distribution and industrial motor
drives.
The main disadvantage perceived by the user/maintainer, when working
on an HV installation, is the very necessary adherence to stringent
safety procedures.

Fig 2.13, H.V. /L.V. Power Supply System

54
In the ships power network shown in Fig. 2.5, all of the equipment
indicated above the dotted line is considered as HV. For the purposes of
safety, this includes the LV field system-for a propulsion motor as it is
an integrated part of the overall HV equipment. From the HV generators,
the network supplies HV motors (for propulsion, side thrusters and air
conditioning compressors) and the main transformer feeders to the 440V
switchboard. Further distribution links are made to interconnect with the
emergency switchboard.

Fig. 2.14, H V Protection Scheme

High Voltage switchboard (MSB)
A switchboard is a device in the distribution system that distributes
power to the network consumers and takes care of the network safety.
Switchboard units are equipped with appropriate types of circuit
breaker or contactor, protection relay, measurement equipment and
other safety devices. In the main switchboard each device is connected
to the network with its own circuit breaker or conductor.
Protection relays supervise the fault condition of the supplied equipment
and the network. When a short circuit occurs it may be between two
55
lines of the three phase system or it may involve all three. The fault
current may pass between phases as an arc, which has some resistance
and limits the current, or there may be metal to metal contact, a so-called
bolted fault where the resistance is zero.

Fig. 2.15, H V Generator Protection Scheme

PROTECTION SCHEME
The function of a protection scheme is to disconnect a faulty section of
a system as quickly as possible. This is to minimise disturbance to the
healthy system and ensure the maximum continuity of supply. To do this
it must be capable of determining the location of the fault and
disconnecting the minimum amount of equipment necessary to clear it.

56
When a fault occurs a number of relays in the fault current path will
detect it but only the relays directly associated with the faulty equipment
are required to operate.
This is achieved by DISCRIMINATION.
There are three methods of discrimination by :-
(1) COMPARISON; (2) MAGNITUDE; (3) TIME

PROTECTION DISCRIMINATION:
The principle of discrimination in both d.c. and a.c. circuits is
extremely important. A circuit normally should have two or more over
current protective devices, such as the main and auxiliary circuit
breakers installed between source and the load. The devices must
operate selectively so that the protective device closest to the fault
operates first. If the device does not operate, the second device will
operate protecting the circuit against over current damage and possibly
fire. For most marine installations discrimination is achieved by two
elements, time and current.
A circuit breaker can be used as follows:-
 To control the output of a generator
 As a direct on line starter
 Control outgoing feeder circuits
Under-voltage protection (German)
Generator circuit-breakers are to be provided with under-voltage
protection. In the event of a decrease of the voltage to 70 % – 35 % of
the rated voltage, the generator circuit-breaker shall open automatically.
Under-voltage releases shall have a short-time delay adapted to the short
circuit protection.
Over-voltage protection
The ship's mains shall be protected against over-voltage. The over-
voltage protection shall be adjusted not higher than 130 % UN and 5 s.
Under-frequency protection
In the event of a continuous frequency drop of more than 10 %, the non-
essential and, where necessary, the secondary essential equipment shall
be tripped within 5 to 10 s. If this fails to establish normal operating

57
condition, the supplying generators shall be disconnected from the
power supply so that the stand-by unit can cut in.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Tripping time (other than generator and motor circuit)
Final sub-circuit ………0.3 s; lowest current (distributor CB)
Sub-circuit……………. 0.6 s; medium current (feeder CB)
Main circuit ….……….0.9 s; highest current (generator CB)

FUSES:
Fusing time (other than motor circuit)
Final sub-circuit fuses...…5 s;
Sub-circuit fuses……….. 10 s;
Main circuit fuses ……....15 s;

Therefore, for a large installation a circuit breaker should be installed in

preference to a switch fuse for the main control. The outgoing circuits
from a main switch board should be controlled by either circuit breaker
or HRC fuses according to the type and extent of the load and these, of
course, will be rated, so that they will operate before the main circuit
breaker or fuses in the event of overloads.

A ship can be considered as a mobile power plant. Most of the

machinery is driven electrically, which thus makes for a huge electrical
power demand. This makes a shipboard electrical power distribution
system very important. This article is about the layout of the main switch
board and the bus bar.

Electricity has to be distributed with minimal losses after generation.

Unlike a shore based transmission system, where the lengths of the
conductors run throughout a country, a shipboard electrical
distribution system is short and simple.

The Main Bus Bar

The main bus bar can be found inside the main switch board. Onboard a
merchant ship, the supply is usually 440 volts, 60 Hertz, however higher
58
voltages of 6.6kV are possible on LNG tankers, special purpose ships,
and passenger vessels having electrical propulsion. The rating of the
main bus bar is decided by the type of ship, the critical machinery on
board required for cargo operations, and the machinery required for
normal sea service.

If a ship is steam propelled, it might have steam turbine driven

alternators and a diesel driven alternator as a back-up. If the propulsion
is by electric motors, then the vessel might require huge diesel driven
generators which usually operate at 6.6kV.

ShipType----------------------------------------------- Power Requirement

A 10,000 dwt general cargo ship------------------------------1 MW

Tankers-----------------------------------------------------------1.5 to 5 MW

Containerships (10000 TEU) (3.3kV)-------------------------8 MW

A Modern LNG carrier (Q-max/Q-flex) (6.6kV)------------12 MW

The main bus bar has three heavy, thick bars of conductor (usually
copper), running horizontally throughout the length of the main
switch board. Each of the conductors is insulated between each other
and wherever it is supported or clamped to the switchboard. The bus
barlies at the bottom most portion of the switchboard such that it can be
easily supported and insulated. At times, there may be two divisions of
the bus bar which are connected to each other by either a circuit breaker
or a clamping (sliding contact) device.

The main switchboard is the main power distribution center of the ship.
Thus the main bus bars are contained within the switchboard feeding
various ship board auxiliaries. A ship may contain two or more
generators connected to the main bus bar via the circuit breaker. Various
protection for the generators like overload, reverse power, etc. are
connected to circuit breaker such that the faulty generator is electrically
isolated from the main bus bar. From the main bus bar, the electrical
power is supplied to various ship board auxiliaries like pumps, blowers,
59
compressors, etc. The main switch board has various measuring and
monitoring devices like ammeters, voltmeters, frequency meters, watt
meters, synchroscope, and power factor meters.

A generic layout of a shipboard distribution system is attached here.

Refer to the diagram below for the following explanation; however this
is just a simplified version of the main power distribution. This may
become complex as the size of the vessel and amount of machinery
increase in number.

The main switch board gets its supply from the main generators located
in the engine room. The distribution system can be divided into Feeder
side and the Load side. The feeders are the generators and the loads are
various ship board auxiliary machineries. The Load side is further
divided into Essential and Non-Essential services. Essential services are
very critical auxiliaries which are directly affecting the safety of
personnel, ship in terms of navigation and propulsion. They include
supply to navigational aids like radars, communication equipment,
navigational lights, and steering gear motors. These essential services
may be supplied directly from the main switch board or via sectional
boards or distribution boards. Non-essential services are those that do
not affect the safety of ship and personnel. For example, air conditioning
compressors and fans are non-essential services as they don’t affect the
safety of the ship or personnel.

The operating voltage is stepped down to 220 volts and this voltage is
given to the 220 Volts auxiliaries’ panel. From this panel, the supply
goes for various lighting systems and other sockets for accommodation
and galley for domestic use.

Distribution Boards/Group Start Panels

Shipboard machinery may not be connected to the main switchboard

directly. There are small motors and other devices that consume very
little power and thus they may be grouped together. Instead of providing
cables for every such individual motor, a single cable is taken out from
the main switch board, supplying the distribution board which has a
60
small bus bar (equivalent to supply the motors). From this small bus bar,
the supply is provided for various starters of these motors via the circuit
breakers. In this way, the protection for the machinery is also precise, as
a small fault in such small motors will not operate the protection devices
on the main switch board.

Emergency Switch Board

As the name indicates, it supplies to equipment and machinery that are

essential during any emergency like fire, flooding, etc. One important
aspect about the emergency switch boards is that it is located above the
load water line or the upper most continuous deck, where as the main
generators and main switchboards are located below the weather deck or
the load water line. Thus this ensures that the emergency supply is
maintained when the vessel is flooded with water to the weather deck.

During normal operation, power is supplied from the main generators to

the main switch board. The emergency switch board gets it supply from
the main switch board. When the main generators fail, the main switch
board looses its supply and this causes the emergency generator to start
automatically, which will supply the emergency switchboard that is
connected to various ship board auxiliaries. Thus critical equipment and
machinery (essential services) are supplied always to maintain the safety
of the ship and personnel.
IEE Regulation A-10: Every circuit breaker shall open circuit before
the current exceeds twice that of the rating of the smallest cable it
protects. This does not apply to motor circuits. For these circuits the
circuit breaker may be arranged with a time lag so that heavy starting
currents are carried for a short period but satisfactory protection is
afforded under normal running conditions.

61
 Fig. 3.1, Protection Discrimination

Fig. 3.2, Short Circuit Fault Location

Fig. 3.3, Fault Circuit

Fig. 3.4, Protection Discrimination Scheme

62
 Fig. 3.4, Main Switchboard Layout

Circuit breakers and fuses must be able to deal with the most severe
possible case so they must be specified to successfully break a three-phase
symmetrical bolted fault. Fault currents may also occur due to earth faults.
In the event of a short circuit the switchgear must isolate the faulty circuit as
quickly as possible to restore system stability, limit stress on the supply
equipment and reduce damage at the fault location. The protection system
must provide discrimination so that only the faulty section is tripped and all
other consumers continue to be supplied. Three different methods can be
used, based on:
 Duration of the fault
 Current difference
 Current magnitude

Fig. 3.5, Inverse Current/Time (I/t) Curve

63
 Fig. 3.6, Motor Protection Curves
Circuit breaker specifications are based on fault calculations using the
following assumptions:
 Each generator produces its nominal EMF which remains constant
during the fault.
 The reactance of each generator drops to one fifth of its steady
state value and remains constant during the fault. This reduced
reactance is known as the transient reactance X' and is often
quoted in the generator's specifications.
 The fault has zero impedance so the total fault is made up of all the
parallel generators plus any other impedance of transformers etc.
Care must be taken when operating generators in parallel because
this can significantly increase the fault level and may exceed
switchgear ratings.

64
 Fig. 3.7 LV and HV motor protection scheme

Grounding systems in shipboard electrical networks

In electrical engineering, the ground means reference in electrical
circuits from which other voltages are measured. The earth point means
a solid connection to the earth, which due to its massive section and
mass has almost no resistance for electrical current. If the reference
for your voltage measurements is the earth the earth becomes your
ground. By absence of the earth on board of a ship, the ship's hull can be
used as a substitute for the earth. Depending on the construction of the
electrical networks they may or may not be connected to earth potential.
In general we can have solidly grounded, reactance grounded, resistance
grounded and isolated networks. In isolated networks, there is the
challenge to detect earth faults.

65
Ships distribution systems are typically isolated in low voltage systems
(>1000V AC) and high resistance grounded in high voltage systems.
High resistance grounding ensures the trip action in case of an earth
fault and prevents short circuit faults in the network. High
resistance grounding can therefore not guarantee continuity of
service.

CharacteristicsSolidIsolatedHigh resistance
High ground fault current Yes No No
Possibility of multi-phase fault High Low Low
Arc ash hazard risk level High Very low Very low
Relative safety level Low High Very high
(Equipment and personnel)
Fault location Yes No Yes
Continuity of service No Yes Yes
Possible selective tripping Yes No Yes
Alarming without tripping No Yes Yes
Cable insulation level 1.0 1.7 31.73
(IEC 60502-2)
Surge protection level 1.0 1.7 31.73
Transient overvoltage level 2.5x 6x 2.7x

GENERATOR NEUTRAL EARTHING

The normal practice is to earth the neutral of the generator for the
following reasons:
To fix the voltage of the system with respect to earth to ensure that
the voltage between any phase and earth does not exceed the
nominal phase voltage.
To allow earth fault protection systems to operate in the event of a
phase to earth fault.
To protect human life by decreasing the danger of electric shock.

Neutral disconnection
Means of disconnection are to be fitted in the neutral earthing
connection of each generator so that the generator may be disconnected
for maintenance and for insulation resistance measurement.

66
Q. Some HV systems have the neutral point of a generator earthed to the
ship’s hull via a neutral earthing resistor (NER). What is this connection
for?
Ans. To minimise the size of earth fault current. A hard (zero resistance)
earth fault causes short-circuit across a generator phase winding, so the
fault current is I = Vp/RNner.
In a 6.6 kV system with a 200 Ω NER, the Vp = 6600/√3 = 3810 V and
the maximum E/F current is, I = 3810/200 = 19A.

EARTHING (BONDING) OF CONDUCTIVE PARTS

All exposed conductive parts of the system e.g. generator frame, must be
bonded to the protective earth bar.

ELECTRIC SHOCK
21.1 (b) SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
The National bodies and Institutes, which specify the safety
requirements and regulations for Indian registered ships,are:
 The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958
 BIS- Bureau of India Standards
 Maritime Law Association of India
 IEE- Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Some of the International Bodies and Institutes are:
1. BS-British Standardization Institute
2. IMO-International Maritime Organization (SOLAS-convention)
3. IEC-International Electro technical commission
4. API-American Petroleum Institute or IP-Institute of Petroleum, GB
5. DOT-The department of Trade U.K.
6. IACS-International Association of Classification Societies
7. OSHA-Occupational Safety and Health Administration
8. IEEE-Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
9. UL-Underwriters Laboratories
67
Classification society & IACS
A non-governmental organisation in the shipping industry, a
classification society establishes and maintains technical standards for
construction and operation of marine vessels and offshore structures.
The primary role of the society is to classify ships and validate that
their design and calculations are in accordance with the published
standards. It also carries out periodical survey of ships to ensure that
they continue to meet the parameters of set standards. The society is also
responsible for classification of all offshore structures including
platforms and submarines.
Flag states maintain a ship register in which all ships that sail under their
flag need to be registered. Classification societies are licensed by flag
states to survey and classify ships and issue certificates on their behalf.
They classify and certify marine vessels and structures on the basis of
their structure, design and safety standards.
A classification society’s workforce comprises of ship surveyors,
mechanical engineers, material engineers, piping engineers, and
electrical engineers. Surveyors employed by a classification society
inspect ships at all stages of their development and operations to make
sure that their design, components, and machinery are developed and
maintained in accordance with the standards set for their class. The
process covers inspection of engines, shipboard pumps and other vital
ship's machines. They also inspect offshore structures such as oil rigs,
submarines and other marine structures.
Today there are more than fifty classification societies in the world.

International Association of Classification Societies (IACS)

Thirteen largest marine classification societies in the world are the
members of the International Association of Classification Societies
(IACS).
IACS was founded in Hamburg, Germany on September 11, 1968.
The classification standards set by the thirteen member societies of
IACS are covering more than 90% of the world's cargo carrying ships’
tonnage.
Origins of the IACS are dating from the International Load Line
Convention of 1930 and its recommendations. The convention
68
recommended collaboration between classification societies to secure
“as much uniformity as possible in the application of the standards of
strength upon which freeboard is based…”
Following the Convention, RINA hosted the first conference of major
societies in 1939 - attended by ABS, BV, DNV, GL, LR and NK - which
agreed on further cooperation between the societies.
A second major class society conference, held in 1955, led to the
creation of working parties on specific topics and, in 1968, to the
formation of IACS by seven leading societies. In 1969, IACS was given
consultative status by the IMO. Its membership has increased since that
time to the current thirteen members.

IACS provides guidance and technical support and develops unified

interpretations of the international statutory regulations developed by the
member states of the IMO. Once adopted, these interpretations are
applied by each IACS member society, when certifying compliance with
the statutory regulations on behalf of authorising flag States.
IACS has consultative status with the IMO, and remains the only non-
governmental organisation with status as the observer which also
develops and applies technical rules that are reflective of the aims
embodied within IMO conventions. The connection between the
international maritime regulations, developed by the IMO and the
classification rule requirements for a ship’s hull structure and essential
engineering systems is codified in the International Convention for
the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). Council governs IACS.
On the Council each Member of IACS is represented by a senior
management executive. The position of Chairman of the Council is
rotated between the members on an annual basis. Reporting to the
Council is the General Policy Group (GPG), made up of a senior
management representative from each member society. The GPG
develops and implements actions giving effect to the policies, directions
and long term plans of the Council. The chair of GPG is taken by the
Member holding the Council chair. Much of the technical development
work of IACS is undertaken by a number of working parties (WP), the
members of which are drawn from the technical, engineering, survey or
quality management staff of the member societies.
69
Any classification society that satisfies the conditions of membership
can apply for membership. All members of IACS are required to
demonstrate continued compliance with quality standards as determined
by periodic audits.
To promote maritime safety and clean seas, IACS and its individuals
carry out research and development on marine-related topics, providing
technical support and verifying compliance with published standards.
However, electrical safety requirements and regulations adopted by
various classifications societies generally cover installation such as
distribution systems, generators, MCB, motors and starters, cables,
batteries and other ancillary services.
IACS consists of 13 member societies, details of which are listed
below. Chairmanship of IACS is on a rotational basis with each
member society taking a turn.
The members of IACS are:
1. American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) USA
2. Bureau Veritas (BV) France
3. China Classification Society (CCS) China
4. Croatian Register of Shipping (CRS) Croatia
5. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) Norway
6. Germanischer Lloyd (GL) Germany
7. Indian Register of Shipping (IRS) India
8. Korean Register of Shipping (KR) Korea
9. Lloyd's Register (LR) United Kingdom
10. Nippon KaijiKyokai (NK/ClassNK) Japan
11. Polish Register of Shipping (PRS) Poland
12. RegistroItalianoNavale (RINA) Italy
13. Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (RS) Russian
Federation

The list of classification societies, members of IACS:

founde headqarter
logo name abbr. official web
d s

70
American Bureau of ABS(4) 1862 Houston,
eagle.org
Texas, USA
Shipping

Neuilly-sur-
bureauveritas.co
Bureau Veritas BV(2) 1828 Seine,
m
France

China Classification CCS(11 1956 China ccs.org.cn/en

)
Society

Croatian Register of CRS(10 1949 Split,

crs.hr
) Croatia
Shipping

Bærum,
Det Norske Veritas DNV(5) 1864 dnv.com
Norway

Hamburg,
Germanischer Lloyd GL(6) 1867 Germany
gl-group.com

Indian Register of IRS(13) Mumbai,

1975 irclass.org
India
Shipping

Korean Register of KR(12) 1960 Daejeon,

krs.co.kr
Korea
Shipping

London,
Lloyd's Register LR(1) 1760 United lr.org
Kingdom

71
 NK/(7)
Tokyo,
Nippon KaijiKyokai ClassN 1899 Japan
classnk.or.jp
K

Polish Register of PRS(9) 1936 Gdańsk,

prs.pl
Poland
Shipping

RegistroItalianoNava RINA(3 1861 Genoa,

rina.org
) Italy
le

Saint
Russian Maritime RS(8) Petersburg, rs-
1913
Russian head.spb.ru/en/
Register of Shipping
Federation

Signs and Warning Lights

DANGER HIGH VOLTAGE signs must be on display on all entrances to

all test areas where bare conductors are present at both moderate and
high voltages. These signs should be in the vicinity of the test area and
on the outside of the door leading to the laboratory area.
A warning light, preferably flashing, must be on when high or moderate
voltages are present, and ideally should be activated by the energizing of
the apparatus. The warning light must be clearly visible from the area
surrounding the test area. In special cases where such a light interferes
with an experiment, it can be omitted with special permission from the
Group Leader and Division Chief.

In all cases where there is direct access from the outside hallway to the
area where high or moderate voltages are present, a warning light,
DANGER HIGH VOLTAGE sign, a safety interlock (for high voltages)
and a locked door are required.
For unattended setups with bare conductors at high or moderate voltage,

72
a warning sign with the names of two contact persons and the dates of
unattended operation must be posted on the door leading to the high-
voltage area. In addition, written notice of unattended testing of high or
moderate voltage with bare conductors must be sent to the NIST Fire
Department (in Gaithersburg) or to the Engineering, Safety, and Support
Division (in Boulder) clearly stating the anticipated dates of operation. A
warning light on or near the door to the laboratory must be illuminated
when high or moderate voltages with bare conductors are present.

Grounding Stick
Before touching a high-voltage circuit or before leaving it unattended
and exposed, it must be de-energized and grounded with a grounding
stick. The grounding stick must be left on the high-voltage terminal until
the circuit is about to be re-energized. Grounding sticks must be
available near entrances to high-voltage areas. Automatic grounding
arrangements or systems that employ audible warning tones to remind
personnel to ground the high-voltage equipment are strongly encouraged
for two-person operation, and are mandatory for one-person or
unattended operation.
For systems with bare conductors at moderate voltages, the use of
grounding stick is strongly recommended, particularly if the setup
contains energy-storage devices.

73
Fig. 5.1, ELECTRICAL SAFETY WARNING (LV)

HV Warning notice (Figure 5.2):- DANGER HIGH VOLTAGE

Fig. 5.2, HV Warning Notice

Q. Would a 500V megger be suitable test to determine the integrity of
insulation of a 6.6kV motor?
Ans. No. It would give a rough guide to the IR value but at 500V, the
tester is not properly stressing the insulation. For 6.6kV equipment a
5,000V (1000V) IR tester is required.
High Voltage Safety
 Making personal contact with any electric voltage is potentially
dangerous.
 At high voltage (> 1,000V) levels the electric shock potential is
lethal.
 Body resistance decreases with increased voltage level which
enhances the current flow. Remember that an electric shock
current as low as 15 mA can be fatal.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electricity is invisible - this in itself makes it dangerous. It has great
potential to seriously injure and kill.
The average person can receive critical injuries as a result of even very
short exposures to everyday 240-volt single phase alternating current
supply voltages.

74
Major electrical risks exist when insulation protection is not
maintained in a safe condition or is placed in a hostile environment
causing it to fail.
Circuit breakers and fuses provide some protection at times when
sufficient current causes them to operate in the following situations:
• Short circuits between live parts
• Between live parts and exposed metal parts.
However, circuit breakers do not provide reliable personal protection
when one or both protections fail. These failures could be due to a lack
of regular maintenance, mechanical damage or being operated in hostile
environments.
In order to be effective as personal protection, a circuit breaker or fuse
must operate before the potential difference or voltage reaches a level
high enough to cause an electric shock to personnel. This electric shock
can result from any exposed conductors, exposed metal or other
unrelated conductive paths (e.g., water or dust).
The average-sized human will be exposed to approximately 0.2 amps
when exposed to 240 volts ac. This can be potentially fatal within one to
ten seconds. Therefore, reliance on 10 or 15 amp 'circuit breakers' as the
only 'protective' measure for personal protection is often useless.
There is a high risk of serious injury to people, which is why normal
circuit breakers should only be regarded as property, installation or
electrical plant protectors, and not as personal protective devices.
Conducting regular maintenance and testing of electrical
installations and electrical plant will reduce the chances of an
electric shock or fire.
Residual current devices (RCDs or 'safety switches') have been devised
for personal protection. RCDs are efficient detectors of very low levels
of electric current leakage from the active or neutral conductors to earth,
and operate at speeds that provide total current shutdown before the
current becomes a threat to the operator.
WARNING
It must also be remembered that there are other electrical hazards and
risks with potentially fatal consequences where a residual current device
or safety switch might be inoperative. This can occur when the electrical
plant has a fault and there is contact by the operator between the active
75
(positive) and the neutral (negative) conductors forming a short circuit
through the body with no leakage to earth, and therefore insufficient
residual current for the RCD to operate.
It is therefore necessary to manage workplace electrical safety as an
integral part of day-to-day operations in order to ensure the integrity of
electrical installations and electrical plant.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electrical hazards are particularly dangerous because the human body
usually does not sense electrical energy until contact is made and
significant injury has already occurred. Workers must always be aware
of the location of energized equipment and its voltage level at each job
site. Additionally, workers must be aware of the possible sources of
electrical feedback from other energized power sources into the work
site. These hazards must be determined before starting work. Pre-job
planning must include engineering guidance in understanding the
system’s operation and review of up-to-date single line and schematic
as-built drawings.
All apparel, tools, and other equipment required for worker safety must
be identified and available before beginning the job.

The resistance of the human body is quite high only when the skin is
dry. The danger of electric shock is therefore much greater for persons
working in a hot, humid atmosphere since this leads to wetness from
body perspiration. Fatal shocks have occurred at as low as 60 V and all
circuits must be considered dangerous. All electrical equipment should
be isolated before any work is done on it. The circuit should then be
tested to ensure that it is dead. Working near to live equipment should be
avoided if at all possible. Tools with insulated handles should be used to
minimise risks. The treatment of anyone suffering from severe electric
shock must be rapid if it is to be effective. First they must be removed
from contact with the circuit by isolating it or using a non-
conducting material to drag them away. Electric shock results in a
stopping of the heart and every effort must be made to get it going again.
Apply any accepted means of artificial respiration to bring about revival.
A constant supply of electricity is essential for conditioning equipment
76
has a number of important advantages: for example, reduced first cost,
less weight, less space required and a proof enclosure is capable of
withstanding an explosion of some particles.

Contact with the general mass of earth: The human body is normally
separated from the conducting mass of earth by one or more layers of
insulating material, i.e. shoes, floor coverings, floors, etc. It is the
resistance of these insulators which normally prevents a shock from
being serious.
For instance, a man wearing rubber-soled shoes standing on a thick
carpet over a dry wooden floor can touch a live conductor and feel
nothing more than a slight tingle. The same man standing on a wet
concrete floor in his bare feet would probably not live to describe these
sensations on touching it. Depending on whether the body is dry, moist,
or wet, the value of resistance measured between hands, or between
hands and feet, can be anywhere between1000Ω and 10,000Ω. As we
have seen from Ohms law, the current flowing through a body will
depend on the voltage across it and the resistance of the body.
Different levels of current willhave different effects, the worst occurring
when the heart goes out of rhythm and will not return to normal. This
condition is known as ventricular fibrillation and will often result in
death.

ELECTRIC SHOCK
Electric shock occurs when two factors exist:-
•Two points in an electrical circuit that have unequal potentials are in
contact with the human body.
•The difference in these two potentials exceeds a lower threshold value.
At the threshold limit slight perception of pain or ‘tingling’ near to the
points of contact will occur. A continuous alternating current at a power
system frequency, e.g. 50 or 60 Hz, of approximately 1 mA will cause
this slight reaction. Increasing the current causes a greater intensity of
reaction. At approximately 12 mA the muscles become very difficult to
control, i.e. almost unable to ‘let go’ of the contact. Between
approximately 20 mA and 50 mA the current tends to cause difficulty in
breathing, but not to an irreversible extent. A continuous current above
77
50 mA and up to 100 mA will tend to cause ventricular fibrillation and
may lead to heart failure and death.

What can Make You Hurt?

There are certain things in your job that can lead to fatigue, discomfort,
or pain when you do them repeatedly or for long periods of time.
These include:
Exerting force to perform a task or to use a tool.
Working in positions such as bending, stooping, twisting, and
overhead reaching.
Using awkward hand, wrist, elbow, or shoulder postures.
Remaining in the same position for a long time with little or no
movement.
Continuous pressure from a hard surface or edge on any part of the
body.
Working in very hot or cold temperatures, produced by climate,
equipment, or machines.
Sitting on, standing on, or holding equipment or tools that vibrate.
In addition, stressful conditions can increase muscle tension and reduce
awareness of proper work technique.

Make It Easy on Yourself

LIGHTEN YOUR LOAD
• Plan what you are going to do.
• Carry only the tools or equipment you will need.
• Wear a tool belt that fits and distribute the tools and materials evenly.
PROTECT YOURSELF
• Wear safety gear that fits.
• Protect your knees from hard, sharp surfaces by wearing knee pads.
• Wear appropriate eye protection to protect your eyes from debris and flying
particles.
• Protect your hands from friction and sharp edges by wearing gloves.
SELECT THE RIGHT TOOL
• Choose tools that fit your hand comfortably and have soft grips.
• A good handle grip prevents your hand from slipping while using the tool.
• Consider using tools that reduce the amount of force or movements you use.
78
 Keep tools well maintained.
PRACTICE GOOD HOUSEKEEPING
• Pick up debris and scrap material to prevent trips, slips, and falls.
• Good housekeeping allows you and your equipment to get closer to your
work.
CHANGE BODY POSITIONS
• Working overhead, at floor level, or in cramped spaces forces the body into
awkward postures.
• To relieve muscle tension and improve circulation, change body positions,
alternate tasks, and stretch throughout the day.
KEEP THE LOAD OR TOOL CLOSE TO YOUR BODY
• Carrying a 10 lb. object that is 25" from your spine is equal to 250 lbs. of
force on your lower back.
LIFT SMART:
• Keep loads and tools close to your body.
• The farther the load or tool is from your spine, the greater the force on your
lower back.
• Carrying a 10 lb. object that is 10" from your spine is equal to 100 lbs. of
force on your lower back.
AVOID HEAT ILLNESS:
• Start work early in the day. Avoid extreme heat.
• Wear light-colored and loose-fitting clothing.
• Take frequent breaks in the shade.
• Drink water frequently before, during, and even after work. Drink water even if
you are not thirsty.
WHY?
Heat illness can cause fatigue, dizziness and painful muscle cramps.
REMEMBER: HEAT ILLNESS CAN KILL IN LESS THAN ONE HOUR OF
EXPOSURE TO EXTREME HEAT!

Table. 2. Ways protective skin resistance can be greatly reduced

o Significant physical skin damage: cuts, abrasions, burns
o Breakdown of skin at 500 V or more
o Rapid application of voltage to an area of the skin
o Immersion in water

79
 All About Circuits 

00697838802651 FORID:9
Search t
Electric shock is defined as a sudden violent response to electric current
flow through any part of a person's body.
Electrocution is death caused by electric shock.
Primary electrical injury is tissue damage produced directly by electrical
current or voltage.
Secondary injuries, such as falls, are common. Unless otherwise noted,
this article is referring to currents and voltages of 60 (or 50) Hz AC rms.
Also, by resistance, we actually mean the magnitude of the impedance.
High voltage refers to 600 V or more AC rms.

80
Electrical Shock Dangers and Effects
Electric shock results from setting up an electric current path within
the human body. The current flows because there is a potential gradient
(voltage difference) between an energized object and the grounded
worker.

 Electric current is capable of producing deep and severe burns in the

body due to power dissipation across the body's electrical resistance.
 Tetanus is the condition where muscles involuntarily contract due to
the passage of external electric current through the body. When
involuntary contraction of muscles controlling the fingers causes a
victim to be unable to let go of an energised conductor, the victim is
said to be "froze on the circuit."
 Diaphragm (lung) and heart muscles are similarly affected by electric
current. Even currents too small to induce tetanus can be strong
enough to interfere with the heart's pacemaker neurons, causing the
heart to flutter instead of strongly beat.
 Direct current (DC) is more likely to cause muscle tetanus than
alternating current (AC), making DC more likely to "freeze" a victim
in a shock scenario. However, AC is more likely to cause a victim's

81
 heart to fibrillate, which is a more dangerous condition for the
victim after the shocking current has been halted.

ELECTRIC SHOCK

 Harm to the body is a function of the amount of shock current.

Higher voltage allows for the production of higher, more dangerous
currents. Resistance opposes current, making high resistance a good
protective measure against shock.
 Any voltage above 30V is generally considered to be capable of
delivering dangerous shock currents.
 Metal jewelry is definitely bad to wear when working around electric
circuits. Rings, watchbands, necklaces, bracelets, and other such
adornments provide excellent electrical contact with your body, and
can conduct current themselves enough to produce skin burns, even
with low voltages.
 Low voltages can still be dangerous even if they're too low to directly
cause shock injury. They may be enough to startle the victim, causing
them to jerk back and contact something more dangerous in the near
vicinity.
 When necessary to work on a “live” circuit, it is best to perform the
work with one hand so as to prevent a deadly hand-to-hand (through
the chest) shock current path.

ELECTRICAL SHOCK:
Strange as it may seem, most fatal electrical shocks happen to people
who should know better. Here are some electromedical facts that should
make you think twice before taking chances.

It's not the voltage but the current that kills.

People have been killed by 100 volts AC in the home and with as little
as 42 volts DC. The real measure of a shock's intensity lies in the
amount of current (in milliamperes) forced through the body. Any
electrical device used on a house wiring circuit can, under certain
conditions, transmit a fatal amount of current.

82
As the current rises, the shock becomes more severe.
Below 20 milliamperes, breathing becomes labored; it ceases completely
even at values below 75 milliamperes. As the current approaches 100
milliamperes ventricular fibrillation occurs. This is an uncoordinated
twitching of the walls of the heart's ventricles. Since you don't know
how much current went through the body, it is necessary to perform
artificial respiration to try to get the person breathing again; or if the
heart is not beating, cardio pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is necessary.
Electrical shock occurs when a person comes in contact with two
conductors of a circuit or when the body becomes part of the electrical
circuit. In either case, a severe shock can cause the heart and lungs to
stop functioning. Also, severe burns may occur where current enters and
exits the body.
Currents between 100 and 200 milliamperes (0.1 ampere and 0.2
ampere) are fatal. Anything in the neighborhood of 10 milliamperes
(0.01) is capable of producing painful to severe shock. Take a look at
Table AI-1.
Readings Effects
1 mA or less Causes no sensation - not felt.

1 mA to 8 mA Sensation of shock, not painful;

Safe
Individual can let go at will since
Current
muscular control is not lost.
Values
8 mA to 15 mA Painful shock; individual can let go at
will since muscular control is not lost.
Unsafe 15 mA to 20 mA Painful shock; control of adjacent
Current muscles lost; victim cannot let go.
Values
50 mA to 100 mA Ventricular fibrillation - a heart
condition that can result in death - is
possible.
100 mA to 200
mA Ventricular fibrillation occurs.

83
 200 mA and over Severe burns, severe muscular
contractions - so severe that chest
muscles clamp the heart and stop it for
the duration of the shock. (This
prevents ventricular fibrillation).

Prevention is the best medicine for electrical shock.

Respect all voltages, have knowledge of the principles of electricity, and
follow safe work procedures. Do not take chances. All electricians
should be encouraged to take a basic course in CPR (cardiopulmonary
resuscitation) so they can aid a coworker in emergency situations.
Always make sure portable electric tools are in safe operating condition.
Make sure there is a third wire on the plug for grounding in case of
shorts. The fault current should flow through the third wire to ground
instead of through the operator's body to ground if electric power tools
are grounded and if an insulation breakdown occurs.
Table 3. Why immersion in water can be fatal with very low
voltages
1. Immersion wets the skin very effectively and greatly
lowers skin resistance per unit area.
2. Contact area is a large percentage of the entire body
surface area.
3. Electric current may also enter the body through mucous
membranes, such as the mouth and throat.
4. The human body is very sensitive to electricity. Very
small amounts of current can cause loss of ability to swim,
respiratory arrest, and cardiac arrest.

FIRST AID TREATMENT FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK VICTIM

 A person being shocked needs to be disconnected from the source of

electrical power. Locate the disconnecting switch/breaker and turn it
off. Alternatively, if the disconnecting device cannot be located, the
victim can be pried or pulled from the circuit by an insulated object
such as a dry wood board, piece of nonmetallic conduit, or rubber
electrical cord.
84
 Victims need immediate medical response: check for breathing and
pulse, and then apply CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation) as
necessary to maintain oxygenation.
 If a victim is still conscious after having been shocked, they need to be
closely monitored and cared for until trained emergency response
personnel arrive. There is danger of physiological shock, so keep the
victim warm and comfortable.
 Shock victims may suffer heart trouble up to several hours after being
shocked. The danger of electric shock does not end after the
immediate medical attention.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
EFFECTS OF CURRENT ON THE BODY

Before learning safety precautions, you should look at some of the

possible effects of electrical current on the human body. The following
table lists some of the probable effects of electrical current on the
human body.

Electric current
Effects
AC 60 Hz (mA) DC (mA)
0-1 0-4 Perception
1-4 4-15 Surprise
4-21 15-80 Reflex action
21-40 80-160 Muscular inhibition
40-100 160-300 Respiratory failure
Over 100 Over 300 Usually fatal

Note in the above chart that a current as low as 4 mA can be expected

to cause a reflex action in the victim, usually causing the victim to jump
away from the wire or other component supplying the current. While the
current should produce nothing more than a tingle of the skin, the quick
action of trying to get away from the source of this irritation could
produce other effects (such as broken limbs or even death if a severe
enough blow was received at a vital spot by the shock victim).

85
It is important for you to recognize that the resistance of the human
body cannot be relied upon to prevent a fatal shock from a voltage as
low as 115 volts or even less. Fatalities caused by human contact with
30 volts have been recorded. Tests have shown that body resistance
under unfavorable conditions may be as low as 300 ohms, and possibly
as low as 100 ohms (from temple to temple) if the skin is broken.

Generally direct current is not considered as dangerous as an equal

value of alternating current. This is evidenced by the fact that
reasonably safe "let-go currents" for 60 hertz, alternating current, are
9.0 mA for men and 6.0 mA for women, while the corresponding
values for direct current are 62.0 mA for men and 41.0 mA for
women. Remember, the above table is a fist of probable effects. The
actual severity of effects will depend on such things as the physical
condition of the work area, the physiological condition and resistance of
the body, and the area of the body through which the current flows.
Thus, based on the above information, you MUST consider every
voltage as being dangerous.

Electric shock is a jarring, shaking sensation you receive from contact

with electricity. You usually feel like you have received a sudden blow. If
the voltage and resulting current are sufficiently high, you may become
unconscious. Severe burns may appear on your skin at the place of
contact; muscular spasms may occur, perhaps causing you to clasp the
apparatus or wire which caused the shock and be unable to turn it
loose.

RESCUE AND CARE OF SHOCK VICTIMS

The following procedures are recommended for rescue and care of

electric shock victims:

Remove the victim from electrical contact at once, but DO NOT

endanger yourself. You can do this by:

 Throwing the switch if it is nearby

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  Cutting the cable or wires to the apparatus, using an ax with a
wooden handle while taking care to protect your eyes from the flash
when the wires are severed
 Using a dry stick, rope, belt, coat, blanket, shirt or any other
nonconductor of electricity, to drag or push the victim to safety

Determine whether the victim is breathing. If the victim is not breathing,

you must apply artificial ventilation (respiration) without delay, even
though the victim may appear to be lifeless.

DO NOT STOP ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION UNTIL MEDICAL

AUTHORITY PRONOUNCES THE VICTIM DEAD.

Lay the victim face up. The feet should be about 12 inches higher than
the head. Chest or head injuries require the head to be slightly elevated.
If there is vomiting or if facial injuries have occurred which cause
bleeding into the throat, the victim should be placed on the stomach with
the head turned to one side and 6 to 12 inches lower than the feet.

Keep the victim warm. The injured person's body heat must be
conserved. Keep the victim covered with one or more blankets,
depending on the weather and the person's exposure to the elements.
Artificial means of warming, such as hot water bottles should not be
used.

Drugs, food, and liquids should not be administered if medical attention

will be available within a short time. If necessary, liquids may be
administered. Small amounts of warm salt water, tea or coffee should be
used. Alcohol, opiates, and other depressant substances must never be
administered.

Send for medical personnel (a doctor if available) at once, but do NOT

under any circumstances leave the victim until medical help arrives.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR PREVENTING ELECTRIC

SHOCK

87
You must observe the following safety precautions when working on
electrical equipment:

 Never work alone. Another person may save your life if you
receive an electric shock.
 Work on energized circuits ONLY WHEN ABSOLUTELY
NECESSARY.
 Power should be tagged out, using approved tagout procedures,
at the nearest source of electricity.
 Stand on an approved insulating material, such as a rubber mat.
 Discharge power capacitors before working on deenergized
equipment. Remember, a capacitor is an electrical power storage
device.
 When you must work on an energized circuit, wear rubber
gloves and cover as much of your body as practical with an
insulating material (such as shirt sleeves). This is especially
important when you are working in a warm space where sweating
may occur.
 Deenergise equipment prior to hooking up or removing test
equipment.
 Work with only one hand inside the equipment. Keep the other
hand clear of all obstacles that may provide a path, such as a
ground, for current to flow.
 Wear safety goggles. Sparks could damage your eyes, as could
the cooling liquids in some components such as transformers
should they overheat and explode.
 Keep a cool head and think about the possible consequences
before performing any action. Carelessness is the cause of most
accidents.
• Remember the best technician is NOT necessarily the fastest one,
butthe one who will be on the job tomorrow.
Electrical personnel involved in operating and maintaining electrical
facilities can be injured and equipment can be damaged whenever
88
electrical systems and components are not handled safely. The adoption
and enforcement of safe electrical practices will reduce the hazards to
personnel.
WORKING SAFELY IS CRITICAL
 Electrical troubleshooting is inherently hazardous. The hazards of
working with electricity include shock and electrocution, fire, and
arc-blast injuries.
 Arc-blast is a high energy “explosion” that can occur when
something happens such as accidentally shorting across transformer
terminals or the bus bars in a panel board—for example, by dropping
a metal screwdriver.
 NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 70E-2004, Standard for
Electrical Safety in the Workplace, is the governing standard for
protection against electrical hazards in the workplace.
Troubleshooting is particularly hazardous, because electricians and
technicians are often working on energized (“live”) equipment and
systems.
 In addition to electrical hazards, testing and maintenance work also
involves other dangers such as falling from roofs and ladders, and
 Accidents with power tools. Entire books have been written about
electrical safety. This section summarizes essential safety precautions
when performing troubleshooting on electrical equipment and
systems. It is based on the safety rules of NFPA 70E.

FIRST AID FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK:

Shock is a common occupational hazard associated with working with electricity.
A person who has stopped breathing is not necessarily dead but is in immediate
danger.
Life is dependent on oxygen, which is breathed into the lungs and then
carried by the blood to every body cell. Since body cells cannot store
oxygen and since the blood can hold only a limited amount (and only for
a short time), death will surely result from continued lack of breathing.
However, the heart may continue to beat for some time after breathing has stopped,
and the blood may still be circulated to the body cells. Since the blood will, for a
short time, contain a small supply of oxygen, the body cells will not die

89
immediately. For a very few minutes, there is some chance that the person's life
may be saved.
The process by which a person who has stopped breathing can be saved is called
artificial ventilation (respiration). The purpose of artificial respiration is to force
air out of the lungs and into the lungs, in rhythmic alternation, until natural
breathing is reestablished. Records show that seven out of ten victims of electric
shock were revived when artificial respiration was started in less than three
minutes. After three minutes, the chances of revival decrease rapidly.

Artificial ventilation should be given only when the breathing has stopped. Do not
give artificial ventilation to any person who is breathing naturally. You should
not assume that an individual who is unconscious due to electrical shock has
stopped breathing. To tell if someone suffering from an electrical shock is
breathing, place your hands on the person's sides at the level of the lowest ribs. If
the victim is breathing, you will usually be able to feel movement.
Once it has been determined that breathing has stopped, the person nearest the
victim should start the artificial ventilation without delay and send others for
assistance and medical aid. The only logical, permissible delay is that required to
free the victim from contact with the electricity in the quickest, safest way. This
step, while it must be taken quickly, must be done with great care; otherwise, there
may be two victims instead of one.

In the case of portable electric tools, lights, appliances, equipment, or portable

outlet extensions, the victim should be freed from contact with the electricity by
turning off the supply switch or by removing the plug from its receptacle. If the
switch or receptacle cannot be quickly located, the suspected electrical device may
be pulled free of the victim. Other persons arriving on the scene must be clearly
warned not to touch the suspected equipment until it is deenergized.

ATTENTION! Capacitors can store a charge for a considerable time

after the power to them has been switched off. This charge can be
extremely dangerous!
A large electrolytic capacitor charged to only 5 or 10 Volts can melt the
tip of a screwdriver placed across its terminals! Never touch the
terminals of high voltage capacitors, such as used in TV sets or in a
photo flash - these charges can be lethal!

90
91
92
93
FAULTY EQUIPMENT-BROKEN EARTH CONNECTION-RISK OF SHOCK

Healthy Equipment-HEALTHY EARTH CONNECTION-No Risk of Shock

Safe practices
If at all possible, shut off the power to a circuit before performing any
work on it. You must secure all sources of harmful energy before a
system may be considered safe to work on. In industry, securing a
circuit, device, or system in this condition is commonly known as
placing it in a Zero Energy State.
The focus of this lesson is, of course, electrical safety. However, many of
these principles apply to non-electrical systems as well.
Securing something in a Zero Energy State means ridding it of any sort
of potential or stored energy, including but not limited to:
 Dangerous voltage
 Spring pressure
 Hydraulic (liquid) pressure
 Pneumatic (air) pressure
 Suspended weight
 Chemical energy (flammable or otherwise reactive substances)
 Nuclear energy (radioactive or fissile substances)
94
A pair of wires with high voltage between them do not look or sound
dangerous even though they harbor enough potential energy between
them to push deadly amounts of current through your body. Even though
that voltage isn't presently doing anything, it has the potential to, and
that potential must be neutralized before it is safe to physically contact
those wires.

All properly designed circuits have "disconnect" switch mechanisms for

securing voltage from a circuit. Sometimes these "disconnects" serve a
dual purpose of automatically opening under excessive current
conditions, in which case we call them "circuit breakers."

Other times, the disconnecting switches (Isolators) are strictly

manually-operated devices with no automatic function. In either case,
they are there for your protection and must be used properly.

Please note that the disconnect device should be separate from the
regular switch used to turn the device on and off. It is a safety switch, to
be used only for securing the system in a Zero Energy State:

Fig. 6.1, Disconnect Switch/Isolator & Circuit Switch

With the disconnect switch in the "open" position as shown (no

continuity), the circuit is broken and no current will exist. There will be
zero voltage across the load, and the full voltage of the source will be
dropped across the open contacts of the disconnect switch. Note how
there is no need for a disconnect switch in the lower conductor of the
circuit. Because that side of the circuit is firmly connected to the earth
(ground), it is electrically common with the earth and is best left that
way. For maximum safety of personnel working on the load of this
95
circuit, a temporary ground connection could be established on the top
side of the load, to ensure that no voltage could ever be dropped across
the load:

Fig. 6.2, Temporary GROUND Connection

With the temporary ground connection in place, both sides of the load
wiring are connected to ground, securing a Zero Energy State at the
load.
Since a ground connection made on both sides of the load is electrically
equivalent to short-circuiting across the load with a wire, that is another
way of accomplishing the same goal of maximum safety:

Fig. 6.3, Temporary SHORT Circuiting

Either way, both sides of the load will be electrically common to the
earth, allowing for no voltage (potential energy) between either side of
the load and the ground people stand on. This technique of temporarily
grounding conductors in a de-energized power system is very common
in maintenance work performed on high voltage (HV) power distribution
systems.

96
A further benefit of this precaution is protection against the possibility of
the disconnect switch being closed (turned "on" so that circuit continuity
is established) while people are still contacting the load. The temporary
wire connected across the load would create a short-circuit when the
disconnect switch was closed, immediately tripping any overcurrent
protection devices (circuit breakers or fuses) in the circuit, which would
shut the power off again. Damage may very well be sustained by the
disconnect switch if this were to happen, but the workers at the load are
kept safe.

It would be good to mention at this point that overcurrent

devices are not intended to provide protection against electric
shock. Rather, they exist solely to protect conductors
(insulation) from overheating due to excessive currents.

The temporary shorting wires just described would indeed cause any
overcurrent devices in the circuit to "trip" if the disconnect switch were
to be closed, but realize that electric shock protection is not the intended
function of those devices. Their primary function would merely be
leveraged for the purpose of worker protection with the shorting wire in
place.
Since it is obviously important to be able to secure any disconnecting
devices in the open (off) position and make sure they stay that way while
work is being done on the circuit, there is need for a structured safety
system to be put into place. Such a system is commonly used in industry
and it is called Lock-out/Tag-out.

A lock-out/tag-out procedure works like this:

All individuals working on a secured circuit have their own personal padlock
or combination lock which they set on the control lever of a disconnect
device prior to working on the system. Additionally, they must fill out and
sign a tag which they hang from their lock describing the nature and
duration of the work they intend to perform on the system. If there are
multiple sources of energy to be "locked out" (multiple disconnects, both
electrical and mechanical energy sources to be secured, etc.), the worker
must use as many of his or her locks as necessary to secure power from the
97
system before work begins. This way, the system is maintained in a Zero
Energy State until every last lock is removed from all the disconnect and
shutoff devices, and that means every last worker gives consent by removing
their own personal locks. If the decision is made to re-energize the system
and one person's lock(s) still remain in place after everyone present removes
theirs, the tag(s) will show who that person is and what it is they're doing.
Even with a good lock-out/tag-out safety program in place, there is still need
for diligence and common-sense precaution. This is especially true in
industrial settings where a multitude of people may be working on a device
or system at once. Some of those people might not know about proper lock-
out/tag-out procedure, or might know about it but are too complacent to
follow it. Don't assume that everyone has followed the safety rules!

After an electrical system has been locked out and tagged with your own
personal lock, you must then double-check to see if the voltage really has
been secured in a zero state. One way to check is to see if the machine (or
whatever it is that's being worked on) will start up if the Start switch or
button is actuated. If it starts, then you know you haven't successfully secured
the electrical power from it.
Additionally, you should always check for the presence of dangerous voltage
with a measuring device before actually touching any conductors in the
circuit. To be safest, you should follow this procedure of checking, using, and
then checking your meter:
Check to see that your meter indicates properly on a known source of
voltage.
Use your meter to test the locked-out circuit for any dangerous voltage.
Check your meter once more on a known source of voltage to see that it still
indicates as it should.
While this may seem excessive or even paranoid, it is a proven technique for
preventing electrical shock. There's always the chance that your voltage
meter will be defective just when you need it to check for a dangerous
condition. Following these steps will help ensure that you're never misled
into a deadly situation by a broken meter.
Finally, the electrical worker will arrive at a point in the safety check
procedure where it is deemed safe to actually touch the conductor(s).

Zero Energy State:

98
When a circuit, device, or system has been secured so that no potential
energy exists to harm someone working on it.
Disconnect switch devices must be present in a properly designed
electrical system to allow for convenient readiness of a Zero Energy
State.
Temporary grounding or shorting wires may be connected to a load
being serviced for extra protection to personnel working on that
load.

Lock-out/Tag-out works like this: when working on a system in a Zero

Energy State, the worker places a personal padlock or combination lock
on every energy disconnect device relevant to his or her task on that
system. Also, a tag is hung on every one of those locks describing the
nature and duration of the work to be done, and who is doing it.
Always verify that a circuit has been secured in a Zero Energy State with
test equipment after "locking it out." Be sure to test your meter before
and after checking the circuit to verify that it is working properly.
When the time comes to actually make contact with the conductor(s) of
a supposedly dead power system, do so first with the back of one hand,
so that if a shock should occur, the muscle reaction will pull the fingers
away from the conductor.

COMMUNICATIONS
All employees participating in a work procedure must be in constant
voice contact with all other members involved in that procedure. The
ability of work crews to communicate during circuit isolation,
maintenance, troubleshooting and restoration is absolutely essential.
Accordingly, each employee shall be provided with a personal
communication device (radio or cellular phone) and will be assigned a
unique caller identification, in order to effectively communicate with
other members of the work crew, work leader and/or supervisor.
Operation and maintenance of electrical distribution systems are a single
work group responsibility. The same personnel will frequently perform
both functions. All personnel are responsible for safety at all times.

99
Why Electricity Is Dangerous?
You've probably been shocked before by static electricity, like when you
walk across carpet and touch a doorknob.
But a real electric shock is a lot more painful than that, and a lot more
dangerous. Here's what can happen:
Muscles tighten up, making it almost
impossible to pull away from the circuit.
Lungs constrict, making it hard to breathe.
Heartbeat is interrupted and blood vessels
tighten.
Burns occur where the electricity enters and
leaves the body.
It sounds scary, and it is, but if you remember
the safety rules, you can use electricity
without getting hurt.

❚ Currents across the chest are very dangerous.

Four Principles of Electrical Action
Knowing the basic principles of electrical action will help you
understand and evaluate electrical shock hazards. These principles and
an explanation for each are as follows:
1. Electricity does not “spring” into action until current flows.
2. Current will not flow until there is a loop (intentionally or
accidentally) from the voltage source to a load and back to the source.
3. Electrical current always returns to the voltage source (transformer)
that created it.
4. When current flows, energy (measured in watts) results.
Voltage by its very nature is a manifestation of potential energy.

Electrical work can be deadly if not done safely.

• Electrical shock causes injury or death!
• Current—the movement of electrical charge
• Voltage—a measure of electrical force
• Circuit—a complete path for the flow of current

100
• You will receive a shock if you touch two wires at different
voltagesat the same time.
• An overload can lead to a fire or electrical shock.
• Circuit breakers and fuses that are too big for the circuit are dangerous.
• Circuits without circuit breakers or fuses are dangerous.
•You will be hurt more if you can’t let go of a tool giving a shock.
• The longer the shock, the greater the injury.
• The greater the current, the greater the shock.
• Severity of shock depends on voltage, amperage, and resistance.
• Resistance—a material’s ability to decrease or stop electrical current.
• Ohm—unit of measurement for electrical resistance.
• Lower resistance causes greater currents.
• Currents across the chest are very dangerous.

You will receive an electrical shock if a part of your body completes an

electrical circuit bytouching a live wire and an electrical ground, or
touching a live wire and another wire at a differentvoltage.
There are four main types of electrical injuries:
 electrocution (death due to electrical shock),
 electrical shock,
 burns and
 falls

The danger from electrical shock depends on:

• The amount of the shocking current through the body.
• The duration of the shocking current through the body.
• The path of the shocking current through the body.

Research conducted on contact resistance between parts of the human

body and points of contact (such as the ground), shows a wide range of
figures:

 Hand or foot contact, insulated with rubber: 20 MΩ typical.

 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (dry): 100 kΩ to 500 kΩ
 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (wet): 5 kΩ to 20 kΩ

101
Symptoms of electric shock
Three major ways electric current damages the body are:
(1) It harms or interferes with proper functioning of the nervous system
and heart;
(2) It subjects the body to intense heat; and
(3) It causes the muscles to contract.

SYMPTOMS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK MAY INCLUDE:

1. Skin burns
2. Numbness, tingling
3. Weakness
4. Muscle contraction
5. Muscular pain
6. Bone fractures
7. Headache
8. Hearing impairment
9. Seizures
10. Cardiac arrest
11. Respiratory failure
12. Unconsciousness

A person who has suffered an electric shock may have very little
external evidence of injury or may have obvious severe burns. The
person could even be in cardiac arrest. Burns are usually most severe at
the points of contact with the electrical source and the ground. The
hands, heels, and head are common points of contact. In addition to
burns, other injuries are possible if the person has been thrown clear of
the electrical source by forceful muscular contraction. Consideration
should be given to the possibility of a spine injury. The person may have
internal injuries especially if he or she is experiencing any shortness of
breath, chest pain, or abdominal pain. (Reference 9)
First Aid
1. If safely possible, shut off the electrical current. Unplug the cord, remove
the fuse from the fuse box, or turn off the circuit breakers if possible. Often,
simply turning off the appliance itself will not stop the flow of electricity.
102
2. Call for medical help.
3. If the current can't be turned off, use a non-conducting object, such as a
broom, chair, rug, or rubber doormat to push the victim away from the
source of the current. Don't use a wet or metal object. If possible, stand on
something dry and non-conducting, such as a mat or folded newspapers. Do
not attempt to rescue a victim near active high-voltage lines.
4. Once the victim is free from the source of electricity, check the victim's
airway, breathing, and pulse. If either has stopped or seems dangerously
slow or shallow, initiate first aid Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation(CPR).
5. If the victim has a burn, remove any clothing that comes off easily, and
rinse the burned area in cool running water until the pain subsides. Give first
aid for burns.
6. If the victim is faint, pale, or shows other signs of shock, lay the victim
down, with the head slightly lower than the trunk of the body and the legs
elevated, and cover the person with a warm blanket or a coat.
7. Stay with the victim until medical help arrives.
8. Electrical injury is frequently associated with explosions or falls that can
cause additional traumatic injuries, including both obvious external injuries
and concealed internal injuries.
9. Avoid moving the victim's head or neck if a spinal injury is suspected.
10. Administer appropriate first aid as needed for other wounds or fractures.

Call immediately for emergency medical assistance if:

• thevictim is unconscious,

• confused, has difficulty in breathing,

• has skin or mouth burns,

• or was in contact with a high-voltage source.

A person shocked by high voltage (500 volts or more) should be

evaluated in the Emergency Department of a Hospital. It may be
prudent to get pre-hospital care. Following a low-voltage shock, go to
the Emergency Department for the following concerns:
• Any noticeable burn to the skin
• Any period of unconsciousness

103
 • Any numbness, tingling, paralysis, vision, hearing, or speech
problems
• Any electric shock if more than 20 weeks' pregnant
• Any other worrisome symptoms
Conclusion: It doesn’t take very much voltage to cause bodily harm.
How Electrical Current Affects the Human Body
Three primary factors affect the severity of the shock a person receives
when he or she is a part of an electrical circuit:
• Amount of current flowing through the body (measured in amperes).
• Path of the current through the body.
• Length of time the body is in the circuit.
Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
• The voltage of the current.
• The presence of moisture in the environment.
• The phase of the heart cycle when the shock occurs.
• The general health of the person prior to the shock.
Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to severe burns and
immediate cardiac arrest. Although it is not known the exact injuries that
result from any given amperage, the following table demonstrates this
general relationship for a 60-cycle, hand-to-foot shock of one second's
duration:
Current level
Probable Effect on Human Body
(Milliamperes)
Perception level. Slight tingling sensation. Still
1 mA
dangerous under certain conditions.
Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing.
Average individual can let go. However, strong
5 mA
involuntary reactions to shocks in this range may
lead to injuries.
Painful shock, begin to lose muscular control.
6 mA – 16mA Commonly referred to as the freezing current or
"let-go" range.
Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular
17mA – 99mA contractions. Individual cannot let go. Death is
possible.

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 Ventricular fibrillation (uneven, uncoordinated
100mA–2000mA pumping of the heart.) Muscular contraction and
nerve damage begins to occur. Death is likely.
Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe
> 2,000mA
burns. Death is probable.

Wet conditions are common during low-voltage electrocutions. Under dry

conditions, human skin is very resistant. Wet skin dramatically drops the
body's resistance.
Dry Conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 120/100,000 = 1mA
a barely perceptible level of current
Wet conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 120/1,000 = 120mA
sufficient current to cause ventricular fibrillation
If the extensor muscles are excited by the shock, the person may be thrown
away from the circuit. Often, this can result in a fall from elevation that kills
a victim even when electrocution does not.
When muscular contraction caused by stimulation does not allow the victim
to free himself from the circuit, even relatively low voltages can be
extremely dangerous, because the degree of injury increases with the length
of time the body is in the circuit.
LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT IMPLY LOW HAZARD!
100mA for 3 seconds = 900mA for 0.03 seconds in causing fibrillation

Note that a difference of less than 100 milliamperes exists between a current
that is barely perceptible and one that can kill.

High voltage electrical energy greatly reduces the body's resistance by

quickly breaking down human skin. Once the skin is punctured, the lowered
resistance results in massive current flow.
Ohm's law is used to demonstrate the action.
At 1,000 volts, Current = Volts/Ohms = 1,000/500 = 2 Amps
which can cause cardiac arrest and serious damage to internal organs.

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON HUMAN BODY

105
 Sr.No. AC 50 DC AC 10,000 EFFECT
HzmA mA Hz mA
1 0 to 1 0 to 5 0 to 9 No sensation
2 1 to 8 6 to 55 10 to 55 Mild shock-tingling
sensation
3 9 to 15 60 to 80 60 to 80 Painful shock and
surprise
4 16 to 20 80 to 100 80 to 100 Some loss of muscle
control
5 20 to 45 100 to 350 — Severe shock and loss
of muscle control
6 50 to100 400 to 800 — Possible heart failure
7 Over 100 Over 800 — Usually fatal

EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT IN THE HUMAN BODY

Sr No Current in mA Effect on human body
1 1-3mA of current Mild sensation
2 10mA of current Muscles contract, releasing grip may be
difficult
3 30mA of current Breathing difficult, possible loss of
consciousness
4 30-75mA of current Respiratory paralysis
5 100-200mA of current Ventricular fibrillation
6 50-300mA of current Shock (potentially fatal)
7 Over 1500mA of current Tissue and organ burn
8 150˚ F Cell destruction
9 200˚ F Skin experiences “third degree” burns

EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT IN THE HUMAN BODY

Current Reaction
Below 1 Milliampere Generally not perceptible
1 Milliampere Faint Tingle
5 Milliampere Slight shock felt. Not painful but disturbing.
Average individual can let go. Strong
involuntary reactions can lead to other
injuries.
6 to 25 Milliampere (women) Painful shocks.Loss of muscle control.
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9 to 30 Milliampere (men) The freezing current or “let go” range. If
extensor muscles are excited by shock, the
person may be thrown away from the power
source. Individuals cannot let go. Strong
involuntary reactions can lead to other
injuries.
50 to 150 Milliamperes Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe
muscle reactions. Death is possible.
1.0 to 4.3 Amperes Rhythmic pumping action of the heart
ceases. Muscular contraction and nerve
damage occur; death is likely.
10 Amperes Cardiac arrest, severe burns, death is
probable.

When to Seek Medical Care

For a high-voltage shock, seek care at a hospital's Emergency
Department. Following a low-voltage shock, call the doctor for the
following reasons:
• If it has been more than 5 years since your last tetanus booster
• Burns that are not healing well
• Burns with increasing redness, soreness, or drainage
• Any electric shock in a pregnant woman
• A person shocked by high voltage (500 volts or more) should be
evaluated in the Emergency Department. It may be prudent to get pre-
hospital care.
Following a low-voltage shock, go to the Emergency Department for the
following concerns:
• Any noticeable burn to the skin
• Any period of unconsciousness
• Any numbness, tingling, paralysis, vision, hearing, or speech problems
• Any electric shock if more than 20 weeks' pregnant
• Any other worrisome symptoms

Medical Treatment
Treatment depends on the severity of the burns or the nature of other
injuries found.
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Burns are treated according to severity.
Minor burns may be treated with topicalantibioticointment and dressings.
More severe burns may require surgery to clean the wounds or even skin
grafting.
Severe burns on the arms, legs, or hands may require surgery to remove
damaged muscle or even amputation.
Other injuries may require treatment.
Eye injuries may require examination and treatment by an
ophthalmologist, an eye specialist.
Broken bones require splinting, casting, or surgery to stabilize the bones.
Internal injuries may require observation or surgery.

Exams and Tests

At the Emergency Department, the doctor's primary concern is to
determine if significant unseen injury exists. Injury may occur to muscles,
the heart, or the brain from the electricity or to any bones or other organs
from being thrown from the electric source.
The doctor may order various tests depending on the history and physical
examination. Tests may include any or none of the following:
 ECG to check the heart
 Complete blood count
 Urine test for muscleenzymes (would indicate significant muscle
injury)
 X-rays to look for fractures or dislocations, both of which may be
caused by a near electrocution
 CT scan

Electric Shock Information

(1) Danger
If you suspect someone has received an electric shock you must ensure all
power sources are isolated before you can treat the casualty.
High voltage
Overhead power cables are an example of a power source generating high
voltage electricity. High voltage electricity has the ability to ‘jump’ or
‘arc’ up to distances of 18 metres or over. If faced with a casualty
resulting from high voltage electricity:

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Do not approach. Stay at least 25 metres away from the casualty until the
power has been switched off by an official agency i.e. Electricity Board.
Low voltage
If faced with a casualty who is in the process of receiving an electric shock
you should:
 Attempt to turn the power off at the mains.
 Remove any cables/power tools etc., still in contact with the casualty.
Action to take
 Insulate yourself from the ground with books / newspapers / rubber
matting.
 Use an object of low conductivity i.e. a wooden broom or rolled up
newspaper, to push away the power source

(2) Response
To give your casualty the optimum chances of survival you must quickly
assess their levels of response. A rapid assessment will allow effective
treatment to be administered and will also allow for accurate information
to be passed on to the ambulance service.
Check whether the casualty is conscious
1. Ask “hello, can you hear me” and call their name if you know it.
2. Ask in both the casualty’s ears to open their eyes.
3. Pinch an ear lobe or gently tap the shoulders.
4. Shout for HELP!
5. DO NOT move the casualty unless the environment or situation is
dangerous.

(3) Shout -Call for help

If alone call for help. If someone responds to your call ask them to stay
with you whilst you assess the Airway and Breathing. One of you should
wait with the casualty whilst the other calls the emergency medical
services (EMS).
NB If no-one responds do not leave the casualty but go on to assess the
airway and breathing.

(4) Airway
For an unresponsive casualty open the airway
1. Look in the mouth to ensure there are no obvious obstructions.
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2. Open the airway by lifting the chin and tilting the head back. This will
free the tongue from the back of the throat.
3. If neck/spinal injury is suspected, put one hand on the stomach to feel if
it rises and falls. This indicates normal breathing.
Assess for breathing
1. LOOK for the rise and fall of the chest.
2. LISTEN for sounds of breathing.
3. FEEL for air on your cheek.
4. Carry this out for up to 10 seconds.
Breathing normally
If breathing is present go straight to the Recovery Position section.
Not breathing
 If the casualty is not breathing normally, commence full Cardio-
Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR).
 If you are alone, leave the casualty at this stage and call for help.
Return to the casualty and commence CPR (Cardio-Pulmonary
Resuscitation).

(5) Breathing & Circulation

To commence Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR):
For an unresponsive casualty
1. Ensure the casualty is on a firm, flat surface.
2. Place your hands one on top of the other in the centre of the casualty’s
chest
3. Compress the chest (up to a maximum depth of approximately 4-5cm)
30 times at a rate of 100 compressions per minute. The compressions and
releases should take an equal amount of time.
4. After 30 compressions, open the airway again using head tilt/chin lift.
5. Seal the nostrils with your thumb and forefinger (Fig 2).
6. Blow steadily into the mouth until you see the chest rise, take about a
second to make the chest rise. It is advisable to have Resuscitation
Equipment at this stage such as a face shield.
7. Remove your mouth to the side and let chest fall. Inhale some fresh air,
when breathing for the casualty.
8. Repeat so you have given 2 effective rescue breaths in total.
9. If chest does not rise after the second breath, go back to 30
compressions then try again with 2 breaths.
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10. Return your hands to the correct position on the chest and give a
further 30 chest compressions.
• Continue with CPR until the casualty shows signs of recovery.
• Emergency services arrive.
• You become exhausted and unable to continue.
• The situation changes and you are now in immediate danger.

(6) Recovery Position

• Unconscious and breathing normally
• Turn the casualty into the recovery position.
• The recovery position is used when a casualty is unconscious and
breathing.
• The recovery position allows the head to be placed tilted back and
down. This stops the tongue from blocking the airway and will allow any
vomit and fluid to drain from the mouth.

If the casualty is breathing normally

1. Check for any other obvious injuries.
2. Remove sharp objects from pockets.
3. Turn the casualty into the recovery position.
4. Place the nearest arm at a right angle to the body.
5. Draw the furthest arm across the chest and place the back of the hand
across the cheek.
6. Keep this here whilst you raise the furthest leg by grasping the top of
the knee.
7. Gently pull on the knee so that the casualty pivots over onto their side
facing you.
8. The casualty should be fully over and stable.
9. Re-check the airway, breathing and circulation.
10. Draw up the leg at a 90 degree angle.
11. Check for continued breathing.
12. Send someone to ring 999.
EMS or if you are alone, leave the casualty and call 999 / EMS yourself.

(7) Burns

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Exposure to electricity can cause burns to the skin and, in severe cases,
internal organs. In such cases the electricity may, for example, enter via a
hand and leave via the feet causing ‘entry’ and ‘exit’ burns.
Conscious casualties
Cool burns for a minimum of 10 minutes under cold water.
Unconscious casualties
Cool the burn with wet dressings after placing them in the recovery
position.

DO NOT
• Burst any blisters.
• Apply adhesive dressings.
• Remove damaged skin.
• Apply ointments/creams.
• Cover with ‘fluffy’ dressings.
• Affix dressing too tightly.
• Apply butter/fats/margarine.
• Remove damaged clothing.
• Apply ice.

(8) Other Injuries

Muscle spasm/seizures
These may be present for some time after the exposure to electricity and
indicate a seriously ill casualty.
Action in the event of a major seizure
1. The casualty will almost definitely collapse during a major seizure. Try
to control the fall.
2. Ensure the safety of the casualty by removing any objects that may
cause injury if they are struck.
3. Place padding under the head of the casualty. Improvise if necessary by
using clothing.
4. DO NOT place anything in the casualty’s mouth.
5. Loosen any clothing that may restrict the airway.
6. When the seizure has subsided:
7. Check the casualty’s Airway, Breathing and Circulation (ABC).

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8. If unconscious and breathing normally or semi-conscious, place the
casualty in the recovery position (see opposite). Perform CPR if not
breathing.
9. Can also put a blanket over casualty to preserve modesty, also time the
seizure.
10. Reassure the casualty whilst continuing to monitor the ABC and any
other injuries.
Casualties with no apparent injury
If no injury is present and the casualty appears well, it is still advisable to
take the casualty to a hospital or medical facility for a check up, as certain
organs/systems within the body may be affected several hours after a
shock.
******
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electrical equipment systems on ships are extremely hazardous and seafarers must
take special care while handling them. Personal safety is of utmost importance
while dealing with electrical systems on ships.

 Turn off the breaker before starting any work on an electrical system

 Use ply cards and notice board as much as possible to inform others about the
ongoing work to avoid ccidental “starts”

 Double check electrical tools such as portable drills for any loose wires before
attempting any job

 Always wear protective clothing, rubber gloves, rubber kneepads and safety
shoes to avoid risk of shock

Steps to Minimize the Risk of an Electrical Shock

 Start with the first round of the day; check all electrical motors, wiring, and
switches, for abnormal sounds, variation in temperatures and loose connections

 Ensure that all electrical connections are inside the panel box so that no one can
touch them accidently

 In accommodation area multiple socket plugs shouldn’t be used

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 Use electrically insulated handle tools for working or checking electrical
systems

 Before working, remove jewelry, wrist bands and other conductive items

 When working or removing multiple wires, tape off all but the one wire you are
working on

 Try as much as possible not to work on live system and even if you do so, be a
professional and work carefully, taking all necessary safety precautions and with
utmost concentration

 During working in group or pair, organize a tool box meeting and discuss the
procedure, risk and hazards of the job in hand

 If you don’t know bout the system, ask for assistance. Don’t work without
knowing the system

 Always think first about your personal safety and safety of fellow seafarers
while carrying out any electrical work on board ships

Ways to Reduce these Hazards

The following steps should be taken as preventive measures:
- Cables having E.P.R (Ethylene Propylene Rubber) insulation with necessary
sheathing of Poly Chloro Prene or Chloro Sulphonated Polyethylene (PCP or CSP)
may be used to protect the insulation against fire
- G.I armor may be used to protect insulation from fire but needs to be earthed
- By using cables having high oxygen index number, the number allotted to
material depending on minimum percentage of oxygen required to sustain
combustion
- If the material used is having oxygen index number 27, it means that minimum
percentage of oxygen required to burn the material is 27 % which is well above the
normal atmospheric oxygen percentage of 21 %. Thus, the insulation material will
not catch fire

Important Precautions for Installation of Electric Cables

1) The cables and wirings external to the equipment must have flame retardant
properties and should be installed in such a manner that it should not interfere with
the original flame retarding properties.

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2) Cables and wirings for emergency equipment, lightings, communication and
signal should be kept away from spaces such as galley, laundries, machinery space
of category A & other high risk areas

3) Special precautions are to be taken for cable installation in hazardous area as it

might lead to explosion in case of electrical fault.
4) Terminations and joints are to be made in such a manner that they should retain
their original fire resisting properties.
5) Avoid cable for damage and chaffing during installation.
6) Fireproof glands to be used in case of cables passing through the bulkhead to
prevent fire from one compartment to other.

What to Do in Case of a Blackout?

In case of a blackout following precautions and actions should be taken:
 Never panic in such situation, be calm and composed. Emergency generator
will restore the power in no time
 Inform officer on bridge briefly about the condition
 Call for manpower and inform the chief engineer
 If the main propulsion plant is running, bring the fuel lever to zero position
• Close the feed of the running purifier to avoid overflow and wastage of fuel
• If auxiliary boiler was running, shut the main steam stop valve to maintain the
steam pressure
• Find out the problem and reason for blackout and rectify the same
• Before starting the generator set, start the pre- lubrication priming pump if the
supply for the same is given from the emergency generator; if not, then use manual
priming handle (provided in some generators)
• Start the generator and take it on load. Then immediately start the main engine
lube oil pump and main engine jacket water pump
• Reset breakers and start all the other required machinery and systems. Reset
breakers that are included in preferential tripping sequence. (Non-essential
machinery)

Use your electrical smarts and follow these safety Do’s and Don’ts:
Do’s and Don’ts
Only use plugs that fit the outlet.
Make sure that electrical connections are tight.
Check that the wire insulation is in good condition.
Keep machines and tools properly lubricated.
Use extension cords only when necessary and only if they are rated
high enough for the application.
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Use waterproof cords outside.
Only use approved extension lamps.
Leave at least 3 feet of workspace around electrical equipment for
instant access.
Keep your work area clean. Be especially careful with oily rags,
paper, sawdust, or anything that could burn.
Follow manufacturer’s instructions for all electrical equipment.
Leave electrical repairs to skilled maintenance personnel and
licensed electricians.
Don’t overload outlets or motors.
Don’t let grease, dust, or dirt build up on machinery.
Don’t place cords near heat or water.
Don’t run cords along the floor where they can be damaged.
Don’t touch anything electric with wet hands.
Don’t put anything but an electric plug into an electric outlet.
Don’t use temporary wiring in place of permanent wiring.
Safety Guidelines:
These guidelines are to protect you from potentially deadly electrical
shock hazards as well as the equipment from accidental damage. Note
that the danger to you is not only to your body providing a conducting
path but particularly to your heart.
Any involuntary muscle contractions caused by an electric shock, while
perhaps harmless in them, may cause collateral damage. Further danger
is posed by the presence of equipment, such as the switchboard, in the
area. There are many sharp edges inside thistype of equipment as well as
other electrically live parts you may contact accidentally. The purpose of
this set of guidelines is not to frighten you but rather to make you aware
of the appropriate precautions.

 Switch off the electric power supply. Discharge the remaining

electric power by earthing the wire and then confirm the voltage.
 Don't work alone - in the event of an emergency, another person's
presence is essential.
 Always keep one hand in your pocket whenever you are around a
power line connected to high voltage system.
 Wear rubber bottom shoes or sneakers.
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 Wear eye protection – eyeglasses with large plastic lenses or safety
goggles.
 Don't wear any jewelry or other articles that could accidentally
contact circuitry and conduct current, or get caught in moving parts.
 Set up your work area away from possible grounds that you may
accidentally be in contact with.
 Know your equipment, instrument and tools.
 When handling static sensitive components, an anti-static wrist strap
is recommended.
 However, it should be made of high resistance materials with a high
resistance path between you and the chassis (greater than 100K
ohms). Never use metallic conductors, as you would then become an
excellent path for live current.
 Don't attempt repair work when you are tired. Not only will you be
more careless, but also your primary diagnostic tool - deductive
reasoning – will not be operating at full capacity.
 Finally, never assume anything without checking it out yourself.
Don't take shortcuts!

DO’s
 DO operate equipment according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
 DO maintain equipment according to the manufacturer's
recommendations or the ship owner’s maintenance procedures.
 DO ensure that all guards, covers and doors are securely fitted and
that all bolts and fixings are in place and tight.
 DO inform the Officer of the Watch before shutting down
equipment for maintenance.
 DO switch off and lock-off supplies, remove fuses, and display
warming notices before removing covers of equipment for
maintenance.
 DO confirm that circuits are DEAD (by using an approved voltage
tester) before touching conductors and terminals.

DONT’s

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 DO NOT touch the victim with your bare hands while the person is
still in contact with the source of electricity.
 DO NOT remove dead skin or break blisters if the victim has
acquired burns.
 DO NOT apply ice, butter, ointments, medications, fluffy cotton
dressings, or adhesive bandages to a burn.
 DO NOT touch the skin of someone who is being electrocuted.
 DO NOT get within 20 feet of someone who is being electrocuted
by high-voltage electrical current until the power is turned off.
 DO NOT move a victim of electrical injury unless there is
immediate danger.
The risk to people working in HV areas is greatly minimised by the
diligent application of sensible general and company safety regulations
and procedures.

Personnel who are required to routinely test and maintain HV equipment

should be trained in the necessary practical safety procedures and
certified as qualified for this duty.
Approved safety clothing, footwear, eye protection and hard hat should
be used where danger may arise from arcs, hot surfaces and high voltage
etc. The access to HV switchboards and equipment must be strictly
controlled by using a permit-to-work scheme and isolation procedures
together with live-line tests and earthing-down before any work is
started. The electrical permit requirements and procedures are similar to
permits used to control access in any hot-work situation, e.g. welding,
cutting, burning etc. in a potentially hazardous area. All work to be
carried out on HV equipment is subject to an Electrical Permit to Work
(EPTW).

EPTW (Electrical Permit to Work)

The format of a permit will vary for different companies and
organisations. The broad guidelines for the necessary declarations and
procedures are outlined below:

Before work is commenced on HV equipment an EPTW must be issued.

This permit is usually the last stage of a planned maintenance task which
118
has been discussed, prepared and approved by the authorising officer to
be carried out by the responsible person. The carbon-copied permit,
signed by the responsible person, usually has at least five sections with
the first stating the work to be carried out. The next section is a risk
assessment declaring where electrical isolation and earthing has been
applied and where danger/caution notices have been displayed then the
permit is signed as authorised by the Chief Electro Technical Officer
(CETO) or Chief Engineer. In the third section, the person responsible
for the work (as named in section one) signs to declare that he/she is
satisfied with the safety precautions and that the HV circuit has been
isolated and earthed.
Section four relates to the suspension or completion of the designated
work. Finally, the last section cancels the permit with a signature from
the authorising officer. A Permit-to-Work is usually valid only for 24
hours.

Some marine and offshore companies will also require an associated

Electrical Isolation Certificate to declare and record exactly where the
circuit isolation and earthing has been applied before the EPTW can be
authorised. A Sanction to -Test safety certificate may also be required
when an electrical test (e.g. an electrical insulation test) is to be applied.
This is necessary as the circuit earth generally has to be removed during
such testing.

Before earthing-down particular circuit or equipment declared in the

EPTW it must be tested and proved ‘dead’ after disconnection and
isolation. This can only be carried out by using an approved live-line
tester as shown in Fig. 6. The tester itself must be proven before and
after such a test. This is checked by connecting the tester to a known HV
source (supplied either as a separate battery operated unit or included as
an internal self-test facility).

Live-line testers
When equipment is to be inspected for maintenance it is important that
supplies be switched OFF and locked OFF. The equipment must then be
PROVED to be dead to eliminate the danger of electric shock. A live-
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line (or voltage) tester is a simple device to check whether or not a
voltage exists at terminals.
Live-line testers are of various types. Some light up (e.g. screwdriver
type with a neon indicator), some make a noise, others operate
mechanical indicators (flags) to indicate the approximate value of
voltage. It is important that voltage testers themselves be PROVED to
operate correctly before use. This can be conveniently carried out at the
electrical workshop test panel.
Home-made test lamps should not be used as they can be dangerous.

Fig7.1, HV Line Testing Components

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 Fig. 7.2, Live-Line Testers
Two people should always be together when working on HV
equipment.

Earthing-down
Before work can be allowed to commence on HV equipment it must be
earthed to the hull for operator safety.
As an example, consider the earthing arrangements at an HV
switchboard.
Here, the earthing-down method is of two types:
Circuit Earthing (Fig. 7.3):
After disconnection from the live supply, an incoming or outgoing
feeder cable is connected by a manually operated switch to connect all
three conductors to earth. This action then releases a permissive-key to
allow the circuit breaker to be withdrawn to the TEST position. The
circuit breaker cannot be re-inserted until the earth has been removed
and the key restored to its normal position.

Bus-bar Earthing (Fig. 7.4):

When it is necessary to work on a section of the HV switchboard bus-
bars, they must be isolated from all possible electrical sources. This will
include generator incomers, section or bus-tie breakers and transformers
(which could back-feed) on that bus-bar section. Earthing down is
carried out at a bus-section breaker compartment after satisfying the
permissive key exchanges. In some installations the application of a bus-
bar earth is by a special earthing circuit breaker which is temporarily
inserted into the switchboard solely for the bus-bar earthing duty.

For extra confidence and operator safety, additional earthing can be

connected local to the work task with approved portable earthing straps
and an insulated extension tool, e.g. at the terminals of an HV motor as
shown in Fig. 7.3;

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 Fig. 7.3, Portable Earthing Connectors-Circuit Earthing

Fig. 7.4, Bus-Bar Earthing

Remember to always connect the common wire to earth first before
connecting the other wires to the three phase connections. When
removing the earthing straps, always remove the earth connection last.

Q. Why is earthing down considered essential during HV maintenance?

Ans. So that the worker can be assured that the equipment (and himself)
cannot experience any accidentally applied voltage because the earth
connection bonds the circuit to earth (zero volts).

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Lockout/Tagout
Electrical power must be removed when electrical equipment
is inspected, serviced, or repaired. To ensure the safety of
personnel working with the equipment, power is removed and
the equipment must be locked out and tagged out.
Lockout is the process of removing the source of electrical power and
installing a lock which prevents the power from being turned ON.
Tagout is the process of placing a danger tag on the source of electrical
power which indicates that the equipment may not be operated until the
danger tag is removed. See Fig.7.5.

Danger tags may include warnings such as "Do Not Start"

"Do Not Operate"

FIG. 7.5, Lockout and Tagout

Insulation is adversely affectedby many factors such as:

123
 humidity,
 temperature,
 electrical stress,and
 mechanical stress,
 vibration,
 chemicals, oil, dirt and, of course,
 old age,

The condition of HV insulation is governed by many factors such as:

 temperature,
 humidity,
 surface condition and operating voltage level,

Be guided by the manufacturers recommendations when testing and

maintaining HV insulation.
Before applying an IR test to HV equipment its power supply must be
switched off, isolated, confirmed dead by anapproved live-line tester
and then earthed for complete safety in accordance with the current
EPTW regulations.

The correct procedure is to connect the IR tester to the circuit under test
with the safety earth connection ON. The safety earth may be applied
through a switch connection at the supply circuit breaker or by a
temporary earth connection local to the test point. This is to ensure that
the operator never touches an unearthed conductor. With the IR tester
now connected, the safety earth is disconnected (using an insulated
extension tool for the temporary earth). Now the IR test is applied and
recorded. The safety earth is now reconnected before the IR tester is
disconnected. This safety routine must be applied for each separate IR
test.
Large currents flowing through machine windings, cables, bus-bars and
main circuit breaker contacts will cause a temperature rise due to I²R
resistive heating. Where overheating is suspected, e.g. at a bolted bus-
bar joint in the main switchboard, the local continuity resistance may be
measured and checked against the manufacturers recommendations or
compared with similar equipment that is known to be satisfactory. A
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normal ohmmeter is not suitable as it will only drive a few mA through
the test circuit. A special low resistance tester or micro-ohmmeter must
be used which drives a calibrated current (usually I = 10 A) through the
circuit while measuring the volt-drop (V) across the circuit. The meter
calculates R from V/I and displays the test result. For a healthy bus-bar
joint a continuity of a few mΩ would be expected.

General Information ELECTRICAL PERMIT-TO-WORK

 Issued by an authorised person to a responsible person who will
perform the task of repair/maintenance
 Generally valid only for 24-Hrs.
 Permit to be re-validated if work extends beyond 24-Hrs. after issue
 Formats will vary and be customized for a particular vessel/marine
installation.

EPTW- BROAD GUIDELINES

Prepared in Carbon-copied Duplicate and has at least five sections.
 FIRSTSection states the nature of work to be carried out.
 SECONDSection declares where electrical isolation and earthing
have been applied and where Danger /Caution notices have been
displayed.
 THIRDSection is signed by the Person receiving the Permit
acknowledging that he is satisfied with the safety precautions taken
and the Isolation/Earthing measures adopted.
 FOURTHSection is signed by the Permit-holder that the work has
been completed/suspended.
 FIFTHSection is signed by the Issuing authority cancelling the
Permit.

A Typical “Permit To Work” Format

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EARTH FAULTS
The majority of earth faultsoccurwithin electricalequipmentdue to an
insulationfailure orloose wire, which allows a live conductor to come
into contact with the metalwork enclosureof the equipment.
In order to protect against the dangers of electric shock and fire that may
result from earthfaults, the metal enclosuresand other non-
currentcarryingmetal parts of electricalequipmentmust be 'earthed'.The
'earthing'conductorconnectsthe metal enclosureto earth (theship'shull)
and preventssuchmetal partsfrom attaininga dangerousvoltagewith
respect oearth in the event of an earth fault occurring.
Significance of earth faults
lf an earth fault occurs on the insulated pole of an 'EARTHED
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM' it would be equivalent to a 'short-circuit'
fault across the load via the ship's hull:
126
The resulting large earth fault current would immediately 'blow' the fuse
in the line conductor.
The faulted electrical equipment would be immediately isolated from the
supply and so rendered SAFE, but the loss of equipment could create a
hazardous situation, especially if the equipment was classed
ESSENTIAL, e.g. loss of steering gear. The large fault current could
also cause arcing damage at the fault location.
An earth fault 'A' occurring on one line of an 'INSULATED
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM' will not cause any protective gear to
operate and the system would continue to function normally. This is the
important point – equipment still operates. The single earth fault does
not provide a complete circuit so no earth fault current will exist.
If an earth fault 'B' developed on another line, the two earth faults
together would be equivalent to a short-circuit fault (via the ship's hull)
and the resulting large current would operate protection devices and
cause disconnection of poer supply to the essential services creating a
risk to the safety of the ship.
An insulated distribution system requires TWO earth faults on TWO
different lines to cause an earth fault current.
An earthed distribution system requires only ONE earth fault on the
LINE conductor to create an earth fault current.
An insulated system is, therefore, more effective than an earthed system
in maintaining continuity of supply to equipment, hence, its adoption for
most marine electrical systems.

Note: Double-pole switches with fuses in both lines are

necessary in an insulated single-phase circuit.
High voltages systems (3.3kV and above) on board ship are
normally 'earthed'.
Such systems are normally earthed via a resistor (NER) connecting the
generator neutrals to earthas shown below:
The ohmic value of each earthing resistor is usually chosen so as to limit
the maximum earth fault current to not more than the generator full load
current. Such a Neutral Earthing Resistor (NER) is often assembled with
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metallic plates in air but liquid (brine) resistors have also been used. The
use of such an earthed system means that a single earth fault will cause
that circuit to be disconnected by its protection device.
Certain essential loads (e.g. steering gear) can be supplied via a
transformer with its secondary unearthed to maintain security of supply
in the event of a single-earth fault.

Regulations insist that tankers have only insulated distribution

systems. This is intended to reduce danger from earth fault
current circulating in the hull in hazardous zones which may
cause an explosion of the flammable cargo, an exception
allowed by regulating bodies occurs where a tanker has a 3.3kV
earthed system. Such a system is permitted providing that the
earthed system does not extend forward of the engine room
bulkhead and into the hazardous zone area.
Electrical supplies forward of the engine room bulkhead are
usually 3-phase 440V insulated and obtained from a 3-phase
3.3kV/440V transformer.

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Permit to Work (Format-blank)
Issue
To………………………………………………………………..C.E.T.O./1.E.L.O.
I hereby declare that it is safe to work on the following H.V. apparatus which is dead, isolated from all
live conductors and is connected to earth.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
ALL OTHER APPARTAUS IS DANGEROUS
Points at which system is isolated
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Caution notices posted at
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The apparatus is efficiently connected to earth at the following points
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Other precautions
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
The following work is to be carried out
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Signed……………………………………………………………Chief engineer.
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Signed……………………………………………………………C.E.T.O./1 E.L.O.
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Signed……………………………………………………………Senior watch keeper
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Receipt
I hereby declare that I accept responsibility for carrying out the work on the apparatus detailed on this
permit to work and that no attempt will be made by me, or by the men under my control, to carry out
work on any other apparatus.
Signed…………………………………Time…………………Date………………..
Note: After signature for the work to proceed this receipt must be signed by and permit to work be
retained by the person in charge of the work until the work is completed and the clearance section has
been signed.
Clearance
I hereby declare that the work for which this permit to work was issued is now suspended/completed, and
that all men under my charge have been withdrawn and warned that it is no longer safe to work on the
apparatus specified on this permit to work and that gear, tools and additional earthing connections are all
clear.
Signed………………………………..Time………………….Date………………….
Cancellation This permit to work is hereby cancelled
Signed………………………………..Time…………………Date…………………..

There are many different versions of a permit to work but they should all cover the following
areas:
1. Isolation of circuits
2. Circuit breakers with pad locks
3. Fuses removed and kept with the engineer carrying out the work
4. Warning signs are displayed
5. Confirmation that circuits are dead

129
Q: What is Lockout Tagout?
A: Lockout tagout is a procedure used to tag a piece of equipment while
it is being worked on. This allows fellow workers to know they should
not use it. It helps improve safety and prevent accidents.

Q: How to Train On Lockout Tagout?

A: Managers of affected sites should ensure that all energy sources for
equipment are identified and labeled so they can be isolated. Anyone
who must perform service on or need to isolate an energy source should
have their own personal lock.

Q: How to implement a lockout tagout?

A: 1. Obtain a copy of any written lockout-tagout procedures that are
currently in place. Complete any necessary work forms and obtain

130
lockout tags. 2. Notify all in the area that work will be performed on the
equipment or device.

Q: Who enacted a lockout/tagout standard?

A: OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration).

Q: What is required for a lockout/tagout policy?

A: A lockout and tagout policy first requires the use of a lock. This lock
should be a secure lock that will prevent access from the power switch
of the device. Only the supervisors or managers in charge should have
the key.

Q. Suggest reasons why protection equipment is essential in an electrical

distribution system.
A: (a) To disconnect and isolate faulty equipment in order to maintain the power
supply to the remaining healthy circuits in the system.
(b) To prevent damage to equipment from the thermal and magnetic forces that
occur during short circuit and, overload faults.
(c) To protect personnel from electric shock.

Q. What is likely to happen if one of the rotating diodes fails and becomes:
(a) an open circuit? (b) a short-circuit?
A: In condition (a) the remaininghealthydiodeswould continueto supplythe main
field. In 'hand'controlthe total field current, and hencegenerator voltage,will be
slightlyreduced.
Under AVR control, the exciterfield currentwould be automaticallyboostedto
maintainthecorrectgeneratorvoltagewhile the diode failure would probablybe
undetectedcausingtheexciter to graduallyoverheat.A short-circuiteddiode is more
seriousas it leadsto ashort-circuitedexciter.Rapid exciteroverheatingwill occur.

Q. What factors govern the overall voltage response of a generator to

sudden (transient) load changes?
A: The main opposition to changes in the field current required to correct
the generator output voltage are:
(i) Inductance of main rotor field winding.
(ii) Inductance of exciter field winding.
(iii) Regulator (hand or automatic) response.

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Q. What precaution must be taken when testing the insulation of
generator cables and wiring connected to an AVR unit?
A: Electronic component such as transistors integrated circuit chips,
thyristors etc. are likely to be damaged during a high voltage (500V)
megger test.To test the generator and its cables to earth and protect the
electronic parts, either:
(i) short-circuit all outgoing cable terminals with fuse wire during the IR
test;
(ii) remove electronic card(s);
(iii) disconnect all cables at both ends and test separately.

Q. What are the likely consequences of attempting to close the incomer's

breaker when the generators are not in synchronism?
A: At the instant of closing the breaker, the voltage phase difference causes
a large circulating current between the machines which produces a large
magnetic force to 'pull' the generators into synchronism. This means rapid
acceleration of one rotor and deceleration of the other.
The large forces may physically damage the generators and their prime
movers and the large circulating current may trip each generator breaker.
Result? Blackout, danger and embarrassment!

Q. Two generators are load sharing equally in parallel when a total loss of
excitation occurs on No. 2 machine. What is the likely outcome?
A: Generator No.2 will run as an induction generator drawing its excitation
from No.1. Both generator currents will rise rapidly with No.1 becoming
more lagging while No. 2 runs with aleading p.f. (indicated on p.f. meter).
A 'loss of excitation' trip (if fitted) or an over current trip should trip No. 2
generator possibly causing an overload on No.1. Alternatively, No.1 trips
on overcurrent (current) which deprives No. 2 of excitation and its breaker
trips out onunder voltage. Result - Total power failure

ELECTRICAL SAFETY WORK RULES

ELECTRIC SAFETY PRINCIPLES-ENERGIZED CONDITION
• De-energize whenever possible.
• Plan every job. The approach and step-by-step procedures to complete
the work at hand must be discussed and agreed upon between all
involved employees before beginning. Write down first-time procedures.
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Discuss hazards and procedures in a job briefing with supervisors and
other workers before starting any job. It is the employer’s responsibility
to have or develop a checklist system for working on live circuits, if
such a scenario arises.
• Identify the hazards. Conduct a job hazard analysis. Identify steps that
could create electric shock or arc-flash hazards.
• Minimize the hazards. De-energize any equipment, and insulate, or
isolate exposed live parts so contact cannot be made. If this is
impossible, obtain and wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE)
and tools.
• Anticipate problems. If it can go wrong, it might. Make sure the proper
PPE and tools are immediately available for the worst-case scenario.
• Obtain training. Make sure all involved employees are a qualified
electrical worker with appropriate training for the job.*

WORKING ON OR NEAR ENERGIZED EQUIPMENT

Working on live circuits means actually touching energized parts.
Working near live circuits means working close enough to energized
parts to pose a risk even though work is on de-energized parts. Common
tasks where there may be a need to work on or near live circuits
include:
• Taking voltage measurements
• Opening and closing disconnects and breakers
• Racking breakers on and off the bus
• Removing panels and dead fronts
• Opening electric equipment doors for inspection
Jobsites & Facilities should adopt standard written procedures and
training for these common tasks. For instance, when opening and closing
disconnects, use the left - and rule when possible (stand to the right side
of the equipment and operate the disconnect switch with the left hand).
Note: No work shall be performed on energized equipment without
completing an “Energized Electrical Work Permit”.
The following tasks shall only be performed after authorization from job
site supervisor and written permission from the property owner or
owner’s representative (part III of Energized Electrical Work Permit)

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and upon completion of a task assessment checklist and energized
equipment work permit.

•Working on or near live parts

•Opening of hinged or bolted covers to expose live parts.
•Racking in of circuit breakers, insertion of motor control center
buckets.
•Installing or removing energized fuses or operating energized circuit
breakers with covers removed or opened.
•Voltage testing, or troubleshooting.
•Working near Overhead Power Lines.

Determining approach boundaries to energized parts, limited approach

boundaries (shock protection), prohibited approach boundaries (shock
protection) and determining flash protection boundaries and analysis
utilizing the task assessment checklist is required to provide proper PPE
for shock and arc flash protection.
Proper PPE to be used must be determined and utilized. NFPA 70 E
provides two methods for PPE selection. The method to be used on J.W.
Carrigan LLC jobsites consists of identifying common work tasks and
then identifying the respective Hazard Risk Category for each task. The
PPE is determined based on the Hazard Risk Category.

NFPA Table 130.7 (C) (9) Hazard Risk Category Classifications

Energized Electrical Work Permit For 208 Volts and Higher
• If live parts are not placed in an electrically safe condition, work to be
performed shall be considered energized electrical work and shall be
performed by written permit only.
• A copy of the Energized Electrical Work Permit can be found in this
document. The intent of this permit is to ensure that all appropriate
safety precautions are taken prior to starting energized electrical work.
• Work related to testing, troubleshooting, and voltage measuring may
be completed without a permit provided appropriate safe work practices
and PPE are used.
• The permit must originate from the project foreman.

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• Energized Work Permits shall be submitted to the appropriate
supervisor for each project.
• The permit must be posted in an appropriate location where the
energized work is taking place for the duration of the task.

Approach Distances to Exposed Live Parts

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines 3 approach
distances for shock hazards and one for arc flash.
• The limited approach boundary is the distance from an exposed live
part within which a shock hazard exists.
• The restricted approach boundary is the closest distance to exposed
live parts a qualified person can approach without proper PPE and tools.
Inside this boundary, accidental movement can put a part of the body or
conductive tools in contact with live parts or inside the prohibited
approach boundary.

Fig. 7, Approach distances for qualified employees - alternating current

To cross the restricted approach boundary, the qualified person must:
1. Have an energized work permit that is approved by the supervisor or
manager responsible for the safety plan.
2. Use PPE suitable for working near exposed lived parts and rated for
the voltage and energy level involved.
3. Be certain that no part of the body enters the prohibited space.
4. Minimize the risk from unintended movement, by keeping as much of
the body as possible out of the restricted space; body parts in the
restricted space should be protected.
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• The prohibited approach boundary is the minimum approach distance
to exposed live parts to prevent flashover or arcing. Approaching any
closer is comparable to making direct contact with a live part.

To cross the prohibited approach boundary, the qualified person must:

1. Have specified training to work on exposed live parts.
2. Have a permit with proper written work procedures and justifying the
need to work that close.
3. Do a risk analysis.
4. Have (2) and (3) approved by the appropriate supervisor.
5. Use PPE appropriate for working near exposed live parts and rated for
the voltage and energy level involved.
• The Flash Protection Boundary is the approach limit at a distance from
exposed live parts within which a person could receive a second-degree
burn if an electrical arc flash were to occur.
1. Use PPE appropriate for working near exposed live parts and rated for
the voltage and energy level involved.
2. For systems of 600 volts and less, the flash protection boundary is 4
feet, based on an available bolted fault current of 50 kA and a clearing
time of 6 cycles for the circuit breaker to act, or any combination of fault
currents and clearing times not exceeding 300 kA cycles.
3. When working on de-energized parts and inside the flash protection
boundary for nearby live exposed parts:
a. If the parts cannot be de-energized, use barriers such as insulated
blankets to protect against accidental contact or wear proper PPE.

Other Precautions
When working on de-energized parts, but still inside the flash protection
boundary or nearbylive exposed parts:
• If the parts cannot be de-energized, barriers such as insulated blankets
must be used to protect against accidental contact or PPE must be worn.
• Employees shall not reach blindly into areas that might contain exposed
live parts.
• Employees shall not enter spaces containing live parts unless illumination
is provided that allows the work to be performed safely.

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• Conductive articles of jewelry and clothing (such as watchbands,
bracelets, rings, key chains, necklaces, metalized aprons, cloth with
conductive thread, metal headgear, or metal frame glasses) shall not be
worn where they present an electrical contact hazard with exposed live
parts.
• Conductive materials, tools, and equipment that are in contact with any
part of an employee’s body shall be handled in a manner that prevents
accidental contact with live parts. Such materials and equipment include,
but are not limited to long conductive objects such as ducts, pipes, tubes,
conductive hose and rope, metal-lined rules and scales, steel tapes, pulling
lines, metal scaffold parts, structural members, and chains.
• When an employee works in a confined space or enclosed spaces (such as
a manhole or vault) that contains exposed live parts, the employee shall use
protective shields, barriers or insulating materials as necessary to avoid
contact with these parts. Doors, hinged panels, and the like shall be secured
to prevent them from swinging into employees.
Refer to the confined space entry program.

WORKING ON DE-ENERGIZED EQUIPMENT

The process of de-energizing is "live" work and can result in an arc flash
due to equipment failure. When de-energizing, follow the procedures
described in "Working on or Near Live Equipment Electrically Safe
Condition"
The most important principle of electrical safety is to assume all electric
circuits are energized unless each involved worker ensures they are not.
Every circuit and conductor must be tested everytime work is done on
them. Proper PPE must be worn until the equipment is proven to be de-
energized.
• Voltage rated gloves and leather protectors must be worn
• Electrically insulated shoes should be worn
• Approved insulating mats
• Safety glasses must be worn
• The required Arc Flash PPE must also be worn
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) lists six steps to ensure
conditions for electrically safe work.
1. Identify all sources of power to the equipment. Check applicable up-to-
date drawings, diagrams, and identification tags.
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2. Remove the load current, and then open the disconnecting devices for
each power source.
3. Where possible, visually verify that blades of disconnecting devices are
fully open or that draw out-type circuit breakers are fully withdrawn.
4. Apply lockout/tag out devices in accordance with a formal, written
policy.
Test each phase conductor or circuit part with an adequately rated voltage
detector to verify that the equipment is de-energized. Test each phase
conductor or circuit part both phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground. Check
the voltage detector before and after each test to be sure it is working.
Properly ground all possible sources of induced voltage and stored electric
energy (such as, capacitors) before touching. If conductors orcircuit parts
that are being de-energized could contact other exposed conductors or
circuit parts, apply ground-connecting devices rated for the available fault
current.
A lock out / tag out program shall be implemented and maintained as
required by NFPA 70 E and shall be inclusive of the following:
(a) Lock out / Tag out log
(b) Application of lockout and procedure
(c) Removal of lockouts
(d) Release for return to service and inspection

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HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT TESTING
The high voltage (e.g. 6.6 kV) installation covers the generation, main
supply cables, switchgear, transformers, electric propulsion (if fitted)
and a few large motors e.g. for side-thrusters and air conditioning
compressors. For all electrical equipment the key indicator to its safety
and general condition is its insulation resistance (IR) and this is
particularly so for HV apparatus.
The IR must be tested periodically earth between phases and between
phases and. HV equipment that is well designed and maintained and
operated within its power and temperature ratings should have a useful
insulation life of 20 years.

Insulation Resistance:
Insulation resistance (I.R) is a critical p m t s it’s di ctly l t d to personal
safety, safety of machinery and power reliability. The I.R value of an
electric device changes with aging, mechanical and electrical stresses,
temperature, contamination, atmosphere, humidity etc. It is therefore
important for seafarers to check this parameter for avoiding fatal
accidents due to electrical shock.

139
Megger or Ohmmeter:
Megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation resistance of
electrical machinery or system. It is battery operated or mechanically
operated (hand crank dc generator) and gives direct reading in ohms.
Megger is used to measure voltage ratings in the range of 100V to
5000V.
Construction:
A Megger consists of following parts:
1) Control and Deflecting coils: They are normally mounted at right
angle to each other and are connected parallel to the generator. The
polarities are such that the torque produced by them is in the opposite
direction.
2) Permanent Magnet: Permanent magnet with north and south poles
are used for construction to produce magnetic effect for deflection of
pointer.
3) Pointer and scale: A pointer is attached to the coils with its end
floating on a scale ranging from “zero” to “infinity”. The unit for this is
“ohms”.
4) D.C generator or battery connection: Hand operated D.C generator
supplies testing voltage for manually operated Megger. In automatic
type Megger, testing voltage is supplied by battery and electronic
voltage charger
5) Pressure coil and current coil: They are provided for preventing
damage to the instrument in case of low external source resistance.
An IR test is applied with a high d.c. voltage which applies a reasonable
stress to the dielectric material (insulation). For 6.6kV rated equipment,
a periodical 5,000 V (1000V) d.c. insulation resistance (megger) test is
recommended. The IR test should be applied for one minute and
temperature corrected to a standard of 40°C ambient. The minimum IR
value is usually recommended as per NEMA standard as (kV + 1) MΩ
where kV is the equipment voltage rating. e.g. 7.6 MΩ would be an
acceptable IR value for a 6.6 kV machine. For machines with healthy
insulation, an IR test result may indicate a value up to 100 times greater
than the recommended minimum. A more involved IR test (the
polarization index or P.I.) is used when the insulation value may be
suspect or recorded during an annual survey. The P.I. value is the ratio
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of the IR result after 10 minutes of testing to the value recorded
after one minute. For class F insulation materials the recommended P.I.
value is 2.0. To apply a P.I. test over a ten minute period requires a
special IR tester that has a motor-driven generator or an electronic
converter powered from a local 220 V a.c. supply.

Working
 The voltage for testing is supplied by a hand generator incorporated
in the instrument or by battery or electronic voltage charger. It is usually
250V or 500V and smaller in size

 A test volt of 500V D.C is suitable fo t sting ship’s quipm nt

operating at 440V A.C. Test voltage of 1000V to 5000V is used for high
voltage system onboard

 The current carrying coil (deflecting coil) is connected in series and

carries the current taken by the circuit under test. The pressure coil
(control coil) is connected across the circuit

 Current limiting resistor – CCR and PCR are connected in series with
pressure and current coil to prevent damage in case of low resistance in
external sources

 In hand generator, the armature is moving in the field of permanent

magnet or vice versa, to generate a test voltage by electromagnetic
induction effect

 With an increase of potential voltage across the external circuit, the

deflection of the pointer increases and with an increase of current, the
deflection of pointer decreases. Thus, the resultant torque on the
movement is directly proportional to the potential difference and
inversely proportional to the resistance
 When the external circuit is open, torque due to voltage coil will be
maximum and the pointer will read “infinity”. When there is short
circuit, th point will d “0”

141
IR TESTS OF HV EQUIPMENT
Megger Insulation Testers come in three basic types:
 Hand crank,
 Line or Motor operated or
 Battery (or in combination).
Battery or AC is preferred for tests of one minute or longer in duration.
All equipment under test MUST be disconnected and isolated.

Insulation Resistance Test:

Regular testing to determine gradual decrease in insulation resistance:
This provides a means for predicting future insulation failure.
Insulation failure can cause electrical shocks, creating a real hazard
to personnel and machinery. A regular program of testing insulation
resistance is strongly recommended to prevent this danger, as well as to
allow timely maintenance and repair work to take place before
catastrophic failure. All new equipment, motors, transformers, switch
gears, and wiring should be tested before being put into service. This
test record will be useful for future comparisons in regular
maintenance testing.

Some of the more common causes of insulation failure include

excessive heat or cold, moisture, aging, corrosive atmospheres and
vibration. Insulation values are in ohms, and insulation values change
according to temperature. Take all of your readings at 20 deg C or at the
same temperature, or correct for 20 deg C. A general rule is to take 1/2
the resistance reading for every 10 deg C increase, and double the
resistance for every 10 deg C decrease. For instance, if you measure
10 megohms at 30 deg C, a 10 deg increase, your true reading is 5
megohms.
A 5,000V (1000V) DC Megger, Hand-cranking or Electronic can be
used for equipments up to 6.6KV.

For routine testing of IR, 5,000V (1000V) DC must be applied for 1

minute either by cranking at constant speed with a Hand-cranking
megger or by maintaining a 5,000V (1000V) DC continuously by a PB
in an Electronic Megger.
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At prescribed intervals and particularly after a major repair work on an
equipment or switchgear, a Polarisation Index (PI) may be taken to
assess the condition of insulation of the equipment.

As per National Electrical (NE) Code:- IR = 20 * En / (1000 + 2 P)

Megohm at 25 º C, Where, En – rated phase to phase voltage, P – rated
power in kW,
Table 1, I. R. Measurement – International Association of
Classification Societies
Rated Voltage Un (V) Minimum Test Minimum Insulation
Voltage (V) Resistance (M Ω)
Un ≤ 250 2 x Un 1
250 < Un ≤ 1000 500 1
1000 < Un ≤ 7200 1000 (Un/1000) + 1 = (kV + 1)
7200 < Un 15000 5000 (Un/1000) + 1 = (kV + 1)

Motor windings are factory-tested, but in spite of this testing, motors have
a higher failure rate immediately after installation. Once the “infant
mortality” phase has passed the failure rate will be lower until the effects
of service and aging begin to take hold. In the field, low-voltage tests are
generally used to determine insulation condition. This may be the only test
required or it may be the necessary initial test prior to high-voltage testing.
This testing is referred to as “megger” testing after the piece of equipment
used. Acceptable values of insulation resistance must not be less than 1
Megohm per kV of motor rating (rounded up) plus 1 Megohm when
testing is performed at 104°F. For example, a 600Volt motor is rated at 0.6
kV, so minimum insulation resistance would be 0.6 + 1 megohms rounded
up to 2 megohms. Insulation resistance doubles for each 18°F reduction in
temperature (above the dew point) and corrections should be applied to
tests made at other than 104°F winding temperatures. If the 600 volt motor
was tested at 86°F, the minimum resistance would be 2 x 1.6, or 3.2
megohms, rounded up to 4 megohms and tests performed at 68°F would
require a minimum resistance of 2 x 3.2, or 6.4 megohms rounded up to 7
megohms. Larger motors have more insulation surface, thus lower
insulation resistance. Motors as large as the 680 frame size should have
insulation resistances above 50 megohms if clean and dry and the

143
insulation is not deteriorated. Small motors with healthy insulation may
register close to infinity on the megger scale.

Keeping records of past measurements is very important. Consider, for

example, two motors both testing at 18 megohms. Motor A has an
historical insulation resistance level of 120 megohms; clearly its insulation
value has significantly deteriorated and thorough cleaning and/or drying is
called for before placing it in service. Motor B, on the other hand, has an
historical figure of 20 megohms and can be placed in service with little
cause for concern. Dielectric absorption tests provide additional valuable
information, especially for higher voltage motors with form wound coils.
This method requires the determination of insulation resistance after one
minute and again after 10 minutes of megger voltage application. The 10-
minute value divided by the one minute value is called the polarization
index. The recommended minimum value for ac and dc motors is 1.5 for
Class A insulation and 2.0 for Classes B and F insulation.

INTERPRETING INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST RESULTS

Table 2, Interpreting insulation resistance test results
Sr. No. Condition What To Do
1 Fair to high values and ❑No cause for concern
well- maintained
2 Fair to high values, but ❑Locate and remedy the cause and
showing a constant check the downward trend
tendency towards lower
values
3 Low but well maintained ❑Condition is probably all right but
cause of low values should be
checked. May simply be the type of
insulation in use
4 So low as to be unsafe ❑Clean, dry out, or otherwise raise
the values before placing equipment
in service (test wet
equipment while drying out)
5 Fair or high values ❑Make tests at frequent intervals
previously well until the cause of low values is
maintained but showing located and remedied or,

144
 sudden lowering ❑Until the values have become
steady at a lower level but safe for
operation or,
❑Until values become so low that it
is unsafe to keep the equipment in
operation
Table 3, Condition of insulation indicated by dielectric absorption ratios *
Sr.No. Insulation 60/30 – Second 10 to 1 – Minute
Condition Ratio Ratio
Polarization Index
1. Dangerous – Less than 1
2. Questionable 1.0 to 1.25 1.0 to 2
3. Good 1.4 to 1.6 2 to 4
4. Excellent Above 1.6** Above 4**
These tests are considered more meaningful than one-minute megger
tests. Low values generally indicate moist or contaminated windings
which require drying out or cleaning. The motor can be disassembled
and the windings cleaned with an approved solvent compatible with the
insulation system. Dirt can be flushed from windings and cooling
passages with water, but careful drying will have to be performed.
Windings are normally dried either in baking ovens at 175 - 195°F, by
blowing warm, dry air over them, or by passing current through them to
generate internal heat.
Each circuit should have an insulation resistance between
conductors and between each conductor and ground of not less
than the following:

Up to 5 A load 2 megohms
Up to 10 A load 1 megohm
Up to 25 A load 400,000 ohms
Up to 50 A load 250,000 ohms
Over 50 A load 100,000 ohms

High voltage generators are capable of storing a dielectric (capacitive)

charge in the main stator windings, following a high voltage insulation
test. Any testing of the main stator must be followed by a discharge

145
to earth or ground for at least 1 minute. Do not attempt to touch the
main output terminals until all residual charge has been discharged.

SANCTION TO TEST SAFETY CERTIFICATE

When it is required to Test a HV equipment using LV control supply, it
will be necessary to isolate the equipment from the main HV supply but
remove the earthing.
In these circumstances, a Sanction-to-test safety certificate is to be
obtained from the authorised person
Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is
disconnected from its power supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult,
impossible and unsafe to closely observe the on-load operation of
internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by
temperature measurement with a recording infra-red camera from a safe
distance. The camera is used to scan an area and the recorded infra-red
image is then processed by a computer program to display hot-spots and
a thermal profile across the equipment. To examine internal components,
e.g. bus bar joints, a camera recording can be made immediately after
the equipment has been switched off and isolated in accordance with an
EPTW safety procedure. Alternatively, some essential equipment, e.g. a
main switchboard, can be monitored on-line using specially fitted and
approved enclosure windows suitable for infra-red testing. These
windows are small apertures with a permanently fixed steel mesh
through which the camera can view the internal temperature from a safe
position. An outer steel plate fixed over the window mesh maintains the
overall enclosure performance during normal operation.
A conventional photograph of the equipment is taken simultaneously to
match the infra-red image and both are used as part of a test report. Such
testing is usually performed by a specialist contractor who will prepare
the test report and propose recommendation/repair advice to the ship
operator.
Fig. 7.6 (unfortunately not in colour like the original) gives typical
results from an infra-red camera test on a bus-bar connection.
In this online test, the camera recorded hot-spot temperatures up to
100°C and the report recommended that this copper connection is

146
checked for tightness as it is running very hot compared to that on the
neighboring copper-work.

Fig. 7.6, Infrared Image Testing

147
NEED FOR CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Current and Temperature:-Current flow in a conductor always
generates heat. The greater the current flow in a given size conductor,
the hotter the conductor. Excess heat is damaging to electrical
components and conductor insulation. For this reason conductors have a
rated continuous current carrying capacity, or ampacity.
Overcurrent protection devices, such as fuses, are used to protect
conductors from excessive current flow. Fuses are designed to keep the
flow of current in a circuit at a safe level to prevent the circuit
conductors from overheating.
Excessive current is referred to as ‘overcurrent’. The National
Electrical Code® defines overcurrent as any current in excess of the
rated current of equipment or the ampacity of a conductor. It may
result from overload, short circuit, or ground fault (Article 100-
Definitions).

Overloads:- An overloadoccurs when too many devices are operated on

a circuit or when electrical equipment is made to work beyond its
ratings. For example, a motor rated for 10 amperes may draw 20, 30, or
more amperes in an overload condition.
In the following illustration, a package has become jammed on a
conveyor, causing the motor to work harder and draw more current.
Because the motor is drawing more current, it heats up. Damage will
occur to the motor in a short time if the problem is not corrected or if the
circuit is not shut down by the overcurrent protection device.

Conductor Insulation:- Motors, of course, are not the only devices that
require circuit protection for an overload condition. Every circuit
requires some form of protection against overcurrent and the heat it
produces. For example, high levels of heat can cause conductor
insulation to break down and flake off, exposing the conductors.

Short Circuits:- When exposed conductors touch, a short

circuitoccurs, and the circuit resistance drops to nearly zero. Because of
this very low resistance, short-circuit current can be thousands of times
higher than normal operating current.
148
When a short circuit occurs, resistance drops dramatically. For example,
if the above resistance dropped to 0.024 ohms due to a short circuit, the
current would increase to 10,000 amperes.

Preventing Damage
The heat generated by short-circuit current can rise to dangerous levels
quickly, causing extensive damage to conductors and connected
equipment. This means that current must be interrupted instantaneously
when a short circuit occurs. Slight over currents can be allowed to
continue for some period of time, but, as the overcurrent magnitude
increases, the protection device must act more quickly.
Short-Circuit Current in Unprotected Electrical Circuits
When a short circuit occurs in an unprotected circuit, current will
continue to flow until the circuit is damaged, or until the power is
removed manually. The peak short-circuit current ofthe first cycle is the
greatest and is referred to as peak let through current (IP). In addition
to the damage associated with heat, the electromagnetic force associated
with this current cancause mechanical damage to electrical components.
The maximum destructive energy let-through (I2t) is a measure of the
energy associated with this current. It is capable of producing enough
heat to melt conductors.

Short-Circuit Current in Protected Electrical Circuits

A properly applied overcurrent protection device will open the circuit
quickly when a short circuit occurs, limiting peak let through current
(IP) and energy (I2t).
Article 240 of the NEC® covers requirements for overcurrent protection
and the use of overcurrent protective devices to prevent damage to
conductors and equipment.

Short circuit fault:

1. Phase to phase fault
2. Phase to phase to ground / earth fault
3. Three phase fault
4. Tree phase to ground / earth fault

149
GENERATOR ON LOAD
What is a Short Circuit & SC level?
A short circuit (or a fault) is said to have taken place when the current is
not confined to its normal path of flow but diverted through alternate
path(s). During short circuit, the current rises much above the normal
value.
Short circuit level is the maximum possible current that flows at the
point of fault during a short circuit.

Effects of short circuit:

High currents during Short circuits can cause damage to electrical
installation by giving rise to:
 Excessive Thermal Stresses
 Mechanical Stresses
 Arcing

Methods adopted to prevent effects of short circuit in a system:

A well-designed Protective Relay system trips out a breaker(s) and
isolates the faulty circuit from the power source within a short time to
prevent/minimise effects of high short circuit current, as and when it
occurs.
The equipment in the system, the cables, the switchgear, the busbar, the
generators are designed to withstand the effects of short circuit during
that short period.
Calculation of the short circuit levels in the system is therefore required
to help in:
a. Designing an appropriate Protective Relay System
b. Choosing the right switchgear with suitable short circuit withstand
capacity to be used in the system.
Reduction in S.C. Level by using HV An example:
Possible hazards:

Arcing:
An unintentional Electric Arc occurs during opening of a breaker,
contactor or switch, when the circuit tries to maintain itself in the form
of an arc. During an insulation failure, when current flows to ground or
150
any other short circuit path in the form of accidental tool slipping
between conducting surfaces, causing a short circuit.

Results of an Electric Arc:

Temperatures at the arc terminals can reach or exceed 35,000° F or
20,000° or four times the temperature of sun’s surface.
The heat and intense light at the point of arc is called the ARC FLASH.
Air surrounding the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are
vaporised causing a pressure wave termed as ARC BLAST.

Hazards of an Arc Flash:

During an arc flash, sudden release of large amounts of heat and light
energy takes place at the point of arc.
Exposure frequently results in a variety of serious injuries and may even
be fatal, even when the worker is ten feet or more from the arc center.
Equipments can suffer permanent damage Nearby inflammable materials
may be ignited resulting in secondary fires.

Hazards of Arc Blasts & ejected materials:

An arc flash may be accompanied by an arc blast.
The arc blast causes equipment to literally explode ejecting parts with
life threatening force.
Heated and vaporised conducting materials surrounding the arc expand
rapidly causing effects comparable to an explosive charge.
They may project molten particles causing eye injuries.
The sound that ensues can harm the hearing.
Potential injuries:
At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high enough to
instantly destroy skin and tissue. Skin temperatures above 100° (about
210° F) for 0.1sec result in irreversible tissue damage, defined as an
incurable burn.
Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause ordinary clothing
to burst into flames even if not directly in contact with the arc. Synthetic
fibers may melt and adhere to the skin resulting in secondary burns.
Even when safety goggles are worn, arc flash may cause severe damage
to vision and or blindness. Intense UV light created by arc flash can
151
damage the retina. Pressure created from arc blasts can also compress
the eye, severely damaging vision.
Hearing can also be affected by the loud noise and extreme pressure
changes created by arc blasts. Sound blasts with arc blasts exceed 140dB
which is equal to an airplane taking off.
Sudden pressure changes exceeding 720lbs/sq.ft for 400ms can also
rupture eardrums. Even at lesser pressure, serious or permanent damage
to hearing may occur.

Work Procedures
Working procedures are divided in to three distinct
groups.
- Dead working
- Live working
- Working in the vicinity of live parts

“Work Safely... Work De-Energized!”

Working in the vicinity of live parts:
 All work activity in which the worker enters the vicinity of live
zone with his body or with tools and equipment without
encroaching in to live zone.
 Using the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and
following safe work practices will minimize risk of electrical
shock hazards Dead Working:
 Work activity on electrical installations which are neither live nor
charged, carried out after taking all measures to prevent electrical
danger.

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE STARTING WORK

- Obtain EPTW/Sanction- to- Test Permit before commencing work
- Test and prove that the equipment is DEAD before earthing (with a HV
line tester)
- Earth the equipment
152
Circuit breaker specifications are based on fault calculations using the
following assumptions:
- Each generator produces its nominal EMF which remains constant
during the fault.
- The reactance of each generator drops to one fifth of its steady state
value and remains constant during the fault. This reduced reactance is
known as the transient reactance X'and is often quoted in the genera-
tor's specifications.
- The fault has zero impedance so the total fault is made up of all the
parallel generators plus any other impedance of transformers etc. Care
must be taken when operating generators in parallel because this can
significantly increase the fault level and may exceed switchgear ratings.
The fault calculation can be based on a simple single phase Thevenin
circuit where the short circuit current is given by
Isc = Vt/Z
It is usual to quote fault levels in FAULT MVAwhere:
FAULT MVA = p/√3 xV xIsc
Where,
V = Nominal terminal voltage at the fault location (kV)
Isc = fault current (kA)

Fault level calculation: MVA method

The MVA method is a useful method when performing field calculations
as it is quick and easy to perform with accuracy within 5%.
Fault MVA = S/X…………………….………………………………..…….(1)
S = 3Ø Apparent Power, X = sub-transient reactance
Gen 1 Fault MVA = 0.0925/0.12 = 0.7708MVA
Gen 2 Fault MVA = 0.0925/0.12 = 0.7708MVA
Fault MVA Total = Gen1 Fault MVA + Gen 2 Fault MVA = 0.7708 +
0.7708 = 1.542MVA…. (2)
Therefore:
Sub-transient fault current (I”) = Fault MVA Total / (√3.V) = 1.542x106
/ (√3.440) = 2023A
Figure11: Fault MVA values of generators with fault at mainbus
4.4.2. Fault level calculation: Per-Unit method
153
Reference should be made to figure 10 above.
VB = Line Voltage, Sb = 3Ø Apparent Power
Zpu = Per-Unit sub-transient Impedance

Simple Methods for Calculating Short Circuit Current

Without a Computer
By Dennis McKeown, PE
GE Senior System Application Engineer
A Short Circuit analysis is used to determine the magnitude of short
circuit current the system is capable of producing and compares that
magnitude with the interrupting rating of the over current protective
devices (OCPD). Since the interrupting ratings are based by the
standards, the methods used in conducting a short circuit analysis must
conform to the procedures which the standard making organizations
specify for this purpose. In the United States, the America National
Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes both the standards for equipment
and the application guides, which describes the calculation methods.
Short circuit currents impose the most serious general hazard to power
distribution system components and are the prime concerns in
developing and applying protection systems. Fortunately, short circuit
currents are relatively easy to calculate. The application of three or four
fundamental concepts of circuit analysis will derive the basic nature of
short circuit currents. These concepts will be stated and utilized in a
step-by step development.
The three phase bolted short circuit currents are the basic reference
quantities in a system study. In all cases, knowledge of the three phase
bolted fault value is wanted and needs to be singled out for independent
treatment. This will set the pattern to be used in other cases.
A device that interrupts short circuit current, is a device connected into
an electric circuit to provide protection against excessive damage when
a short circuit occurs. It provides this protection by automatically
interrupting the large value of current flow, so the device should be
rated to interrupt and stop the flow of fault current without damage to
the over current protection device. The OCPD will also provide
automatic interruption of overload currents.

154
Listed here are reference values that will be needed in the calculation of
fault current.

Impedance Values for Three phase transformers

HV Rating 2.4kV – 13.8kV 300 – 500kVA Not less than 4.5%
HV Rating 2.4kV – 13.8kV 750 – 2500kVA 5.75%
General Purpose less then 600V 15 – 1000kVA 3% to 5.75%
Reactance Values for Induction and Synchronous Machine
X” Subtransient Salient pole Gen 12 pole- 0.16; 14 pole- 0.21
Synchronous motor 6 pole- 0.15 8; 14 pole- 0.20
Induction motor above 600V- 0.17
Induction motor below 600V- 0.25

TRANSFORMER FAULT CURRENT

Calculating the Short Circuit Current when there is a Transformer in
the circuit:
Q. Every transformer has “%” impedance value stamped on the name
plate. Why is it stamped?
Ans.It is stamped because it is a tested value after the transformer has
been manufactured. The test is as follows:
A voltmeter is connected to the primary of the transformer and the
secondary 3-Phase windings are bolted together with an ampere meter
to read the value of current flowing in the 3-Phase bolted fault on the
secondary. The voltage is brought up in steps until the secondary full
load current is reached on the ampere meter connected on the
transformer secondary.
So what does this mean for a 1000kVA 13.8kV – 480Y/277V.
First you will need to know the transformer Full Load Amps
Full Load Ampere = kVA / 1.73 x L-L kV
FLA = 1000 / 1.732 x 0.48
FLA = 1,202.85A
The 1000kVA 480V secondary full load ampere is 1,202A.
When the secondary ampere meter reads 1,202A and the primary
Voltage Meter reads 793.5V.
The percent of impedance value is 793.5 / 13800 = 0.0575. Therefore;
% Z = 0.0575 x 100 = 5.75%
155
This shows that if there was a 3-Phase Bolted fault on the secondary of
the transformer then the maximum fault current that could flow through
the transformer would be the ratio of 100 / 5.75 times the FLA of the
transformer, or 17.39 x the FLA = 20,903A
Based on the infinite source method at the primary of the transformer.
A quick calculation for the Maximum Fault Current at the transformer
secondary terminals is
FC = FLA / %PU Z
FC = 1202 / 0.0575 = 20,904A
This quick calculation can help you determine the fault current on the
secondary of a transformer for the purpose of selecting the correct over
current protective devices that can interrupt the available fault current.
The main breaker that is to be installed in the circuit on the secondary
of the transformer has to have a kA Interrupting Rating greater then
21,000A. Be aware that feeder breakers should include the estimated
motor contribution too. If the actual connected motors are not known,
then assume the contribution to be 4 x FLA of the transformer.
Therefore, in this case the feeders would be sized at 20.904 + (4 x 1202)
= 25,712 Amps

GENERATOR FAULT CURRENT

Generator fault current differs from a Transformer. Below, we will walk
through a 1000kVA example.
800kW 0.8% PF 1000kVA 480V 1,202FLA
kVA = kW / PF
kVA = 800 / 0.8
kVA = 1000
FLA = kVA / 1.732 x L-L Volts
FLA = 1000 / 1.732 x 0.48
FLA = 1,202A
(As listed in the table for generator subtransient X” values is 0.16)
FC = FLA / X”
FC = 1202 / 0.16
FC = 7,513A
So, the fault current of a 1000kVA Generator is a lot less than a 1000kVA
transformer.

156
The reason is the impedance value at the transformer and Generator
reactance values are very different. Transformer 5.75% vs. a Generator
16%

SYSTEM FAULT CURRENT

Below is a quick way to get a MVA calculated value. The MVA method is fast
and simple as compared to the per unit or ohmic methods. There is no need
to convert to an MVA base or worry about voltage levels. This is a useful
method to obtain an estimated value of fault current. The elements have to be
converted to an MVA value and then the circuit is converted to admittance
values.
Utility MVA at the Primary of the Transformer
MVAsc = 500MVA
Transformer Data
13.8kV - 480Y/277V
1000kVA Transformer Z = 5.75%
MVA Value
1000kVA / 1000 = 1 MVA
MVA Value = 1MVA / Zpu = 1MVA / 0.0575 = 17.39 MVA
Use the admittance method to calculate Fault Current
1 / Utility MVA + 1 / Trans MVA = 1 / MVAsc
1 / 500 + 1 / 17.39 = 1 / MVAsc
0.002 + 0.06 = 1/ MVAsc
MVAsc = 1 / (0.002 + 0.06)
MVAsc = 16.129
FC at 480V = MVAsc / (1.73 x 0.48)
FC = 16.129 / 0.8304
FC = 19.423kA
FC = 19, 423 A
The 480V Fault Current Value at the secondary of the 1000kVA transformer
based on an Infinite Utility Source at the Primary of the transformer as
calculated in the Transformer Fault Current section in this article is 20,904A
The 480V Fault Current Value at the secondary of the 1000kVA transformer
based on a 500MVA Utility Source at the Primary of the transformer as
calculated in the System Fault Current section in this article is 19,432A
The 480V Fault Current Value at the secondary of the 1000kVA transformer
based on a 250MVA Utility Source at the Primary of the transformer the
calculated value is 18,790A
157
When the cable and its length is added to the circuit the fault current in a
480V system will decrease to a smaller value. To add cable into your
calculation use the formula:
Cable MVA Value MVAsc = kV2 / Z cable. Use the cable X & R values to
calculate the Z value then add to the Admittance calculation as shown in this
article.
The conclusion is that you need to know the fault current value in a system to
select and install the correct Overcurrent Protective Devices (OCPD). The
available FC will be reduced as shown in the calculations when the fault
current value at the primary of the transformer is reduced. If the infinite
method is applied when calculating fault current and 4 x FLA is added for
motor contributions, then the fault current value that is obtained will be very
conservative. This means the calculated value in reality will never be
reached, so you reduce any potential overcurrent protection device failures
due to fault current.

158
21. (ii) Electrical propulsion
(a) Concept of Electrical Propulsion
(b) Explain about the Azipod propulsion systems
(c) Discusses the advantages and disadvantages of electrical
propulsion system
(d) Use of synchronous motor for electrical propulsion
(e) Explain with the sketches, the construction of Azipod section.
(f) Discusses the maintenance requirement for such arrangement
(g) Discusses about the speed control by varying the frequency
(Pulse Width Modulation)

ELECTRIC PROPULSION SCHEME

Electrical installations are present in any ship, from powering of
communication and navigation equipment, alarm and monitoring
system, running of motors for pumps, fans or winches, to high power
installation for electric propulsion. The concept of electric propulsion is
originated more than 100 years ago. However, with the possibility to
control electrical motors with variable speed in a large power range with
compact, reliable and cost competitive solutions, the use of electrical
propulsion has emerged in new application areas during the 80’s and
90’s.
Power Management System (PMS) is a crucial part of the automation
and power systems on marine vessels, and in particular for ships with
electric propulsion and station keeping thrusters. The PMS controls the
power system in order to maximize the blackout prevention
capabilities and minimize the fuel consumption. It also serves to
decrease the maintenance costs through protecting the equipment against
faults and malfunctions.
Electric propulsion of ships has a long but somewhat chequered history.
There have been periods when it has enjoyed popularity, with a
significant number of installations being undertaken, whilst at other
times it has been virtually ignored as a drive system.

Passenger ships have always been the largest commercial vessels with
electric propulsion and, by their nature, the most glamorous. This
should not, however, obscure the fact that a very wide variety of vessels
have been, and are, built with electric propulsion.
159
Early large passenger vessels employed the turboelectric system which
involves the use of variable speed, and therefore variable frequency,
turbo-generator sets for the supply of electric power to the propulsion
motors directly coupled to the propeller shafts. Hence, the
generator/motor system was acting as a speed reducing transmission
system. Electric power for auxiliary ship services required the use of
separate constant frequency generator sets.

A system that has generating sets which can be used to provide power to
both the propulsion system and ship services has obvious advantages,
but this would have to be a fixed voltage and frequency system to satisfy
the requirements of the ship service loads. The provision of high power
variable speed drives from a fixed voltage and frequency supply has
always presented problems. Also, when the required propulsion power
was beyond the capacity of a single d.c. motor there was the
complication of multiple motors per shaft.
Developments in high power static converter equipment have presented
a very convenient means of providing variable speed a.c. and d.c. drives
at the largest ratings likely to be required in a marine propulsion system.
The concept of electric propulsion is originated more than 100 yearsago.
However, with the possibility to control electrical motors with variable
speed in a large power range with compact, reliable and cost competitive
solutions, the use of electrical propulsion has emerged in new
application areas during the 80’s and 90’s

The electric propulsion of ships requires electric motors to drive the

propellers and generator sets to supply the electric power. It may seem
rather illogical to use electric generators, switchgear and motors between
the prime-movers (e.g. diesel engines) and propeller when a gearbox or
length of shaft could be all that is required. There are obviously sound
reasons why, for some installations, it is possible to justify the
complication of electric propulsion and some of the reasons advanced
are:
o Flexibility of layout
o Load diversity between ship service load and propulsion
o Economical part-load running
160
o Ease of control
o Low noise and vibration characteristics

• Flexibility of layout
The advantage of an electric transmission is that the prime-movers, and
their generators, are not constrained to have any particular relationship
with the load as a cable run is a very versatile transmission medium. In a
ship propulsion system it is possible to mount the diesel engines, gas
turbines etc., in locations best suited for them and their associated
services, so they can be remote from the propeller shaft. Diesel generator
sets in containers located on the vessel main deck have been used to
provide propulsion power and some other vessels have had a 10 MW
generator for ship propulsion duty mounted in a block at the stern of the
vessel above the ro-ro deck. An example of an electric propulsion plant
layout (for a large cruise ship) is shown in Fig. 8.1. Another example of
the flexibility provided by an electric propulsion system is in a semi-
submersible, with the generators on the main deck and the propulsion
motors in the pontoons at the bottom of the support legs.
Large motors in the order of tens of megawatts are used in heavy duty
industrial situations such as mining, quarrying and cement plants.

Fig. 8.1, Passenger Cruize Ship with Electric Propulsion

161
 Fig. 8.2, Cruise Ship with High voltage
Applications onboard
Some of the uses of rectifiers on board ships are:
• Used in marine electronic devices and circuits

• Used for onboard battery charging from the ship supply

• Used in detection of radio signals

• Used in electroplating process

• Used in ship construction for electrolyte refining of metals

• Used in operation of D.C motor

• Used in field excitation of three phase alternator

162
Fregatte F125 CODELAG Concept max. 20 kts in electrical mode
Gensets: 4 Gensets with Diesel engine 20V 4000 M53B, each
3.015 kW @ 1.800 rpm
Gas Turbine: 1 Package MTU LM2500, 20.000 kW @ 3.600
rpm
full military qualification: shock, acoustics, ABC, Load
acceptance
Motors: Basic Scaling Law
HP ∝ D2 · L · A · B · RPM
HP– Power Rating
D – Rotor Diameter
L – Rotor Active Length
A – Surface Current Density (Conductor Material & Cooling Method)
B – Rotor Flux Density (Saturation of Magnetic Material)
RPM – Shaft Speed
Propulsion Motor Thumb Rules
• For a given technology, cost is roughly proportional to Torque.
• Maximum Rotor Diameter is limited by shaft rake considerations,
manufacturability, Representative Efficiency Curves, and
transportability.
• Motor efficiencies at design power typically fall in range of 90-98%.
163
• Below about 15-35% rated power, the efficiency of a conventional
motor drops rapidly.
– Can be improved through advanced motor design and proper
integration with motor May 16-19, 2006
University of Michigan, Dept. NA&ME
Designing All Electric Ships

Fig. 8.3, Propulsion Plant Layout

164
• Load diversity
Certain types of vessels have a requirement for substantial amounts of
electric power for ship services when the demands of the propulsion
system are low. Tankers are one instance of this situation and any vessel
with a substantial cargo discharging load also qualifies. Passenger
vessels have a substantial electrical load which, although relatively
constant, does involve a significant size of generator plant. There are
advantages in having a single central power generation facility which
can service the propulsion and all other ship loads as required.

• Economical part-load running

Again this is a concept that is best achieved when there is a central
power generation system feeding propulsion and ship services, with
passenger vessels being a good example. It is likely that a typical
installation would have between 4-8 diesel generator sets and with
parallel operation of all the sets it becomes very easy to match the
available generating capacity to the load demand. In a four engine
installation for example, increasing the number of sets in operation from
two that are fully loaded to three partially loaded will result in the three
sets operating at a 67% load factor which is not ideal but also not a
serious operating condition.

It is not necessary to operate generating sets at part-load to provide the

spare capacity to be able to cater for the sudden loss of a set, because
propulsion load reduction may be available instantaneously, and in most
vessels a short time reduction in propulsion power does not constitute a
hazard. The propulsion regulator will continuously monitor the present
generator capability and any generator overload will immediately result
in controlled power limitation to the propulsion motors. During
maneuvering, propulsion power requirements are below system capacity
and failure of one generator is not likely to present a hazardous situation.

• Ease of control
The widespread use of controllable pitch propellers (CPP) has meant
that the control facilities that were so readily available with electric
drives are no longer able to command the same premium. Electric drives
165
are capable of the most exacting demands with regard to dynamic
performance which, in general, exceed by a very wide margin anything
that is required of a ship propulsion system.

• Low noise
An electric motor is able to provide a drive with very low vibration
characteristics and this is of importance in warships, oceanographic
survey vessels and cruise ships where, for different reasons, a low noise
signature is required. With warships and survey vessels it is noise into
the water which is the critical factor whilst with cruise ships it is
structure borne noise and vibration to the passenger spaces that has to be
minimised. An overview of practical electric drive options is shown in
Fig. 8.4

Fig. 8.4a, Electric Propulsion Options

1. Electric motors that are widely used in propulsion systems
1.1.Direct Current Motors: Due to the high controllability in both states;
speed increasing and braking, up to about 40 years ago this type of motors had
been the only choice in all industrial application of electrical drives.
Further of these motors high depreciation and maintenance costs, armature
limited current, low torque and limited output power of these motors are
disadvantages of them for using in ship electric propulsion systems.

166
1.2.Synchronous Motors: Synchronous electric motor is an AC motor, which
rotations speed of the motor’s shaft is proportion to the applied stator frequency
and the number of poles. Constant rotor speed with high power of motor is the
advantages and reasons for using them in huge ships such as icebreaker ships.
These engines also have high depreciation somewhat like direct current motors.
1.3.Induction Motors: Induction motors due to simple structure, high starting
torque (along with the appropriate drive), long life and high reliability and other
their benefits, always are a serious option in electrical drives. As long as can
say, this generation of electric motors, for high maneuverability, is a serious
choice for ship electric propulsion systems.

Diesel-electric propulsion
The market share of diesel-electric propulsion systems in ships for a wide range
of uses has substantially increased in recent years. Due to their flexibility and
versatility, diesel-electric propulsion systems are highly adaptable to a wide
range of applications.
The diesel-electric concept is gaining favour in new buildings, especially the
cruise ship market.
In this case the power to the propulsion machinery is supplied by the same
generators as supply the other electrical consumers.
Here, the diesel engines are called the main engines (ME) and the classification
requirement must be followed as stipulated for MEs.
In typical applications, four or six equal-sized generators supply the main
switchboard. These are connected symmetrically each side of a bus-tie breaker
(Fig. 3.). The overall solution will largely depend on the increasing demand for
reliability (redundancy) and the desired level of power availability.

Prime movers
The most common prime mover for generator applications is still the diesel
engine. Smaller engines are installed with the generator on a common base
frame. In larger diesel-electric applications both have their own base frame and
are connected with a flexible coupling.

Diesel engine speed control

The governors used to control engine speed are usually hydraulic/mechanical
or electronic. Electronic governors are used in more complex applications. The
speed governor controls the engine speed (generator frequency) and active load
sharing either by speed droop or in an isochronous (zero droop) mode.

167
Speed droop control is still the most common method of engine load
sharing. In this method, the speed reference of the engine speed governor is
reduced in proportion to the generator load.
To take an example: an engine rated speed of 500 rpm driving a 50 Hz
generator at no load. The droop setting is 4% (usually 3-5%). The total decrease
in engine speed is 20 rpm from 0 to 100% load. An external speed setting
commands ‘increase’, while a ‘decrease’ from Fig. 3 – Medium-voltage 6.6kV
network for a main power station: electric propulsion of an LNG tanker. The
power management system (PMS) compensates for the speed droop effect.
Engine control governors do not have to be uniform in this control mode.
Isochronous load sharing enables generators to share load very accurately,
maintaining a constant system frequency. Isochronous load sharing is possible
only if the diesel generators are equipped with the same make and type of
electronic governor.
Electronic control governors need to communicate with each other in order to
make the load comparison. Control of all parallel generators (ramp-up and
ramp-down, load sharing) is automatic without the intervention of any external
device or system (PMS).

Types of Power Conversion

• AC-DC Converter (Rectifier)
– Converts input AC to variable magnitude DC, e.g. battery chargers,
computer power supplies, DC propulsion motor
• AC-AC Converter (Cycloconverter or Frequency Changer)
– Converts input AC to variable magnitude variable frequency AC, e.g.
ship propulsion systems
• DC-AC Converter (Inverter)
– Converts input DC to variable magnitude variable frequency AC, e.g.
electric/hybrid electric traction drives
• DC-DC Converter (DC Chopper - Buck/Boost/Buck-Boost Converter)
– Converts input DC to variable magnitude DC, e.g., voltage regulators

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Fig. 8.4b, Types of Power Conversion

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Fig. 8.5 Simplified topology of a LCI converter. First is a rectifier, then a DC link to smoothen
the current and finally an inverter that controls the frequency

Brushless excitation Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are mainly used in high power applications. In synchronous motors the
rotor is supplied with DC from an external source, the exciter. There are two types of exciters,
brushless and brushed. In pod propulsion brushless is used.
When using brushless excitation, a generator is mounted on the same shaft as the rotor
and generates AC converted to a DC via a rotating diode rectifier. The rectifier is connected to
the rotor in the synchronous motor via cables attached to the shaft. The total arrangement with a
brushless exciter together with a synchronous motor can be seen in Figure 8.5a. The exciter can
be mounted on any side of the rotor. In Azipods it is mounted in the drive end and in Mermaids it
is mounted in the non drive end of the pod.

Fig. 8.5a Brushless exciter mounted in the same shaft as the synchronous motor. The rotor in
the synchronous motor consists of windings that are supplied with DC from the exciter.

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Fig. 8.5b Basic illustration of a permanent magnet synchronous motor, The windings have been
replaced with permanent magnets and therefore there is no need for exciter.

Fig. 8.5c Basic illustration of an induction motor, where the rotor is of cage type

Electric propulsion options

For very high power, the most favored option is to use a pair of high
efficiency, high voltage a.c. synchronous motors with fixed pitch
propellers (FPP) driven at variable speed by frequency control from
electronic converters. A few installations have the combination of
controllable pitch propellers (CPP) and a variable speed motor.
Low/medium power propulsion (1-5 MW) may be delivered by a.c.
induction motors with variable frequency converters or by d.c. motors
with variable voltage converters.

The prime-movers are conventionally constant speed diesel engines

driving a.c. generators to give a fixed output frequency. Gas turbine
driven prime movers for the generators are likely to challenge the diesel
option in the future.

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Conventionally, the propeller drive shaft is directly driven from the
propulsion electric motor (PEM) from inside the ship. From experience
obtained from smaller external drives, notably from ice-breakers, some
very large propulsion motors are being fitted within rotating pods
mounted outside of the ship’s hull. These are generally referred to as
azipods, as shown in Fig. 8.5, as the whole pod unit can be rotated
through 360° to apply the thrust in any horizontal direction, i.e. in
azimuth. This means that a conventional steering plate and stern side-
thrusters are not required.

Fig. 8.6, AZIPOD Drive Unit

Ship maneuverability is significantly enhanced by using azipods and the
external propulsion unit releases some internal space for more
cargo/passengers while further reducing hull vibration.
Gradual progress in the science and application of superconductivity
suggests that future generators and motors could be super-cooled to
extremely low-temperatures to cause electrical resistance to become
zero. In this condition, the electrical power losses (I²R) are also zero so
it is possible to drive extremely large currents (> 100,000 A) through

172
very thin wire coils to create an exceptionally large magnetic field. The
combination of a large current and a large magnetic field will produce
a very large electromagnetic force. One way of applying such a direct
force into the water for ship propulsion (a long-term ongoing experiment
in Japan) is outlined in Fig. 8.7.

Fig. 8.7, Linear Elctric Propulsion

A large d.c. current is driven between metal plates mounted in a open
tube below the hull. The conductor for this current is the sea water. Coils
of wire at a superconducting temperature (e. g. – 273° C cooled by
helium) are fitted around the propulsion tube to create a magnetic field
90° to the current flow.
The combination of current and magnetic field produces a direct
mechanical force on the conductor (water) to create a linear thrust
without the need for a rotating propeller. By dividing port and starboard
thrust tubes into short sections along the hull, the size and location of
thrust can be distributed so that conventional steering and side thrusters
are not required. This is a very interesting experiment into the direct
application of electromagnetic force for ship propulsion.

Propulsion System Operation

This section describes the overall operation of a propulsion system and
is based on a diesel-electric arrangement with synchro-converter
frequency control. For a large ship, the power system will employ high
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voltage (HV) generation as in the diagram in Fig. 8.9. In this example
each 12 MW, 3.3 kV propulsion motor has two separate 6 MW stator
windings and each half winding is supplied from a 6.6 kV propulsion
transformer and a static six-pulse synchro-converter. The 24 pole motors
have a shaft speed range of 0-145 rev/min controlled from the converter
output frequency range of 0-29 Hz. By using two converters feeding two
separate stator windings fitted 30° apart, a 12-pulse shaft torque is
achieved to minimise shaft vibration. A more complicated arrangement
of supply transformers and converters can produce a 24-pulse shaft
torque.

Fig. 8.8, Propulsion Motor Construction Outline

Fig. 8.9: Equivalent Active Circuit of 6.6 kV System fed by the main
generator (without the Auxiliary Generator), VSD-variable speed drive
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 Fig. 8.10, HV Propulsion Power System
Motor brushless excitation is also obtained from the HV bus-bars via a
6.6 kV static transformer, a thyristor controller, and a.c. ––› a.c. rotary
transformer (inside the motor) and a set of shaft mounted diodes for the
final conversion to d.c. A third (standby) static excitation supply and
controller is available but not shown in the diagram. The related physical
arrangement of the main components in the propulsion system is shown
in Fig. 8.10. Control throttle stations for both shafts are installed on the
bridge (in wheelhouse and on the wings), engine control room and local
(in HV switchboard room) positions. At sea the shaft speed commands
are set from the bridge and repeated in the ECR. In port the control
position is transferred to the ECR. The local control position is mainly
used for testing and maintenance duties but also acts as an emergency
control station.

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 Fig. 8.11, Inter Connection of Main Propulsion Components
Selection of the command position is determined by a switch on the
propulsion console in the ECR.
An emergency push-button telegraph giving set-speed commands (dead-
slow, half-ahead etc.) is available at each control station. The ship
propulsion regulator and side-thruster regulators can be combined into a
master joy-stick controller to give overall directional control to accurate
maneuvering in Port.

In a synchro-drive system as shown in Fig.8.11, the computer receives a

command (set speed) input and many feedback signals (voltage, current,
power, Frequency etc.) but the obvious regulating item is the actual shaft
speed feedback forming a closed control loop. The principal parameters
to be controlled are the size of motor stator current (to set motor torque)
and the motor frequency to set the shaft speed. In addition, the d.c.
motor field current has to be Continually controlled from the propulsion
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Regulator via the excitation converted. In normal running and full-away
with both propulsion motor speeds is within5% of, each other, the bridge
can select a shaft synchro-phasing mode which applies momentary
acceleration/deceleration to bring the propeller blades into an alignment
which minimizes shaft vibrationinto the hull.

Fig. 8.12, Propulsion MOTOR Control Scheme-

SYNCHRO-DRIVE SYSTEM
Speed and position are derived from detectors on the non-drive end of the
motor shaft. At speeds of less than 10%, the motor does not generate
sufficient back e.m.f., to cause automatic thyristor switch-off (Line
commutation). Remember that a thyristor can only switch off when its
current becomes zero. This problem is overcome by pulse-mode operation
where the current is momentarily forced to zero by the thyristors in the
controlled rectifier stage. This allows the inverter thyristors to turn-off so that
the controller can regain control. The decision is now which thyristor and
which sequence of switching is required to maintain the required shaft
direction of rotation. It is necessary to know exactly the position of the rotor
poles and this is provided by the shaft position encoder for low-speed,
pulse-mode operation. When kicked above 10% speed, the motor e.m.f. will
be large enough to allow the converter to revert to its normal line-
commutation mode for synchronous operation.

Diesel electric propulsion is based on d c motor or a c motor, coupled

to the ship’s propeller shaft, with speed and direction control. The motor

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used with controllable pitch propeller is arranged for either constant or
variable speed operation.
Electric propulsion is used for dredgers, tugs, trawlers, light houses,
cable ships, icebreakers, research ships, floating cranes and vessels
for the offshore industry. Electric power can be used for self-
positioning thrusters and other equipments as well as main propellers.

Types of Diesel electric propulsion:-

(i)Ward-Leonard control for diesel electric propulsion
(ii) D C Constant current system for thrusters and two propelling motors
(iii) D C Motors supplied from alternators to D C Propulsion motors
(iv) Turbo Electric propulsion-alternators and synchronous
propulsion motor

Advantages of selecting diesel electric propulsion plant:-

 Flexibility and absence of physical constraints on machinery layout;
 Support ships for the offshore industry, particularly those with two
submerged hulls,
 Can use electrical propulsion motors to give high propulsive power
in the restricted pontoon space, while generators and their prime
movers are housed in the large platform machinery space.
 Electric power can be used for self-positioning thrusters and other
equipments as well as for main propulsion.
 The large amount of electric power available for main propulsion can
be diverted for cargo or dredge pump operation as well as for bow or
stern thrusters and fire pumps of emergency and support vessels.
 The propulsion machinery spaces can be reduced because machinery
is smaller and the generators can be located anywhere.

High Voltage Shore Connection: (HVSC)

It is envisaged that the effect of increasingly stricter air emissions
legislation implemented through mainly local air quality controls will
see an increasing number of vessels installing high voltage shore
connection (HVSC) in the near future.

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Shore power supply facilities have adopted high voltage rather than low
voltage by necessity in order to keep the physical size of related
electrical equipment such as shore connection cables manageable.
Inevitably high voltage would otherwise introduce new risks to ship’s
crew and the shipboard installations if necessary safety features were not
built into the HVSC system or safe operating procedures were not put in
place.
Those onboard systems that are designed to accept high voltage shore
power, typically involving incoming power receptacles, shore
connection switchgear, step-down transformer or isolation transformer,
fixed power cables, incoming switchgear at the main switchboard and
associated instrumentation. HVSC is often referred to as Cold Ironing

Table 35—Temperature measurement points—propulsion conversion equipment

Sensor Location Function Comment

Cooling media temperature Cooling media Warning + trip In hot spot a
Cooling air temperature Cold air Warning If water cooled b
Water leakage indicator Heat exchanger Warning If water cooled 0

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21. (iii) Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) and vacuum circuit breakers
1. Discusses the various circuit breakers normally used
2. Use of SF6 and vacuum circuit’s breakers and their advantages are
discussed in regard to high voltage application.
3. Arc sustaining and quenching methods are explained

Classification of CIRCUIT BREAKERS

There are quite a few ways to classify the circuit breakers. However, the most
general way of classification is on the basis of medium used for the arc
extinction.

1. Based on Voltage: On the basis of the voltage levels for which they are
used, the circuit breakers are classified as listed in table (with corresponding
voltage ranges of use).
Category                                                    Range of Voltage
Low voltage                                                   Less than 1 kV
Medium voltage                                            1 kV to 52 kV
High/Extra High voltage                                 66 kV to 765 kV
Ultra High voltage                                         Above 765 kV

2. Based on Location: 
Circuit breakers are, based upon where they are located, classified as, indoor
and outdoor types.
Medium and low voltage breakers are categorized as Indoor circuit breakers,
whereas the circuit breakers which have air as external insulating medium are
classified as outdoor circuit breakers.

3. Based on External Design: 

Outdoor circuit breakers can be identified as either dead tank or live tank type
circuit breakers, from the point of view of their physical structural design.
In the dead tank circuit breakers, the switching device is located, with
suitable insulator supports, inside a metallic vessel at ground potential and
filled with insulating medium. In dead tank circuit breakers, the incoming and
outgoing conductors are taken out through suitable insulator bushings, and
low voltage type current transformers are located at lower end of both
insulator bushings, i.e. at the line side and the load side.
In live tank circuit breakers, the interrupter is located in an insulator bushing,
at a potential above ground potential. The live tank circuit breakers are
cheaper (with no current transformer), and require less mounting space.
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4. Based on Interrupting Media: 
The interrupting media has been a vital factor in the evolution of circuit
breakers. It dedicates the overall design parameters of the breaker. The choice
of air and oil, as the interrupting media, was predominant till late 70s. but
today, vacuum and SF6 are the only dominant interrupting technologies, for
medium and high voltage segments of circuit breaker design respectively.

The medium used for the arc extinction can be:

- Oil
- Air
- Vacuum
- Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)

Classification of SWITCHGEAR
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:

By the current rating

By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can
safely interrupt)

Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents

Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load
currents
Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the
load current is very small
By voltage class:
 Low voltage (less than 1 kV AC)
 Medium voltage (1 kV AC through to approximately 75 kV AC)
 High voltage (75 kV to about 230 kV AC)
 Extra high voltage, ultra high voltage (more than 230 kV)
 Ultra high voltage more than1100kV

By insulating medium:
 Air
 Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
 Oil
 Vacuum
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 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

By construction type:
 Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA
enclosure type)
 Outdoor
 Industrial
 Utility

Marine
 Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
 Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
 Live-front
 Dead-front
 Open
 Non-metal enclosed
 Metal-clad
 Metal enclosed & Metal-clad
 Arc-resistant
 By IEC degree of internal separation [6]
 No Separation (Form 1)
 Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
 Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars (Form 2b, 3b,
4a, 4b)
 Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not
from each other (Form 3a, 3b)
 Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
 Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form 4a,
4b)
 Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated
functional unit (Form 4b)

By interrupting device:
 Fuses
 Air Circuit Breaker
 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
 Oil Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker
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  Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker
 CO2 Circuit Breaker
By operating method:
 Manually operated
 Motor/stored energy operated
 Solenoid operated

By type of current:
 Alternating current
 Direct current

By application:
 Transmission system
 Distribution

By purpose
 Isolating switches (disconnectors)
 Load-break switches.
 Grounding (earthing) switches

HV Circuit breakers and contactors

Probably the main difference between a HV and an LV system occurs
at the HV main switchboard.

For HV, the circuit breaker types may be

 air-break;
 oil-break,
 gas-break using SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) or
 vaccume-break
Of these types, the most popular and reliable are the vaccume
interrupters, which may also be used as contactors in HV motor starters.
See Fig. 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3

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Fig. 9-1, ACB Closed and Opening Position

Fig. 9-2, VCB (Vaccume Interrupter) and SF6 Circuit Breaker

184
Fig. 9.3a, Vaccume Interrupter/Circuit Breaker (VCB)

Fig. 9.3b, VACCUME INTERRUPTER

185
Fig. 9.4, Vaccume and SF6 Interrupters and Circuit Breaker Positions

Fig. 9.5, SF6 Interrupters Open Breaker Position

186
H V CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Until recently oil circuit breakers (OCB) were used in large numbers for
Medium voltage Distribution systems in many medium voltage
switchgears. There are number of disadvantages of using oil as arc
quenching media in circuit breakers. Flammability and high
maintenance cost are two such disadvantages!
Manufacturers and Users were forced to search for different medium of
quenching. Air blast and Magnetic air circuit breakers were developed but
could not sustain in the market due to other disadvantages associated with
such circuit breakers. These new types of breakers are bulky and
cumbersome. Further research were done and simultaneously two types of
breakers were developed with SF6 as quenching media in one type and
Vacuum as quenching media in the other. These two new types of breakers
will ultimately replace the other previous types completely shortly.
High-voltage circuit-breakers have greatly changed since they were first
introduced in the mid-1950s, and several interrupting principles have been
developed that have contributed successively to a large reduction of the
operating energy. These breakers are available for indoor or outdoor
applications, the latter being in the form of breaker poles housed in ceramic
insulators mounted on a structure.
Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by
separating two contacts in a medium, such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),
having excellent dielectric and arc quenchingproperties. After contact
separation, current is carried through an arc and is interrupted when this arc is
cooled by a gas blast of sufficient intensity.
Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it rapidly so that gas
temperature between the contacts is reduced from 20,000° K to less than
2,000° K in a few hundred microseconds, so that it is able to withstand
the transient recovery voltage that is applied across the contacts after
current interruption. Sulfur hexafluoride is generally used in present high-
voltage circuit-breakers (at rated voltage higher than 52 kV).
Into the 1980s, the pressure necessary to blast the arc was generated mostly
by gas heating using arc energy. It is now possible to use low energy spring-
loaded mechanisms to drive high-voltage circuit-breakers up to 800 kV.
Each phase of a vaccume circuit breaker or contactor consists of a fixed
and moving contact within a sealed, evacuated envelope of borosilicate
187
glass. The moving contact is operated via flexible metal bellows - by de-
charging motor/spring or solenoid operating mechanism. The higher
electric strength of a vacuum allows a very- short contact separation, and
a rapid re-strike-free interruption of the arc is achieved.
When an alternating current is interrupted by the separating contacts, an
arc is formed by a metal vapour from the material on the contact
surfaces and this continues to flow until a current zero is approached in
the a.c. wave form. At this instant the arc is replaced by region of high
dielectric strength which is capable of withstanding a high recovery
voltage. Most of the metal vapour condenses back on to the contacts and
is available for subsequent arcing. A small amount is deposited on the
shield placed around the contacts which protects the insulation of the
enclosure. As the arcing period is very short (typically about 15 ms), the
arc energy is very much lower than that in air-break circuit-breakers so
vacuum contacts suffer considerably less wear.

6.6 kV MAIN CIRCUIT BREAKER

The circuit breaker safely allows the DG to electrically connect to, or
disconnect from, the bus bars, as and when required. It contains spring-
activated moving and fixed contacts, and the mechanical linkages, cams,
and levers associated with the operating mechanism. To suppress the
considerable electric arc produced by opening the contacts, all the
breaking parts of the circuit breaker are enclosed within a hermetically
sealed epoxy-resin chamber, containing pressurized Sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) gas.
Three sets of poles connect the generated three-phase voltage of each DG,
with the three phases of the (live) bus bars. In this circuit breaker design,
the three poles are housed in a single epoxy-resin case that contains
pressurized SF6 gas. Each pole assembly contains the fixed, main, and
arcing contacts, along with their mechanical operating elements. The
arcing contacts are enclosed in arcing chambers.

Each circuit breaker is mounted on rails and can be withdrawn from, or

inserted into, the bus bars by a rack and pinion arrangement. The rear of
the assembly has six female socket terminals (three each on the incoming
and main bus bar sides) into which the male ends of the bus bars fit. The

188
bus bars themselves are strips of copper bar, 75 mm wide and 4 mm
thick, suitably shaped at the mating ends.

Safety interlocks prevent breaker closure if there is a loss of SF6 gas

charge along with connections to the engine-room alarm and monitoring
system. On the front panel, a pressure gauge indicates the SF6 charge and
a mechanical counter records cycles of operation.

The DG circuit breakers are designed with a breaking capacity of 12.5 kA

and a "short time withstand current rating" of 14.5 kA for three seconds.
This is more than 10 times the normal rated current of 1.25 kA, giving the
protection relays sufficient time to interrupt the circuit. Similarly, the bus-
tie breaker has a breaking capacity of 31.5 kA.

Testing Circuit Breakers

Disconnect the circuit breaker from the line and connect the megger
black lead to the frame or ground. Check the insulation resistance of
each terminal to ground by connecting the red (positive) lead to each
terminal in turn and making the measurements.
Next, open the breaker and measure the insulation resistance between
terminals by putting one lead on one terminal and the other on the
second for a twoterminal breaker; for a three-pole breaker, check among
poles 1-2, 2-3, and 1-3.

Testing Safety Switches and Switchgear

Completely disconnect from line and relay wiring before testing. When
testing manually operated switches, measure the insulation resistance
from ground to terminals and between terminals. When testing
electrically operated switches, check the insulation resistance of the coil
or coils and contacts. For coils, connect one megger lead to one of the
coil leads and the other to ground. Next, test between the coil lead and
core iron or solenoid element.

Because of its very short contact travel a vaccume interrupter has the
following advantages:
 compact quiet unit
189
 minimum maintenance
 non-flammable and non-toxic
The life of the unit is governed by contact erosion but could be up to 20
years.

Fig. 9.6, Circuit Breaker Positions

In the gas-type circuit breaker, the contacts are separated in an SF6

(sulphur hexafluoride) gas which is typically at a sealed pressure
chamber at 500 kPa or 5 bar (when tested at 20°C). To test the
insulation integrity of an HV vacuum-type circuit breaker requires a
special high voltage impulse test. The tester produces a short duration
voltage pulse, of typically 10 kV for a 6.6 kV circuit, which is
connected across the open breaker contacts. Any weakness in the
insulating strength of the vaccume in the interrupter chamber will be
detected as a current flow and the tester will display the condition as a
pass or fail.

Gas (SF6) HV circuit breakers rely on the quality and pressure of the
gas acting as the insulation between the contacts. A falling gas pressure

190
can be arranged to initiate an alarm from pressure switches fitted to each
switching chamber. Normal gas pressures are typically 500 kPa or 5 bar.
Overall circuit protection of HV equipment is supervised by co-
ordinated protective relays. These must be periodically tested to confirm
their level Settings (for current, voltage, frequency etc.) and their
tripping times. This requires the injection of calibrated values of
current and voltage into the protective relays which is usually
performed by a specialist contractor during a main ship survey while in
dry-dock.

SF6 SWITCHES
Follow all precautions specified by the manufacturer.
Inspectthe switch before operating it for any signs of degradation, such
as low SF6 pressure orsigns of SF6 leakage (accumulation of powder
around seals). Verify that the SF6 pressure gauge is in the green zone
before operating the switch; operating a switch with low SF6 pressure
can result in internal flashovers that will damage the equipment
andcause personal injury. Before energizing the switchgear for first use,
verify that theshipping caps on all bushings and bushing wells have been
replaced with elbows orinsulated protective covers or plugs. The
switchgear must be deenergized andgrounded prior to conducting any
maintenance, SF6 sampling, or SF6 filling procedures.

Advantages of Using a Vacuum Breaker

 Vacuum has a high Dielectric Strength and ensures Shorter Contact
Travel due to the High Dielectric Strength of the vacuum andA
shorter Arcing time resulting in lower arc energy.
The above features ensure the following
 Compact quiet unit
 Minimum Clearance
 Non-flammable and non-toxic
 Contacts suffer lesser wear thereby ensuring longer life of the
breaker
Testing of a Vacuum Breaker for Insulation
Insulation integrity of the vacuum can be checked by a Voltage Impulse
tester which produces a short duration voltage pulse (usually twice the
191
rated voltage of the breaker). A weak insulation of the vacuum will be
detected as a current flow.
Lower the Insulation strength, higher will be this current.

SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE
SF6 is used in the electrical industry as a gaseous dielectric medium for
high-voltage circuit breakers, switchgear, and other electrical equipment,
often replacing oil filled circuit breakers (OCBs). SF6 gas
under pressure is used as an insulator in gas insulated
switchgear (GIS) because it has a much higher dielectric
strength than air or dry nitrogen. This property makes it possible to
significantly reduce the size of electrical gear. This makes GIS more
suitable for certain purposes such as indoor placement, as opposed to
air-insulated electrical gear, which takes up considerably more room.
Gas-insulated electrical gear is also more resistant to the effects of
pollution and climate, as well as being more reliable in long-term
operation because of its controlled operating environment. Although
most of the decomposition products tend to quickly re-
form SF6, arcing or corona can produce disulfurdecafluoride (S2F10), a
highly toxic gas, with toxicity similar to phosgene. S2F10 was considered
a potential chemical warfare agent in World War II because it does not
produce lacrimation or skin irritation, thus providing little warning of
exposure.
A dielectric gas, or insulating gas, is a dielectric material in gaseous
state. Its main purpose is to prevent or rapidly quench electric
discharges. Dielectric gases are used as electrical insulators in high
voltage applications, e.g. transformers, circuit breakers (namely sulfur
hexafluoride circuit breakers), switchgear (namely high voltage
switchgear), radarwave guides.
A good dielectric gas should have high dielectric strength, high
thermal stability and chemical inertness against the construction
materials used, non-flammability and low toxicity, low boiling point,
good heat transfer properties, and low cost.
The most common dielectric gas is air, due to its ubiquity and low cost.
Another commonly used gas is a dry nitrogen.
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In special cases, e.g., high voltage switches, gases with good dielectric
properties and very high breakdown voltages are needed.
Highly electronegative elements, e.g., halogens, are favored as they
rapidly recombine with the ions present in the discharge channel. The
halogen gases are highly corrosive. Other compounds, which dissociate
only in the discharge pathway, are therefore preferred; sulfur
hexafluoride, organofluorides (especially perfluorocarbons)and chloroflu
orocarbons are the most common.
The breakdown voltage of gases is roughly proportional to
their density. Breakdown voltages also increase with the gas pressure;
many gases however, have limited upper pressure due to
their liquefaction.
The decomposition products of halogenated compounds are highly
corrosive; the occurrence of corona discharge should therefore be
prevented.
Build-up of moisture can degrade dielectric properties of the
gas. Moisture analysis is used for early detection of this.
Dielectric gases can also serve as coolants.

Fig. 9.7, Vaccume or SF6 Circuit Breaker

193
SF6 GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER
In an SF6 circuit-breaker, the current continues to flow after contact
separation through the arc whose plasma consists of ionizedSF6 gas.
For, as long as it is burning, the arc is subjected to a constant flow of gas
which extracts heat from it. The arc is extinguished at a current zero,
when the heat is extracted by the falling current. The continuing flow of
gas finally de-ionizes the contact gap and establishes the dielectric
strength required to prevent a re-strike.
The direction of the gas flow, i.e., whether it is parallel to or across the
axis of the arc, has a decisive influence on the efficiency of the arc
interruption process. Research has shown that an axial flow of gas
creates a turbulence which causes an intensive and continuous
interaction between the gas and the plasma as the current approaches
zero. Cross-gas-flow cooling of the arc is generally achieved in practice
by making the arc move in the stationary gas. This interruption process
can however, lead to arc instability and resulting great fluctuations in the
interrupting capability of the circuit breaker.
In order to achieve a flow of gas axially to the arc a pressure differential
must be created along the arc. The first generation of the SF6 circuit
breakers used the two-pressure principle of the air-blast circuit-breaker.
Here a certain quantity of gas was kept stored at a high pressure and
released into the arcing chamber. At the moment high pressure gas and
the associated compressor was eliminated by the second generation
design. Here the pressure differential was created by a piston attached to
the moving contacts which compresses the gas in a small cylinder as the
contact opens. A disadvantage is that this puffer system requires a
relatively powerful operating mechanism.
Neither of the two types of circuit breakers described was able to
compete with the oil circuit breakers price wise. A major cost
component of the puffer circuit-breaker is the operating mechanism;
consequently developments followed which were aimed at reducing or
eliminating this additional cost factor. These developments concentrated
on employing the arc energy itself to create directly the pressure-
differential needed. This research led to the development of the self-
pressuring circuit-breaker in which the over – pressure is created by
using the arc energy to heat the gas under controlled conditions. During
194
the initial stages of development, an auxiliary piston was included in the
interrupting mechanism, in order to ensure the satisfactory breaking of
small currents. Subsequent improvements in this technology have
eliminated this requirement and in the latest designs the operating
mechanism must only provide the energy needed to move the contacts.

Parallel to the development of the self-pressuring design, other work

resulted in the rotating – arc SF6 gas circuit breaker. In this design
the arc is caused to move through, in effect the stationery gas. The
relative movement between the arc and the gas is no longer axial but
radial, i.e., it is a cross-flow mechanism. The operating energy required
by circuit breakers of this design is also minimal.
Vacuum is an alternative for gas in some applications.
Mixtures of gases can be used where appropriate. Addition of sulfur
hexafluoride can dramatically improve the dielectric properties of poorer
insulators, e.g. helium or nitrogen. Multi-component gas mixtures can
offer superior dielectric properties; the optimum mixtures combine the
electron attaching gases (sulfur hexafluoride, octafluorocyclobutane)
with molecules capable of thermalizing (slowing down) accelerated
electrons (e.g. tetrafluoromethane, fluoroform. The insulator properties
of the gas are controlled by the combination of electron
attachment, electron scattering, and electron ionization.
Atmospheric pressure significantly influences the insulation properties
of air. High-voltage applications, e.g. xenon flash lamps, can experience
electrical breakdowns at high altitudes.
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
In a Vacuum circuit breaker, vacuum interrupters are used for breaking
and making load and fault currents. When the contacts in vacuum
interrupter separate, the current to be interrupted  initiates a metal vapour
arc discharge and flows through the plasma until the next current zero.
The arc is then extinguished and the conductive metal vapour condenses
on the metal surfaces within a matter of micro seconds. As a result the
dielectric strength in the breaker builds up very rapidly.
The properties of a vacuum interrupter depend largely on the material
and form of the contacts. Over the period of their development, various
195
types of contact material have been used. At the moment it is accepted
that an oxygen free copper chromium alloy is the best material for High
voltage circuit breaker. In this alloy, chromium is distributed through
copper in the form of fine grains. This material combines good arc
extinguishing characteristic with a reduced tendency to contact welding
and low chopping current when switching inductive current. The use of
this special material is that the current chopping is limited to 4 to 5
Amps.
At current under 10kA, the Vacuum arc burns as a diffuse
discharge. At high values of current the arc changes to a constricted
form with an anode spot. A  constricted arc that remain on one spot for
too long can thermally over stress the contacts to such a degree that the
deionization of the contact zone at current zero can no longer be
guaranteed . To overcome this problem the arc root must be made to
move over the contact surface. In order to achieve this, contacts are so
shaped that the current flow through them results in a magnetic field
being established which is at right angles to the arc axis. This radial field
causes the arc root to rotate rapidly around the contact resulting in a
uniform distribution of the heat over its surface. Contacts of this type are
called radial magnetic field electrodes and they are used in the majority
of circuit breakers for medium voltage application.

A new design has come in Vacuum interrupter, in which switching over

the arc from diffusion to constricted state by subjecting the arc to an
axial magnetic field. Such a field can be provided by leading the arc
current through a coil suitably arranged outside the vacuum chamber.
Alternatively the field can be provided by designing the contact to give
the required contact path. Such contacts are called axial magnetic field
electrodes. This principle has advantages when the short circuit current
is in excess of 31.5 kA.

Comparison of the SF6 and Vacuum Technologies

The most important characteristics of the SF6 gas and vacuum-circuit
breakers, i.e., of SF6 gas and vacuum as arc-extinguishing media are
summarized in Table-1.

196
In the case of the SF6 circuit-breaker, interrupters which have reached
the limiting number of operations can be overhauled and restored to ‘as
new’ condition. However, practical experience has shown that under
normal service conditions the SF6 interrupter never requires
servicing throughout its lifetime. For this reason, some manufacturers
no longer provide facilities for the user to overhaul the circuit-breaker,
but have adopted a ‘sealed for life’ design as for the vacuum-circuit
breaker.
The operating mechanisms of all types of circuit-breakers require
servicing, some more frequently than others depending mainly on the
amount of energy they have to provide. For the vacuum-circuit breaker
the service interval lies between 10,000 and 20,000 operations. For the
SF6 designs the value varies between 5,000 and 20,000 whereby, the
lower value applies to the puffer circuit-breaker for whose operation, the
mechanism must deliver much more energy.
The actual maintenance requirements of the circuit-breaker depend upon
its service duty, i.e. on the number of operations over a given period of
time and the value of current interrupted. Based on the number of
operations given in the previous section, it is obvious that SF6 and
vacuum circuit-breakers used in public supply and /or industrial
distribution systems will, under normal circumstances, never reach the
limits of their summated breaking current value. Therefore, the need for
the repair or replacement of an interrupter will be a rare exception and in
this sense these circuit-breakers can be considered maintenance-free.
Service or maintenance requirements are therefore restricted to routine
cleaning of external surfaces and the checking and lubrication of the
mechanism, including the trip-linkages and auxiliary switches. In
applications which require a very high number of circuit-breaker
operations e.g. for arc furnace duty or frequently over the SF6 design,
due to its higher summated-breaking current capability. In such cases it
is to be recommended that the estimation of circuit-breaker maintenance
costs be given some consideration and that these be included in the
evaluation along with the initial, capital costs.

Reliability

197
In practice, an aspect of the utmost importance in the choice of a circuit-
breaker is reliability.
The reliability of a piece of equipment is defined by its mean time to
failure (MTF), i.e. the average interval of time between failures. Today,
the SF6 and vacuum circuit-breakers made use of the same operating
mechanisms, so in this regard they can be considered identical.
However, in relation to their interrupters the two circuit breakers exhibit
a marked difference. The number of moving parts is higher for the SF6
circuit-breaker than that for the vacuum unit. However, a reliability
comparison of the two technologies on the basis of an analysis of the
number of components are completely different in regards design,
material and function due to the different media. Reliability is dependent
upon far too many factors, amongst others, dimensioning, design, base
material, manufacturing methods, testing and quality control procedures,
that it can be so simply analysed.
In the meantime, sufficient service experience is available for both types
of circuit-breakers to allow a valid practical comparison to be made. A
review of the available data on failure rates confirms that there is no
discernible difference in reliability between the two circuit-breaker
types. Moreover, the data shows that both technologies exhibit a very
high degree of reliability under normal and abnormal conditions.

Switching of fault currents

Today, all circuit-breakers from reputable manufacturers are designed
and type-tested in conformance with recognized national or international
standards (IEC56). This provides the assurance that these circuit-
breakers will reliably interrupt all fault currents up to their maximum
rating. Further, both types of circuit-breakers are basically capable of
interrupting currents with high DC components; such currents can arise
when short circuits occur close to a generator. Corresponding tests have
indeed shown that individual circuit-breakers of both types are in fact,
capable of interrupting fault currents with missing current zeros i.e.
having a DC component greater than 100 per cent. Where such
application is envisaged, it is always to be recommended that the
manufacturer be contacted and given the information needed for a
professional opinion.
198
As regards the recovery voltage which appears after the interruption of a
fault current the vacuum-circuit breaker can, in general, handle voltages
with RRV values of up to 5kV. SF6 circuit-breakers are more limited,
the values being in the range from 1 to 2 kV. In individual applications,
e.g. in installations with current limiting chokes or reactors, etc., With
SF6 circuit-breakers it may be advisable or necessary to take steps to
reduce that rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage.

Switching small inductive currents

The term, small inductive currents is here defined as those small values
of almost pure inductive currents, such as occur with unloaded
transformers, motor during the starting phase or running unloaded and
reactor coils. When considering the behavior of a circuit-breaker
interrupting such currents, it is necessary to distinguish between high
frequency and medium frequency transient phenomena.
Medium frequency transients arise from, amongst other causes, the
interruption of a current before it reaches its natural zero. All circuit-
breakers can, when switching currents of the order of a few hundred
amperes and, due to instability in the arc, chop the current immediately
prior to a current zero.
This phenomenon is termed real current chopping. When it occurs, the
energy stored in the load side inductances oscillates through the system
line to earth capacitances (winding and cable capacitances) and causes
an increase in the voltage. This amplitude of the resulting over voltage is
a function of the value of the current chopped. The smaller the chopped
current, the lower is the value of the over voltage.
In addition to the type of circuit – breaker, the system parameters at the
point of installation are factors which determine the height of the
chopping current, in particular the system capacitance parallel to the
circuit breaker is of importance. The chopping current of SF6 circuit-
breakers is essentially determined by the type of circuit-breaker. The
value of chopping current varies from 0.5A to 15A, whereby the
behavior of the self – pressuring circuit-breaker is particularly good, its
chopping current being less than 3A.This ‘soft’ Switching feature is
attributable to the particular characteristics of the interrupting

199
mechanism of the self-pressuring design and to the properties of the SF6
gas itself.
In the early years of the development of the vacuum circuit-breaker the
switching of small inductive currents posed a major problem, largely due
to the contact material in use at that time. The introduction of the
chrome copper contacts brought a reduction of the chopping current to
between 2 to 5A.The possibility of impermissible over voltages arising
due to current chopping has been reduced to a negligible level.
High frequency transients arise due to pre- or re-striking of the arc
across the open contact gap. If, during an opening operation, the rising
voltage across the opening contacts exceed the dielectric strength of the
contact gap, a re-strike occurs. The high-frequency transient current
arising from such a re-strike can create high frequency current zeros
causing the circuit-breaker to, interrupt again. This process can cause a
further rise in voltage and further re-strikes. Such an occurrence is
termed as multiple re-striking.
With circuit-breakers that can interrupt high frequency transient
currents, re-striking can give rise to the phenomenon of virtual current
chopping. Such an occurrence is possible when a re-strike in the first-
phase-to-clear, induces high frequency transients in the other two
phases, which are still carrying service frequency currents. The
superimposition of this high frequency oscillation on the load current
can cause an apparent current zero and an interruption by the circuit-
breaker, although the value of load current may be quite high. This
phenomenon is called virtual current chopping and can result in a circuit
breaker ‘chopping’ very much higher values of current than it would
under normal conditions. The results of virtual current chopping are
over-voltages of very high values.
Table 1.Characteristics of the SF6 and vacuum current interrupting
technologies
SF6 Circuit Breakers Vacuum Circuit
Breakers
Criteria Puffer Circuit Self-pressuring Contact material-
Breaker circuit-breaker Chrome-Copper
Operating Operating Operating Operating energy
energy Energy Energy requirements are low,
200
requirements requirements are requirements are because the mechanism
high, because the low, because the must move only
mechanism must mechanism must relatively small masses
supply the move only at moderate speed,
energy needed to relatively small over very short
compress the masses at distances.
gas. moderate speed,
over short
distances. The
mechanism does
not have to
provide the
energy to create
the gas flow
Arc Energy Because of the high conductivity of Because of the very
the arc in the SF6 gas, the arc low voltage across the
energy is low. (arc voltage is metal vapour arc,
between 150 and 200V) energy is very low.
(Arc voltage is
between 50 and 100V.)
Contact Due to the low energy the contact Due to the very low arc
Erosion erosion is small. energy, the rapid
movement of the arc
root over the contact
and to the fact that
most of the metal
vapour re-condenses
on the contact, contact
erosion is extremely
small.
Arc The gaseous medium SF6 No additional
extinguishing possesses excellent dielectric and extinguishing medium
media arc quenching properties. After arc is required. A vacuum
extinction, the dissociated gas at a pressure of 10-7
molecules recombine almost bar or less is an almost
completely to reform SF6. This ideal extinguishing
means that practically no medium. The
201
 loss/consumption of the quenching interrupters are ‘sealed
medium occurs. The gas pressure for life’ so that
can be very simply and supervision of the
permanently supervised. This vacuum is not required.
function is not needed where the
interrupters are sealed for life.
Switching The pressure The pressure No flow of an
behavior in build-up and build-up and ‘extinguishing’
relation to therefore the therefore the medium needed to
current flow of gas is flow of gas is extinguish the vacuum
chopping independent of dependent upon arc. An extremely
the value of the the value of the rapid de-ionization of
current. Large or current to be the contact gap ensures
small currents interrupted. the interruption of all
are cooled with Large currents currents whether large
the same are cooled or small. High
intensity. Only intensely, small frequency transient
small values of currents gently. currents can be
high frequency, High frequency interrupted. The value
transient transient currents of the chopped current
currents, if any, will not, in is determined by the
will be general, be type of contact material
interrupted. The interrupted. The used. The presence of
de-ionization of de-ionization of chrome in the contact
the contact gap the contact gap alloy with vacuum
proceeds very proceeds very also.
rapidly, due to rapidly due to the
the electro- electro-negative
negative characteristic of
characteristic of the SF6 gas and
the SF6 gas and the products.
the arc products.
No. of short- 10–50 10–50 30–100
circuit
operation
No. full load 5000–10000 5000–10000 10000–20000
operations
202
No. of 5000–20000 5000–20000 10000–30000
mechanical
operations

Table2.Comparison of the SF6 and Vacuum Technologies In Relation To

Operational Aspects
Criteria SF6 Breaker Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Summated current 10-50 times rated 30-100 times rated short
cumulative short circuit current circuit current
Breaking current 5000-10000 times 10000-20000 times
capacity of interrupter
Mechanical operating 5000-20000 C-O 10000-30000 C-O
life operations operations
No operation before 5000-20000 C-O 10000-30000 C-O
maintenance operations operations
Time interval between 5-10 years 5-10 years
servicing Mechanism
Outlay for Labour cost High, Labour cost Low, Material
maintenance Material cost Low cost High
Reliability High High
Dielectric withstand High Very high
strength of the contact
gap

Table3.Comparison of the SF6 and Vacuum Switching

Technologies In Relation To Switching Applications
Criteria SF6 Circuit Breaker Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Switching of Short Well suited Well suited
circuit current with
High DC
component
Switching of Short Well suited under Very well suited
circuit current with certain conditions
High RRV (RRV>1-2 kV per
Milli seconds
203
Switching of Well suited. Well suited
transformers
Switching of Well suited Well suited. Steps to be
reactors taken when current
<600A. to avoid over
voltage due to current
chopping
Switching of Well suited. Re- Well suited. Re-strike free
capacitors strike free
Switching of Suited. In some Suited. In some cases
capacitors back to cases current current limiting reactors
back limiting reactors required to limit inrush
required to limit current
inrush current
Switching of arc Suitable for limited Well suited. Steps to be
furnace operation taken to limit over
voltage.

Fig. 9.10, Double Gap Series Connected Interrupter on the left and Single
Long \Gap on the right

204
Fig. 9.11, Vaccume Interrupter Structure

205
Fig. 9.12, High Voltage Installation on Special Power Station Ship

2012

Fig. 9.13, Step-down transformer

206
Fig. 9.14, High voltage test equipment

Fig. 9.15, Panel Board of a Modern Ship

207
SYSTEM INTEGRITY (NEMA and IEC)
In general, how does a system designer know how to ward off
environmental effects so that they will not cause premature failure of the
system? One solution is to put all of the electrical equipment inside an
enclosure, or electrical box. But how do we know how well the
electrical box will ward off the same environmental effects. Can we be
sure it will not leak in a driving rainstorm? The answer lies in
guidelines set forth by the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA), and the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) regarding electrical enclosures.

NEMA is a United States based association, while IEC is

European Based. Both have set forth similar standards by which
manufacturers rate their products based on how impervious they are to
environmental conditions. NEMA assigns a NEMA number to each
classification, while IEC assigns an IP (Index of Protection) number. It
is possible, to some extent, to be able to cross reference NEMA and IEC
classes; however, there is not an exact one-to-one relationship between
the two.

NEMA and IEC ratings are based mostly on the enclosure’s ability to
protect the equipment inside from accidental body contact, dust,
splashing water, direct hose down, rain, sleet, ice, oil, coolant, and
corrosive agents. Since the designer knows the environment in which
the equipment is to be used, it is relatively simple to lookup the required
protection in a NEMA or IEC table and then specify the appropriate
NEMA or IP number when purchasing the equipment. Generally
speaking, the NEMA and IP numbers are assigned so that the lower
numbers provide the least protection while the highest numbers provide
the best protection. Because of this, the cost of a NEMA or IEC rated
enclosure is usually directly proportional to the NEMA or IP
number.
Consider the NEMA enclosure rating table below. If for example, we
needed an enclosure to protect equipment from usual outdoor weather
conditions, then a NEMA 3 or NEMA 4 enclosure would be acceptable.

208
However, if the enclosure were near the ocean or a swimming pool
where it would be exposed to corrosive salt water or chlorinated water
splash, then a NEMA 4X would be a better choice. In a similar manner,
we can conclude that underwater equipment must be NEMA 6P rated,
and that an enclosure that is to be mounted on a hydraulic pump should
be NEMA 12 or NEMA 13.
It would seem logical to simply use NEMA 6P for everything (except oil
and coolant exposure). However, the very high cost of NEMA 6P
enclosures prohibits their use in non-submerged applications. Therefore,
because of cost constraints, it is also important to avoid overspecifying a
NEMA enclosure.

IEC enclosure numbers address environmental issues as does

NEMA. However, the IEC numbers also address safety issues. In
particular, they specify the amount of personal protection the enclosure
offers in keeping out intrusion by foreign bodies, such as hands, fingers,
tools, and screws. IP numbers are always two-digit numbers. The
leftmost (tens) digit specifies the protection against intrusion by foreign
bodies while the rightmost (units) digit specifies the environmental
protection provided by the enclosure. The IEC IP number ratings are
shown in the table below.

There is also a rating of IPx8 which is waterproof. There is no tens digit

on this rating because since it is waterproof, is it also naturally
impervious to any and all foreign objects. Also, since there is only one
column 7 rating (which is IP67), it is referred to as either IP67 or IPx7.
In the IP_2 column, “inclined water” refers to rain or drip up to 15
degree from vertical, and in the IP_3 column, spray water can be up to
60 degrees from vertical.

As some examples of how to use the IEC table, assume we wish to have
an enclosure that will keep out rain (inclined water) and not allow tools
to be pushed into any openings. Locating those items in the columns and
rows, we find that an IP32 enclosure is needed. Additionally, an
enclosure that will keep out hands and offers no environmental

209
protection is an IP10 enclosure. Most consumer electronics products
(stereos, televisions, VCRs, etc.) are IP40.

Equipment Temperature Considerations

It is a proven fact that the length of life of an electronic device is
inversely proportional to the temperature at which it is operated. In other
words, to make electronic equipment last longer, it should be operated in
a low temperature environment. Obviously, it is impractical to
refrigerate controls installations. However, it is important to take
necessary steps to assure that the equipment does not overheat, nor
exceed manufacturer’s specifications of maximum allowable operating
temperature.

When electrical equipment is installed inside a NEMA or IEC

enclosure, it will most certainly produce heat when powered which will
raise the temperature inside the enclosure.
It is important that this heat be somehow dissipated. Since most cabinets
used in an often dirty manufacturing environment are sealed (to keep out
dirt and dust), the most popular way to do this is to use the cabinet
itself as a heat sink. Generally, the cabinet is made of steel and is bolted
to a beam or to the metal side of the machine, which improves the heat
sinking capability of the enclosure. If this type of enclosure mounting is
not available, the temperature of the inside of the enclosure should be
measured under worst case conditions; that is with all equipment in the
enclosure operating under worst case load conditions.

Another way of controlling temperature inside an enclosure is by

using a cooling fan. However, this will require screens and filters to
cleanse the air being drawn into the cabinet. This, in turn, increases
periodic maintenance to clean the screens and filters.
When choosing a motor, there is one factor which is independent of the circuitry of
the motor – that factor is the environment in which it is designed to operate.
Towards this end, there are four ranges of environmental activity which are
considered:

210
The motor and its environment
1. Ingress of materials.
2. Ingress of water.
3. Cooling arrangement.
4. Cooling circuit power.
Not all motors operate in a clean atmosphere, although most operate in
an atmosphere which contains nothing more than a little dust. There are
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards which
provide for a range of levels of protection, starting with the need to keep
out solid bodies about the size of a tennis ball. In such a motor, clearly
we are not concerned about dust entering the motor, but we are
concerned with keeping stray hands out. Progressively the range allows
for smaller and smaller bodies until we wish to keep out even dust.
Apart from the build-up of dust on moving parts, there is the hazard of
igniting the dust.

Water could affect the insulation, but if we expect the motor normally to
operate in a dry place, e.g. driving a cassette player, there is no need to
protect it from water. However, some motors might experience dripping
water, or the occasional jet of water, and in extreme situations be
immersed in water. These situations, therefore, give rise to different
casing designs for the motors.

Motors are generally cooled by a fan mounted on the end of the rotor
causing air to pass between the rotor and stator. However, if we have
sealed out dust then we probably could not pass air (unless it were
filtered) through the motor and the heat would simply have to be
released through the surface of the casing. Motors immersed in water
may very well be in colder situations and surface cooling is thereby
made easier.

Finally, the fan need not be mounted on the rotor shaft, but could be a
separate unit with its own motor. Therefore, we need to consider the
manner in which the cooling circuit is powered.

211
There are, therefore, a number of ranges to be considered and any of the
motors which we have described are capable of experiencing any of the
environmental factors listed above.

Q. How do NEMA-and IEC-style electromechanical motor

control products differ?
Ans. In today's business environment, flexibility is an asset. If
you're able to apply either IEC- or NEMA-style products, you
have the flexibility to adapt to local traditions and product
supply anywhere in the world. This allows you to take the best
advantage of local availability and expertise, which can be an
important competitive edge in a global economy. Before
applying this flexibility, however, you need to know the
differences between NEMA and IEC designs.

Differing philosophies
The NEMA philosophy emphasizes more robust designs for broader
applicability. Ease of selection and breadth of application are two of the
fundamental mainstays within its design philosophy.
Governing the design of NEMA motor control products is the NEMA
Industrial Control Standard (ICS-2). This formal document contains all
of the information about the design of electromechanical NEMA-style
motor control.

The IEC philosophy, on the other hand, is application and performance.

In selecting IEC devices, you need a more sophisticated level of
knowledge about the application than is necessary when selecting a
NEMA general-purpose device. For example, you need to know motor
load, duty cycle, and full load current (FLC) when selecting an IEC
contactor.
This requirement, which may be a drawback in some segments, is a
significant advantage in Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)
segments. For example, an equivalent hp-rated IEC device tends to be
substantially smaller than its NEMA counterpart; this represents a

212
significant advantage for most OEM designers. Also, IEC products tend
to be less expensive.
NEMA features and benefits
Ease of selection is the fundamental design advantage of a NEMA-style
starter. To effectively select a NEMA-style product, you only need to
know the horsepower and voltage.
Serviceability is another key in the NEMA market. Most NEMA
products are serviceable and provide front access to internal parts.
Unless a total device replacement is necessary, contacts and coils of all
sizes can be repaired usually without removing the device from the
panel.
Reserve capacity is a consideration in the ease of selection of NEMA
products. They are designed to be very robust and broadly applicable.
They are "general-purpose," as opposed to being more specific and/or
application intensive.
NEMA-style devices have interchangeable heater elements. In fact, a
range of thermal units are available for the overload. This characteristic
makes a NEMA product attractive on many construction jobs, where the
ultimate motor schedule or the actual motor nameplate is not known
until close to the start-up date.
The motor control center (MCC) or Enclosed Package Solution is a
NEMA tradition. Most NEMA products are sold as starters, in either
open-style or various enclosed versions.

IEC features and benefits

The large number of IEC contactor sizes allows you to more closely
match the contactor to the load or application. Unlike NEMA, where the
available sizes are standard across the industry, the number of different
contactor size ratings varies by manufacturer.
Generally, an IEC starter is about half the size of a comparable NEMA
starter. Above 100A (NEMA Size 3), however, the physical differences
between NEMA and IEC are negligible.
IEC products are more modular in nature; they can snap onto a 35-mm,
or in larger sizes, a 75-mm DIN rail. This eliminates the need to drill
holes and mount each component individually. Thus, putting them into a
panel is relatively easy.
213
Unlike NEMA starters, which typically are sold fully assembled, IEC
starters typically are sold as components (a contactor, an auxiliary block,
an overload relay block) so that you can make your own assembly. You
simply select the accessories needed for the application and snap them
together, without the use of tools.
Also unlike NEMA starters, IEC-style thermal overload relays typically
have fixed thermal elements, with an adjustment range that may require
replacing the complete overload relay when significant motor FLC
changes due to application requirements.
A large number of IEC contactors are applied in group installations, and
NEC Sec. 430-53 deals with this application facet. However, this isn't
unique to IEC contactors, since you can install any starter this way.
IEC products, more often than not, are sold to OEMs, which typically
install them in applications where multiple devices are needed to control
different functions of a machine.
Type 2 coordination is an IEC standard that can be applied to a NEMA-
style product as well. Type 2 protection is afforded by the use of a
properly rated and class of fuse with a contactor or starter. This type of
protection requires that, after short-circuit condition testing; the
contactor or starter must be reusable without component or part
replacement. Also, no significant change is allowed in the operating
time-current characteristics of the overload relay. This is a coordinated
protection standard for the short-circuit protective device, contactor, and
overload relay. The rules are the same for both IEC- and NEMA-style
devices. For Type 2 coordination, the typical higher withstand rating of a
NEMA-style starter provides a greater selection of short-circuit
protective devices. Type 2 coordination with IEC-style products will
offer the same coordination and degree of protection; however, the
selection of fuse classes may be more limited. For short-circuit currents
up to 5000A, Type 2 protection for IEC-rated motor starters would
require Class RK5, J, RK1, or CC fuses. For short-circuit currents up to
100kA, Class RK1, J, and CC fuses are required.

Compared with NEMA-style products, IEC-style products are more

disposable than serviceable. In fact, IEC products below 100A typically

214
are considered disposable; they can be removed from a DIN rail, thrown
away, and replaced with a new product in a matter of minutes.
Self protected starters represent a new category of combination starters
as defined in UL 508-E. Typically, such a starter has a contactor, an
overload relay, and short-circuit protection. The device also undergoes a
unique testing procedure, one that goes beyond that for conventional
combination motor controllers. This procedure tests the starter at
different fault levels, verifying that coordinated protection similar to
Type 2 is provided.

2.6 Enclosures
2.6.1 Enclosures are to comply at least with the requirements in NEK
410/IEC 60092.201.26 unless a higher degree of protection is required
in item 2.6.2, 2.6.4.
Rotating machines and neutral resistors are to have degree of
protection of at least IP 43.
However, in rooms, which are accessible for qualified persons
only, a degree of IP23 may be accepted.
Connection boxes are to have a degree of protection of at least
IP 44.
2.6.2 Machinery spaces will generally be considered as being
accessible only to qualified personnel. The same applies to other
compartments which normally are kept locked, under the
responsibility of the ship’s officers.
2.6.3 Power transformers are to have a degree of protection of
at least IP23 when located in rooms accessible to qualified
personnel only and at least IP54 when located elsewhere.
Alternatively power transformers with a lower degree of
protection may be located in a separate room which is locked.
2.6.4 Switchgear and controlgear assemblies are to have a
degree of protection of at least IP32.
Table D1 Corresponding values NEMA-Type and IP-rating
NEMA Description of IP-rating Description of IP-rating
-Type NEMA- Type
215
1 General purpose indoor 11 Protection from solid objects
larger than 55 mm
2 Suitable where servere 32 Protection against dripping
condensation present water, spillage (not rain)
3 Weather tight against 54-55 Dustproof and resistant to
rain and sleet splashing water (5) and rain (4)
(normal outdoor weatherproof)
3R Less severe than NEMA 14 Protected from water only
3 (rarely used in the IEC system)
4 Watertight resistant to 56 Dustproof and heavy water jets
direct water jet spray (like on an open deck)
4X Same as NEMA 4 No –
although corrosion equivalen
resistant, stainless or t
non-metallic
5 Dust tight 52 Dustproof and resistant to
dripping water (not rain)
6 Limited submersion in 67 Protected against effect of
water immersion maximum 1m
(depth)
7 Explosion proof No direct Flame proof (Ex-d) works by
(Contains gaseous equivalen the same principle
internal ignition) t
12 Dust tight and drip 52 Dust proof and resistant to
proof dripping water (not rain)
13 Oil tight and dust tight 54-55 Dustproof and resistant to
(Constructed with splashing water and rain
special gasketing to (normal outdoor weather proof)
resist oil and liquid
chemical penetration)

NEMA Enclosure Types

The purpose of the following pages is to provide general information on
the definitions of NEMA Enclosure Types to architects, engineers,
installers, inspectors and other interested parties.  [For more detailed and
complete information, NEMA Standards Publication 250-2003,
“Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum)” should
be consulted.] 

216
Definitions
[from NEMA 250-2003]
In Non-Hazardous Locations, the specific enclosure Types, their
applications, and the environmental conditions they are designed to
protect against, when completely and properly installed, are as
follows:

Type 1    Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts and to provide
a degree of protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against
ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt).

Type 2    Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a
degree of protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against
ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt); and to provide a degree of
protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the
ingress of water (dripping and light splashing).

Type 3    Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to

provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to hazardous
parts; to provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt and
windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect to
harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet,
snow); and that will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on
the enclosure.

Type 3R    Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to

provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to hazardous
parts; to provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt); to
provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful effects on the
equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.

217
Type 3S    Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to hazardous
parts; to provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt and
windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect to
harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet,
snow); and for which the external mechanism(s) remain operable when
ice laden.
 
NEMA Enclosures: Types 3X, 3RX, 3SX, 4, 4X>>
NEMA Enclosures: Types 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K, 13 >>
NON-HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS
Type 1: General Purpose - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment and to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt.

Type 2: Drip-Proof - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment, to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, and
to provide a degree of protection against dripping and light splashing
of liquids.

Type 3: Dust tight, Rain tight, Sleet tight - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt, rain, sleet, snow, and windblown dust; and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.

218
Type 3R: Rain tight, Sleet Resistant - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt, rain, sleet, and snow; and that will be undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 3S: Dust tight, Rain tight, Sleet tight - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt, rain, sleet, snow, and windblown dust; and in which the external
mechanism(s) remain operable when ice laden.

Type 4: Watertight, Dust tight, Sleet Resistant - Indoor & Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt, rain, sleet, snow, windblown dust, splashing water, and hose-
directed water; and that will be undamaged by the external formation
of ice on the enclosure.

Type 4X: Watertight, Dust tight, Corrosion-Resistant - Indoor &

Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt, rain, sleet, snow, windblown dust, splashing water, hose-
directed water, and corrosion; and that will be undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure.

219
Type 5: Dust tight, Drip-Proof - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt;
against settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and to provide
a degree of protection against dripping and light splashing of liquids.

Type 6: Occasionally Submersible, Watertight, Sleet Resistant - Indoor

& Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt; against hose-directed water and the entry of water during
occasional temporary submersion at a limited depth; and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 6P: Watertight, Sleet Resistant Prolonged Submersion - Indoor

& Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt; against hose-directed water and the entry of water during
prolonged submersion at a limited depth; and that will be undamaged
by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 12: Dust tight and Drip tight - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed (without knockouts) for indoor use to

provide a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact
with the enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection
against falling dirt; against circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings;
and against dripping and light splashing of liquids.

220
Type 12K: Dust tight and Drip tight, with Knockouts - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed (with knockouts) for indoor use to provide

a degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling
dirt; against circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and against
dripping and light splashing of liquids.

Type 13: Oil tight and Dust tight - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of

protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt;
against circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and against the
spraying, splashing, and seepage of water, oil, and noncorrosive
coolants.

For enclosures used in HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

Type 7: Class I, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Locations - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations

classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C, or D as defined in
NFPA 70.

Type 8: Class I, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Location - Indoor &

Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use in

hazardous locations classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C,
and D as defined in NFPA 70.

Type 9: Class II, Group E, F or G Hazardous Locations - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations

classified as Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F, or G as defined in
NFPA 70.

221
Type 10: Requirements of Mine Safety and Health Administration

 Enclosures constructed to meet the requirements of the Mine

Safety and Health Administration, 30 CFR, Part 18.

For more detailed and complete information, NEMA Standards

Publication 250-2003, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts
Maximum) should be consulted.

Q. How do NEMA-and IEC-style electromechanical motor control

products differ?
Ans. In today's business environment, flexibility is an asset. If you're
able to apply either IEC- or NEMA-style products, you have the
flexibility to adapt to local traditions and product supply anywhere in the
world. This allows you to take the best advantage of local availability
and expertise, which can be an important competitive edge in a global
economy. Before applying this flexibility, however, you need to know
the differences between NEMA and IEC designs.

Differing philosophies
The NEMA philosophy emphasizes more robust designs for broader
applicability. Ease of selection and breadth of application are two of the
fundamental mainstays within its design philosophy.
Governing the design of NEMA motor control products is the NEMA
Industrial Control Standard (ICS-2). This formal document contains all
of the information about the design of electromechanical NEMA-style
motor control.
The IEC philosophy, on the other hand, is application and
performance. In selecting IEC devices, you need a more sophisticated
level of knowledge about the application than is necessary when
selecting a NEMA general-purpose device. For example, you need to
know motor load, duty cycle, and full load current (FLC) when selecting
an IEC contactor.
This requirement, which may be a drawback in some segments, is a
significant advantage in Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)
segments. For example, an equivalent hp-rated IEC device tends to be
222
substantially smaller than its NEMA counterpart; this represents a
significant advantage for most OEM designers. Also, IEC products tend
to be less expensive.

NEMA features and benefits

Ease of selection is the fundamental design advantage of a NEMA-style
starter. To effectively select a NEMA-style product, you only need to
know the horsepower and voltage.
Serviceability is another key in the NEMA market. Most NEMA
products are serviceable and provide front access to internal parts.
Unless a total device replacement is necessary, contacts and coils of all
sizes can be repaired usually without removing the device from the
panel.
Reserve capacity is a consideration in the ease of selection of NEMA
products. They are designed to be very robust and broadly applicable.
They are "general-purpose," as opposed to being more specific and/or
application intensive.
NEMA-style devices have interchangeable heater elements. In fact, a
range of thermal units are available for the overload. This characteristic
makes a NEMA product attractive on many construction jobs, where the
ultimate motor schedule or the actual motor nameplate is not known
until close to the start-up date.
The motor control center (MCC) or Enclosed Package Solution is a
NEMA tradition. Most NEMA products are sold as starters, in either
open-style or various enclosed versions.

IEC features and benefits

The large number of IEC contactor sizes allows you to more closely
match the contactor to the load or application. Unlike NEMA, where the
available sizes are standard across the industry, the number of different
contactor size ratings varies by manufacturer.
Generally, an IEC starter is about half the size of a comparable NEMA
starter. Above 100A (NEMA Size 3), however, the physical differences
between NEMA and IEC are negligible.
IEC products are more modular in nature; they can snap onto a 35-mm,
or in larger sizes, a 75-mm DIN rail. This eliminates the need to drill
223
holes and mount each component individually. Thus, putting them into a
panel is relatively easy.
Unlike NEMA starters, which typically are sold fully assembled, IEC
starters typically are sold as components (a contactor, an auxiliary block,
an overload relay block) so that you can make your own assembly. You
simply select the accessories needed for the application and snap them
together, without the use of tools.
Also unlike NEMA starters, IEC-style thermal overload relays typically
have fixed thermal elements, with an adjustment range that may require
replacing the complete overload relay when significant motor FLC
changes due to application requirements.
A large number of IEC contactors are applied in group installations, and
NEC Sec. 430-53 deals with this application facet. However, this isn't
unique to IEC contactors, since you can install any starter this way.
IEC products, more often than not, are sold to OEMs, which typically
install them in applications where multiple devices are needed to control
different functions of a machine.
Type 2 coordination is an IEC standard that can be applied to a NEMA-
style product as well. Type 2 protection is afforded by the use of a
properly rated and class of fuse with a contactor or starter. This type of
protection requires that, after short-circuit condition testing; the
contactor or starter must be reusable without component or part
replacement. Also, no significant change is allowed in the operating
time-current characteristics of the overload relay. This is a coordinated
protection standard for the short-circuit protective device, contactor, and
overload relay. The rules are the same for both IEC- and NEMA-style
devices. For Type 2 coordination, the typical higher withstand rating of a
NEMA-style starter provides a greater selection of short-circuit
protective devices. Type 2 coordination with IEC-style products will
offer the same coordination and degree of protection; however, the
selection of fuse classes may be more limited. For short-circuit currents
up to 5000A, Type 2 protection for IEC-rated motor starters would
require Class RK5, J, RK1, or CC fuses. For short-circuit currents up to
100kA, Class RK1, J, and CC fuses are required.
Compared with NEMA-style products, IEC-style products are more
disposable than serviceable. In fact, IEC products below 100A typically
224
are considered disposable; they can be removed from a DIN rail, thrown
away, and replaced with a new product in a matter of minutes.
Self protected starters represent a new category of combination starters
as defined in UL 508-E. Typically, such a starter has a contactor, an
overload relay, and short-circuit protection. The device also undergoes a
unique testing procedure, one that goes beyond that for conventional
combination motor controllers. This procedure tests the starter at
different fault levels, verifying that coordinated protection similar to
Type 2 is provided.

225
226
227
228
COMPARISON OF NEMA AND IEC STANDARDS
TECHNICAL INFORMATION
European IEC specifications 144 & 529 define the degree of protection
provided for electrical enclosures to safeguard personnel against electric
shock and equipment within the enclosures from environmental
contamination such as entry of water. This is expressed by the letters IP
followed by two numerals.
In the USA, NEMA and UL have established a rating system for
enclosures which provides for different levels of protection. A direct
comparison between IEC and NEMA is not possible but the following
tablegives an approximate guide.
IP DefinitionProtection toIEC 144/855420Protection to NEMAenclosure
typeNEMA Definition
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 12 mm
IP 20NEMA 1(ventilated) general purpose
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 2.5 mm
IP 30 NEMA 1 general purpose
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 12 mm and dripping water
IP 21NEMA 2 (ventilated) drip proof
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 2.5 mm and dripping water
IP 31 NEMA 2 drip proof
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 12 mm and dripping water
IP 24NEMA 3R (ventilated) rain proofsleet (ice) resistantoutdoor use
Protection against solid objectsgreater than 2.5 mm and dripping water
IP 34 NEMA 3Rrain proofsleet (ice) resistant outdoor use
Protection against dust andsplashing liquids
IP 54 - -Dusttight and protected against water jets IP 65
NEMA 12induct.use Dusttight &driptight Dusttight and protected
againstheavy seasIP 66
NEMA 35DusttightdriptightDusttight and protected againstheavy seas
IP 66 NEMA 4 Dusttight watertight- - NEMA 4X Dusttight watertight
Corrosion resistant
Dusttight and protected against water entry at one meter immersion
IP 67.
Dusttight and protected against heavySubmersion IP 68

229
NEMA 6 Submersible water tight Dust tightsleet (ice) Resistant indoor
& outdoor
Protection against sleet (ice) not specified by IEC– NEMA 13oil tight &
Dust tight

230
Why Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)?
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) is an excellent gaseous dielectric for high
voltage power applications. It has been used extensively in high voltage
circuit breakers and other switchgears employed by the power industry.
Applications for SF6 include gas insulated transmission lines and gas
insulated power distributions. The combined electrical, physical,
chemical and thermal properties offer many advantages when used in
power switchgears. Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 making it
desirable to use in power applications are:
 V High dielectric strength
 V Unique arc-quenching ability
 V Excellent thermal stability
 V Good thermal conductivity
General Information
Elimsan SF6 circuit breaker is equipped with separated poles each
having its own gas. In all types of the circuit breakers, gas pressure is 2
bars (absolute 3 bars). Even if the pressure drops to 1bar, there will not
be any change in the breaking properties of the circuit breaker due to the
superior features of SF6 and Elimsan's high safety factor for the poles.
During arcing, the circuit breaker maintains a relatively low pressure
(max 5-6 bars) inside the chamber and there will be no danger of
explosion and spilling of the gas around. Any leakage from the chamber
will not create a problem since SF6 can undergo considerable
decomposition, in which some of toxic products may stay inside the
chamber in the form of white dust. If the poles are dismantled for
maintenance, it needs special attention during removal of the parts of the
pole. This type of maintenance should be carried out only by the experts
of the manufacturer.
OPERATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER
In general, the circuit breakers consist of two main parts, the poles and
the mechanism. The poles consist of contactand arc-extinguishing
devices. The mechanism is the part to open or close the contacts in the
poles at the same time instantaneously (with max. 5 milisec. Tolerance).
The closing and opening procedures are performed through springs
which are charged by a servo motor and a driving lever. In the system,
the closing springs are first charged.
231
If "close" button is pressed the opening springs get charged while the
contacts get closed. Thus, circuit breaker willbe ready for opening. The
mechanical operating cycle of the circuit breaker is (OPEN-3 Min
CLOSE/OPEN-3 Min-CLOSE/OPEN) or (OPEN-0.3 sec-
CLOSE/OPEN-3 Min CLOSE/OPEN). The second cycle is valid when
the circuit breaker is used with re-closing relay. In that case, after the
closing operation, the closing springs are charged bythe driving lever or
by driving motor (if equipped). Thus, the circuit breaker will be ready
for opening and re-closing.

MECHANICAL LIFE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE MECHANISM

Elimsan breaker mechanism can perform 10,000 opening-closing
operations without changing any component. The mechanical life of the
circuit breaker is minimum l0,000 operations. However, it needs a
periodical maintenance depending on its environment. In ideal working
conditions, lubrication once a year or after every 1000 operationsis
sufficient. In dusty and damp environment, the mechanism should be
lubricated once every 3 - 6 months or after every 250 - 500 operations.
Thin machine oil and grease with molybdenum must be used for
lubricating. Owing to mechanism's capability of operating between -5°C
and + 40 °C, it does not require a heater.
AUXILIARY SWITCH
The auxiliary switch mounted on the circuit breaker has 12 contacts.
One of them is for antipumping circuit, fourof them are allocated for
opening and closing coils. The remaining 7 contacts are spare. Three of
them are normally opened and four are normally closed. When it is
necessary, the number of the contacts can be increased.
RAPID AUTOMATIC RECLOSING
The circuit breaker which opens due to a short circuit failure, can be re-
closed automatically after a pre selected time by arc closing relay,
assuming the fault is temporary. Thus, we avoid long time power loss in
case of temporary short circuits. But, if the fault lasts after re-closure,
the protection relay will trip to open the circuit breaker again.

WHAT TO SPECIFY ON THE ORDER

1- Rated voltage of the circuit breaker
232
2- Rated current of the circuit breaker
3- Rated short circuit breaking current
4- Voltages of opening and closing coils
5- Motor supply voltage (if equipped)

RANGE OF TYPES AND TECNICAL FEATURES

CLOSING AND OPENING OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT BREAKER
When manual or motor-drive is used, the circuit breaker will be ready to
close. The closure can be actuated pressingthe closing button located on
the circuit breaker. It is recommended to close it using remote control
system forsecure operations. The opening can be performed either by
opening button or remote controlled opening coil. Incase of a fault, the
relay signal actuates the opening coil and circuit breaker opens. (This is
mechanically a primary protection system). In addition, there is an anti-
pumping relay for preventing the re-closing and opening of the
circuitbreaker more than one cycle (O - C - O) and for preventing
possible troubles created by remote closing button.
COMMISSIONING *
The outer surfaces of epoxy insulating tubes of the poles are to be wiped
out with a clean and dry cloth. The wiringand connections of the
auxiliary circuit are to be carefully examined. DC voltage should be
checked to see whetherit is suitable for coil and motor or not (if
equipped). The opening-closing coils are to be operated 15-20 times
andthe accuracy of the relay circuit is to be checked before energizing
the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is tobe mounted with two MI2
bolts through its anchoring shoes. It should not move during operation.
No excessiveload should be exerted to the poles and if possible flexible
cables should be used. The incoming and outgoing contactsmust have
clean surfaces and their contact resistance should be as low as possible.
When connecting the circuitbreaker to protection system and auxiliary
supply, the cable cross sections should be according to the table given.
The circuit breaker must be grounded through at least 16 mm steel tape
(by cable shoe). After all, the following procedure must be performed:
1. Open the isolator of circuit breaker,
2. Prepare the circuit breaker for closing operation by driving
mechanism,
233
3. Close the isolator of circuit breaker firmly,
4. Send the closing signal to the circuit breaker,

MAINTENANCE OF CIRCUIT BREAKER DURING OPERATION

Normally, at least once a year or after every 500 operations, the circuit
breaker must be maintained. During maintenance, the moving parts of
the mechanism must be lubricated carefully. The insulating parts are to
be wipedout by a clean and dry cloth. When maintaining, the circuit
breaker should be open and high voltage sides must begrounded.
Auxiliary power supply should also be disconnected. On saline areas
near seaside, the insulating parts of the circuit breaker must be carefully
cleaned, at least once every two months. If not, the microscopic salt
particle sdrawn by wind from the sea will create conductive layers on
the insulating surfaces and may cause surface flashover.
Before maintenance, first circuit breaker, then isolator should be opened
and grounded carefully. The maintenanceof circuit breaker must be done
after checking the open position of isolator contacts by eye.
36 kV/ 630A/ 8 kA
36 kV/ l250A/ 16kA
24kV/ l250A/ 25 kA
12 kV/ 1250A/ 25 kA
24kV/ l250A/ 25 kA
36kV/ l250A/ 25 kA
36 kV/ 1600A/ 25 kA
36 kV/ 2500A/ 25 kA

End of LBS Course requirement

******

234
HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEAR ENCLOSURES

1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations.

Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized
personnel only.
2. Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
3. Remove necessary access and coverplates.
4. Fill out inspection test form. Record data in reference to equipment.
5. Completely isolate switchgear enclosure to be tested and inspected from
sources of power.
6. Mechanical Inspection:
I. Check mechanical operation of devices.
II. Check physical appearance of doors, devices, equipment and lubricate in
accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
III. Check condition of contacts.
IV. Check disconnects, starters, and circuit breakers in accordance with
inspection and test reports and procedures.
V. Check condition of bussing for signs of overheating, moisture or other
contamination, for proper torque, and for clearance to ground.
VI. Inspect insulators and insulating surfaces for cleanliness, cracks, chips,
tracking.
VII. Report discovered unsafe conditions.
VIII. Remove drawout breakers and check drawout equipment.
IX. Check cable and wiring condition, appearance, and terminations.
Perform electrical tests as required.
X. Inspect for proper grounding of equipment.
XI. Perform breaker and switch inspection and tests
7. Cleaning:
i. Check for accumulations of dirt especially on insulating surfaces and clean
interiors of compartments thoroughly using a vacuum or blower.
ii. Remove filings caused by burnishing of contacts.
iii. Do not file contacts. Minor pitting or discoloration is acceptable.
iv. Report evidence of severe arcing or burning of contacts.
v. Degrease contacts with suitable cleaners
8. Electrical Testing:
i. Check electrical operation of pilot devices, switches, meters, relays,
auxiliary contacts, annunciator devices, flags, interlocks, cell switches,
cubicle lighting.  Visually inspect arrestors, C/T’s and P/T’s for signs of
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 damage.  Record data on test report form.
ii.  Megger test insulators to ground.
iii.  Megger test bussing phase to ground, and phase to phase, using a 1000
volt megger.
iv.  DC hipot phases to others and to ground using step voltage method as
specified for cables with withstand levels held for not less than one minute. 
Record decay curve, current versus time to completion of test, and indicate
withstand level.
Electrical Testing:
v. Maximum DC hipot test levels shall be as follows:
a) 25kV class       50kV DC
b) 15kV class       28.5kV DC
c)   5kV class         9kV DC

vi. Test contact resistance across bolted sections of buss bars.  Record results
and compare test values to previous acceptance and maintenance results and
comment on trends observed.

9. At completion of inspection and test, remove temporary grounds, restore

equipment to serviceable condition and recommission equipment.
10. Compare test results to previous maintenance test results

MAINTENANCE OF H. V. AIR/OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations.

Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized
personnel only.

2. Completely isolate circuit breakers to be worked on from power sources.

3. Install temporary grounds.
4. Remove circuit breaker from cubicle unless bolted type.
5. Record manufacturer, serial number, type and function of breaker, reading of
operations counter, date of inspection, and signature of person responsible for
inspection on report sheet.
6. Mechanical Inspection:
Inspect for:
I. accumulations of dirt, especially on insulating surfaces.
II. condition of primary contact clusters.
III. condition of control wiring plug-in contacts.
IV. condition of moving and fixed main contacts, excessive heating or arcing.
V. condition of arcing contacts.
VI. cracks or indications of tracking on insulators.
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VII. tracking or mechanical damage to interphase barriers.
VIII.flaking or chipping of arc chutes.
IX. broken, damaged or missing springs on operating mechanism.
X. damage to or excessive wear on operating linkage, ensure all clevis pins are
securely retained in position.

Inspect for:
XI. correct alignment of operating mechanism and contacts.
XII. evidence of corrosion and rusting of metals, and deterioration of painted
surfaces.

XIII. Oil breakers only:

a)  Refer to manufacturer’s maintenance manual for special tools that may be
required to check oil breaker contacts.
b)  Check oil holding tanks in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
c)  Check for proper oil level and condition of level gauge.
7. Cleaning:
i. Remove accumulations of dirt from insides of cubicles with vacuum cleaner
and/or blower.
Ii.  Clean insulating surfaces using brush or wiping with lint free cloth.
8. Check fixing bolts of hardware and breaker components for tightness.
9.  ‘Dress’ pitting on contact surfaces, using a burnishing tool.  ‘Dress’ major
arcing on contacts to smooth condition.  Remove filings before switchgear is re-
energized.  Report unsafe conditions resulting from severe arcing or burning of
contacts.
10. On completion of foregoing tasks, lightly lubricate bearing points in operating
linkage with manufacturer’s specified lubricant. Operate breaker several times to
ensure smoothness of mechanical operation.
11. Check potential and current transformer cable connections for tightness.
12.  Replace inspection lamp where fitted.
13.  On first inspection, record data to auxiliary equipment, i.e. primary fuses,
potential transformer, potential fuses, and current transformers.  Record serial
numbers, catalogue numbers, sizes, ratios.
14.  On completion of inspection and test, remove temporary grounds.  Restore
equipment to serviceable condition.

Electrical Maintenance Tests:

a) General:
i.   Test contact resistance across closed line-load contacts, and line and load circuit
breaker plug-in clusters.  Record results.  Clean contacts using appropriate tools to
get lowest contact resistance reading possible.
ii.   Test insulation resistance for all phases to others and to ground.
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iii.   Test electrical function in accordance with breaker manufacturer’s instructions
and drawings.b)    Air Breakers:
i.  Prior to hipot test being carried out, ensure surrounding primary connections to
main equipment are properly grounded and isolated.
ii.  DC hipot test at test levels indicated for switchgear enclosure.

c)   Oil Breakers:

i.   Do not perform DC hipot tests on oil circuit breakers.
ii.   Dielectric (hipot) test on insulating oil per ASTM D877.  Compare
dielectric strength test results to previous test data where applicable, and
comment on changes.

FUSED OR UNFUSED LB AND NLB DISCONNECT SWITCHGEAR

1.   Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. 

Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized
personnel only.

2.  Completely isolate switchgear to be worked on from power sources.

3   Remove access covers and plates.

4.  Test and discharge equipment to be worked on.

5.   Install temporary safety grounds.

6.   Report manufacturer, serial number, type, function of switchgear assembly,

date of inspection, and signature of person responsible for inspection.

7. Mechanical Inspection: inspect for:

I.  accumulations of dirt, especially on insulating surfaces.
II.  condition of moving and fixed contact, excessive heating or arcing.
III.  cracks, or tracking on insulators.
IV.  tracking or mechanical damage to interphase barriers.
V.  chipping or flaking of arc chutes or arc shields.
VI.  fixing bolts being fully tightened where bolted-on shields are fitted.
VII.  overheating or arcing on fuses and fuse holders.
VIII.   correct fuse clip tension.
IX.   broken, missing or damaged springs on operating mechanism.
X.   damage to or excessive wear on operating linkage.  Check that all clevis
pins are securely retained in position.
XI.   correct alignment of contact blades and operating linkage.
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 XII.   corrosion & rusting of metals, deterioration of painted surfaces.
XIII.   proper operation of key interlock or other mechanical interlock (if
applicable).
XIV.   evidence of corona deterioration.
8. Cleaning:I. Remove accumulations of dirt from insides of switchgear
cubicles using vacuum cleaner and/or blower.
II.   Clean insulating surfaces using brush or wiping with lint free cloth.
III.   Do not file contacts.  Minor pitting or discoloration is acceptable.
IV.   Report evidence of severe arcing or burning of contacts.
V.   Degrease contacts with suitable cleaners.

9. Check that connections, including current limiting fuses, are secure. 

Torque to manufacturer’s requirement.

9. Electrical Maintenance Tests:

I.  Test insulation resistance for all phases to others and to ground.
II.  Test contact resistance across switch blade contact surfaces.
III.  Test electrical charging mechanism of switch if applicable.
IV.  Test electrical interlocks for proper function.
V.   DC hipot test phases to the others and to ground using step method to
levels specified for switchgear.
VI.   Operate blown fuse trip devices if applicable.11.  After testing is
completed, remove temporary grounds and restore equipment to serviceable
condition.

MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTION RELAYS

1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching

operations. Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be
performed by authorized personnel only.

2.   Completely isolate protective relays to be tested and inspected from

sources of power.

3.   Set and test protective relays to “as found” settings or to new settings
provided by Minister prior to maintenance commissioning.

4.   Use manufacturer’s instructions for information concerning connections,

adjustments, repairs, timing, and data for specific relay.

10.Mechanical Inspection of Induction Disc Relays:

I. Carefully remove cover from relay case.  Inspect cover gasket.  Check
239
 glass for tightness and cracks.
II.   Short-circuit current transformer secondary by careful removal of relay
test plug or operation of appropriate current blocks.
III.   Ensure disc has proper clearance and freedom of movement between
magnet poles.
IV.   Check connections and taps for tightness.
V.   Manually operate disc to check for freedom of movement.  Allow spring
to return disc to check proper operation.
VI.   Check mechanical operation of targets.
VII.   Check relay coils for signs of overheating and brittle insulation
11.Cleaning:
I.  Clean glass inside and out.
II.  Clean relay compartment as required.  Clean relay plug in contacts, if
applicable, using proper tools.
III.   Remove dust and foreign materials from interior of relay using small
brush or low pressure (7 lbs.) blower of nitrogen.
IV.   Remove rust or metal particles from disc or magnet poles with magnet
cleaner or brush.
V.   Inspect for signs of carbon, moisture and corrosion.
VI.   Clean pitted or burned relay contacts with burnishing tool or non-
residue contact cleaner.
12.Electrical Testing: Tests for typical overcurrent relays include:
I.  Zero check.
II.   Induction disc pickup.
III.  Time-current characteristics.
IV.   Target and seal-in operation.
V.   Instantaneous pickup.
VI.   Check C/T & P/T ratios and compare to coordination data.
VII.   Proof test each relay in its control circuit by simulated trip tests to
ensure total and proper operation of breaker and relay trip circuit by
injection of the relay circuit to test the trip operation.
13.Solid State Relays:
I. Inspect and test in accordance with manufacturer’s most recent installation
and maintenance brochure.
II.   Perform tests using manufacturer’s relay test unit as applicable, with
corresponding test instructions.
III.   If the manufacturer’s tester is not available, use a relay tester unit
approved by relay manufacturer, with proper test data and test accessories.
IV.   Proof test each relay in its control circuit by simulated trip tests to
ensure total and proper operation of breaker and relay trip circuit by
injection of relay circuit to test trip operation.
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 V.   Check C/T and P/T ratios and compare to coordination date.9.   At
completion of inspection and test, restore equipment to serviceable condition
and recommission equipment.  Compare test results to previous maintenance
test results.

MAINTENANCE OF OVERHEAD RADIAL POWER LINES: 1.

Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations.
Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized
personnel only.
2.  Completely isolate overhead radial power lines to be tested and inspected
from sources of power.
3.  Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
4.  Inspect insulators and insulating surfaces for cleanliness, cracks, chips,
tracking, and clean insulators thoroughly.

14.Check cable connections to insulators and check cable sag between poles.
Report discovered unsafe conditions.
6.   Visually check wooden poles and sound test with 18 oz. wooden mallet.
7.   Visually inspect metal line structures for rust, deterioration, metal
fatigue, and report discovered unsafe conditions.
8.   Inspect crossarms, bolts, rack assemblies, guys, guy wires, and dead
ends.  Report discovered unsafe conditions.
9.   Visually inspect grounding connections.
10.   On completion of inspection, remove temporary grounding, restore
equipment to serviceable condition

SURGE ARRESTORS:
1. Strictly adhere to required procedures for system switching operations. 
Switching, de-energizing and energizing shall be performed by authorized
personnel only.
2.   Completely isolate surge arrestors to be tested and inspected from sources
of power.
3.   Install temporary grounding leads for safety.
4.   Inspect surge arrestors for cleanliness, cracks, chips, tracking and clean
thoroughly.
5.   Perform insulation power factor test.  Record results.
6.   Perform grounding continuity test to ground grid system, record results.
7.  On completion of inspection and testing, remove temporary grounds, restore
equipment to serviceable condition.

DISCONNECTION PROCEDURE:

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Safety of Disconnection Switch:
1.  When a disconnect switch is installed in this manner, the frame of the
disconnect switch, the upper and lower steel operating rod and the switch handle
are all bonded together and connected to the common neutral and the pole’s ground
rod, effectively eliminating any insulating value of the insulated insert. The
electrical worker operating the switch has no protection and could have as much as
full system voltage from the worker’s hands on the switch handle to the worker’s
feet.
2.  The use of rated rubber gloves can eliminate touch potential if the switch were
to fail and go to ground. But there is also the hazard of step potential for the
worker operating the switch, and rated rubber gloves does nothing to eliminate step
potential. Also, the maximum ASTM rating for rubber gloves is limited to 36 kV,
eliminating worker protection from higher voltages.
3.  Properly installed ground mats provide the best protection for workers operating
disconnect switches while standing on the ground.

If the disconnect switch were to fail and go to ground, the switch handle could be
energized at potentially full system voltage, say 7,200 volts, energizing the switch
handle at 7,200 volts, less the voltage drop in the grounding conductor from the
switch handle to the ground mat (typically 20 to 25 volts).

–  But if the worker were wearing rated rubber gloves and standing on a ground
mat attached to the switch handle, would they be safe? Yes!

–  If they were not wearing rated rubber gloves but still standing on a ground mat
attached to the switch handle, would they be safe? Yes!

–  When the worker wears rated rubber gloves while standing on a ground mat
attached to the switch handle, the gloves are insulating the worker from the 20 to
25 volts developed across the ground mat and switch handle; well below any
hazardous voltage. They are safe with or without rated rubber gloves if they are
standing on a ground mat properly connected to the switch handle.

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PPE to WORK in HV

HV Disconnection Procedure:
Almost every major line or equipment in a substation has associated with it a
means of completely isolating it from other energized elements as a prudent means
of insuring safety by preventing accidental energization. These simple switches,
called disconnects, or disconnecting switches. They are usually installed on both
sides of the equipment or line upon which work is to be done.

How to operate these switches:

1. They should not be operated while the circuit in which they are connected is
energized, but only after the circuit is deenergized.
2. They may be opened by means of an insulated stick that helps the operator keep
a distance from the switch.
3. Locking devices are sometimes provided to keep the disconnects from being
opened accidentally or from being blown open during periods of heavy fault
currents passing through them.

ISOLATION OF ANY HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT:

What is isolation:
Isolation is a means of physically and electrically separating two parts of a
measurement device, and can be categorized into electrical and safety isolation.
Electrical isolation pertains to eliminating ground paths between two electrical
systems. By providing electrical isolation, you can break ground loops, increase
the common-mode range of the data acquisition system, and level shift the signal
ground reference to a single system ground. Safety isolation references standards
have specific requirements for isolating humans from contact with hazardous
voltages. It also characterizes the ability of an electrical system to prevent high
voltages and transient voltages from transmitting across its boundary to other
electrical systems with which you can come in contact.

1. Isolation of individual circuits protected by circuit breakersWhere circuit

breakers are used the relevant device should be locked-off using an
appropriate locking-off clip with a padlock which can only be opened by a
unique key or combination. The key or combination should be retained by
the person carrying out the work.

Note
Some DBs are manufactured with ‘Slider Switches’ to disconnect the circuit
from the live side of the circuit breaker. These devices should not be relied

243
 upon as the only means of isolation for circuits as the wrong switch could
easily be operated on completion of the work.

2. Isolation of individual circuits protected by fuses

Where fuses are used, the simple removal of the fuse is an acceptable means
of disconnection. Where removal of the fuse exposes live terminals that can
be touched, the incoming supply to the fuse will need to be isolated. To
prevent the fuse being replaced by others, the fuse should be retained by the
person carrying out the work, and a lockable fuse insert with a padlock
should be fitted as above. A caution notice should also be used to deter
inadvertent replacement of a spare fuse. In addition, it is recommended that
the enclosure is locked to prevent access as stated above under ‘Isolation
using a main switch or distribution board (DB) switch-disconnector’.Note
In TT systems, the incoming neutral conductor cannot reliably be regarded
as being at earth potential. This means that for TT supplies, a multi-pole
switching device which disconnects the phase and neutral conductors must
be used as the means of isolation. For similar reasons, in IT systems all poles
of the supply must be disconnected. Single pole isolation in these
circumstances is not acceptable.
High voltage insulation testing (flash testing) can be particularly hazardous
when several parts of the equipment are energized for a period of time.

Isolation Procedure:
1. Isolate from all sources of supply.
2. Prevent unauthorised connection by fixing safety locks and caution signs at
points-of- isolation.
2. Fix danger signs on live equipment adjacent to the point-of-work.

PROVING THE SYSTEM IS DEAD:

How to prove:
Before starting work it should be proved that the parts to be worked on and those
nearby are dead. It should never be assumed that equipment is dead because a
particular isolation device has been placed in the off position.
1. The procedure for proving dead should be by use of a proprietary test lamp or
two pole voltage detectors.
2. Non-contact voltage indicators (voltage sticks) and multi-meters should not be
used.
3. The test instrument should be proved to be working on a known live source or
proprietary proving unit before and after use.
4. All phases of the supply and the neutral should be tested and proved dead.
244
Proving dead unused or unidentified cables
• Where there is uncertainty regarding isolation when removing unidentified cables
or proving dead an ‘unused’ cable, particularly where insufficient conductor is
exposed to enable the use of test probes, those conductors should be assumed to be
live until positively proven to be dead and any work carried out on them should
employ live working practices until the conductors are proved dead.
• Clamp meters can be used as a means of identifying cables by testing for current
flow in the conductors.
•  Non-contact voltage indicators (voltage sticks) can also be useful in these
situations to test for voltage where cables without a metallic sheath are to be
identified. However, once insulation is pared using live working practices to reveal
the underlying conductors, contact voltage detectors should be used as the means
of proving dead.

Prove Dead:
(i) Prove dead with a high voltage potential indicator at all accessible points-of-
isolation.
(ii) Where appropriate, prove dead on the low voltage side of a transformer, that is
LV feed pillars, LV distribution boards etc.

EARTHING AND DISCHARGING OF HV:

Earthing down is a very important concept to understand when working with high
voltage systems.
It is important to ensure that any stored electrical energy in equipment insulation
after isolation is safely discharged to earth.
The application of earthing on high voltage conductors is controlled in accordance
with the provisions of the Power System Safety Rules.
The following general requirements and principles are applicable for portable
earthing.

Safety:
1.  Always carry earthing equipment below shoulder level;
2. Ensure that clamps and leads are kept a safe distance from any high voltage
conductor;
3. Apply clamps to stirrup (if provided) or a horizontal conductor where possible;
4. Avoid clamp application to bushing caps and to braids; and
5. Position clamp so that tension on the earth lead is minimised
6. Assemble and inspect earthing equipment on the ground;
7. Extend or otherwise prepare any earthing equipment such as shot gun sticks on
the ground.
8. Proving High Voltage Conductors De-Energised
245
9. Do not allow any part of the earthing system to encroach on safe approach
distances. Where practicable, keep the earthing leads away from the body;
10. Earthing equipment is to be removed carefully from high voltage conductors to
prevent the equipment encroaching on or coming into contact with adjacent live
high voltage conductors.
11. Check that the rating of the earthing equipment is appropriate for the fault level
at the location at which it is to be applied.
12. Ensure that the earthing equipment is in a serviceable condition. Any portable
earthing equipment found to be defective shall be removed from service for repair
or disposal.

PROTECTIONS OPERATING PRINCIPLES

SF6 Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur
hexafluoride or SF6 gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker.
SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high electro-negativity. That means
it has high affinity of absorbing free electron. Whenever a free electron collides
with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by that gas molecule and forms a
negative ion.
The attachment of electron with SF6gas molecules may occur in two different ways,

These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and therefore over
all mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less as compared other
common gases. We know that mobility of charged particle is majorly responsible
for conducting current through a gas.

Working of SF6 Circuit Breaker:

The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple it is some extent
similar to air blast circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a
high pressure reservoir. During operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly
compressed gas is released through the arc in breaker and collected to relatively
low pressure reservoir and then it pumped back to the high pressure reservoir for re
utilize.
The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in modern time.
Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 CB much easier. In buffer
type design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber
for arc quenching.

During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against position of

the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces
compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents

246
which were blocked by upper fixed contact body during closed position. As the
cylinder move further downwards, these vent openings cross the upper fixed
contact, and become unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder
will come out through this vents in high speed towards the arc and passes through
the axial hole of the both fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of
SF6 gas.

During closing of the circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and as
the position of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases
which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding.
Due to this pressure difference SF6 gas from surrounding will try to enter in the
cylinder. The higher pressure gas will come through the axial hole of both fixed
contact and enters into cylinder via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench
the arc.

PROTECTIONS OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Principles of Distance Relays

Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of
a line up to a predetermined point (the reach point).
Such a relay is described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only for
faults occurring between the relay location and the selected reach point, thus giving
discrimination for faults that may occur in different line sections.
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at the
relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated is
compared with the reach point impedance. If the measured impedance is less than
the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on the line between the
relay and the reach point.
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is
intersected by the boundary characteristic of the relay.
Since this is dependent on the ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle
between them, it may be plotted on an R/X diagram. The loci of power system
impedances as seen by the relay during faults, power swings and load variations
may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performance of the
relay in the presence of system faults and disturbances may be studied.

Solid State Switching Principle

– High voltage testing does not usually require high power.
Thus special methods may be used which are not applicable.
– Then generating high voltage in high power applications.

247
– In the field of electrical eng. & applied physics, high voltages are required for
several applications  as:
1. a power supply (eg. hv dc) for the equipments such as electron microscope and
x-ray machine.
2. required for testing power apparatus – insulation testing.

-High impulse voltages are required for testing purposes to simulate over voltages
due to lightning and switching.

Solid State Switching Principle

 Both full-wave as well as half-wave circuits can produce a maximum direct

voltage corresponding to the peak value of the alternating voltage.
 When higher voltages are required voltage multiplier circuits are used. The
common circuits are the voltage double circuit
 Used for higher voltages.
 Generate very high dc voltage from single supply transformer by extending
the simple voltage doubler circuit.

LOAD TRANSFER

Temporary Parallel Running:

Where the shipboard generator is intended to run in parallel with the shore power
for a short period of time for the purpose of connecting to the shore power or back
to ship power without going through a blackout period, the following requirements
are to be complied with:
i) Means are to be provided to verify that the incoming voltage is within the range
for which the shipboard generator can be adjusted with its automatic voltage
regulator (AVR)
ii) Means are to be provided for automatic synchronization
iii) Load transfer is to be automatic
iv) The duration of the temporary parallel running is to be as short a period as
practicable allowing for the safe transfer of the load. In determining the rate of the
gradual load transfer, due regard is to be paid to the governor characteristics of
shipboard generator in order not to cause excessive voltage drop and frequency
dip.

Load Transfer via Blackout

 Where load transfer is executed via blackout (i.e., without temporary

generator parallel running), safety interlock arrangements  are to be provided
so that the circuit breaker for the shore power at the shore connection
248
 switchboard cannot be closed while the HV switchboard is live with running
shipboard generator(s).

Safety Interlocks

 An interlock, which prevents plugging and unplugging of the HV plug and

socket outlet arrangements while they are energized, is to be provided.
 Marine Shore Connection Concept

Shore Connection System Solutions (Example)

On board Installation

249
ARC FLASH AND ARC BLAST
An arc flash, which is distinctly different from the arc blast, is part of
an arc fault, a type of electrical explosion that results from a low-
impedance connection to ground or another voltage phase in an
electrical system.
Definition
An arc flash is the light and heat produced from an electric arc supplied
with sufficient electrical energy to cause substantial damage or harm,
fire or injury.
Electrical arcs, however, fed by limited energy and well controlled,
produce very bright light (as in arc lamps—enclosed, or with open
electrodes), and are also used for welding and other industrial
applications.
Arc flash temperatures can reach or exceed 35,000 °F or approx 20,000
°C at the arc terminals.[1] The massive energy released in the fault
rapidly vaporizes the metal conductors involved, blasting molten metal
and expanding plasma outward with extreme force.[1] A typical arc flash
incident can be inconsequential but could conceivably easily produce a
more severe explosion (see calculation below). The result of the violent
event can cause destruction of equipment involved, fire, and injury not
only to the worker but also to nearby people.
In addition to the explosive blast, called the arc blast of such a fault,
destruction also arises from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc.
The metal plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy
from far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including
people absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing
temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls and
equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the radiant effects.
Examples
In general, arc flash incidents which ignite clothing are highly
improbable on systems operating at less than 208 volts phase to phase
(120 V to ground) when fed by less than a 125 kVA transformer, as 120
volts does not provide sufficient potential to cause an arc flash hazard.
Most 480 V electrical services have sufficient capacity to cause an arc
flash hazard. Medium-voltage equipment (above 600 V) is higher energy
and therefore a higher potential for an arc flash hazard.
250
As an example of the energy released in an arc flash incident, consider a
single phase-to-phase fault on a 480 V system with 20,000 amps of fault
current. The resulting power is 9.6 MW. If the fault lasts for 10 cycles at
60 Hz, the resulting energy would be 1600 kilojoules. For comparison,
TNT releases 2175 J/g or more when detonated (a conventional value of
4,184 J/g is used for TNT equivalent). Thus, this fault energy is
equivalent to 380 grams (approximately 0.8 pounds) of TNT. The
character of an arc flash blast is quite different from a chemical
explosion (more heat and light, less mechanical shock), but the resulting
devastation is comparable. The rapidly expanding superheated vapor
produced by the arc can cause serious injury or damage, and the intense
UV, visible, and IR light produced by the arc can temporarily and
sometimes even permanently blind or cause eye damage to people.
There are four different arc flash type events to be assessed when
designing safety programs:
 Open Air Arc Flashes
 Ejected Arc Flashes
 Equipment Focused Arc Flashes (Arc-in-a-box)
[2]
 Tracking Arc Flashes
Protecting personnel
There are many methods of protecting personnel from arc flash hazards.
This can include personnel wearing arc flash personal protective
equipment (PPE) or modifying the design and configuration of electrical
equipment. The best way to remove the hazards of an arc flash is to de-
energize electrical equipment when interacting with it, however de-
energizing electrical equipment is in and of itself an arc flash hazard. In
this case, one of the newest solutions is to allow the operator to stand far
back from the electrical equipment by operating equipment remotely,
this is called remote racking.[3]
Arc flash protection equipment
With recent increased awareness of the dangers of arc flash, there have
been many companies that offer arc flash personal protective equipment
(PPE). The materials are tested for their arc rating. The arc rating is the
maximum incident energy resistance demonstrated by a material prior to
break open (a hole in the material) or necessary to pass through and
cause with 50% probability a second or third degree burn. [4] Arc rating is
251
normally expressed in cal/cm² (or small calories of heat energy per
square centimeter). The tests for determining arc rating are defined in
ASTM F1506 Standard Performance Specification for Flame Resistant
Textile Materials for Wearing Apparel for Use by Electrical Workers
Exposed to Momentary Electric Arc and Related Thermal Hazards.
Among the best fabrics for protection against electric arc flash are the
Modacrylic-cotton blends.
Selection of appropriate PPE, given a certain task to be performed, is
normally handled in one of two possible ways. The first method is to
consult a hazard category classification table, like that found in NFPA
70E. Table 130.7(C)(15)(a) lists a number of typical electrical tasks by
various voltage levels and recommends the category of PPE that should
be worn. For example when working on 600 V switchgear and
performing a removal of bolted covers to expose bare, energized parts,
the table recommends a Category 3 Protective Clothing System. This
Category 3 system corresponds to an ensemble of PPE that together
offers protection up to 25 cal/cm² (105 J/cm² or 1.05 MJ/m²). The
minimum rating of PPE necessary for any category is the maximum
available energy for that category. For example, a Category 3 arc-flash
hazard requires PPE rated for no less than 25 cal/cm² (1.05 MJ/m²).
The second method of selecting PPE is to perform an arc flash hazard
calculation to determine the available incident arc energy. IEEE 1584
provides a guide to perform these calculations given that the maximum
fault current, duration of faults and other general equipment information
is known. Once the incident energy is calculated the appropriate
ensemble of PPE that offers protection greater than the energy available
can be selected.
PPE provides protection after an arc flash incident has occurred and
should be viewed as the last line of protection. Reducing the frequency
and severity of incidents should be the first option and this can be
achieved through a complete arc flash hazard assessment and through
the application of technology such as high-resistance grounding which
has been proven to reduce the frequency and severity of incidents.

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Figure 3-1.Approach Limits
Minimum Approach Distances
Figure 3-1 shows a general layout of the various approach limits. Each
boundary is defined following Figure 3-1.
Prohibited
3-1.1.1.1 Flash Protection Boundary
The distance from an arc source (energized exposed equipment) at
which the potential incident heat energy from an arcing fault on the
surface of the skin is 1.2 cal/cm2 (5 J/cm2). Within this boundary,
workers are required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE)
clothing, such as flame resistant shirts and pants and other PPE.
3-1.1.1.2 Limited Approach Boundary
A shock protection boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons (at
a distance from a live part) that is not to be crossed by unqualified
persons unless escorted by a qualified person.
3-1.1.1.3 Restricted Approach Boundary
A shock protection boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons (at
a distance from a live part) that, due to its proximity to a shock hazard,
requires the use of shock protection techniques and equipment when
crossed.
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3-1.1.1.4 Prohibited Approach Boundary
A shock protection boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons (at
a distance from a live part) that, when crossed by a body part or object,
requires the same protection as if direct contact is made with a live part.
3-1.1.2 Minimum Approach Distance for Unqualified Workers
Only workers qualified by electrical training can work in areas on or
with unguarded, uninsulated energized lines or parts of equipment
operating at 50 volts or more. All electric lines and equipment will be
treated as energized unless deenergized, locked, tagged, and tested for
no voltage. In addition, grounding shall be in accordance with Chapter 7.
The minimum approach distance for an unqualified worker is 10 ft (3
m). The minimum approach distance refers to the shortest possible
distance between energized electrical lines or apparatus and any part of a
worker’s body and tools or material being handled.
3-1.1.3 Minimum Working Distances
Table 3-1 lists the minimum working distances from exposed energized
parts within which a qualified worker may not approach or place any
conductive object without an approved insulating handle, unless certain
other live-line work techniques are used (such as isolation, insulation, or
guarding) in accordance with accepted industry practice. Refer to OSHA
29 CFR
1910.269 for voltages higher than 46 kV. Protective Devices.
Protective devices within the system, such as relays and fuses, must
retain, respectively, their correct coordination settings or be of the
proper size and type. Always record previous data so that unintended
changes in system coordination are not made.
9-1.4.2 Alarms
System alarms, if blocked during maintenance, must be returned to their
correct operating condition at the completion of the maintenance.
9-1.4.3 Interlocking
Interlocking is used to maintain proper electrical operation in the case of
a circuit loss or switching change. Interlocking provisions must be fully
understood so to eliminate the danger of electrical feedback from
another source,possible paralleling of two unsynchronized sources, or
other unsafe operations.
9-1.5 Abnormal Conditions
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Maintenance accomplished after the occurrence of fault conditions that
interrupted normal service imposes higher than usual maintenance risks.
Faulty energized equipment and lines must always be deenergized
before any work is done. All abnormal operating equipment and
electrical components must be deenergized and tagged.
9-1.6 Defective Equipment
Electrical apparatus found to be in a dangerous condition or not working
properly must be removed from service immediately and tagged.
Subsequently, a complete report on the defective equipment must be
provided by the worker to the authorized individual-in-charge, the same
day if feasible.
9-1.6.1 Defective equipment removed from service, such as:
distribution, potential, and current transformers; capacitors; and surge
(lightning) arresters must positively be identified by an authorized
individual before they are put in storage. Existing defective equipment in
storage or at any other location must also be clearly identifiable.
9-1.6.2 Identify defective equipment by painting a large red “X” on the
body (not on the top) of the equipment. The red X must remain on such
equipment until it has been repaired or until it has been properly
disposed of. Local policy may dictate use of their preferred defective
equipment identification marking.
9-1.6.3 It must be considered a serious neglect of duty, and willful
disobedience of instructions for a worker to deface in any way the
identification marking on defective equipment or to place such
equipment in service while so identified. The worker incharge of
repairing any piece of defective equipment must be the only person
authorized to remove the defective markings, and then only after all
repairs have been made and the equipment has passed all required
testing.
9-2 SWITCHING
Opening or shutting a power switch can expose the electrical worker to
some degree of hazard. A mishap might occur if a switch is closed when
a fault is still present on the line. To prevent a mishap, the authorized
individual must prepare a switching sequence and identify all load
isolation requirements. All switches operated in the switching sequence
must be correctly identified. The electrical worker will review the
255
manufacturer’s operation manual for any switch that is unfamiliar, and
all safety steps listed in the operation manual will be accomplished
before opening orclosing the switch.

WARNING
Switches can fail during switching operations, creating arc flash hazards.
Wear arc rated clothing and/or switching suits during these operations in
accordance with Chapter 4 requirements.

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Surge Arresters
A surge arrester limits over voltages and bypasses the related current
surge to a ground system that absorbs most of the energy. An over
voltage condition can be caused by a fault in the electrical system, a
lightning strike, or a surge voltage related to load switching. All surge
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arrester equipment must be considered as loaded to full circuit potential,
unless it is positively disconnected from the circuit. Be sure the
permanent ground conductor is intact before any work is performed.
9-4.2.1 High-voltage substation and at-grade surge arresters must always
be provided with screens or fences to prevent possible contact while
parts of the surge arresters may be live. The screen or fence must have a
gate large enough to permit there moval of individual units. The gate
must be provided with a lock and an authorized person must keep the
key.
9-4.2.2 Surge arresters must never be touched or approached, unless
they are completely disconnected from all live lines and live equipment,
and all parts have been discharged to ground and effectively grounded.
9-4.2.3 Horn gap switches must be fully opened and completely
separated from all live lines and equipment whenever it is necessary to
work near a surge arrester.
9-4.2.4 If the first attempt to disconnect a surge arrester is unsuccessful,
wait 2 or 3 minutes before making another attempt so not to cause an
internal fault.
9-4.3 Choke Coils
Choke coils are inductors that operate in a manner similar tosurge
arresters, except that they operate on over-frequency rather than over-
voltage.
9-4.4 Capacitors
Capacitors consist of an electrical condenser housed in asuitable
container. Power capacitors are used to provide power factor correction.
Coupling capacitors are used for coupling communication circuits to
metering circuits. Because capacitors can hold their charge, they are not
electrically deenergized immediately after being disconnected from an
energized line. Capacitors on electric lines must be provided with
discharge devices to discharge the voltage to 50 V or less, within 5
minutes after the capacitors have been completely disconnected from the
circuit. Wear appropriate levels of PPE identified in Chapter 4.
9-4.4.1 Discharge circuits are intended to discharge capacitors after the
circuit is deenergized. Since there could be no indication that the circuit
is burned out or otherwise not functioning, always assume capacitors are
fully charged until tested.
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9-4.4.2 Line capacitors removed from service for any purpose must be
considered at full or higher voltage, until the terminals have been
shorted together and discharged by an approved method. Do not short
terminals until capacitors have been deenergized for at least 5 minutes
to allow time for the voltage level to reduce.
9-4.4.3 It is not safe to use fuses or disconnect switches to disconnect
large capacitor banks (above 60 kilovolt-reactive single-phase, or 180
kilovolt-reactive three-phase).Circuit breakers or switches designed
specifically for this purpose must be used.
9-4.4.4 After disconnecting all capacitor banks, wait 5 minutes. Short
together and ground all terminals; ensure the neutral is grounded. All
operations must be performed using rubber gloves and a hot stick.
9-4.4.5 Grounds and terminal shorts on capacitors must be left on until
the work is completed.
9-4.4.6 Barricade the work area as a safety measure for other workers,
when working on or testing capacitors in the shop.
9-4.4.7 Capacitors made before 1979 usually contained PCBs. Refer to
the precautions listed in Chapter 3 for hazardous materials if the case is
ruptured or any liquid is visible on the outside of the case.
9-4.5 Coupling Capacitors
These capacitors have high impedance, which results in a long discharge
period. This characteristic of coupling capacitors is typically overlooked,
which makes them particularly hazardous to personnel if not properly
grounded. To minimize shock hazard follow the precautions below:
9-4.5.1 A coupling capacitor must always have a shorting wire installed.
9-4.5.2 During maintenance, a grounding wire must be connected to
each exposed metal terminal that a worker could contact. Grounding
wires must be left in place for the entire duration of maintenance.
9-5.1 Potential (Voltage) Transformers (PT)
9-5.1.1 PTs provide a means of obtaining a low voltage from a higher
voltage circuit.They are designed and selected to operate within certain
accuracy limits and burdens.
9-5.1.2 Replacement transformers must have characteristics identical
with the original units.

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9-5.1.3 The case and one of the windings of the low-voltage side of
voltage transformers must always be grounded before energizing the
transformer.
9-5.1.4 Be aware of the following hazards inherent in the maintenance
and removal of these units.
9-5.1.4.1 If the secondary windings are inadvertently shorted together
when the primary windings are energized, a very high current will flow
causing the windings to quickly overheat.
9-5.1.4.2 On most modern switchgear, a drawout arrangement
automatically disconnects and grounds the transformers when access to
the fuses is necessary.
9-5.1.4.3 On older obsolete switchgear, fuse replacement is potentially
dangerous when the primary circuit to the transformer remains
energized. Follow these additional safety precautions.
9-5.1.4.3.1 The authorized individual-in-charge will give specific
instructions for replacing a blown primary winding fuse on a potential
transformer located within switchgear and whenever it is not possible to
use a standard 6 ft (1.8 m) fuse puller.
9-5.1.4.3.2 If a circuit breaker or sectionalizing switch is not installed to
isolate a potential transformer, the worker must report the situation to
the authorized individual-in-charge before replacing the fuse. The
authorized individual-in-charge will arrange for deenergizing the
primary circuit. Replacing a primary fuse when the potential transformer
is not isolated is particularly hazardous, and requires specific approval.
9-5.1.4.3.3 When disconnecting the primary service to the transformer,
verify the absence of voltage using a suitably rated voltmeter (a hand
held test meter with a high voltage probe is not acceptable). Lamps can
be used in addition; however, note that a non-illuminated lamp,
connected on the low-voltage side of a voltage transformer, is not an
adequate indication that the primary side of the transformer is
deenergized.
9-5.1.4.3.4 The secondary fuses must also be removed before replacing
the primary fuse, and then reinstalled before the transformer is
reenergized.

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9-5.1.4.3.5 While the transformer is deenergized, the worker must
visually inspect for obvious symptoms of trouble such as a smoked or
burned case, a damaged bushing, ora damaged fuseholder.
9-5.2 Current Transformers (CT)
WARNING
The most serious hazard associated with the maintenance of CTs occurs
when the secondary side is opened while the primary side is energized.
This causes a very high voltage to develop in the secondary winding,
which both stresses the insulation and presents an extreme personnel
hazard. The secondary circuit of a current transformer must never be
opened while the primary side is energized; however, the secondary
leads can be shorted together without damage to the transformer.
9-5.2.1 Before opening the secondary circuits of any energized current
transformer, the secondary leads must be shorted together and grounded.
The location of the shortand ground is preferably located at the
transformer secondary terminals, but can be atany point between the
current transformer and the location at which the secondary circuit is to
be opened.
9-5.2.2 Current transformer cases and secondary circuits must be
grounded before energizing any current transformer.

9-6 POWER TRANSFORMERS AND REGULATORS

9-6.1 Transformers (Power and Distribution)
9-6.1.1 Consider all transformers energized and at full voltage, unless
they are disconnected from primary and secondary wires or disconnected
from the primary wires and all phases shorted together and grounded.
The secondary neutral normally is sufficient as a ground, provided that
there is a grounding conductor interconnected withthe common neutral,
the transformer case, and a ground electrode. Always check continuity
of the ground connection.
WARNING
Under no conditions should transformer covers or hand hole plates be
removed, nor should any work be done on the inside of transformers
until the following instructions have been completed.

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9-6.1.2 When transformers are installed or replaced, the secondary
terminals will be checked for correct voltage and for phase rotation (if
applicable).
9-6.1.3 When transformers are installed, and before they are energized,
the ground connection must first be made to the case and to the neutral,
when applicable.
9-6.1.4 When removing transformers, case and neutral grounds must be
disconnected last.
9-6.1.5 When working on or near an energized three-phase, wye-
connected transformer or transformer bank, verify the transformer
neutral is properly grounded.
9-6.1.6 Never operate no-load (or manual) tap changers when the
transformer isenergized. Only load-tap-changing (LTC) type tap
changers can be operated when thetransformer is energized. When
reenergizing a transformer after changing the positionof manual tap
changers, maintain a safe working distance with all required personal
protective equipment until it is determined the internal switching was
successful.
9-6.1.7 If necessary to relieve pressure on a transformer, the pipe plug,
pressure relief device, or inspection cover plate must be loosened slowly
so the internal pressure of the transformer can dissipate gradually.
9-6.1.8 Pressure relief valves must never be opened when there is
precipitation orhigh humidity, except on failed transformers and when
re-fusing.
9-6.1.9 Never draw an oil sample, open a pressure relief valve, or
otherwise open atransformer when there is an internal vacuum on an
energized transformer. Doing so can cause an explosion.
9-6.1.10 Transformers or tanks must not be entered unless forced
ventilation or an air supply is used to maintain a minimum oxygen level
of 19.5 percent by volume in the work area.
9-6.1.11 Energized pad-mounted transformers and associated equipment
must belocked or otherwise secured when unattended.
9-6.2 Voltage Regulators
9-6.2.1 Voltage regulators are normally installed with bypass and
disconnect switches. Never open or close a regulator bypass switch,
unless the regulator is set on its neutral position and the control switch is
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open, or the automatic control feature is inactivated in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendations.
9-6.2.2 When regulators are maintained as spares in substations, their
bushings mustbe short-circuited and grounded.
Consider cable and apparatus energized, and use personal protective
equipment in accordance Tables 4-1 and 4-2 until the following steps
have been taken.
• Test the item with an approved device and confirm it is deenergized.
• Ground the item from all possible sources of power (including
transformer secondary back feed).
• Grounds are provided at the work location. Grounds may be omitted
orremoved for test purposes with the approval of the authorized
individual-in-charge after the circuit has been tested and proven to be
deenergized.Omission of grounds must be permitted only if their
application would increase the work hazard.
• The cable has been grounded for a sufficient length of time to drain off
any static charges.
11-7.2.6 Verify low-voltage cables are deenergized as follows. Remove
the insulationto expose a spot on the conductor for direct metallic
contact, and test with an approved voltage detector for cables (positively
identified) which are normally energized at 600 Vor less, phase to phase.
11-7.2.7 Verify high-voltage cables are deenergized as follows.
11-7.2.7.1 Use an approved test device to confirm high-voltage
equipment and cables are deenergized when the cable terminals or
apparatus are equipped with capacitive test points or have bare exposed
parts.
11-7.2.7.2 If an approved test device cannot be used, confirm the
equipment and cables are deenergized as follows.
• Isolate the equipment or cable from all possible sources of power, and
trace it to the work location.
• Ground the equipment or cable at the work location. Use remote
hydraulic grounding spike to ground and drain a cable after it has been
deenergized and before contact is made by hand. The worker must be
outside the manhole to operate the remote hydraulic grounding spike.

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Hazard by design
Three key factors determine the intensity of an arc flash on personnel.
These factors are the quantity of fault current available in a system, the
time until an arc flash fault is cleared, and the distance an individual is
from a fault arc. Various design and equipment configuration choices
can be made to affect these factors and in turn reduce the arc flash
hazard.
Fault current
Fault current can be limited by using current limiting
devices such as grounding resistors or fuses. If the fault
current is limited to 5 amperes or less, then many ground
faults self-extinguish and do not propagate into phase-to-
phase faults.
Arcing time
Arcing time can be reduced by temporarily setting upstream protective
devices to lower set points during maintenance periods, or by employing
zone-selective interlocking protection (ZSIP).[citation needed] With zone-
selective interlocking, a downstream breaker that detects a fault
communicates with an upstream breaker to delay its instantaneous
tripping function. In this way "selectivity" will be preserved, in other
words faults in the circuit are cleared by the breaker nearest to the fault,
minimizing the effect on the entire system. A fault on a branch circuit
will be detected by all breakers upstream of the fault (closer to the
source of power). The circuit breaker closest to the downstream fault
will send a restraining signal to prevent upstream breakers from tripping
instantaneously. The presence of the fault will nevertheless activate the
preset trip delay timer(s) of the upstream circuit breaker(s); this will
allow an upstream circuit breaker to interrupt the fault, if still necessary
after the preset time has elapsed. The ZSIP system allows faster
instantaneous trip settings to be used, without loss of selectivity. The
faster trip times reduce the total energy in an arc fault discharge.
Arcing time can significantly be reduced by protection based on
detection of arc-flash light. Optical detection is often combined with
over current information.[5] Light and current based protection can be set

264
up with dedicated arc-flash protective relays, or by using normal
protective relays equipped with an add-on arc-flash option.
The most efficient means to reduce arcing time is to use an arc
eliminator [further explanation needed] that will extinguish the arc within a few
milliseconds.
Distance
The distance from an arc flash source within which an unprotected
person has a 50% chance of receiving a second degree burn is referred to
as the "flash protection boundary". Those conducting flash hazard
analyses must consider this boundary, and then must determine what
PPE should be worn within the flash protection boundary.[6] Remote
operators or robots can be used to perform activities that have a high risk
for arc flash incidents, such as inserting draw-out circuit breakers on a
live electrical bus. Remote racking systems are available which keep the
operator outside the arc flash hazard zone.

BURN INJURY FACTS -Arc Flash / Blast- HAZARD PREVENTION

Electricity can cause two types of burns: electrical burns from direct
contact with current and thermal burns from arc flashes and blasts.
An arc flash occurs when powerful, high-amperage currents travel,
or arc, through the air. This canoccur when high voltage differences
exist across a gap between conductors. The result is an instant
release of tremendous amounts of energy.
Temperatures as high as 36,000̊F have been recorded in arc flashes.

Hazards of ARC FLASH/BLAST

• The intense heat and light emitted by an arc flash can cause severe
burns, destroying skin and tissue. An arc flash can ignite or melt
clothing, resulting in further burns. Victims sometimes require skin
grafts or amputations. Death is more likely with increased severity of
burns, the percent of body area affected and age.
• A high-amperage arc can produce a pressure wave blast with a force
of up to 1000 pounds.
The victim can be thrown by the force of this pressure. Injuries can
occur from falling or colliding with nearby objects. Hearing loss may
also result from the blast.
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• The intense heat may melt metal electrical components and blast
molten droplets considerable distances. These droplets harden rapidly
and can lodge in a person’s skin, ignite clothing and may cause lung
damage. The Consequences of Arc Flash Burns Are Severe Physically,
victims may suffer from chronic pain and scarring.
Workers may also have difficulty re-integrating into the community, and
may experience anxiety, depression, or other psychological symptoms.
The social and economic costs may also be high. Workers’
Compensation pays only a portion of lost wages. Some workers may
notbe able to return to their pre-injury job. Employers bear the costs
associated with lost productivity, reduced competitiveness, employee
rehiring and retraining, aswell being subject to increases in workers’
compensation premiums.
Washington State Workers and Arc Flash Burns
From September 2000 through December 2005, 350 Washington
workers were hospitalized for serious burn injuries occurring at work. Of
these,30 (9%) were due to arc flash/blast explosions.
Total Workers’ Compensation costs associated with these 30 claims
exceeded $1.3 million, including reimbursement for almost 1,800 days
of lost work time.

Just a Few Workers’ Stories...

Case 1:
A Journeyman Electrician was working on anelectrical panel whenan arc
flash/blast occurred. He was pushed back by the force of the blast and
his shirt caught fire. He sustained burns to 20% of his body, including
deepburns to his wrists and hands.
Case 2:
An Electrical Foreman with over 20 years experience was working on a
high-voltage circuit that he thought was de-energized. Unfortunately, he
had de-energized the wrong circuit.
He was thrown back by an arc flash/blast and received burns to his arm,
neck, and face.
Case 3:

266
A Journeyman Lineman was holding an energized 2,200 volt wire when
it grounded out through his leg. He sustained electric shock burns to his
trunk and leg and associated flash burns to his hands.
Case 4:
A Journeyman Electrician was installing a high voltage panel when an
arc blast occurred for unknown reasons. The explosion caused the
worker to lose consciousness. He sustained burns to his hands, wrists,
and face.

Summary:
Each of these workers was hospitalized, some required multiple
hospitalizations and surgeries. In addition, at least two of these workers
suffered psychological symptoms, including post-traumatic stress
disorder as a result of the arc flash incidents.
No worker has ever been injured or killed by an arc flash while working
in an ElectricallySafe Work Condition!
Burns from Arc Flash Explosions are Preventable Job planning and
adherence to the “Hierarchy ofControls” can greatly reduce the
likelihood of one of these tragic accidents. “The Hierarchy of Controls”
detailsa strategy for the elimination and mitigation of hazards. It
recognizes that multiple safety precautions may be required in different
situations. Generally, safety precautionsshould be implemented in the
order below.
• Elimination/Substitution – Can jobs be scheduled so that power
sources can be de-energized, grounded and tested thereby eliminating
the hazard? Can an outdated or worn piece of electrical equipment be
removed from service or can a newer safer model replace it?
• Engineering Controls –Prevent accidents by engineering barriers to
dangerous locations. Locked electrical vaults and high fences around
transformers are examples of engineering controls.
• Administrative Controls –An effective lockout/tagout program
thatincludes all necessary training and equipment needed to implement it
is an example of an administrative control. To be successful it must have
the earnest support of management and labor.
• Work Practice Controls – These are matters of supervisorand worker
knowledge, training and education. Does management set
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expectationsfor safe work practices? Do workers meet or exceed safety
rules and bestwork practices? Do supervisors encourage and if necessary
enforce safety rules and best practices? Is a cultureof safety proactively
endorsed and practiced by all levels of the organization?
• Personal Protective Equipment PPE –This is normally considered
the least effective method of protection. However, sometimes PPEmay
be necessitated by administrative or work practice controls and by the
potential hazards of the work being performed. For instance, wearing
insulated gloves, fire resistant clothing and a face shield when working
on energized electrical equipment.
Working on energized equipment shouldbe the EXCEPTION not the
RULE.

Work Safely... Work De-Energized!

Initial Response to an Electrical Injury and First Aid
• If an injured worker is in contact with an energized circuit, do not
touch the victim, shut off the power and call 911!
If you can’t de-energize the circuit, dislodge the victim from the circuit
with non-conductive material. Rescue should only be performed by
knowledgeable persons trained in electrical hazards and rescue
techniques. If the victim is on fire, smother or douse the flames. Remove
smoldering clothing, but not clothing that is melted to the skin.
• Tell a conscious victim not to move.
There may be other associated injuries besides the burns, such as a neck
or spine injury. Moving an injured person can make injuries worse.
•Check for respiration and pulse.
If the victim is not breathing, rescue breathing from trained personnel
should begin immediately. If a pulse is absent, the victim needs CPR. To
be effective CPR should begin in less than 4 minutes.
• Run cool, not cold, water over the burn.
Do not apply creams, ointments or ice. After the burn has been cooled,
cover it with a clean dry cloth. Keep the victim warm.
• Do not give the victim any food or water.
• Always see a doctor following an electrical shock or burn.
Even a victim who feels OK may have suffered internal injuries
thatwon’t become apparent until later.
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What Kind of Injuries can Arc Flash
Cause?
Q. What is the impact of these accidents and
what types of injuries can they cause?
A. Injuries from arc flash accidents tend to be
very severe, and result from two types of
hazards: arc flash and arc blast.

Arc Flash: Electric arcs produce intense heat,

and can heat the air to temperatures as high as
35,000 degrees Fahrenheit. This is 4 times the
surface temperature of the sun. Fatal burns can
occur when the victim is several feet from the
arc. Serious burns and fatalities are not uncommon at a distance of 10
feet. An arc flash will also cause ignition of clothing which will only add
to the severity of the skin burns. Arc flash can cause the following
injuries:
Skin burns by direct heat exposure
Second degree skin burns from exposure of unprotected skin to an
electrical arc flash with incident energy above 1.2 cal/cm2.
Metal is vaporized at this temperature. Droplets of molten metal can be
propelled over great distances, causing serious burns or igniting
clothing.
High-intensity flash can also cause damage to eyesight.

Arc Blast: A high-energy arcing fault can produce a considerable

pressure wave and sound blast. The intense heat from arc causes the
sudden expansion of air, resulting in a blast. A 10,000A arc at 480 volts
is equivalent to 800 MW or approximately 8 stick of dynamite. Pressure
on the chest can be as high as 2000 lbs/sq foot, causing lung collapse.
In some cases, the pressure wave has sufficient energy to snap the heads
of 3/8-inch steel bolts and to knock over construction walls. Moreover, it
can send metal parts flying at speeds over 700 miles per hour.
Arc blast can cause the following injuries:
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  Loss of memory or brain function from concussion
 Hearing loss from ruptured eardrums (The sound associated with
blast can exceed 160 dB. The sound of jet engine only 145 db!)
 Shrapnel wounds from metal parts
 Other physical injuries from being blown off ladders, into walls,
etc.
Electrical Safety &Arc Flash Statistics
George Carlin called electricity “organized lightning.” When you think
of it like that, it makes sense that when the “lightning” becomes
“disorderly,” bad things can and will happen.
Electrocution is the fifth leading cause of work place fatalities in the
US.*A surprisingly high number considering the few people who
perform “electrical work” as a standard part of their job.
Arc flash fatalities are not counted in this statistic; they are logged under
burn injuries, meaning that the rates are even higher.
60% of workplace fatalities are caused by burn injuries.*
Electrical shock is the second leading cause for lost time on the job
(second only to burns).*
97% of electricians have been shocked or injured on the job.
Every 30 minutes during the work day, a worker suffers an electrically
induced injury that requires time off the job for recovery. **
Over the last ten years, more than 46,000 workers have been injured
from on-the-job electrical hazards. **

Arc Flash is the sudden release of electrical energy through the air
following a phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground fault.
The resulting forces produces are known as the Arc Blast.
The core of the arc flash can reach temperatures of 35,000℉ (19427℃)
in less than 1/1000th of a second; ### that’s roughly four time the
temperature of the surface of the sun.
The intense heat turns copper to a plasma state in a fraction of a second,
making it expand 67,000 times its solid-state size (meaning a pea-sized
piece of copper, ends up being the size of a typical rail car in a fraction
of a second).

270
This rapid expansion of copper and the surrounding atmosphere causes a
pressure wave that has been measured at thousands of pounds,
propelling shrapnel at speeds of 700 miles per hour.

The flash of light produced is intense enough to damage eye-sight.

The sound wave can exceed 140 to 165 dB. Exposure to a single
event of such magnitude can permanently damage hearing.*#
Even low voltage electrical shock has been shown to cause sustained
“invisible” injury that manifests itself over the course of the days or
weeks following the initial event. The injuries can take the form of
numbness, muscle weakness, general or localized fatigue, and cognitive
dysfunction, including memory change or loss, concentration issues, and
post-traumatic stress, among others. These side effects of shock have
only recently become the subject research so that the medical
community can begin to understand this phenomenon. ***
80% of electrically related accidents and fatalities involving “Qualified
Workers” are caused by arc flash / arc blast.*#*
An estimated five to ten arc flash explosions occur daily across the US.
Every day, one to two arc flash related fatalities occur across North
America. ##
2,000 workers are treated in specialized burn trauma centers each year as
a result of arc flash injuries. **
These high-tech facilities only treat the most devastated burn victims --
those who have sustained incurable third-degree burns over more than
half of their body.
Arc flash injuries are actually much higher than reported because
workers receiving treatment for trauma and burns that do not require
burn unit attention (i.e. second degree burns or third degree burns
covering less than half their body) are admitted to standard hospitals
which do not track the burn source.
Medical costs for severe electrical burns can exceed $4M per
person.**##
Work-related injuries can cost businesses well over $30M in fines,
medical costs, litigation, lost business and equipment costs.**##
“A good safety program is just good business.”

271
Arc Flash events are sustainable even at 440V. Incident energy in 480V
equipment is often higher than in higher voltage equipment due to the
increased current and higher clearing time in these applications when
compared to higher voltage applications.
More accidents occur with 440V equipment than on higher voltage
equipment.
Field tests and surveys have shown that 22% of breakers operate at less
than 100% efficiency (slow trip), and more than 10% have been shown
not to close at all. Even the slightest delay in the operation of a breaker
or fuse, will double or triple the available incident energy in an arc flash
event.*#*#
Incident energy calculations, and therefore, PPE selection are based on
equipment that is “properly installed and properly maintained.” Most
manufacturers recommend exercising breakers at least once per year to
lubricate the inner working of the breaker mechanisms. #21% of
electrical injuries (including arc flash) tended to be permanent. #*#

Electrical loads demand more power than they consume.

Induction motors convert at most 80 - 90% of the delivered
power into useful work or electrical losses. The remaining
power is used to establish an electromagnetic field in the
motor. This field is alternately expanding and collapsing (once
each cycle) so the power drawn into the field in one instant is
returned to the electric supply system in the next. Therefore, the
average power drawn by the field is zero and reactive power
does not register on a kilowatt-Hour meter. The magnetizing
current creates reactive power. Although it does no useful
work it circulates between the generator and the load - placing a
heavier drain on the power source as well as the transmission
and distribution system.
 Replace over-sized motors with NEMA Premium™
efficiency motors of the right horse power. Any motor’s
power factor is dramatically worse when it is loaded
significantly below the full name plate horse power rating.
272
 Shut down idling motors. When totally unloaded, even
uncoupled, a motor still draws over half its full-load reactive
power.
 Avoid operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
Over-voltage increases reactive power.

Front Panel Enclosure Rating

An important controller characteristic is the front panel enclosure rating.
These ratings can be in the form of an IP rating or a NEMA rating. IP
(Ingress Protection) ratings apply to all controllers and are usually IP65
or higher. This means that from the front panel only, the controller is
completely protected from dust and against low pressure jets of water
from all directions with only limited ingress permitted.

IP ratings are used in the U.S., Canada, and Europe.

A controller’s NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
rating is parallel to the IP rating. Most controllers have a NEMA 4 or 4X
rating, which means they can be used in applications requiring water
wash down only (not oils or solvents). The ‘X’ in a NEMA 4X rating
means that the front panel won’t corrode.

NEMA ratings are used primarily in the U.S. and Canada.

NEMA
NEMA sets standards for a wide range of electrical products, including
motors. NEMA is primarily associated with motors used in North
America. The standards developed represent the general industry
practices and are supported by manufacturers of electrical equipment.
These standards can be found in the NEMA Standard Publication No.
MG 1. Some large AC motors may not fall under NEMA standards.
They are built to meet the requirements of a specific application. They
are referred to as above NEMA motors.

IEC

273
IEC is a European-based organization that publishes and promotes
worldwide, the mechanical and electrical standards for motors, among
other things. In simple terms, it can be said that the IEC is the
international counterpart of the NEMA. The IEC standards are
associated with motors used in many countries. These standards can be
found in the IEC 34-1-16. The motors which meet or exceed these
standards are referred to as IEC motors.
The NEMA standards mainly specify four design types for AC induction
motors – Design A, B, C and D. Their typical torque-speed curves are
shown in Figure 18.
• Design A has normal starting torque (typically 150-170% of rated) and
relatively high starting current. The breakdown torque is the highest of
all the NEMA types. It can handle heavy overloads for a short duration.
The slip is <= 5%. A typical application is the powering of injection
molding machines.
• Design B is the most common type of AC induction motor sold. It has
a normal starting torque, similar to Design A, but offers low starting
current. The locked rotor torque is good enough to start many loads
encountered in the industrial applications. The slip is <= 5%. The motor
efficiency and full-load PF are comparatively high, contributing to the
popularity of the design. The typical applications include pumps, fans
and machine tools.
• Design C has high starting torque (greater than the previous two
designs, say 200%), useful for driving heavy breakaway loads like
conveyors, crushers, stirring machines, agitators, reciprocating pumps,
compressors, etc. These motors are intended for operation near full
speed without great overloads. The starting current is low. The slip is <=
5%.
• Design D has high starting torque (higher than all the NEMA motor
types). The starting current and full-load speed are low. The high slip
values (5-13%) make this motor suitable for applications with changing
loads and subsequent sharp changes in the motor speed, such as in
machinery with energy storage flywheels, punch presses, shears,
elevators, extractors, winches, hoists, oil-well pumping, wire-drawing
machines, etc. The speed regulation is poor, making the design suitable

274
only for punch presses, cranes, elevators and oil well pumps. This motor
type is usually considered a “special order” item.

275
276
IP and NEMA Rating Systems: What is the
Difference?
November 26, 2012 Arras, France
The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) and IP (Ingress Protection) rating
systems are used to describe the degree to which a product is protected from water or dust,
among other things. The product in question could be a gas detector, a central gas detection
controller, or a simple electrical outlet.
The NEMA rating system (NEMA Standard 250) is primarily used in the United States and
Canada, whereas the IP rating system (IEC Standard 60529) is used throughout the rest of the
world.
Unlike temperature conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit, there is no direct formulaic
correspondence between NEMA ratings and IP codes. The IP rating system only covers
protection against the ingress of water and solid objects, whereas the NEMA Rating system also
includes corrosion resistance and use in atmospheres containing explosive agents.
The table below is provided for general reference only and should not be used for the conversion
of NEMA ratings or IP codes.

NEMA Equivalent
Rating Description IP rating
Enclosures are intended for indoor use. Provide a degree of
1 protection against a limited amount of falling dirt. IP10
Enclosures are intended for indoor use. Provide a degree of
2 protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt. IP11
Enclosures are intended for outdoor use. Provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; undamaged by
3 and 3S the formation of ice on the enclosure. IP54
Enclosures are intended for outdoor use. Provide a degree of
protection against falling rain, and sleet; undamaged by the
3R formation of ice on the enclosure. IP14
Provide a degree of protection against windblown dust and rain,
splashing water, and hose-directed water; undamaged by the
4 formation of ice on the enclosure. IP54
Provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust
and rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water; undamaged by
4X the formation of ice on the enclosure. IP56
Provide a degree of protection against hose-directed water and
occasional temporary (NEMA6) or prolonged (NEMA 6P)
submersion, limited depth; undamaged by the formation of ice on
6 and 6P the enclosure. IP67
Enclosures are intended for indoor use. Provide a degree of
protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive
12 and 12K liquids. IP52
Enclosures are intended for indoor use. Provide a degree of
protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive
13 liquids. IP54

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Note : IEC 60529 has no equivalents to NEMA enclosure Types 7, 8, 9, 10 or 11.

IP, NEMA and UL Rating Codes The International Protection Rating, sometimes referred to as
an Ingress Protection rating, is a set of codes used to define specific levels of protection. These
codes consist of the prefix IP, followed by two digits (numbers), and an optional letter. IP rating
codes are classifications used to measure levels of protection, such as preventing the intrusion of
solid objects and liquids from entering an enclosure or motor. Solid objects include body parts
such as hands and fingers, as well as dust and debris. Liquids may involve oils, moisture and/or
condensation. Typically, IP ratings are used as protection measures for motors, electrical devices
and control panels. These standards were designed to provide designers with detailed
information regarding protection. It is not adequate to state “splash‐proof,” “water‐proof,” or
“water‐tight,” as injury to humans and equipment is more likely to occur when vague definitions
are used. The digits noted in the chart below indicate conformity to the conditions therein. When
there is no protection rating with regard to specific criteria, the digit is replaced with the letter
“X.” The first digit to follow IP refers to solids, while the next digit refers to liquids. For
example, a motor that has an IP65 rating is protected from total dust ingress, as well as protected
from low pressure water jets sprayed from any direction.  

IP Terms Defined:  First Digit – Solids Level 0 = No protection provided. Level 1 = >50mm,

protects any large surface of the body, such as the back of a hand, but not deliberate contact.  
Level 2 = >12.5mm, protects fingers or similar sized objects (pencils or pens). Level 3 =
>2.5mm, protection from possible ingress of tools or thick wires. Level 4 = >1mm, protection
against ingress of most wires and screws. Level 5 = Dust protection: Ingress of dust is not
entirely prevented, but dust cannot interfere with the satisfactory operation of the equipment.
Level 6 = Dust tight; complete protection against ingress of dust.                  910 East Orangefair
Lane     Anaheim, CA  92801 USA 4 www.anaheimautomation.com 714-992-6990 714-992-
0471, Fax IP + Second Digit ‐ Liquids Level 0 = No protection provided.   Level 1 = Dripping
water, falling vertically will have no harmful effect. This level means it must pass a test  
duration of 10 minutes, with water dripping equivalent to 1mm rainfall per minute. Level 2 =
Dripping water, while tilted up to 15 degrees will have no harmful effects. This level means it
must pass a test duration of 10 minutes, with water dripping equivalent to 3mm rainfall per
minute. Level 3 = Spraying water at an angle of up to 60 degrees from vertical will have no
harmful effects. This level means it must pass a test duration of 5 minutes, with a water volume
of 0.7 liters per minute, with pressure of 80‐100 KN/m2 . Level 4 = Water that is splashed
against the enclosure from any direction will have no harmful effects. This level means it must
pass a test duration of 5 minutes, with a water volume of 10 liters per minute, and a pressure of
80‐100 KN/m2 . Level 5 = Water jets by a 6.3mm nozzle aimed at an enclosure from any
direction will have no harmful effects. This level means it must pass a test duration for a
minimum of 3 minutes, with a water volume of 12.5 liters per minute, and a pressure of 80‐
100KN/m2 . Level 6 = Powerful water jets from a 12.5mm nozzle, aimed at an enclosure from
any direction, will have no harmful effects. This level means it must pass a test duration of 3
minutes minimum, with a water volume of 100 liters per minute, with a pressure of 100KN/m2 ,
at a distance of 3 meters. Level 7 = Can be immersed in water for 30 minutes, at a depth of 1
meter, and will have no harmful effects. Level 8 = Continuous immersion in water under
conditions specified by the manufacturer. Typically, the equipment is hermetically sealed.  
Additional Letters ‐ Appended to classify the level of protection of humans against access to
hazardous parts. (Not always present in the codes, but if stated, the user must use extreme
caution with this equipment). A =Protected against access to hazardous parts with back of hand
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B = Protected against hazardous parts with fingers C = Protected against tools interfering with
hazardous parts D = Protection against wire from entering hazardous parts     Further letters can
be appended to provide additional information related to the protection of the device and
humans: H = High‐voltage device M = Device moving during water test S = Device remaining
still during water test W = Weather conditions                  910 East Orangefair Lane     Anaheim,
CA  92801 USA 5 www.anaheimautomation.com 714-992-6990 714-992-0471, Fax Mechanical
Impact Resistance – IP and IK Rating Codes An additional number is sometimes used to specify
the resistance of equipment to mechanical impact. This mechanical impact is defined by the
energy needed to qualify a specified resistance level, which is measured in joules (J).   These
resistance codes typically refer to enclosures and are not typically seen with respect to stepper
motors, brush or brushless motors, ac motors, or servo motors, nor are they typically used to
define gearmotors or gearboxes. Older enclosure specifications are sometimes seen with an
optional third IP digit denoting impact resistance. Newer products are likely to be given an IK
rating instead.

IP69K German standard DIN 40050‐9 extends the IEC 60529 rating systems described above
with an IP69K rating for high‐temperature/high‐pressure wash‐down applications. Again, these
ratings typically involve enclosures. These IP69K enclosures must be dust tight (IP6X), and be
able to endure high‐pressure steam cleaning, often used in pharmaceutical and food
applications.   The high‐temperature/high‐pressure test specifies a spray nozzle that is fed with
80°C water at 8‐10MPa (80‐ 100bar) and a flow rate of 14‐16L/min. The spray nozzle is held 10‐
5 cm from the tested device, at several angles: 0°, 40°, 60°, and 90° for 30s each. The test device
is placed on a turntable that rotates once every 12s (5RPM) as the test is performed. The United
States National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) also publishes protection ratings
for enclosures similar to the IP rating system published by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). However, NEMA also dictates other product features not addressed by IP
codes alone. Important factors such as gasket aging, construction practices, and corrosion
resistance, are also addressed in NEMA specifications. Even though it may be possible to map IP
Codes to NEMA ratings that satisfy or surpass the IP Code criteria, mapping NEMA ratings to IP
Codes is impossible, as the IP Code does not mandate the additional requirements.   The table
shown below indicates the minimum NEMA rating that satisfies a given IP code, but can only be
used in that way. There is not a direct correlation from IP to NEMA. Typically, North American
enclosure rating systems are defined in NEMA250, UL 50, and CSA C22.2. If your application
requires a specific rating, it is advised to check all three entities before deciding on an enclosure.
If you are housing Anaheim Automation’s drivers and controllers, please refer to the
specifications of each product, as well as the general guidelines provided by Anaheim
Automation. 

NEMA terms defined: NEMA 1 enclosures are typically used for protecting controls and
connections/terminations from objects and personnel. This style of enclosure, while offering a
latching door, does not have a gasket sealing surface. NEMA 1 enclosures are typically used in
applications where sealing out dust, oil, and water is not required. Motor start/stop stations are
often housed in NEMA 1 enclosures. NEMA 3R enclosures are typically used in outdoor
applications for wiring and junction boxes. This style of enclosure provides protection against
falling rain, sleet, snow, and external ice formation. Indoors they protect against dripping water.
This style of enclosure does not have a gasket sealing surface. Some NEMA 3R models have
hasps for padlocking. NEMA 3S enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against windblown dust, rain, sleet, and to provide for operation of external
279
mechanisms when ice laden. NEMA 4 enclosures are used in many applications where an
occasional wash‐down operation occurs or where machine tool cutter coolant is used. NEMA 4
enclosures also serve in applications where a pressurized stream of water will be used. NEMA 4
enclosures contain gaskets, and the door of the enclosure is clamped for maximum sealing. They
have continuous hinges, mounting feet, and padlock hasps. NEMA 4 enclosures are available in
sizes from small wall mounts to two‐door floor mount enclosure models. NEMA 4X enclosures
are made of stainless steel or high‐quality plastics. NEMA 4X enclosures are typically used in
harsher environments than the standard NEMA 4 types. Applications where corrosive materials
and caustic cleaners are used necessitate the use of a NEMA 4X enclosure. Applications include
food, such as meat/poultry processing facilities, wherein total wash‐down operations using
disinfectants are a necessity for safety. These operations occur repeatedly, such as in petro‐
chemical facilities, including offshore petroleum sites. NEMA 4X is used when protection from
the worst environments is required. NEMA 4X enclosures are available in sizes from small wall
mounts to two‐door floor mount models. NEMA 6P enclosures are intended for both indoor and
outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against the entry of water during
prolonged submersion at a limited depth. NEMA 12 enclosures are designed to prevent the
ingress of dust, water, and oil.   Note: NEMA 12 enclosures are most often used for indoor
applications of automation control and electronic drives systems. Some examples are packaging,
material handling, non‐corrosive process control, and manufacturing applications. Doors with
gaskets seal the enclosure's contents from airborne contaminants and non‐pressurized water and
oil. NEMA 12 enclosures are available in sizes from small wall mounts to two‐door floor mount
models. NEMA 13 enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily, to provide a degree of
protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and non‐corrosive coolant.

Sample IP Rating
IP 6 8
First Second
“Ingress Digit: Digit:
Protectio Solids Liquids
n” Protecti Protecti
on on

 
Ingress Protection (IP) and what it means
The IP Code (or International Protection Rating, sometimes also interpreted as Ingress
Protection Rating*) consists of the letters IP followed by two digits and an optional letter. As
defined in international standard IEC 60529, it classifies the degrees of protection provided against
the intrusion of solid objects (including body parts like hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact,
and water in electrical enclosures. The standard aims to provide users more detailed information
than vague marketing terms such as waterproof.
The digits (characteristic numerals) indicate conformity with the conditions summarized in the tables
below. For example, an electrical socket rated IP22 is protected against insertion of fingers and will
not be damaged or become unsafe during a specified test in which it is exposed to vertically or
280
nearly vertically dripping water. IP22 or 2X are typical minimum requirements for the design of
electrical accessories for indoor use.
*Explanation of the letters IP is given in IEC 60529 (Ed. 2.1), clause 4.1

First Digit: Solids

The first digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against access to
hazardous parts (e.g., electrical conductors, moving parts) and the ingress of solid foreign objects.
Object size
Leve
protected Effective against
l
against

0 Not protected No protection against contact and ingress of objects

1 >50mm Any large surface of the body, such as the back of the
hand, but no protection against deliberate contact
with a body part.

2 >12.5mm Fingers or similar objects.

3 >2.5mm Tools, thick wires, etc.

4 >1mm Most wires, screws, etc.

5 Dust Protected Ingress of dust is not entirely prevented, but it must

not enter in sufficient quantity to interfere with the
satisfactory operation of the equipment; complete
protection against contact.

6 Dust Tight No ingress of dust; complete protection against

contact.

 
Second Digit: Liquids
Protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against harmful ingress of water.

281
 Object size
Leve
protected Effective against
l
against

0 Not protected –

1 Dripping Dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have no

water harmfull effect.

2 Dripping Vertically dripping water shall have no harmful effect

water when when the enclosure is tilted at an angle up to 15° from
tilted up to its normal position.
15°

3 Spraying Water falling as a spray at any angle up to 60° from

water the vertical shall have no harmful effect.

4 Splashing Water splashing against the enclosure from any

water direction shall have no harmful effect.

5 Water jets Water projected by a nozzle (6.3mm) against

enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful
effects.

6 Powerful Water projected in powerful jets (12.5mm nozzle)

water jets against the enclosure from any direction shall have no
harmful effects.

7 Immersion up Ingress of water in harmful quantity shall not be

to 1m possible when the enclosure is immersed in water
under defined conditions of pressure and time (up to 1
m of submersion).

8 Immersion The equipment is suitable for continuous immersion

beyond 1m in water under conditions which shall be specified by
the manufacturer. Normally, this will mean that the
equipment is hermetically sealed. However, with
certain types of equipment, it can mean that water can
enter but only in such a manner that it produces no
harmful effects.

282
IP Rating Reference Chart
Below is an easy to follow reference chart to help you decide which IP rating you need or have.
IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP00 Not protected from solids. Not protected from liquids.

IP01 Not protected from solids. Protected from condensation.

IP02 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray less
than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP03 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray less
than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP04 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray from
any direction.

IP05 Not protected from solids. Protected from low pressure

water jets from any direction.

IP06 Not protected from solids. Protected from high pressure

water jets from any direction.

IP07 Not protected from solids. Protected from immersion

between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP08 Not protected from solids. Protected from long term

immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP10 Protected from touch by hands Not protected from liquids.

greater than 50 millimeters.

IP11 Protected from touch by hands Protected from condensation.

greater than 50 millimeters.

IP12 Protected from touch by hands Protected from water spray less
283
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

greater than 50 millimeters. than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP13 Protected from touch by hands Protected from water spray less
greater than 50 millimeters. than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP14 Protected from touch by hands Protected from water spray from
greater than 50 millimeters. any direction.

IP15 Protected from touch by hands Protected from low pressure

greater than 50 millimeters. water jets from any direction.

IP16 Protected from touch by hands Protected from high pressure

greater than 50 millimeters. water jets from any direction.

IP17 Protected from touch by hands Protected from immersion

greater than 50 millimeters. between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP18 Protected from touch by hands Protected from long term

greater than 50 millimeters. immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP20 Protected from touch by fingers Not protected from liquids.

and objects greater than 12
millimeters.

IP21 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from condensation.

and objects greater than 12
millimeters.

IP22 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from water spray less
and objects greater than 12 than 15 degrees from vertical.
millimeters.

IP23 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from water spray less
and objects greater than 12 than 60 degrees from vertical.
millimeters.

284
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP24 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from water spray from
and objects greater than 12 any direction.
millimeters.

IP25 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from low pressure

and objects greater than 12 water jets from any direction.
millimeters.

IP26 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from high pressure

and objects greater than 12 water jets from any direction.
millimeters.

IP27 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from immersion

and objects greater than 12 between 15 centimeters and 1
millimeters. meter in depth.

IP28 Protected from touch by fingers Protected from long term

and objects greater than 12 immersion up to a specified
millimeters. pressure.

IP30 Protected from tools and wires Not protected from liquids.
greater than 2.5 millimeters.

IP31 Protected from tools and wires Protected from condensation.

greater than 2.5 millimeters.

IP32 Protected from tools and wires Protected from water spray less
greater than 2.5 millimeters. than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP33 Protected from tools and wires Protected from water spray less
greater than 2.5 millimeters. than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP34 Protected from tools and wires Protected from water spray from
greater than 2.5 millimeters. any direction.

IP35 Protected from tools and wires Protected from low pressure
greater than 2.5 millimeters. water jets from any direction.

285
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP36 Protected from tools and wires Protected from high pressure
greater than 2.5 millimeters. water jets from any direction.

IP37 Protected from tools and wires Protected from immersion

greater than 2.5 millimeters. between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP38 Protected from tools and wires Protected from long term
greater than 2.5 millimeters. immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP40 Protected from tools and small Not protected from liquids.
wires greater than 1 millimeter.

IP41 Protected from tools and small Protected from condensation.

wires greater than 1 millimeter.

IP42 Protected from tools and small Protected from water spray less
wires greater than 1 millimeter. than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP43 Protected from tools and small Protected from water spray less
wires greater than 1 millimeter. than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP44 Protected from tools and small Protected from water spray from
wires greater than 1 millimeter. any direction.

IP45 Protected from tools and small Protected from low pressure
wires greater than 1 millimeter. water jets from any direction.

IP46 Protected from tools and small Protected from high pressure
wires greater than 1 millimeter. water jets from any direction.

IP47 Protected from tools and small Protected from immersion

wires greater than 1 millimeter. between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP48 Protected from tools and small Protected from long term
wires greater than 1 millimeter. immersion up to a specified
286
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

pressure.

IP50 Protected from limited dust Not protected from liquids.

ingress.

IP51 Protected from limited dust Protected from condensation.

ingress.

IP52 Protected from limited dust Protected from water spray less
ingress. than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP53 Protected from limited dust Protected from water spray less
ingress. than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP54 Protected from limited dust Protected from water spray from
ingress. any direction.

IP55 Protected from limited dust Protected from low pressure

ingress. water jets from any direction.

IP56 Protected from limited dust Protected from high pressure

ingress. water jets from any direction.

IP57 Protected from limited dust Protected from immersion

ingress. between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP58 Protected from limited dust Protected from long term

ingress. immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP60 Protected from total dust Not protected from liquids.

ingress.

IP61 Protected from total dust Protected from condensation.

ingress.

287
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP62 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray less
ingress. than 15 degrees from vertical.

IP63 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray less
ingress. than 60 degrees from vertical.

IP64 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray from
ingress. any direction.

IP65 Protected from total dust Protected from low pressure

ingress. water jets from any direction.

IP66 Protected from total dust Protected from high pressure

ingress. water jets from any direction.

IP67 Protected from total dust Protected from immersion

ingress. between 15 centimeters and 1
meter in depth.

IP68 Protected from total dust Protected from long term

ingress. immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP69K Protected from total dust Protected from steam-jet

ingress. cleaning.

References
1. IEC 60529, “degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures (IP Codes),” Ed. 2.1 (Geneva: International
Electrotechnical Commision, 2011)
2. IEC 60529 (Ed. 2.1), clause 4.1.

IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP00 Not protected from solids. Not protected from liquids.

IP01 Not protected from solids. Protected from

288
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

condensation.

IP02 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray

less than 15 degrees from
vertical.

IP03 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray

less than 60 degrees from
vertical.

IP04 Not protected from solids. Protected from water spray

from any direction.

IP05 Not protected from solids. Protected from low

pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP06 Not protected from solids. Protected from high

pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP07 Not protected from solids. Protected from immersion

between 15 centimeters and
1 meter in depth.

IP08 Not protected from solids. Protected from long term

immersion up to a specified
pressure.

IP10 Protected from touch by Not protected from liquids.

hands greater than 50
millimeters.

IP11 Protected from touch by Protected from

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

hands greater than 50 condensation.

millimeters.

IP12 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

hands greater than 50 less than 15 degrees from
millimeters. vertical.

IP13 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

hands greater than 50 less than 60 degrees from
millimeters. vertical.

IP14 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

hands greater than 50 from any direction.
millimeters.

IP15 Protected from touch by Protected from low

hands greater than 50 pressure water jets from
millimeters. any direction.

IP16 Protected from touch by Protected from high

hands greater than 50 pressure water jets from
millimeters. any direction.

IP17 Protected from touch by Protected from immersion

hands greater than 50 between 15 centimeters and
millimeters. 1 meter in depth.

IP18 Protected from touch by Protected from long term

hands greater than 50 immersion up to a specified
millimeters. pressure.

IP20 Protected from touch by Not protected from liquids.

fingers and objects greater
than 12 millimeters.

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP21 Protected from touch by Protected from

fingers and objects greater condensation.
than 12 millimeters.

IP22 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

fingers and objects greater less than 15 degrees from
than 12 millimeters. vertical.

IP23 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

fingers and objects greater less than 60 degrees from
than 12 millimeters. vertical.

IP24 Protected from touch by Protected from water spray

fingers and objects greater from any direction.
than 12 millimeters.

IP25 Protected from touch by Protected from low

fingers and objects greater pressure water jets from
than 12 millimeters. any direction.

IP26 Protected from touch by Protected from high

fingers and objects greater pressure water jets from
than 12 millimeters. any direction.

IP27 Protected from touch by Protected from immersion

fingers and objects greater between 15 centimeters and
than 12 millimeters. 1 meter in depth.

IP28 Protected from touch by Protected from long term

fingers and objects greater immersion up to a specified
than 12 millimeters. pressure.

IP30 Protected from tools and Not protected from liquids.

wires greater than 2.5

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

millimeters.

IP31 Protected from tools and Protected from

wires greater than 2.5 condensation.
millimeters.

IP32 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

wires greater than 2.5 less than 15 degrees from
millimeters. vertical.

IP33 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

wires greater than 2.5 less than 60 degrees from
millimeters. vertical.

IP34 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

wires greater than 2.5 from any direction.
millimeters.

IP35 Protected from tools and Protected from low

wires greater than 2.5 pressure water jets from
millimeters. any direction.

IP36 Protected from tools and Protected from high

wires greater than 2.5 pressure water jets from
millimeters. any direction.

IP37 Protected from tools and Protected from immersion

wires greater than 2.5 between 15 centimeters and
millimeters. 1 meter in depth.

IP38 Protected from tools and Protected from long term

wires greater than 2.5 immersion up to a specified
millimeters. pressure.

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP40 Protected from tools and Not protected from liquids.

small wires greater than 1
millimeter.

IP41 Protected from tools and Protected from

small wires greater than 1 condensation.
millimeter.

IP42 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

small wires greater than 1 less than 15 degrees from
millimeter. vertical.

IP43 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

small wires greater than 1 less than 60 degrees from
millimeter. vertical.

IP44 Protected from tools and Protected from water spray

small wires greater than 1 from any direction.
millimeter.

IP45 Protected from tools and Protected from low

small wires greater than 1 pressure water jets from
millimeter. any direction.

IP46 Protected from tools and Protected from high

small wires greater than 1 pressure water jets from
millimeter. any direction.

IP47 Protected from tools and Protected from immersion

small wires greater than 1 between 15 centimeters and
millimeter. 1 meter in depth.

293
 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

IP48 Protected from tools and Protected from long term

small wires greater than 1 immersion up to a specified
millimeter. pressure.

IP50 Protected from limited Not protected from liquids.

dust ingress.

IP51 Protected from limited Protected from

dust ingress. condensation.

IP52 Protected from limited Protected from water spray

dust ingress. less than 15 degrees from
vertical.

IP53 Protected from limited Protected from water spray

dust ingress. less than 60 degrees from
vertical.

IP54 Protected from limited Protected from water spray

dust ingress. from any direction.

IP55 Protected from limited Protected from low

dust ingress. pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP56 Protected from limited Protected from high

dust ingress. pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP57 Protected from limited Protected from immersion

dust ingress. between 15 centimeters and
1 meter in depth.

IP58 Protected from limited Protected from long term

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

dust ingress. immersion up to a specified

pressure.

IP60 Protected from total dust Not protected from liquids.

ingress.

IP61 Protected from total dust Protected from

ingress. condensation.

IP62 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray

ingress. less than 15 degrees from
vertical.

IP63 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray

ingress. less than 60 degrees from
vertical.

IP64 Protected from total dust Protected from water spray

ingress. from any direction.

IP65 Protected from total dust Protected from low

ingress. pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP66 Protected from total dust Protected from high

ingress. pressure water jets from
any direction.

IP67 Protected from total dust Protected from immersion

ingress. between 15 centimeters and
1 meter in depth.

IP68 Protected from total dust Protected from long term

ingress. immersion up to a specified

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 IP
First Digit - SOLIDS Second Digit - LIQUIDS
Number

pressure.

IP69K Protected from total dust Protected from steam-jet

ingress. cleaning.

REFERENCES
1. IEC 60529, “degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures (IP Codes),” Ed. 2.1 (Geneva:
International Electrotechnical Commision, 2011)
2. IEC 60529 (Ed. 2.1), clause 4.1.

NEMA Ratings and IP Equivalent’ Chart

296
297
NEMA Ratings

There are many NEMA ratings available for enclosures. Below, is a brief explanation of
each NEMA rating.

NEMA 1 General Purpose – Indoors

Type 1 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against contact with the enclosed equipment or locations where
unusual service conditions do not exist.

NEMA 2 Drip Proof – Indoors

Type 2 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt.

NEMA 3 Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet resistant – Indoors/Outdoors

Type 3 enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; and to be undamaged by
the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 3R Rain Proof & Ice/Sleet Proof – Indoors/Outdoors

Type 3R enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against falling rain; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice
on the enclosure.

NEMA 3S Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet Proof – Outdoors

Type 3S enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against sleet; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the
enclosure.

NEMA 4 Water Tight & Dust Tight – Indoors/Outdoors

Type 4 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and
hose directed water; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
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NEMA 4x Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Corrosion Resistant – Indoors/Outdoors

Type 4X enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor and outdoor use primarily
to provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing
water, and hose-directed water; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the
enclosure.

NEMA 5 Superseded by NEMA 12 for Control Apparatus

Type 5 see NEMA 12

NEMA 6 Submersible, Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Ice/Sleet Resistant –

Indoors/Outdoors

Type 6 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against the entry of water during temporary submersion
at a limited depth; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 7 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof – Indoors

Type 7 enclosures are for indoor use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C,
or D, as defined in the National Electrical Code. Type 7 enclosures shall be capable of
withstanding the pressures resulting from an internal explosion of specified gases, and
contain such an explosion sufficiently that an explosive gas-air mixture existing in the
atmosphere surrounding the enclosure will not be ignited.  Enclosed heat generating
devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of igniting
explosive gas-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere.   Enclosures shall meet
explosion, hydro-static, and temperature design tests.

NEMA 8 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof – Indoors

Type 8 is same as NEMA 7, except the unit is oil-immersed

NEMA 9 Underwriters’ Lab Class II – Groups E,F,G – Indoors

Type 9 enclosures are intended for special purpose indoor use in locations classified as
hazardous (Class II, Groups E, F, or G, as defined in the National Electrical Code).
Type 9 enclosures shall be capable of preventing the entrance of dust.  Enclosed heat

299
generating devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of
igniting or discoloring dust on the enclosure or igniting dust-air mixtures in the
surrounding atmosphere.  Enclosures shall meet dust penetration and temperature
design tests, and aging of gaskets (if used).

NEMA 10 Bureau of Mines

NEMA 11 Corrosion Resistant & Drip Proof – Oil Immersed – indoors

NEMA 12 Industrial Use – Dust Tight & Drip Tight – Indoors

Type 12 enclosures are intended for industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids.

NEMA 13 Oil Tight & Dust Tight – Indoors

Type 13 enclosures are intended for industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant.

Comparing NEMA and IP ratings. 

This comparison is only approximate, and it is the responsibility of the user to verify the
enclosure rating necessary for the given application.

What's the Difference Between NEMA Ratings and IP

Ratings?
Moisture and particulate matter can greatly affect pressure transmitter function and longevity.
Environmental exposure to water ranges from "condensing" moisture to wash-down with water under
pressure to total and permanent submersion. 

WIKA manufactures a wide range of pressure transmitters to meet specific protection requirements as
defined by two types of enclosure classification rating systems: National Electronic Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) ratings and Ingress Protection (IP) ratings.
These systems define protection from solids and liquids entering an enclosure. An IP rating considers
only protection against ingress of solid foreign objects and ingress of water, while NEMA ratings consider
these and other specifics such as corrosion and construction details. It is possible to say that a NEMA
type is equivalent to an IP rating, but it is not possible to say that an IP rating is equivalent to a NEMA
type. The comparison of NEMA and IP enclosure ratings is only approximate. It is the responsibility of the
user to verify the enclosure rating necessary for the given application.
300
 IP ratings
The the Ingress Protection system is more commonly used in Europe but is increasingly used in the U.S.
as well. Because the two systems use different test parameters, they are not directly comparable or easily
converted.

NEMA Ratings
NEMA 1: General Purpose – Indoors
 Intended for general purpose indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of ingress protection
against contact with the enclosed equipment or locations where unusual service conditions do not exist
NEMA 2: Drip Proof – Indoors
 Intended for general purpose indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against
limited amounts of falling water and dirt
NEMA 3: Dust tight, rain tight, and ice/sleet resistant – indoors/outdoors
 Intended for general purpose outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against
windblown dust, rain, and sleet    
 Will be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure
NEMA 3R: Rain proof and ice/sleet proof – indoors/outdoors
 Intended for general purpose outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against
falling rain    
 Will be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure
NEMA 3S: Dust tight, rain tight, and ice/sleet – outdoors
NEMA 4: Water tight and dust tight – indoors/outdoors
 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection to
personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed equipment    
 Provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, snow, windblown dust, splashing
water, and hose-directed water    
 Will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure
NEMA 4X: Water tight, dust tight, and corrosion resistant – indoors/outdoors
 Same as NEMA 4, with the addition of corrosion resistance    
 Enclosures and external parts attached to these enclosures shall be manufactured of American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Type 304 Stainless Steel, polymerics, or materials with equivalent corrosion
resistance. If material other than Type 304 Stainless Steel is used, it shall be tested in accordance with
5.9 and 5.10.
NEMA 5: General purpose dust tight
 Intended for use indoors or outdoors with protection from dust provided by gaskets
NEMA 6: Submersible, water tight, dust tight, and ice/sleet resistant – indoors/outdoors
 Intended for general purpose indoor and outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against the entry of water during temporary submersion at a limited depth    
 Will be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure
NEMA 7: Underwriters Lab Class 1 – Groups C & D – explosion proof – indoors
 Intended for indoor use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as defined in the
National Electrical Code    

301
 Capable of withstanding the pressures resulting from an internal explosion of specified gases and
containing such an explosion sufficiently that an explosive gas-air mixture existing in the atmosphere
surrounding the enclosure will not be ignited.    
 Enclosed heat-generating devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures
capable of igniting explosive gas-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere    
 Enclosures shall meet explosion, hydrostatic, and temperature design tests
NEMA 8: Underwriters Lab Class I – Groups C & D – explosion proof – indoors
Same as NEMA 7, except the unit is oil-immersed

NEMA 9: Underwriters Lab Class II – Groups E, F, G – indoors

 Intended for special-purpose indoor use in locations classified as hazardous (Class II, Groups E,
F, and G, as defined in the National Electric Code)    
 Capable of preventing the entrance of dust    
 Enclosed heat-generating devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures
capable of igniting or discoloring dust on the enclosure or igniting dust-air mixtures in the surrounding
atmosphere    
 Enclosures shall meet dust penetration and temperature design tests and aging of gaskets (if
used)
NEMA 11: Corrosion resistant and drip proof – oil immersed – indoors
NEMA 12: Industrial use – dust tight and drip tight – indoors
 Constructed (without knockouts) to provide a degree of protection to personnel against incidental
contact with the enclosed equipment    
 Intended for industrial indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against dust, falling
dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids
NEMA 13: Oil tight and dust tight – indoors
 Intended for industrial indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against dust,
spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant)
* The comparison of NEMA and IP enclosure ratings is only approximate.  It is the responsibility of the
user to verify the enclosure rating necessary for the given application.

IP Ratings
 

The IP rating system provides a means of classifying the degree of protection from solid objects and
liquids afforded by electrical equipment and enclosures. The system is recognized in most European
countries and is set out in a number of British and European standards. These include: Classification of
Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures, BS (British Standards) 5490:1977; IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) 529:1976.

302
The first number defines the level of protection against penetration of solid objects into the housing. The
second number defines the level of protection against penetration of liquids into the housing.

Number Degree of Protection (Solid) Number Degree of Protection (Liquid)

(1st (2nd
Digit) Digit)

0 No protection against contact or entry of 0 No protection

solids

1 Protection against accidental contact by 1 Protection against drops of condensed

hand, but not deliberate contact. water. Condensed water falling on
Protection against large objects (greater housing shall have no effect
than 50 mm)

2 Protection against contact by tools, wire, 2 Protection against drops of liquid.

etc. Protection against small foreign Drops of falling liquid shall have no
objects (greater than 12 mm) effect when housing is tilted to 15°
from vertical

3 Protection against contact by tools, wire, 3 Protection against rain. No harmful

etc. Protection against small foreign effect from rain at angle less than 60°
objects (greater than 2.5 mm) from vertical

4 Protection against contact by tools, wire, 4 Protections against splashing from any
etc. Protection against small foreign direction
objects (greater than 1 mm)

5 Complete protection against contact with 5 Protection against water jets from any
live or moving parts. Protection against direction
harmful deposits of dust

6 Complete protection of live or moving 6 Protection against conditions on ship

parts. Protection against penetration of decks. Water from heavy seas will not
dust enter

303
     7 Protection against immersion in water.
Water will not enter under stated
conditions of pressure and time

    8 Protection against indefinite immersion

in water under a specified pressure

Examples of items with IP ratings:

 Umbrella: IP-01 or IP-02 (depending on umbrella)    
 Chain-link fence: IP-02    
 Chicken wire: IP-20    
 Screen: IP-30    
 Kevlar cloth: IP-40    
 Tent (camping): IP-42    
 Saran wrap: IP-51    
 Bottle of wine: IP-67    
 Submarine: IP-68

NEMA and IP Ratings

Comparison Between NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers and IEC Enclosure
Classification Designations

IEC Publication 60529 Classification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures provides

a system for specifying the enclosures of electrical equipment on the basis of the degrees of
protection provided by the enclosure. IEC 60529 does not specify degrees of protection against
mechanical damage of equipment, risk of explosions, or conditions such as moisture (produced
for example by condensation), corrosive vapours, fungus, or vermin.

The NEMA Standard for Enclosures for Electrical Equipment does test for environmental
conditions such as corrosion, rust, icing, oil, and coolants. For this reason, and because the test
and evaluations for other characteristics are not identical, the IEC Enclosure Classification
Designations cannot be exactly equated with the enclosure Type numbers in this standard. The
IEC designations consists of the letters IP followed by two numerals. 

The first characteristic numeral indicates the degree of protection provided by the enclosure with
respect to the persons and solid foreign objects entering the enclosure. 

The second characteristic numeral indicates the degree of protection provided by the enclosure
with respect to the harmful ingress of water. Table A -1 provides an equivalent conversion for
the enclosure Type Numbers in this standard to the IEC Enclosure Classifications Designations.

304
The enclosure type numbers meet or exceed the test requirements for the IEC classification; for
this reason Table A -1 cannot be used to convert from IEC Classifications to enclosure Type
numbers.

NEMA vs. IP Enclosure Protection Ratings

Electrical enclosures are rated based on their ability to withstand a varying degree of
environmental elements, including dust, water, and ice. In the United States, the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association developed the NEMA rating for classifying an
enclosure’s level of protection from those environmental elements. The International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) http://www.iec.ch/index.htm has developed an
alternative rating system, the IP standard, which stands for Ingress Protection. The
standard format is “IP’ followed by two numbers which designate the level of protection.
The first digit, which ranges from 1-6, specifies the level of protection from solids, and
the second digit, which ranges from 1-8, specifies the level of protection from water. The
higher the number is, the greater the level of protection. For instance, an enclosure with a
rating of IP10 would offer less protection than an enclosure that is rated at IP54.
The following table summarizes the various IP number designations:

Protection From
First Number Second Number Protection From Water
Solid Objects

0 No protection 0 No protection

Protected from
Protected from vertically
1 solid objects over 1
falling drops of water
50mm

Protected from Protected from direct sprays

2 solid objects over 2 of water up to 15 degrees
12mm from vertical

Protected from Protected from direct sprays

3 solid objects over 3 of water up to 60 degrees
2.5mm from vertical

Protected from Protected against sprays from

4 solid objects over 4 all directions - limited ingress
1mm permitted

305
 Protected from low pressure
Protected from jets of water from all
5 5
dust-limited ingress directions - limited ingress
permitted

Protected against  strong jets

Totally protected
6 6 of water - limited ingress
from dust
permitted

Protected from the effects of

NA   7 temporary immersion
between 15cm and 1m

Protected against long

NA   8 periods of immersion under
pressure

There is not a direct correlation between NEMA ratings and IP ratings, as the two
systems are based on a different set of variables. However, the table below shows an
approximate cross reference that can be used to help determine the IP number that meets
or exceeds a particular NEMA rating.
NEMA IP

1 10

2 11

3 54

3r 14

3s 54

4 and 4x 55

5 52

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6 and 6p 67

12 and 12k 52

13 54

NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) ratings can be approximately

compared to those of the IP system as shown below. Other factors such as corrosion
protection are involved in the NEMA system, please refer to official documentation for
details.

NEMA 1 = IP10 NEMA 2 = IP11 NEMA 3 = IP54 NEMA 4 = IP56 NEMA 4X = IP66
NEMA 6 = IP67 NEMA 12 = IP52 NEMA 13 = IP54

Understanding IP and NEMA Ratings

The protection of enclosures against ingress of dirt or against the ingress of water is
defined in IEC529 (BSEN60529:1991). Conversely, an enclosure which protects
equipment against ingress of particles will also protect a person from potential hazards
within that enclosure, and this degree of protection is also defined as a standard.

The degrees of protection are most commonly expressed as "IP" followed by two
numbers, e.g. IP65, where the numbers define the degree of protection. The first digit
(Foreign Bodies Protection)shows the extent to which the equipment is protected against
particles, or to which persons are protected from enclosed hazards. The second digit
(Water Protection) indicates the extent of protection against water. The wording in the
table is not exactly as used in the standards document, but the dimensions are accurate.

The first digit in the rating is the protection against contact and foreign bodies. The
second digit in the rating is the water protection factor. The third digit in the impact
protection factor It is normally displayed in the format below.

IP s l (i)

s = solids, l=liquids and i= impact (optional)

307
First Index - Foreign Bodies Protection, Solids

Inde Protection against

Protection against solid objects (foreign bodies)
x Human/Tool Contact
0 No special protection
1 Back of hand, Fist Large foreign bodies, diam. >50mm
2 Finger Medium-sized foreign bodies, diam. >12
3 Tools and wires etc with a Small foreign bodies, diam. >2.5mm
thickness >2.5mm
4 Tools and wires etc with a Granular foreign bodies, diam. >1mm
thickness >1mm
5 Complete protection, Dust protected; dust deposits are permitted, but
(limited ingress permitted) their volume must not affect the function of the
unit.
6 Complete protection Dust-proof
Second Index - Water Protection, Liquids
Inde
Protection against water Protection from condition
x
0 No special protection
1 Water dripping/falling vertically Condensation/Light rain
2 Water sprayed at an angle (up to 15º degrees Light rain with wind
from the vertical)
3 Spray water (any direction up to 60º degrees Heavy rainstorm
from the vertical)
4 Spray water from all directions, (limited Splashing
ingress permitted)
5 Low pressure water jets from all directions, Hose down, residential
(limited ingress permitted)
6 High pressure jets from all directions, Hose down, commercial. eg.
(limited ingress permitted) Ship decks
7 Temporary immersion, 15 cm to 1m Immersion in tank
8 Permanent Immersion, under pressure For use on Titanic recovery
vehicle
Third Index - Impact Protection, Impact
Inde
Protection against impact Equivalent mass impact
x
0 No special protection
1 Protected against 0.225J eg. 150g weight falling from 15cm height
impact
2 Protected against 0.375J eg. 250g weight falling from 15cm height
impact
3 Protected against 0.5J impact eg. 250g weight falling from 20cm height
308
Inde
Protection against impact Equivalent mass impact
x
4 Protected against 2.0J impact eg. 500g weight falling from 40cm height
5 Protected against 6.0J impact eg. 0.61183kg weight falling from 1m
height
6 Protected against 20.0J impact eg. 2.0394kg weight falling from 1m height
Examples:
Example IP
Umbrella- IP-01 or IP-02 depending on umbrella
Chain link fence- IP-10
Chicken wire- IP-20
Screen- IP-30
Kevlar cloth- IP-40
Tent (camping)- IP-42
Saran wrap- IP-51
Bottle of wine- IP-67
Submarine- IP-68

NEMA Ratings

There are many NEMA ratings available for enclosures. Below, is a brief explanation of
each NEMA rating.

NEMA 1 General Purpose - Indoors Type 1 enclosures are intended for general purpose
indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against contact with the enclosed
equipment or locations where unusual service conditions do not exist.

NEMA 2 Drip Proof - Indoors Type 2 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor
use primarily to provide a degree of protection against limited amounts of falling water
and dirt.

NEMA 3 Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet resistant - Indoors/Outdoors Type 3
enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; and to be undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 3R Rain Proof & Ice/Sleet Proof - Indoors/Outdoors Type 3R enclosures are
intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against falling rain; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
309
NEMA 3S Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet Proof - Outdoors Type 3S enclosures are
intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against sleet; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 4 Water Tight & Dust Tight - Indoors/Outdoors Type 4 enclosures are intended
for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose directed water; and to be
undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 4x Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Corrosion Resistant - Indoors/Outdoors Type 4X
enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor and outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and
hose-directed water; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 5 Superseded by NEMA 12 for Control Apparatus Type 5 see NEMA 12

NEMA 6 Submersible, Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Ice/Sleet Resistant - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 6 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against the entry of water during temporary submersion at
a limited depth; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

NEMA 7 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof - Indoors Type 7
enclosures are for indoor use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as
defined in the National Electrical Code. Type 7 enclosures shall be capable of
withstanding the pressures resulting from an internal explosion of specified gases, and
contain such an explosion sufficiently that an explosive gas-air mixture existing in the
atmosphere surrounding the enclosure will not be ignited. Enclosed heat generating
devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of igniting
explosive gas-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere. Enclosures shall meet
explosion, hydro-static, and temperature design tests.

NEMA 8 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof - Indoors Type 8 is
same as NEMA 7, except the unit is oil-immersed

NEMA 9 Underwriters' Lab Class II - Groups E,F,G - Indoors Type 9 enclosures are
intended for special purpose indoor use in locations classified as hazardous (Class II,
Groups E, F, or G, as defined in the National Electrical Code). Type 9 enclosures shall be

310
capable of preventing the entrance of dust. Enclosed heat generating devices shall not
cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of igniting or discoloring dust on
the enclosure or igniting dust-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere. Enclosures
shall meet dust penetration and temperature design tests, and aging of gaskets (if used).

NEMA 10 Bureau of Mines

NEMA 11 Corrosion Resistant & Drip Proof - Oil Immersed - indoors

NEMA 12 Industrial Use - Dust Tight & Drip Tight - Indoors Type 12 enclosures are
intended for industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against dust,
falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids.

NEMA 13 Oil Tight & Dust Tight - Indoors Type 13 enclosures are intended for
industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against dust, spraying of
water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant.

Comparing NEMA and IP enclosure ratings. This comparison is only approximate, and it is the
responsibility of the user to verify the enclosure rating necessary for the given application.

Enclosure type
IP23 1
IP30 2
IP32 3
IP55 4
IP64 4x
IP65 6
IP66 12
IP67 13
The below table was extract from NEMA Standards Publication 250-2003, "Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum)"
Enclosure
Type Number IEC Enclosure Classification Designation
1 IP10
2 IP11
3 IP54
3R IP14
3S IP54
4 and 4X IP56
311
Type Number IEC Enclosure Classification Designation
5 IP52
6 AND 6P IP67
12 AND 12K IP52
13 IP54

This comparison is based on tests specified in IEC Publication 60529

Also not that Table A-1 above provides an equivalent conversion from the enclosure Type
numbers in this Standard to the IEC Enclosure Classification Designations. The enclosure type
numbers meet or exceed the test requirements for the associated IEC Classification; for this
reason Table A-1 cannot be used to convert from IEC Classifications to enclosure Type numbers.

IP Ratings (Ingress Protection) and Equivalent Equivalent NEMA Ratings

NEMA Ratings Explained NEMA (National Electrical
(helpful information only, detailed reference Manufacturers Association) ratings can
should be taken from an appropriate agency) be approximately compared to those of
An IP rating contains two numbers (i.e. IP65) in the IP system as shown below.  Other
most instances which relate to the level of factors such as corrosion protection are
protection provided by an enclosure or housing. also involved in the NEMA system,
please refer to official documentation for
details.
The first number relates to protection from solids
as follows: NEMA 1:    IP10
0:  No Special Protection NEMA 2:    IP11
1:  Protected against solid objects up to 50 mm in NEMA 3:    IP54
diameter NEMA 4:    IP56
2:  Protected against solid objects up to 12 mm in NEMA 4X:  IP66
diameter NEMA 6:    IP67
3:  Protected against solid objects up to 2.5 mm in NEMA 12:  IP52
diameter NEMA 13:  IP54
4:  Protected against solid objects up to 1 mm in  
diameter
5:  Dust protected
6:  Dust tight

The second number relates to protection from

liquids as follows:
0:  No special protection
1:  Protected against dripping water
2:  Protected against dripping water when tilted up
to 15º from normal position
3:  Protected against spraying water
4:  Protected against splashing water
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5:  Protected against water jet spray
6:  Protected against heavy water jet spray
7:  Protected against the effects of immersion
8:  Protected against submersion
 
Example:  IP66 = Dust tight and protected against
heavy water jet spray.

IP66/IP67 - What do the numbers mean?

IP66/IP67? What do the numbers mean? I was recently asked an excellent question, and I
realized that many of our readers are likely wondering the same thing. I hope this column is
useful, and I encourage you to keep the questions coming!  Submit your comments using the
form on this website.... More
What is MTBF?
MTBF is the abbreviation for Mean Time Between Failures. MTBF is an indicator of the
reliability of a reparable product or system. It measures the rate of random failures, excluding
systematic failures due, for example, to design errors (e.g., software errors) or manufacturing
defects (products at... More
SIL Reliability Data
It is simply not acceptable for anyone who must complete an instrument-based safety role at a
certain SIL level to rely solely on the SIL level of each component. For example, it is critical to
understand the probability of failure on demand (PFDavg) which, depending on the required SIL,
must not... More
How To Select A Calibration Gas
Calibrating a gas detector consists of adjusting the zero and the sensitivity. To adjust the zero, I
recommend using a bottle of reconstituted air (20.9% O2), with no traces of gas or other
impurities. For oxygen (O2) or carbon dioxide (CO2) detectors, nitrogen must be used since air
naturally... More
IP and NEMA Rating Systems: What is the Difference?
The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) and IP (Ingress Protection) rating
systems are used to describe the degree to which a product is protected from water or dust,
among other things. The product in question could be a gas detector, a central gas detection
controller, or a... More
No Ordinary Day
The work week had just begun and I could already tell it was going to be a long day. Sounds
familiar, right? It was one of those days where you know you’ll never come close to finishing all
of the things you need to do. On top of it all, there was this program to write and upload to the
new... More
How many detectors and modules can I connect to an MX43?
It depends on the number of lines.  The 4 line version of the MX43 can accommodate up to 16
modules and detectors, while the 8 line version has twice that capacity (see Table 1). The system
is comprised of the following digital modules: Digital detector (OLCT10N, OLCT80,
iTrans... More
Explosive Gases and Calibration Gas
Just yesterday, one of our clients explained to me that he needed to equip his tank farm with
hydrocarbon detectors to prevent explosions in the event of a leak. With the variety of chemicals
present at the site, he didn't know which detector to choose, especially since the storage tanks
are... More
313
How long does a gas detector last?
First of all, a gas detector is made up of electronics and a detection sensor. Although the Mean
Time Between Failure (MTBF) of the electronics is longer than 200 years, as is the case for our
OLCT50 detector, for example, the sensor won't last as long. The lifespan of a sensor depends
on... More

Understanding NEMA Ratings for Electrical Enclosures

Sep 12, 2013 3:03 PM | by Editorial Staff | NO COMMENTS
Joe Wilson, Appleton Electric
NEMA ratings can be a source of confusion. All too often, enclosures are specified with the
wrong NEMA rating, which can mean wasted money if the chosen rating is too high, or
premature failure and the potential for safety incidents if the rating is too low. Here’s a quick
overview of NEMA ratings, where they come from and what they mean.
What is NEMA?
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) publishes more than 600 standards,
application guides and technical papers on a wide range of topics related to electrical product
function and safety, helping US manufacturers ensure the compatibility, proper function and
safety of their products. One familiar example is the system of NEMA ratings for plugs used in
North America to accommodate different voltage and amperage ranges.
What are NEMA ratings?
Despite the broad mission of the NEMA organization, the term “NEMA ratings” is used
colloquially to refer to a very specific standard for electrical enclosures. NEMA standard ICS 6
categorizes enclosure types according to their ability to protect against ingress or damage due to
liquids, dust and corrosive chemicals. NEMA publishes a new review of these standards every
five years, and the 2013 draft is currently in progress. These generally involve improvements in
testing standards that manufacturers need to know about, but they typically do not affect what the
ratings mean in terms of specifying equipment for particular applications.

How are Enclosures Certified under the NEMA Rating System?

NEMA does not test products and is not affiliated with UL or any other testing laboratories.
Instead, NEMA simply defines and publishes enclosure standards, and manufacturers’
compliance with those standards is entirely voluntary. Manufacturers can self-declare their
compliance, although some manufacturers, including Appleton Electric, do use third-party
testing and certification to provide their customers with objective assurance that the products
they buy will perform as expected. NEMA does provide a list of testing laboratories and
certification bodies that perform this service as well.
Where is complete information on NEMA ratings available?
An overview of NEMA enclosure type definitions is available for free, and complete
descriptions, applications, features and test criteria are available for purchase. When the 2013
revisions are completed, an announcement and updated documents will be available on

314
the NEMA website. The following summary provides the essential information needed to choose
the appropriate enclosure type for a specific application. It is also recommended to double-check
with the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) for each installation.
Non-hazardous location NEMA enclosure types
Type 1: General purpose, indoor use. Provides a degree of protection against human contact with
electrically-charged, live parts and against ingress of solid foreign objects such as falling dirt.
Type 2: Drip-proof, indoor use. Same protection as Type 1 but adds protection against dripping
and light splashing of water.
Types 3R, 3RX: Rain-tight, sleet-resistant. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type 1, but
adds a degree of protection against ingress of falling dirt, rain, sleet and snow; also protects
against damage due to external ice formation. Rust-resistant. The “X” designation indicates
corrosion-resistance.
Types 3, 3X: Dust-tight, rain-tight, sleet-tight. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type
3R but adds protection against windblown dust. The “X” designation indicates corrosion-
resistance.
Types 3S, 3SX: Dust-tight, rain-tight, sleet-tight. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type
3 but includes external mechanisms that remain operable when ice-laden. The “X” designation
indicates corrosion-resistance.
Types 4, 4X: Water-tight, dust-tight, sleet-resistant. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as
Type 3 but adds protection against splashing and hose-directed water. The “X” designation
indicates corrosion-resistance.
Type 5: Dust-tight. Indoor use. Same protection as Type 2 but adds gaskets to prevent ingress of
settling dust, lint, fibers and flyings.
Types 6, 6P: Submersible, indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type 4, but adds protection
against occasional temporary submersion (Type 6) or prolonged submersion (Type 6P) at limited
depth.
Types 12, 12K: General purpose, indoor use. Protects against falling dirt and circulating dust,
lint, fibers and flyings. Protects against ingress of dripping and splashing water. Rust-resistant
Type 12 enclosures do not include knockouts; Type 12K enclosures do include knockouts.
Type 13: General purpose, indoor use. Same protection as Type 12, but adds protection against
ingress of spraying, splashing or seeping oil and noncorrosive coolants.

Hazardous location NEMA enclosure types

Note that all equipment designed for use in hazardous locations must be certified by a nationally
recognized testing laboratory, such as UL. In addition to the NEMA type, look for the
appropriate hazardous location equipment markings.
Type 7: Explosion proof, indoor use. Class I, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups A, B, C
and D.
Type 8: Explosion proof, indoor or outdoor use. Class I, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups
A, B, C and D.

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Type 9: Dust ignition proof, indoor use. Class II, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups E, F
and G.
Type 10: MSHA. Meets the requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration, 30 CFR
Part 18.
NEMA Ratings and IP Codes
The IEC system provides IP codes that specify the ingress protection afforded by electrical
enclosures. IP codes are two-digit numbers, with the first digit representing the degree of
protection against entry of solid objects (fingers, dust, etc.) and the second digit representing
protection against ingress of water.
The relationship between NEMA ratings and IP codes can be confusing. Although it is possible
to determine the equivalent IP code based on the NEMA rating, the reverse is not true. This is
because NEMA ratings often go beyond describing protection against ingress of water to include
other factors – for example, resistance to ice, rust, corrosion or oil.

Comparing NEMA and IP Part 1: IP Rating

September 12, 2011 by Kelvin Findlay

When looking for a specific enclosure protection rating, it is not uncommon to

encounter two very popular rating systems – NEMA and IP. As common as they both are, they
have their differences. Understanding them both is key to effectively navigating the different
ratings, and choosing the sensor with the proper enclosure.
To be clear, the two rating systems have different criteria, and there is no way to get an exact
match from one to another. The two rating systems come from two different standards: NEMA
250 and IEC 60529. As you may have guessed, IP codes come from the IEC 60529 standard,
while NEMA 250 handles NEMA enclosure types.
IP Codes
An IP code, as specified by the IEC 60529 standard, states the degree of protection provided by
an enclosure. It is very specific in purpose, and covers only three types of protection:
Keeps people from accessing hazardous parts inside the enclosure
Prevents the ingress of solid objects
Protects against the ingress of water
As for sensors, the primary concerns are dust and moisture as they can damage the electronics
inside the sensor housing. The IP code is made up of two digits, the first stating the protection
against dusts and other solids, and the second stating the protection against water.
Here’s the IP code chart:
First Number Protection Second Number Protection

0 Not Protected 0 Not Protected

316
 1 Objects > 50 mm diameter 1 Vertical Drops

2 Objects > 12.5 mm diameter 2 Drops at 15° angle

3 Objects > 2.5 mm diameter 3 Spraying Water

4 Objects > 1.0 mm diameter 4 Splashing Water

5 Dust-Protected 5 Water Jets

6 Dust-Tight 6 Powerful Water Jets

- - 7 Temporary Immersion

- - 8 Continuous Immersion
For example, APG’s PG7 digital pressure gauge has is rated IP 67, which means it’s dust-tight,
as noted by the 6 in the first digit, and can handle temporary immersion in water, identified with
the 7 of the second digit.
So the big question: Is there a NEMA equivalent to IP codes? The answer is “most likely”. The
NEMA enclosure type system can meet or exceed the IP code specified. However, because of
differences in terminology and types of protection offered, an exact match is impossible.
The best advice is to read the requirements and be familiar with what the NEMA and IP ratings
mean. Doing so will allow the proper selection of a sensor and enclosure.
We’ll be back soon with part 2 of this post, explaining NEMA enclosure types and what they
mean. Once we’ve covered both standards, we’ll wrap this discussion up with a conversion chart.
Just remember that knowing your application is the most important part of the equation. These
posts are aimed at helping you understand enclosure protection ratings. But without a good
handle on the application, it's easy to get it wrong.
Let us know if you have any immediate questions. You can reach our application engineers at
888-525-7300, during our business hours on our live chat, or via email.
Source: nema.org

NEMA Ratings
The NEMA rating system is a standard primarily used in North America for rating enclosures.
The table below shows the equivalent IP Ratings. NEMA standards meet or exceed the IP
Ratings listed, but the reverse cannot be assumed.

NEMA  Description Equivalent

Ratings IP Ratings
Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of
protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts and
1 IP 10
to provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt).
2 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of IP 11
protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to

317
 provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt);
and to provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful
effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (dripping
and light splashing).
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
3 IP 54
objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment
due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
3R IP 14
objects (falling dirt); to provide a degree of protection with
respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress
of water (rain, sleet, snow); and that will be undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
3S IP 54
objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment
due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); and for which
the external mechanism(s) remain operable when ice laden.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
3X objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree IP 54
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment
due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); that provides an
additional level of protection against corrosion and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
3RX Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to IP 14
318
 provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
objects (falling dirt); to provide a degree of protection with
respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress
of water (rain, sleet, snow); that will be undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure that provides an
additional level of protection against corrosion; and that will
be undamaged by the external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
3SX objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree IP 54
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment
due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); that provides an
additional level of protection against corrosion; and for which
the external mechanism(s) remain operable when ice laden.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
4 objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree IP 65
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment
due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, splashing water,
and hose directed water); and that will be undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
objects (windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection
4X IP 65
with respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the
ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, splashing water, and hose
directed water); that provides an additional level of protection
against corrosion; and that will be undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.
5 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of IP 52

319
 protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to
provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt
and settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, and flyings); and to
provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful effects
on the equipment due to the ingress of water (dripping and
light splashing).
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
objects (falling dirt); to provide a degree of protection with
6 IP 67
respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress
of water (hose directed water and the entry of water during
occasional temporary submersion at a limited depth); and that
will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
objects (falling dirt); to provide a degree of protection with
6P IP 67
respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress
of water (hose directed water and the entry of water during
prolonged submersion at a limited depth); that provides an
additional level of protection against corrosion and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous (classified)
7 locations classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C, or --
D as defined in NFPA 70.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use in
8 hazardous (classified) locations classified as Class I, Division --
1, Groups A, B, C, and D as defined in NFPA 70.
Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous (classified)
9 locations classified as Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F, or G --
as defined in NFPA 70.
Enclosures constructed to meet the requirements of the Mine
10 --
Safety and Health Administration, 30 CFR, Part 18.

320
 Enclosures constructed (without knockouts) for indoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
12 IP 52
objects (falling dirt and circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
flyings); and to provide a degree of protection with respect to
harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water
(dripping and light splashing).
Enclosures constructed (with knockouts) for indoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against access to
hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
12K IP 52
objects (falling dirt and circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
flyings); and to provide a degree of protection with respect to
harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water
(dripping and light splashing).
Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of
protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to
provide a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt
and circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings); to provide a
13 IP 54
degree of protection with respect to harmful effects on the
equipment due to the ingress of water (dripping and light
splashing); and to provide a degree of protection against the
spraying, splashing, and seepage of oil and non-corrosive
coolants.

IP Ratings
The IP Rating system (or International Protection Code) is a worldwide standard for rating
enclosures. The rating is written as IP-"XY", where X and Y are replaced by the first and second
numerals as listed in the table below.
First  Description Second  Description
Number Numbe
r
0 No special protection 0 No special protection
Protected against solid foreign
Protected against vertically falling
1 objects of 50 mm diameter and 1
water drops
greater
Protected against solid foreign Protected agains vertically falling
2 objects 12.5 mm diameter and 2 water drops when enclosure is tilted
greater up to 15°
321
 Protected against solid foreign Protected against water sprayed at an
3 objects of 2.5 mm diameter and 3 angle uo to 60° on either side of
greater vertical
Protected against solid foreign Protected against water splashed
4 objects of 1.0 mm diameter and 4 against component from any
greater direction
Protected from the amount of dust
Protected against water projected in
5 that would interfere with normal 5
jets from any direction
operation
Protected against water projected in
6 Dust tight 6
powerful jets from any direction
Protected against temporary
    7
immersion in water
Protected against continuous
    8 immersion in water. or as specified
by the user

Guide to NEMA and IEC Enclosure Ratings Application Note #4 Overview There are a number
of standards that exist worldwide to define the type and applicability of enclosures. In the United
States the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) are the most prevalent,
worldwide the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards are most prevalent.
Why is there not a single standard to define enclosures and their suitability for various
applications? Why ask why? More information on both of these organizations can be found at
the following websites: NEMA – www.nema.org - NEMA Standards Publication 250 IEC –
www.iec.ch - Ingress Protection (IP) Standard 60529 This Application Note will discuss in
limited detail the NEMA standards, the IEC standards, and then provide a cross reference from
NEMA standards to IEC standards. Please refer to the appropriate sections of the latest revision
of NEMA Standards Publication No. 250 for complete information regarding applications,
features and design tests. Refer to the corresponding IP Standard 60529 for similar information
on the IEC standards. NEMA Definitions Pertaining to Non-Hazardous Locations: Type
Description 1 Intended for use primarily to provide a degree of protection against limited
amounts of falling dirt. 3 Intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against rain, sleet, windblown dust, and damage from external ice formation. 3R Intended for
outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against rain, sleet, and damage from
external ice formation. 3S Intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against rain, sleet, windblown dust, and to provide for operation of external mechanisms when
ice laden. 4 Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, hose-directed water, and damage from
external ice formation. 4X Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water, hose-directed water, and
damage from ice formation 6 Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against hosedirected water, the entry of water during occasional temporary
submersion at a limited depth, and damage from external ice formation. 6P Intended for indoor
or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against hosedirected water, the entry
of water during prolonged submersion at a limited depth, and damage from external ice
formation. 12 Intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against
322
circulating dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids. 12K Type 12 with knockouts.
Guide to NEMA and IEC Enclosure Ratings – Canary Systems Application Note #4 - Page 2 of
3 NEMA Definitions Pertaining to Hazardous Locations: Type Description 7 Intended for indoor
use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as defined in the National Electrical
Code. 8 Intended for indoor or outdoor use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or
D, as defined in the National Electrical Code. 9 Intended for indoor use in locations classified as
Class II, Groups E, F, or G, as defined in the National Electrical Code. 10 Constructed to meet
the applicable requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration. IEC Definitions The
IEC, standard 60529, has defined Ingress Protection as a two digit code. The first digit describes
the degree of protection against access to hazardous parts and ingress of solid objects. The
second digit designates the Ingress Protection against water. Please refer to the appropriate
sections of IEC 60529 for complete information regarding applications, features, and design
tests. Therefore an IP 65 rating means that the unit is: Protected against access with a wire (1.0
mm), is Dust tight and can handle Jetting water - any direction. Protection Against Access to
Hazardous Parts (First Digit) Number Description 0 Non-protected 1 Protected against access
with back of hand (50 mm) 2 Protected against access with jointed finger (12 mm x 80 mm) 3
Protected against access with a tool (2.5 mm) 4, 5, 6 Protected against access with a wire (1.0
mm) Protection Against Ingress of Solid Foreign Objects (First Digit) Number Description 0
Non-protected 1 Objects equal or greater than 50mm 2 Objects equal or greater than 12.5mm 3
Objects equal or greater than 2.5mm 4 Objects equal or greater than 1mm 5 Dust protected 6
Dust tight

Understanding IP and NEMA Ratings

The protection of enclosures against ingress of dirt or against the ingress of water is defined in
IEC529 (BSEN60529:1991). Conversely, an enclosure which protects equipment against ingress
of particles will also protect a person from potential hazards within that enclosure, and this
degree of protection is also defined as a standard.
The degrees of protection are most commonly expressed as "IP" followed by two numbers, e.g.
IP65, where the numbers define the degree of protection. The first digit (Foreign Bodies
Protection)shows the extent to which the equipment is protected against particles, or to which
persons are protected from enclosed hazards. The second digit (Water Protection) indicates the
extent of protection against water. The wording in the table is not exactly as used in the
standards document, but the dimensions are accurate.
The first digit in the rating is the protection against contact and foreign bodies. The second digit
in the rating is the water protection factor. The third digit in the impact protection factor  It is
normally displayed in the format below.
IP s l (i)
s = solids, l=liquids and i= impact (optional)
First Index - Foreign Bodies Protection, Solids
Protection against Human/Tool
Index Protection against solid objects (foreign bodies)
Contact
0 No special protection
1 Back of hand, Fist Large foreign bodies, diam. >50mm
2 Finger Medium-sized foreign bodies, diam. >12
Tools and wires etc with a
3 Small foreign bodies, diam. >2.5mm
thickness >2.5mm

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 Tools and wires etc with a
4 Granular foreign bodies, diam. >1mm
thickness >1mm
Complete protection, (limited Dust protected; dust deposits are permitted, but their
5
ingress permitted) volume must not affect the function of the unit.
6 Complete protection Dust-proof

 
Second Index - Water Protection, Liquids
Index Protection against water Protection from condition
0 No special protection
1 Water dripping/falling vertically Condensation/Light rain
Water sprayed at an angle (up to 15º degrees from the
2 Light rain with wind
vertical)
Spray water (any direction up to 60º degrees from the
3 Heavy rainstorm
vertical)
Spray water from all directions, (limited ingress
4 Splashing
permitted)
Low pressure water jets from all directions, (limited
5 Hose down, residential
ingress permitted)
High pressure jets from all directions, (limited ingress Hose down, commercial.
6
permitted) eg. Ship decks
7 Temporary immersion, 15 cm to 1m Immersion in tank
For use on Titanic recovery
8 Permanent Immersion, under pressure
vehicle
  
Third Index - Impact Protection, Impact
Index Protection against impact Equivalent mass impact
0 No special protection
1 Protected against 0.225J impact eg. 150g weight falling from 15cm height
2 Protected against 0.375J impact eg. 250g weight falling from 15cm height
3 Protected against 0.5J impact eg. 250g weight falling from 20cm height
4 Protected against 2.0J impact eg. 500g weight falling from 40cm height
5 Protected against 6.0J impact eg. 0.61183kg weight falling from 1m height
6 Protected against 20.0J impact eg. 2.0394kg weight falling from 1m height
Examples:
Umbrella- IP-01 or IP-02 depending on umbrella
Chain link fence- IP-10
Chicken wire- IP-20
Screen- IP-30
Kevlar cloth- IP-40
Tent (camping)- IP-42

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Saran wrap- IP-51
Bottle of wine- IP-67
Submarine- IP-68
NEMA Ratings
There are many NEMA ratings available for enclosures.  Below, is an brief explanation of each
NEMA rating.
NEMA 1 General Purpose - Indoors
Type 1 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against contact with the enclosed equipment or locations where unusual service
conditions do not exist.
NEMA 2 Drip Proof - Indoors
Type 2 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt.
NEMA 3 Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet resistant - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 3 enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice
on the enclosure.
NEMA 3R Rain Proof & Ice/Sleet Proof - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 3R enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against falling rain; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
NEMA 3S Dust Tight, Rain Tight, & Ice/Sleet Proof - Outdoors
Type 3S enclosures are intended for general purpose outdoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against sleet; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
NEMA 4 Water Tight & Dust Tight - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 4 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose directed water;
and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
NEMA 4x Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Corrosion Resistant - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 4X enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor and outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and
hose-directed water; and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
NEMA 5 Superseded by NEMA 12 for Control Apparatus
Type 5 see NEMA 12
NEMA 6 Submersible, Water Tight, Dust Tight, & Ice/Sleet Resistant - Indoors/Outdoors
Type 6 enclosures are intended for general purpose indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against the entry of water during temporary submersion at a limited depth;
and to be undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
NEMA 7 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof - Indoors
Type 7 enclosures are for indoor use in locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as
defined in the National Electrical Code.
Type 7 enclosures shall be capable of withstanding the pressures resulting from an internal
explosion of specified gases, and contain such an explosion sufficiently that an explosive gas-air
mixture existing in the atmosphere surrounding the enclosure will not be ignited.  Enclosed heat
generating devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of igniting
explosive gas-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere.   Enclosures shall meet explosion,
hydro-static, and temperature design tests.
NEMA 8 Underwriters Lab Class 1-Groups C&D -Explosion Proof - Indoors
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 Type 8 is same as NEMA 7, except the unit is oil-immersed
NEMA 9 Underwriters' Lab Class II - Groups E,F,G - Indoors
Type 9 enclosures are intended for special purpose indoor use in locations classified as
hazardous (Class II, Groups E, F, or G, as defined in the National Electrical Code).
Type 9 enclosures shall be capable of preventing the entrance of dust.  Enclosed heat generating
devices shall not cause external surfaces to reach temperatures capable of igniting or discoloring
dust on the enclosure or igniting dust-air mixtures in the surrounding atmosphere.  Enclosures
shall meet dust penetration and temperature design tests, and aging of gaskets (if used).
NEMA 10 Bureau of Mines
NEMA 11 Corrosion Resistant & Drip Proof - Oil Immersed - indoors
NEMA 12 Industrial Use - Dust Tight & Drip Tight - Indoors
Type 12 enclosures are intended for industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids.
NEMA 13 Oil Tight & Dust Tight - Indoors
Type 13 enclosures are intended for industrial indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant.  
Comparing NEMA and IP enclosure ratings. 
This comparison is only approximate, and it is the responsibility of the user to verify the
enclosure rating necessary for the given application.   
Enclosure type  IP23   IP30   IP32   IP55   IP64   IP65   IP66   IP67 
1              
2              
3              
4              
4X              
6              
12            
13              
                                                                              

Policy &Ph: (local/international) 713.926.1186, (toll-free) 1.888.TOUCHEZ (1.888.868.2439)

of Use Fx: 713.926.3110; 4955 Gulf Freeway, Houston, Texas 77023 USA

©1987-2011 ezscreen®, a division of intech bearing inc. 

Comparing NEMA and IP Part 2: NEMA Enclosure Types
September 13, 2011 by Kelvin Findlay

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 Last week, we covered IP codes, what kind of protection it offers, and what all
the numbers mean. An important observation is, that IP codes and NEMA protection types
cannot be used interchangeably.
Specifically, a NEMA protection type may be able to substitute for an IP code, but IP cannot
take the place of a NEMA specification.
Why? Because NEMA protection types specify much more than IP codes. The two rating
systems, as covered in part 1 of this series, come from two different standards – the IEC 60529
for IP codes, and NEMA 250 for, you guessed it, NEMA protection types. As stated in NEMA
documentation:
IEC 60529 is NOT a ‘product standard’ and does not cover enclosure requirements other than the
‘degree of protection’ provided. For instance, IEC 60529 does not specify the corrosion
protection and other environmental operating requirements and tests defined in NEMA 250.
Beyond limiting the ingress of solid objects, water, and preventing human access to hazardous
parts, NEMA 250 specifies:
Construction requirements
Door and cover securement
Corrosion resistance
Effects of icing
Gasket aging and oil resistance
and Cooling effects
So what are the ratings, and what do they specify? These tables may help:
Table 1
Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Following Type of Enclosure
Conditions
1 2 4 4X 5 6 6 12 12 13
P K

Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt) X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of water (Dripping and light splashing) ... X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Circulating dust, lint, ... ... X X .. X X X X X

fibers, and flyings) .

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Settling airborne dust, ... ... X X X X X X X X

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 lint, fibers, and flyings)

Ingress of water (Hosedown and splashing water) ... ... X X .. X X ... ... ...
.

Oil and coolant seepage ... ... .. ... .. ... ... X X X

. .

Oil or coolant spraying and splashing ... ... .. ... .. ... ... ... ... X
. .

Corrosive agents ... ... .. X .. ... X ... ... ...

. .

Ingress of water (Occasional temporary submersion) ... ... .. ... .. X X ... ... ...
. .

Ingress of water (Occasional prolonged submersion) ... ... .. ... .. ... X ... ... ...
. .
Table 2
Outdoor Non-Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Type of Enclosure
Following Conditions
3 3X 3R 3RX 3 3SX 4 4X 6 6P
S

Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of water (Rain, snow, and sleet) X X X X X X X X X X

Ice Covered .. ... ... ... X X ... ... ... ...

.

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Windblown dust, X X ... ... X X X X X X

lint, fibers, and flyings)

Ingress of water (Hosedown) .. ... ... ... ... ... X X X X

.

Corrosive agents .. X ... X ... X ... X ... X

.

Ingress of water (Occasional temporary .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X X
submersion) .

Ingress of water (Occasional prolonged .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X
submersion) .

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You may have noticed a bit more information here than on the IP codes table. Again, it is
because the NEMA rating systems covers more than just the ingress of water and dirt.
To give credit where credit is due, IP codes are more detailed in their specification on human
protection, and the ingress of solids objects and water. However, they do not specify protection
against oils, coolants, corrosive agents, or ice.
As stated in part 1 of this series, it is best to simply understand the application, and why the
protection rating has been specified. Only then can an IP code or a NEMA enclosure type be
effectively converted, if possible.
For example, if a NEMA 6P enclosure type has been specified only because it can withstand
prolonged immersion in water, then there is an equivalent IP code for that – IP68. As with
everything in the world of sensors and process control, it depends on the application.
We will wrap this up with a conversion chart between IP and NEMA ratings for a generic guide.
Again, this is technically impossible – but may be achieved in certain circumstances with a
thorough understanding of the application.
Let us know if you have any questions about NEMA enclosure types and how they relate to your
application. You can drop us on our contact page.
If you have experience in these matters, don’t hold back! We welcome your commentary.
Source: nema.org

General electrical maintenance

All equipment is subject to wear and tear, eventually reaching the end of its
useful life when it must be replaced. As equipment nears the end of its life its
condition can deteriorate to such an extent as to be a danger to personnel and
other plant. The purpose of maintenance, therefore, is to extend the useful life
by repair and/or replacement of defective parts and to maintain it in a safe and
serviceable condition.
The marine environment is particularly arduous for electrical equipment due to
the damp, salt-laden atmosphere, extremes of temperature and constant
vibration. Shipboard equipment is in particular need of correct maintenance.
The continuous operation of equipment on board ship demands high operating
efficiency and optimum economy in order to keep down costs to maintain
financial competitiveness.
Nearly all equipment NEEDS maintenance. An efficient maintenance engineer
must get to know his plant. He must be able to check ships' drawings and
diagrams and relate them to actual equipment. Equipment must be kept under
continuous observation so that normal healthy operating conditions become
known, and abnormal operation becomes quickly apparent. Faults can then be
pin-pointed and corrected before a breakdown occurs. Maintenance can be
classified as: Breakdown maintenance, Planned maintenance and Condition
monitoring.
Breakdown maintenance (corrective maintenance) is that in which equipment
is left untouched until a breakdown occurs. At this time the equipment is
repaired or replaced and any other specified maintenance procedure carried out.
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Planned maintenance (preventive maintenance) is that in which equipment is
regularly inspected and maintained according to a laid down timetable and set of
procedures specifying the actual work to be done at particular times in order to
prevent failure of equipment.
Condition monitoring (another form of preventive maintenance) is that in
which equipment is regularly monitored and tested. When monitoring indicates
that breakdown is imminent, the equipment is repaired or replaced and any other
specified maintenance procedures carried out. Regular insulation testing and
vibration testing are two forms of condition monitoring.
There are several disadvantages in breakdown maintenance:
1. A serious breakdown of equipment may cause sufficient down time to put the
ship out of commission until it is repaired.
2. If several breakdowns occur simultaneously the available manpower on board
ship may not be able to cope adequately, resulting in delays.
3. Some items of equipment may need the specialist services of the
manufacturer to carry out repairs which may cause further delays.
Planned maintenance is carried out at fixed regular intervals whether the
equipment needs it or not and the aim is to prevent breakdown. This type of
maintenance has the following advantages:
l. Fewer breakdowns and reduced down time produces higher levels of
operating efficiency.
2. Maintenance is carried out at times favourable to the operation of the plant.
3. More effective labour utilisation because maintenance is carried out at times
favourable to ships' staff.
4. Replacement equipment can be ordered in advance.
5. Equipment is maintained in a safe condition with reduced possible dangers.
6. Where specialist manufacturers' services are required these can be obtained at
preplanned and convenient times.
7. Replacement of short life components at scheduled times.
Condition monitoring is also carried out at fixed regular intervals. The aim is to
forestall breakdown by predicting probable failure from the TREND shown by
the monitoring results.
The advantage of this type of maintenance is that equipment is not subjected to
unnecessary maintenance.
Equipment is regularly condition-monitored according to a monitoring schedule.
Measurements are taken of insulation resistance, temperature and vibration (of
motors). Contacts and other parts subject to deterioration are inspected. All
findings are recorded in an historical record file. No maintenance is carried out
until findings indicate that it is absolutely necessary. The equipment is then

330
either replaced, repaired or subjected to a major overhaul as specified on a job
card.
A records system is required. The recorded measurements of insulation
resistance may show a falling trend indicating a progressive degradation of
insulation. The equipment should be inspected and repaired before the
insulation resistance falls to a dangerously low value.
The recorded measurements of the vibration of a motor may follow a rising
trend indicating progressive bearing deterioration. Bearings should be replaced
before a final bearing failure occurs. Immediate repair or maintenance is
probably not necessary but should be put in hand at the earliest convenient
moment.

331
High voltage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The term high voltage usually means electrical energy at voltages high enough to inflict harm on
living organisms. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant particular safety
requirements and procedures. In certain industries, high voltage means voltage above a particular
threshold (see below). High voltage is used in electrical power distribution, in cathode ray tubes,
to generate X-rays and particle beams, to demonstrate arcing, for ignition, in photomultiplier
tubes, and in high power amplifier vacuum tubes and other industrial and scientific applications.
Definition
IEC voltage range AC DC defining risk
High voltage (supply system) > 1000 Vrms > 1500 V electrical arcing
Low voltage (supply system) 50–1000 Vrms 120–1500 V electrical shock
Extra-low voltage (supply system) < 50 Vrms < 120 V low risk
The numerical definition of 'high voltage' depends on context. Two factors considered in
classifying a voltage as "high voltage" are the possibility of causing a spark in air, and the danger
of electric shock by contact or proximity. The definitions may refer to the voltage between two
conductors of a system, or between any conductor and ground.
In electric power transmission engineering, high voltage is usually considered any voltage over
approximately 35,000 volts. This is a classification based on the design of apparatus and
insulation.
The International Electrotechnical Commission and its national counterparts (IET, IEEE, VDE,
etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500 V for direct
current—and distinguish it from low voltage (50–1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC) and extra-low
voltage (<50 V AC or <120 V DC) circuits. This is in the context of building wiring and the
safety of electrical apparatus.
The National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA) defines high voltage as over 100kV
to 230kV. British Standard BS 7671:2008 defines high voltage as any voltage difference between
conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC or 1500 V ripple-free DC, or any voltage difference
between a conductor and Earth that is higher than 600 V AC or 900 V ripple-free DC.

Electricians may only be licensed for particular voltage classes, in some jurisdictions.[1] For
example, an electrical license for a specialized sub-trade such as installation of HVAC systems,
fire alarm systems, closed circuit television systems may be authorized to install systems
energized up to only 30 volts between conductors, and may not be permitted to work on mains-
voltage circuits. The general public may consider household mains circuits (100–250 V AC),
which carry the highest voltages they normally encounter, to be high voltage.
Voltages over approximately 50 volts can usually cause dangerous amounts of current to flow
through a human being who touches two points of a circuit—so safety standards, in general, are
more restrictive around such circuits..[citation needed] The definition of extra high voltage (EHV) again
depends on context. In electric power transmission engineering, EHV equipment carries more
than 345,000 volts between conductors. In electronics systems, a power supply that provides
greater than 275,000 volts is called an EHV Power Supply, and is often used in experiments in
physics.
The accelerating voltage for a television cathode ray tube may be described as extra-high voltage
or extra-high tension (EHT), compared to other voltage supplies within the equipment. This type
of supply ranges from >5 kV to about 50 kV.[citation needed]

332
In automotive engineering, high voltage is defined as voltage in range 30–1000 Vac or 60–1500
Vdc.[2]
In digital electronics, a high voltage usually refers to that representing a logic 1 in positive logic
and a logic 0 in negative logic. It is not used to indicate a hazardous voltage and levels between
ICs to TTL/CMOS standards and their modern derivatives are well below hazardous levels. The
highest in mainstream use were 15V for original CMOS and 5V for TTL but modern devices use
3.3V, with 1.8V or lower used in many applications.
Safety

International safety symbol "Caution, risk of electric shock" (ISO 3864), also known as high
voltage symbol
Voltages greater than 50 V applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if
they produce electric currents in body tissues that happen to pass through the chest area.[citation
needed]
The voltage at which there is the danger of electrocution depends on the electrical
conductivity of dry human skin. Living human tissue can be protected from damage by the
insulating characteristics of dry skin up to around 50 volts. If the same skin becomes wet, if there
are wounds, or if the voltage is applied to electrodes that penetrate the skin, then even voltage
sources below 40 V can be lethal.
Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or
death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage
and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental
contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim's airways are affected. Injuries
may also be suffered as a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a
great height or are thrown a considerable distance.
Low-energy exposure to high voltage may be harmless, such as the spark produced in a dry
climate when touching a doorknob after walking across a carpeted floor. The voltage can be in
the thousand-volt range, but the current (the rate of charge transfer) is low.
Safety equipment used by electrical workers includes insulated rubber gloves and mats. These
protect the user from electric shock. Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it is still
protecting the user. Test regulations vary according to country. Testing companies can test at up
300,000 volts and offer services from glove testing to Elevated Working Platform (or EWP)
Truck testing.
Sparks in air

Long exposure photograph of a Tesla coil showing the repeated electric discharges
The dielectric breakdown strength of dry air, at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP),
between spherical electrodes is approximately 33 kV/cm.[3] This is only as a rough guide, since
the actual breakdown voltage is highly dependent upon the electrode shape and size. Strong
electric fields (from high voltages applied to small or pointed conductors) often produce violet-
333
colored corona discharges in air, as well as visible sparks. Voltages below about 500–700 volts
cannot produce easily visible sparks or glows in air at atmospheric pressure, so by this rule these
voltages are "low". However, under conditions of low atmospheric pressure (such as in high-
altitude aircraft), or in an environment of noble gas such as argon or neon, sparks appear at much
lower voltages. 500 to 700 volts is not a fixed minimum for producing spark breakdown, but it is
a rule-of-thumb. For air at STP, the minimum sparkover voltage is around 327 volts, as noted by
Friedrich Paschen.[4]
While lower voltages do not, in general, jump a gap that is present before the voltage is applied,
interrupting an existing current flow with a gap often produces a low-voltage spark or arc. As the
contacts are separated, a few small points of contact become the last to separate. The current
becomes constricted to these small hot spots, causing them to become incandescent, so that they
emit electrons (through thermionic emission). Even a small 9 V battery can spark noticeably by
this mechanism in a darkened room. The ionized air and metal vapour (from the contacts) form
plasma, which temporarily bridges the widening gap. If the power supply and load allow
sufficient current to flow, a self-sustaining arc may form. Once formed, an arc may be extended
to a significant length before breaking the circuit. Attempting to open an inductive circuit often
forms an arc, since the inductance provides a high-voltage pulse whenever the current is
interrupted. AC systems make sustained arcing somewhat less likely, since the current returns to
zero twice per cycle. The arc is extinguished every time the current goes through a zero crossing,
and must reignite during the next half-cycle to maintain the arc.
Unlike an ohmic conductor, the resistance of an arc decreases as the current increases. This
makes unintentional arcs in an electrical apparatus dangerous since even a small arc can grow
large enough to damage equipment and start fires if sufficient current is available. Intentionally
produced arcs, such as used in lighting or welding, require some element in the circuit to
stabilize the arc's current/voltage characteristics.
Electrostatic devices, natural static electricity and similar phenomena
A high voltage is not necessarily dangerous if it cannot deliver substantial current. The common
static electric sparks seen under low-humidity conditions always involve voltage well above
700 V. For example, sparks to car doors in winter can involve voltages as higher as 20,000 V.[5]
Also, physics demonstration devices such as Van de Graaff generators and Wimshurst machines
can produce voltages approaching one million volts, yet at worst they deliver a brief sting. That
is because the number of electrons involved is not high. These devices have a limited amount of
stored energy, so the average current produced is low and usually for a short time, with impulses
peaking in the amp range for a nanosecond.[6][7] During the discharge, these machines apply high
voltage to the body for only a millionth of a second or less. So a low-amperage current is applied
for a very short time, and the number of electrons involved is very small.
The discharge may involve extremely high voltage over very short periods, but, to produce heart
fibrillation, an electric power supply must produce a significant current (amperage) in the heart
muscle continuing for many milliseconds, and must deposit a total energy in the range of at least
millijoules or higher. A current of relatively high amperage at anything more than about fifty
volts can therefore be medically significant and potentially fatal.
Tesla coils are not electrostatic machines and can produce significant currents for a sustained
interval. Although their appearance in operation is similar to high voltage static electricity
devices, the current supplied to a human body will be relatively constant as long as contact is
maintained, and the voltage will be much higher than the break-down voltage of human skin.
Used correctly, the output of a Tesla coil of proper design can have useful therapeutic effects.
[citation needed]
Used incorrectly, the output can be dangerous or even fatal.

334
Power lines
Power lines with high voltage warning sign.
Electrical transmission and distribution lines for electric power always use voltages significantly
higher than 50 volts, so contact with or close approach to the line conductors presents a danger of
electrocution. Contact with overhead wires is a frequent cause of injury or death. Metal ladders,
farm equipment, boat masts, construction machinery, aerial antennas, and similar objects are
frequently involved in fatal contact with overhead wires. Digging into a buried cable can also be
dangerous to workers at an excavation site. Digging equipment (either hand tools or machine
driven) that contacts a buried cable may energize piping or the ground in the area, resulting in
electrocution of nearby workers. A fault in a high-voltage transmission line or substation may
result in high currents flowing along the surface of the earth, producing an earth potential rise
that also presents a danger of electric shock.
Unauthorized persons climbing on power pylons or electrical apparatus are also frequently the
victims of electrocution.[8] At very high transmission voltages even a close approach can be
hazardous, since the high voltage may spark across a significant air gap.
For high-voltage and extra-high-voltage transmission lines, specially trained personnel use "live
line" techniques to allow hands-on contact with energized equipment. In this case the worker is
electrically connected to the high-voltage line but thoroughly insulated from the earth so that he
is at the same electrical potential as that of the line. Since training for such operations is lengthy,
and still presents a danger to personnel, only very important transmission lines are subject to
maintenance while live. Outside these properly engineered situations, insulation from earth does
not guarantee that no current flows to earth—as grounding or arcing to ground can occur in
unexpected ways, and high-frequency currents can burn even an ungrounded person. Touching a
transmitting antenna is dangerous for this reason, and a high-frequency Tesla coil can sustain a
spark with only one endpoint.
Protective equipment on high-voltage transmission lines normally prevents formation of an
unwanted arc, or ensures that it is quenched within tens of milliseconds. Electrical apparatus that
interrupts high-voltage circuits is designed to safely direct the resulting arc so that it dissipates
without damage. High voltage circuit breakers often use a blast of high pressure air, a special
dielectric gas (such as SF6 under pressure), or immersion in mineral oil to quench the arc when the
high voltage circuit is broken.
Arc flash hazard
Main article: Arc flash
Depending on the prospective short circuit current available at a switchgear line-up, a hazard is
presented to maintenance and operating personnel due to the possibility of a high-intensity
electric arc. Maximum temperature of an arc can exceed 10,000 kelvin, and the radiant heat,
expanding hot air, and explosive vaporization of metal and insulation material can cause severe
injury to unprotected workers. Such switchgear line-ups and high-energy arc sources are
commonly present in electric power utility substations and generating stations, industrial plants
and large commercial buildings. In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association,
has published a guideline standard NFPA 70E for evaluating and calculating arc flash hazard,
and provides standards for the protective clothing required for electrical workers exposed to such
hazards in the workplace.
Explosion hazard
Main article: Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
Even voltages insufficient to break down air can be associated with enough energy to ignite
atmospheres containing flammable gases or vapours, or suspended dust. For example, hydrogen
gas, natural gas, or petrol/gasoline vapor mixed with air can be ignited by sparks produced by
335
electrical apparatus. Examples of industrial facilities with hazardous areas are petrochemical
refineries, chemical plants, grain elevators, and coal mines.
Measures taken to prevent such explosions include:
Intrinsic safety by the use of apparatus designed not to accumulate enough stored electrical
energy to trigger an explosion Increased safety, which applies to devices using measures such as
oil-filled enclosures to prevent sparks
Explosion-proof (flame-proof) enclosures, which are designed so that an explosion within the
enclosure cannot escape and ignite a surrounding explosive atmosphere (this designation does
not imply that the apparatus can survive an internal or external explosion)
In recent years, standards for explosion hazard protection have become more uniform between
European and North American practice. The "zone" system of classification is now used in
modified form in U.S. National Electrical Code and in the Canadian Electrical Code. Intrinsic
safety apparatus is now approved for use in North American applications, though the explosion-
proof (flame-proof) enclosures used in North America are still uncommon in Europe.
Toxic gases
Electrical discharges, including partial discharge and corona, can produce small quantities of
toxic gases, which in a confined space can be a serious health hazard. These gases include ozone
and various oxides of nitrogen.

Lightning
The largest-scale sparks are those produced naturally by lightning. An average bolt of negative
lightning carries a current of 30 to 50 kiloamperes, transfers a charge of 5 coulombs, and
dissipates 500 megajoules of energy (120 kg TNT equivalent, or enough to light a 100-watt light
bulb for approximately 2 months). However, an average bolt of positive lightning (from the top
of a thunderstorm) may carry a current of 300 to 500 kiloamperes, transfer a charge of up to 300
coulombs, have a potential difference up to 1 gigavolt (a billion volts), and may dissipate 300 GJ
of energy (72 tons TNT, or enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for up to 95 years). A
negative lightning strike typically lasts for only tens of microseconds, but multiple strikes are
common. A positive lightning stroke is typically a single event. However, the larger peak current
may flow for hundreds of milliseconds, making it considerably hotter and more dangerous than
negative lightning.
Hazards due to lightning obviously include a direct strike on persons or property. However,
lightning can also create dangerous voltage gradients in the earth, as well as an electromagnetic
pulse, and can charge extended metal objects such as telephone cables, fences, and pipelines to
dangerous voltages that can be carried many miles from the site of the strike. Although many of
these objects are not normally conductive, very high voltage can cause the electrical breakdown
of such insulators, causing them to act as conductors. These transferred potentials are dangerous
to people, livestock, and electronic apparatus. Lightning strikes also start fires and explosions,
which result in fatalities, injuries, and property damage. For example, each year in North
America, thousands of forest fires are started by lightning strikes.
Measures to control lightning can mitigate the hazard; these include lightning rods, shielding
wires, and bonding of electrical and structural parts of buildings to form a continuous enclosure.
High-voltage lightning discharges in the atmosphere of Jupiter are thought to be the source of the
planet's powerful radio frequency emissions.[9]
References
 One such jurisdiction is Manitoba, where the Electrician's Licence Act, CCSM E50
establishes classes of electrician's licences by voltage.
336
  UNECE regulation No 100 (revision 2, 12th August 2013), paragraph 2.17
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/2013/R100r2e.pdf
  Friedrich Paschen (1889). "Ueber die zum Funkenübergang in Luft, Wasserstoff und
Kohlensäure bei verschiedenen Drucken erforderliche Potentialdifferenz". Annalen der Physik
273 (5): 69–75. Bibcode:1889AnP...273...69P. doi:10.1002/andp.18892730505.
  John Chubb, "Control of body voltage getting out of a car," IOP Annual Congress,
Brighton, 1998
  [http://www.edn.com/design/test-and-measurement/4368466/Understanding-and-
comparing-the-differences-in-ESD-testing EDN - Understanding and comparing the differences
in ESD testing

 High Voltage Engineering - Dr M S Naidu & Dr V Kamaraju, Publisher: McGraw-Hill

337
Q. 1 Explain why marine electrical generation and distribution employs an
insulated neutral:
A. The main reason that marine electrical systems employ an insulated earth is that
if an earth fault occurred on one line then the piece of equipment will not trip.
Earth faults can be caused by insulation failure or a loose wire. If a second earth
fault occurs on a different line a short circuit will result, causing the equipment to
trip.
Q. 2 Describe with the aid of a circuit diagram how earth faults are monitored
using lamps:
A. In a 3 phase distribution 3 indicating lamps are used. They are connected in star,
with the star point being earthed. If an earth fault occurs on one of the lines the
lamp in that line will appear dim. The intensity of the light indicates the degree of
the earth fault. Below is a circuit diagram of earth fault monitoring lamps:
Q. 3 Define High Voltage In Marine Systems:
A. High voltage in a marine system is any voltage that is 1000V (1kV) or larger.
Typical marine applications are 3.3kV, 6.6kV, 11kV and more rarely 15 kV.
Q. 4 Explain the basic idea of using a Neutral Earthing Resistor (NER) with marine
generators:
A. A neutral earth resistor is there to limit the maximum earth fault current that
could be produced if the generator had an earth fault. It is connected between the
star point of the generator and earth. The fault currents created could be massively
larger than the generators designed full load current rating. If this current is not
controlled then serious damage by overheating the winding insulation. The earth
fault current is determined by the size of the NER.
Q. 5 Explain two reasons why it is important to locate and clear earth faults:
A. (i) If there is an earth fault on one line then due to the insulated neutral the piece
of equipment will not trip. If another earth fault occurs on another line then a short
circuit is created which will cause the piece of equipment to trip, if this is an
essential piece of equipment it could endanger the ship/machinery. This is one
reason why it is important to locate and clear earth faults.
(ii) Secondly if another earth fault occurs in the same line then it becomes
increasingly difficult to locate the earth faults.
Q. 6 Explain the main advantage of using HV for marine installations:
A. The main advantage of using HV for marine installations is it gives greater
power for lower currents compared to LV applications. This results in being able to
use smaller gauge cable due to the lower currents, and in turn the build cost of a
ship would be greatly reduced.
Q. 7 Explain the likely connections for primary and secondary three phase
transformer windings:
A. The 3 phase transformers will most commonly comprise of 3 single phase
transformers. If one of the single phase transformers fails then the 3 phase output
338
will remain but at reduced power. The primary and secondary coils will normally
be connected in delta-delta so if one single phase transformer is to fail then it
becomes an open or ‘v’ delta-delta transformer. This is an advantage as the output
is not be lost and will still supply machinery i.e. they will not stop. Also only one
phase will need isolating to repair the transformer opposed to the solid 3 phase
core type, where the whole transformer needs to be isolated to be repaired.
Q. 8 Identify two examples of essential and two examples of non-essential
services:
A. Essential services are those that are required in the event of an emergency.
Essential services:
• Steering gear is classed as an essential service aboard a ship. In the event of
power loss from the main switch board then the steering gear should still be able to
function, when the emergency generator is supplying. Therefore one of the
hydraulic oil pump motors will be supplied by the emergency switch board.
• Fire prevention is classed as an essential service. If power is lost from the main
board the emergency fire pump should still be able to operate. The emergency fire
pump motor will be supplied by the emergency switch board.
Non-Essential services:
• Air conditioning is classed as a non-essential service. If power is lost from the
main board then the air condition will stop, so is only supplied by the main board.
• Sewage system would be classed as a non-essential service.
Q. 9 Explain the equipment required at a shore connection point:
A. The shore connection box must have suitable terminals to accept shore supply
cable including an earth terminal to earth the ship’s hull. It must also have a circuit
breaker or an isolator switch and fuses to protect the cable connecting the box to
the main switch board. It should also contain a data plate giving details of the
ship’s electrical system, showing the methods of connecting the cable. A volt
meter and phase- sequence indicator is fitted, to indicate the correct supply phase
sequence. When the right lamp is bright and left one dark the sequence is correct.
An alternative is a P.S.I. that consists of a rotary pointer driven by a small 3 phase
induction motor, the direction the pointer turns shows if the phase sequence is
correct. Below is a circuit diagram of the connection box

NEMA CLASSIFICATIONS
Definitions – Non-Hazardous Locations (NEMA Standard 1-10-1979)

Type 1-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against contact with the enclosed equipment.
Type 2-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt.

339
Type 3-Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust, rain, sleet, and external ice formation.
Type 3R-Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against falling rain, sleet, and external ice formation. (May be
ventilated)
Type 3S-Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against Windblown dust, rain, sleet, and to provide for operation of
external mechanisms when ice laden.
Type 4-Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-
directed water.
Type 4X-Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water,
and hose-directed water.
Type 5-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against settling airborne dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive
liquids. NEMA Standard 5-25-1988.
Type 6-Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against the entry of water during occasional, temporary
submersion at a limited depth.
Type 6P-Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a
degree of protection against the entry of water during prolonged submersion at a
limited depth.
Type 11-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide, by oil
submersion, a degree of protection to enclosed equipment against the corrosive
effects of liquids and gases.

Type 12-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids. NEMA
Type 12K-Enclosures with knock-outs are intended for indoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive
liquids other than at knock-outs.
Type 13-Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and non-corrosive coolant.
Type 7-Enclosures are for use indoors in locations classified as Class I, Groups
A,B,C, or D, as defined in the National Electrical Code.
Type 8-Enclosures are for indoor or outdoor use in locations classified as Class I,
Groups A, B, C, or D, as defined in the National Electrical Code. Type 9-
Enclosures are for indoor use in locations classified as Class II, Groups E, F, or G
as defined in the National Electrical Code.
NEMA Standard 5-19-1986.
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Type 10-Enclosures are constructed to meet the applicable requirements of the
Mine Safety and Health Administration.

ENCLOSURE TYPES NON-HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

ENCLOSURE DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
TECHNICAL DATA
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION (NEMA
STANDARD 250)
Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against contactwith the enclosed equipment or locations where unusual service
conditions do not exist.
Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against limitedamounts of falling water and dirt.
Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of
protection against falling rain and sleet; undamaged by the formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-directed
water; undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree
of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and
hose-directed water; undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for use indoors or outdoors where occasional submersion
is encountered.
Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids.
Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection
against dust, spraying of water, oil, and non-corrosive coolant.

This material is reproduced from NEMA. The preceding descriptions, however,

are not intended to be complete representations of National Electrical
Manufacturers Association standards for enclosures nor those of the Electrical and
Electronic Manufacturers Association of Canada.

UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES INC. (UL 50 AND UL 508)

Indoor use primarily to provide protection against contact with the enclosed
equipment and against a limited amount of falling dirt.

341
Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against limited amounts of falling
water and dirt. Outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against windblown
dust and windblown rain; undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against falling rain; undamaged by
the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against falling rain,
splashing water, and hose-directed water; undamaged by the formation of ice on
the enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against falling rain,
splashing water, and hose-directed water; undamaged by the formation of ice on
the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against entry of water
during temporary submersion at a limited depth; undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.
Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against dust, dirt, fiberflyings,
dripping water, and external condensation of non-corrosive liquids.
Indoor use to provide a degree of protection against lint, dust seepage, external
condensation and spraying of water, oil, and non-corrosive liquids.
This material is reproduced from Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Standard for
Safety for Cabinets and Boxes, UL 50, Copyright 1997 and Industrial Control
Equipment, UL 508, Copyright 1996 by Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) shall not be responsible to anyone for the use
of or reliance upon a UL Standard by anyone. UL shall not incur any obligation or
liability for damages, including consequential damages, arising out of or
connection with the use, interpretation of, or reliance upon a UL Standard.

CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION (STANDARD C22.2 NO. 94)

General purpose enclosure - Protects against accidental contact with live
partsIndoor use to provide a degree of protection against dripping and light
splashing of non- corrosive liquids and falling dirt.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides a degree of protection against rain, snow,
and windblown dust; undamaged by the external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides a degree of protection against rain and
snow; undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides a degree of protection against rain, snow,
windblown dust, splashing and hose-directed water; undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides a degree of protection against rain, snow,
windblown dust, splashing and hose-directed water; undamaged by the
342
external formation of ice on the enclosure; resists corrosion. Indoor or
outdoor use; provides a degree of protection against the entry of water
during temporary submersion at a limited depth; undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Indoor use; provides a degree of protection against circulating dust, lint,
fibers, and flyings; dripping and light splashing of non-corrosive liquids; not
provided with knockouts. Indoor use; provides a degree of protection against
circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; seepage and spraying of non-
corrosive liquids, including oils and coolants.

COMPARISON OF SPECIFIC NON-HAZARDOUS APPLICATIONS

INDOOR LOCATIONS
*These enclosures may be ventilated. However, Type 1 may not provide
protection against small particles of falling dirt when ventilation is provided
in the enclosure top.
†These fibers and flyings are non-hazardous materials and are not
considered Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings. For Class
III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings see the National Electrical
Code, Section 500-6(a).

ENCLOSURE DEGREES OF PROTECTION TECHNICAL DATA

In order to protect the sometimes delicate equipment against foreign objects
there are protection standards developed which grade the degree of protection
level achieved. It is important to know that there are two such standards for
the degree of protection by an enclosure.
• The European specification: IP-code according to EN 60.529 / IEC 529
• The American specification: TYPE-code according to NEMA 250

The European IP-Code

To help the design engineer identify the degree of protection provided by an
enclosure, EN60.529/IEC 529 (International Electrotechnical Commission)
was introduced.
The latest version was issued 11/89. (Correct at date of printing). Both
harmonized standards classify the extent to which an enclosure will resist the
ingress of solid bodies and water under designated tests.
After successful testing the enclosure will be allocated a classification code
with the letters IP (International Protection) prefixing that code.

343
Further explanation of the degree of protection provided by an enclosure
indicated by the IP-code is detailed below:
Code letters (International Protection) IP 55 W

First Characteristic Numeral (dust protection, numerals 0-6, or letter X)

Second Characteristic Numeral (water protection, numerals 0-8, or letter X)

Optional Letter for Application in Specified Weather Conditions (normally

agreed between user and manufacturer, example: Rain hood)

ENCLOSURE DEGREES OF PROTECTION TECHNICAL DATA

THE IP SCALE
2ND NUMERAL: DEGREE OF PROTECTION WITH RESPECT TO
HARMFUL INGRESS OF WATER
NEMA TO IEC – ENCLOSURE RATING CROSS-REFERENCE*
*Note: This cross-reference table is an approximation of NEMA and IEC
classifications for reference only. Please consult the appropriate agency's
requirements and test qualifications for complete information.
ENCLOSURE STANDARDS
TECHNICAL DATA
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association
2101 L Street Northwest, Washington, DC 20037
NEMA Standards Publication No. 250
Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum)
NEMA Standards Publication No. ICS6

EXI Electrical Standards for Mass Production Equipment

CERTIFICATES & APPROVALS
ENCLOSURE POWDER PAINT APPLICATION
TECHNICAL DATA
Degreasing, Iron Phosphatizing and Rinsing
During this process the steel is cleaned and passivated.
This way the product will not corrode and good adhesion of the paint to the
steel surface is achieved.
Forced Drying
To make sure that the products are completely dry before the painting
process starts, they are dried at 100 degree C.
Structure Powder Coating
344
The powder coating is electrostatically applied. This way ALL faces are
covered inside and outside assuring high mechanical strength, very good
corrosion protection and resistance to chemicals, temperature and weather
variations. The powder coating can easily be re-painted and is free from
heavy metals, chromate and silicon.
Painting Process
Hardening
Taking down enclosures
Hanging up enclosures
Phosphatizing
Drying

ENCLOSURE METAL SPECIFICATIONS

TECHNICAL DATA
MATERIALS AND FINISHES METALS
CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
Hot Rolled Pickled and Oiled Steel Sheets (ASTM A569)
A low-carbon, hot-finished steel produced by passing bar stock, at a
temperature above the recrystallation temperature, between a set of rolls.
Scale has been removed by means of a hot, weak sulfuric acid bath, after
which an oil film is applied.
Cold Rolled Steel (ASTM A366)
A low-carbon, cold-finished steel produced by passing bar stock through a
set of rolls.
Galvanized Steel (ASTM A526)
Steel with a zinc coating to provide corrosion resistance. The most common
method of applying the zinc coating is hot dip galvanizing. Other optional
methods include electro deposition and metal spraying. Galvanizing provides
protection against corrosion by serving as a sacrificial barrier and providing
cathodic protection at sheared edges.
18-8 Stainless Steel (Type 302-304)
A highly corrosion resistant iron-based alloy containing between 18% and
20% chromium. Stainless steel is the strongest of the corrosion resistant
materials. It exhibits many of the same resistances attributed to fiberglass
materials as well as resistance to highly polar solvents such as acetone and
mek. 316 or 316L Stainless Steel Provide improved resistance to salt, some
acids, and high temperature. Resistance to sulfates and chlorine is less than
Type 304.
345
5052 Aluminum:- A lightweight metal that has a protective oxide layer
which shields its surface from most corrosive elements. 5052 is the strongest
non-heat treatable aluminum alloy.
Monel:- A high nickel-base alloy characterized by good strength and good
resistance to heat and corrosion.
COSTS Low, Low to Moderate, Moderate, Moderate to High, Moderate,
High.
SUGGESTED APPLICATION
General indoor and outdoor use after a suitable finish has been applied to
protect against corrosion. General indoor and outdoor use after a suitable
finish has been applied to protect against corrosion.
Indoor or outdoor use in neutral pH (pH is a measurement of the degree of
acidity or alkalinity of a solution: pH values from 0 to 7 indicate acidity, and
pH values from 7 to 14 indicate alkalinity).
Resists oil, gas, glycerine, dichromates, borates, and silicates. Most frequent
application is outdoor including seacoast atmospheres. Additional finishes
may be applied to improve corrosion resistance. Indoor and outdoor
use.Ideally suited for use in food processing areas, dairies, breweries, or any
wet area. Also works well in areas where caustic elements or alkalies are
present.
Indoor or outdoor use in almost any environment. These stainless steels are
the most corrosion resistant metal materials used by Wiegmann for
enclosures.
A superior material choice for marine environments
Indoor or outdoor use, particularly in marine environments
Also an excellent choice for enclosures exposed to solvents,
petrochemicals, some acids, most sulfates and nitrates.
Frequently specified for marine and chemical plant applications. Mainly
used as hardware on non-metallic enclosures.

Repainting
For best adhesion results, correct surface preparation before repainting is
critical. To avoid discoloration of solvent-based high solids baking enamel,
do not bake over 360 ̊ F. Always follow instructions provided by your paint
manufacturer
. Apply thin finish coats.
. Allow the paint to cure properly for best adhesion and hardness.
Panel Installation
346
When installing the interior sub-panel, it may be necessary to bend one or
more mounting studs slightly) to permit the panel to slide in place. If this
would happen, simply position the panel on the studs that line up properly,
and pry the other stud into position with a screwdriver inserted through the
panel hole.
Door Closing Adjustments (Single Door Wall Mount)
If the surface on which the enclosure is mounted is not flat, the door may not
open and close properly. If heavy equipment is mounted on the door, the
door may sag slightly. If the top of door strikes the lip which extends around
the body opening, place metal shims behind the mounting foot which is
located at the bottom of the enclosure and closest to the door hinge.
Place the shims between the mounting foot and the wall or mounting surface;
be sure all mounting bolts are tight! (Two Door Floor Mounting)
The overlapping doors are factory-fitted to meet evenly at the top and
bottom. If the floor under the enclosure is not level, the doors will not close
evenly. In this case, place metal shims under the corners of the enclosure.
The enclosure should be bolted in place with doors closed to prevent tipping
when installing shims. Shims under the right front corner will raise the right
door. Shims under the left front corner will raise the left door. It is important
that the doors meet evenly to insure a proper seal against liquids and dust.
Be sure all mounting bolts are tight!
Lifting Enclosures
To lift an enclosure which has eyebolts or mounting feet, be sure to use all
the eyebolts or tip mounting feet provided. Arrange your chains and cables
with spreader bars, etc., so you are lifting straight up on the eyebolts or top
mounting feet.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
TECHNICAL DATA
Ever since components have been made to control electrotechnical tasks,
heat loss has been a subject to take into consideration. Sometimes more—
sometimes less. Major problems with heat caused excessive dust
accumulation in switchgear equipment because the doors were left open
during the summer to allow the equipment to cool down. This can result in
fluctuations in temperature. These lead to stress situations that can
considerably reduce the service life of electronic components (see chart).

347
THREE BASIC COOLING METHODS
When selecting a cooling method there are three types to consider:
1. Natural Convection– If there is only a minimal heat gain in your
circumstance, use of louvers or grilles with filters can be effective. This
method, however, usually provides less cooling effect than is necessary with
today’s components (Fig. 1, pg. L15).
2. Forced Convection Air cooling– If the installation will be in a clean, non-
hazardous environment with an acceptable ambient (outside the enclosure)
temperature range, a simple forced-air cooling system utilizing outside air is
usually adequate. Combined with an air filter, such devices generally meet
the heat removal needs of typical electronic equipment and many electrical
applications (Fig. 2a & 2b, pg. L16).
Examples of forced convection air cooling are Filter fans™ and Box Fans.
3. Closed-Loop Cooling– In harsh environments involving high
temperatures, wash-down requirements, heavy particulate matter or the
presence of chemicals capable of damaging components (NEMA 4 or 12
environments), ambient air must be kept out of the enclosure. This chart
demonstrates the relationship between temperature and service life. Closed-
loop cooling consists of two separate circulation systems. One system seals
out the ambient air, cooling and re-circulating clean, cool air throughout the
enclosure. The second system uses ambient air or water to remove and
discharge the heat (Fig. 3, pg. L18). Examples of closed-loop cooling
equipment employed with electronics and process controls are air
conditioners and heat exchangers.

Cooling units are used if:

• The outside air cannot be used for cooling
• The required temperature inside the switch cabinet should be equal to or
lower than the required ambient temperature
• The ambient air is extremely oily or rife with conductive dust Steps for
sizing an air conditioner—Proper selection of an air conditioner is
determined by the following criteria:
• Required cooling capacity in BTUs/hr (steps 1-4)
• Mounting requirements (top or side mounting options)
• Dimensions of air conditioner and enclosure (Preferred Method)
1 Watt = 3.413 BTU/HR.

Cooling Control Cabinets

348
Most electrical & electronic control systems generate substantial amounts of
heat during operation. This heat factor intensifies as controls are made more
compact, perform more functions, or are placed in more confined areas.
Additional problems are encountered when the electronic process control
system is located on-site in an industrial setting, as opposed to a clean
computer room. For instance, ambient temperatures found in a steel mill can
be locally very high. The factory environment can be hostile to the point that
performance and effective life of electronic components are materially
reduced, or the control system fails completely.
Moisture-laden air and airborne particulate matter might be present to
adversely affect electronic components, as is true in the paper manufacturing
industry or in grain storage facilities.
Our air conditioners are designed to perform reliably under many of these
harsh conditions and to provide the cooling and environmental protection
required by sensitive electronic production control systems.

Factors affecting model selection

Use this section as a basic outline or checklist of the various conditions to be
considered when choosing a cooling unit for a certain application.

The following three factors must be considered when selecting a cooling

unit:
1. Internal Heat Load
This is the heat dissipated by electronic controls. It is expressed in watts.
One watt equals 3.413 BTU/hr. Thus, to obtain the approximate cooling
capacity required to remove a specific heat load, the following formula can
be used:
Watts x 3.413 = BTU/hr
For example, a heat load of 800 watts requires an air conditioner capable of
removing at least 2,730 BTU/hr
2. Resistance to air flow in the enclosure
Air-flow is measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM).
Creating appropriate air flow requires that air pressure be produced by a
blower within the air conditioning enclosure. Resistance to blower-produced
air flow is created by obstructions within the cabinet’s air-flow path. This
resistance is called static pressure (SP) and is measured in inches of water
column.

349
The effect of significant resistance in the cabinet’s air flow due to static
pressure is that it produces a drop in air pressure, or differential, from the
air velocity produced by the blower. This reduction in cool air flow will
decrease the effective capacity of the cooling unit. So when selecting the
proper cooling unit, allowances must be made for static pressure.
3. Heat Load from the Surroundings
Ambient conditions can cause a heat gain in the enclosure.
The rated capacity of the cooling unit must be sufficient to handle this heat
gain. When evaluating the additional heat load gained from the
surroundings, consider the following:
Insulated Cabinet – Normally, well-insulated cabinets will not gain sufficient
ambient heat to affect an air conditioners operation. BTU/hr ratings for our
air conditioners have been established at the maximum ambient operating
temperature of 125°F. A substantial improvement in heat removal occurs
when operating in ambient temperatures below 125°F.
Uninsulated Cabinets (most common) — Obviously, this design places more
of a burden on the cooling unit. Heat is conducted to the cool side. Thus,
high ambient heat will be readily transmitted into the cooler enclosure. To
determine the additional capacity required of our air conditioner installed in
an uninsulated cabinet, the surface square footage of the enclosure must be
calculated to obtain the total effective heat transfer area. For this
calculation, use the surface area of the sides, plus the area of the top, and
omit the bottom area of the cabinet.
Air movement outside the uninsulated cabinet will increase the heat
conducted from the ambient into the enclosure. When there is little or no air
circulation outside the cabinet, the layer of air immediately adjacent to the
exterior cabinet walls act as an insulating film.
Exterior air movement dissipates this insulating layer of air in proportion to
the velocity of the air flow. Substantial ambient air circulation will increase
the transmitted heat load imposed on the cooling unit. If the cabinet being
cooled is not airtight, then high ambient relative humidity will adversely
affect the cooling effectiveness of the air conditioner. When humid air
infiltrates a poorly sealed enclosure, the air conditioner is required to use up
valuable BTU/hr capacity just to condense the moisture from the internal air.
Conversely, if the cabinet is well sealed, high ambient relative humidity has
very little effect on the heat capacity of the air conditioner.

Why Use a Heater?

350
Hubbell Wiegmann heater products protect electronic and electrical
components from temperature problems that are below acceptable tolerances.
There are obvious circumstances when extremely low ambient (outside the
enclosure) temperatures would require a heater, but there are also less
apparent times that a heater should be considered. For example, a system may
run all day having its components generate heat, but once the system shuts
down for the night, the quick drop in temperature could cause
condensation and possible corrosion– a heater could be used to maintain a
safe and constant temperature.

ENCLOSURE ALTERATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
1 PREPING CUTOUT AND PUNCHED HOLES
a. All cutouts and punching of holes must be free of burrs and sanded smooth for
proper fitof accessories.
b. All holes / bare metal must be painted to prevent rusting of the steel, ensure the
U.L. rating of the enclosure, and to maintain the integrity of the enclosure finish.
2 REPAINTING
Contact Hubbell- Wiegmann for the proper replacement, touch up paint.
3 MOUNTING INSTRUCTIONS
a. Wall mounted enclosures have either an internal mounting means or external
mounting feet. Proper fasteners must be used in all mounting holes to secure the
enclosure to the wall.
b. Floor mounted enclosures have floor stands (legs) which include mounting
plates. Proper fasteners must be used in all mounting holes to securely anchor the
enclosure to the floor.
4 DOOR CLOSING ADJUSTMENTS
a. Single door (wall mounted)
If the surface on which the enclosure is mounted is not flat, the door may not open
and close properly. Also, if heavy equipment is mounted on a large door, the door
may sag slightly. If the top of the door strikes the lip which extends around the
body opening, place metal shims behindthe mounting foot which is located at the
bottom of the enclosure and closest to the door hinge. Place the shims between the
mounting foot and the wall or mounting surface. Be sure all mounting screws are
tightened securely.
b. Two door (floor mounted)
The overlapping doors are factory-fitted to meet evenly at the top and bottom. If
the floor under the enclosure is not level, the doors will not close evenly. In this
case, place metal shims under the corners of the enclosure. The enclosure should
be bolted in place with the doors closed to prevent tipping when installing shims.

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Shims under the right front corner will raise the right door. Shims under the left
front corner will raise the left door. It is important that the doors meet evenly to
insure a proper seal against liquids and dust. Be sure all mounting bolts are
tightened securely.
5 PANEL INSTALLATIONS
When the interior panel is being installed, it may be necessary to bend one or more
mounting studs slightly to permit the panel to fit in place. Simply position the panel
on the studs that line up properly and pry the other studs into position with a
suitable screwdriver inserted through the panel holes.
6 REMOVING HINGE PINS FROM CONTINUOUS HINGES
This can be a difficult operation requiring one or more people. This procedure is
best accomplished by using a small diameter punch to drive the hinge pin toward
the bottom of the enclosure. Lay the wall-mounted and floor-mounted or free-
standing enclosure on its back side (see note 7 below). When the hinge pin
protrudes about two inches below the bottom hinge barrel, bend the end of the pin
1800 so it is shaped like the letter "J". Use an electric or air powered vibrating
hammer fitted with a tool which has a hole in the end to fit over the hinge pin, and
drive the hinge pin out while opening and closing the door.
To install the hinge pin, straighten the pin and drive it in with the vibrating
hammer while opening and closing the door. Most hinge pins have one end
chamfered, so be sure to start the chamfered end first when installing the pin.
7 PRINT POCKETS
The print pocket on the door can be mounted in any location or position using the
self adhesive strip, or removed entirely.
8 LIFTING ENCLOSURES BY EYEBOLTS
To lift an enclosure which has eyebolts or mounting feet, be sure to use all the
eyebolts and top mounting feet provided. Arrange the chains and cables with
spreader bars so you are lifting straight up on the eyebolts or top mounting feet.
Eyebolts are used for lifting, shipping, and moving purposes. It is the customers
responsibility to ensure that lifting eyes are tightened to maintain proper seal /
NEMA / and UL rating (factory installed rubber washers must be used) Hubbell-
Wiegmann cannot assure the safety or effectiveness of any alterations or additions
not made by Wiegmann.
However, the following information may be helpful. These instructions do not
eliminate the need to consult with equipment manufacturers and to observe all
regulatory agency procedures and safe practices to assure the proper electrical
and mechanical function of Hubbell-Wiegmann products in each particular
application.

………

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INITIAL TESTING AND INSPECTION ONBOARD SHIP
33.1 The initial inspection, which may consist of a series of inspections during the
construction of the vessel, shall include a complete inspection of the electrical
installation and electrical equipment or apparatus. The inspection shall be such as
to ensure that the arrangement, materials and installations thereof, fully comply
with the applicable section of this Standard and are in accordance with approved
plans. The inspection shall also be such as to ensure that the workmanship of all
equipment and apparatus and the installation thereof is, in all respects, satisfactory.
33.2 The insulation resistance shall be measured by self-contained instruments
such as a direct reading ohmmeter of the generator type, applying a voltage of at
least 500 volts. When an insulation test is made on a circuit incorporating
capacitors of a total capacitance exceeding 2 microfarads, an insulation tester of
the constant-voltage type should be used.
33.3 Before switchboards, motor control centres and distribution panels are put
into service, their insulation resistance shall be not less than 1 megohm when
measured between each bus-bar and ground and between each insulated bus-bar
and the bus-bar connected to the other pole or poles; this test shall be made with all
circuit breakers and switches open and all fuse-links for pilot lamps, ground
indicating lamps, voltmeters, etc. removed and voltage coils temporarily
disconnected.
33.4 On all lighting and power circuits, a test for insulation resistance between all
insulated poles and ground and, where practicable, between poles shall be applied
to all permanent wiring.
33.5 Each circuit should have an insulation resistance between conductors and
between each conductor and ground of not less than the following:
Up to 5 A load 2 megohms
Up to 10 A load 1 megohm
Up to 25 A load 400,000 ohms
Up to 50 A load 250,000 ohms
Over 50 A load 100,000 ohms

33.6 All generating sets shall be run until constant temperature has been reached,
after which commutation, electrical characteristics, over speed trips, governing,
range of excitation control, lubrication and absence of vibration shall be
satisfactorily demonstrated.
33.7 The insulation resistance of all generators shall be measured both in the cold
condition and in the warm condition immediately before and after running at
normal full load.
33.8 All switchgear shall be loaded as nearly as practicable to its full load and no
overheating shall take place due to faulty connections or incorrect rating. Those
vessels with an aggregate connected load of 500 kW or more shall conduct a
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thermal scan of the switchboard main connections and bus work together with the
generator connections and transformers above 10 kVA.
33.9 Switches and circuit breakers shall be operated on load and, where
practicable, operation of their over-current, under-voltage and auxiliary trip units
satisfactorily demonstrated.
33.10 Reverse power relays, reverse current relays, preferential tripping relays and
all electrical and electro/mechanical interlocks shall be satisfactorily operated.
33.11 Each motor with all its associated control equipment shall be run under
operating conditions for a sufficient length of time to demonstrate correct
alignment, wiring, capacity, speed, and satisfactory operation; motors driving
pumps, ventilation fans, and similar loads shall be operated as nearly as practicable
under their individual service conditions; motors driving cargo winches shall hoist
and lower their specified loads; motors driving warping capstans, machine tools,
and other similar machines, shall be run to demonstrate suitability.
33.12 The remote control units for stopping ventilation fans, oil pumps and pumps
discharging overboard in way of survival craft shall be satisfactorily operated.
33.13 Tests shall be carried out on power and lighting circuits to verify that the
allowable voltage drop, as specified in Section 5.1 (b) of this standard has not been
exceeded; circuits shall be operated as nearly as is practicable, at their full load
rating during these tests.
33.14 Where the power developed by the main propulsion units is transmitted to
the propeller by means of generators and motors:
 a dock trial of sufficient duration shall be made to prove that all propulsion
machinery, controls and interlocks function satisfactorily;
 an insulation resistance test should be made on all motors, generators and main
cabling in the cold condition immediately before the machinery is put into
operation and in the warm condition immediately after completion of trials and the
values obtained shall be not less than 1 megohm; the insulation resistance values
obtained shall be recorded and kept onboard as a permanent reference for future
insulation resistance tests.
33.15 The functioning of the complete emergency electrical supply shall be tested
and this shall include the following; where applicable:
 operation of the emergency generator automatic starting system;
 operation of the transitional emergency battery automatic transfer system;
 capacity test of the emergency accumulator battery; and
 operation of the emergency lighting system.
33.16 Interior communications systems and alarm systems shall be tested to
determine their suitability and to verify their specified functioning; particular
attention shall be paid to the testing of the operation of all essential electrical
communication systems including:
 electric engine order telegraphs;
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  electric docking telegraphs;
 automatic fire alarm and detection systems;
 public address system; and
 general alarm system.
33.17 The operation of electric and electro/hydraulic steering gear shall be tested
with particular attention paid to the function of the motor overload alarm, motor
stopped indication and supply circuit breaker tripped alarm; where duplicate
power supplies to a manual transfer panel are provided it shall be verified that the
arrangement of switches or links on the panel is such as to permit either supply to
be connected to either motor but not to permit both motors to be connected to one
supply.
33.18 Electric cable shall be checked during installation for size and type as shown
on the approved plans; the adequacy of cable supports shall be checked and it shall
be ascertained that no cable is installed in the proximity of steam pipes or other hot
objects and that the cables have not been damaged during the installation due to
excessive pulling force having been applied, or due to bends or sharp or rough
edges of cable supports or bulkhead penetrations or similar abrasions; cable
penetrations required to be watertight shall be checked for proper packing of the
terminal or stuffing tubes.
33.19 Rotating electrical machinery shall be checked to assure that rotating and/or
un-insulated parts are adequately shielded from accidental contact by personnel.
33.20 Switchboards shall be checked for hand-rails, guard-rails, working spaces,
insulating floor covering, drip covers and enclosures for backs and ends;
switchboard mounted apparatus shall be checked for identifying nameplates;
circuit nameplates shall be compared with the rating or setting of the overcurrent
devices and with the approved plans; the accessibility of items requiring
maintenance or adjustment shall be checked; meters shall be checked for proper
operation; the operation of automatic switchgear and mechanical and electrical
interlocks shall be observed.
33.21 Motor starters shall be checked to ensure proper starting of the motor under
service conditions and that properly rated overcurrent devices are installed; each
motor starter not completely disconnected from all sources of potential when the
disconnect switch is opened (due to electrically interlocked circuits necessary for
proper operation of the apparatus or for other valid reasons) shall be checked to
ensure that attention is directed to such conditions by a suitable warning.
33.22 The accessibility of electrical apparatus for normal inspection and
maintenance shall be observed; the accessibility of junction boxes and the like in
way of panelling shall be noted during construction of a vessel; hinged doors of
motor starters and similar apparatus shall be checked for interference with adjacent
structural parts or apparatus.

355
33.23 It shall be determined that metal enclosures for electrical equipment are
grounded, either by the method of mounting or by ground leads; portable
equipment shall be checked for grounding through one conductor of the supply
cable.
33.24 All propulsion and auxiliary machinery control and safety systems installed
to comply with the requirements for an automated machinery system or an
unmanned machinery space shall be checked for material condition and operation.
33.25 Storage batteries used for ship’s service and emergency diesel driven
generator starting and diesel driven main engine starting shall be checked for
capacity; the batteries shall have sufficient capacity without recharging to provide
not less than twelve consecutive starts of each main engine if of the reversible type
and not less than six consecutive starts if of the non reversible type; for diesel
driven generators, not less than six consecutive starts.
33.26 Electric re-heat systems are to be checked for normal operation; overheat
cut-outs are to be checked for proper operation and temperature rating; electrical
connections are to be checked to ensure that they are tight; the interior of re-heat
boxes is to be checked to ensure that they are free from excessive amounts of
combustible dust.

34. Periodic Inspections

34.1 The inspection of electrical installations at the periodic inspection incident to
re issuance of a safety certificate of inspection shall include an inspection of all
items enumerated in Section 33.1 and 33.6 to 33.25 inclusive to the extent
necessary to determine mechanical and electrical condition and performance and as
per the applicable subsection of this chapter; particular note shall be made of
circuits added or modified after the initial inspection.
34.2 All repairs, additions alterations are undertaken; shall comply with the
approved plans.
34.3 Where the control of the propulsion machinery or the propeller iseffected by
electric or electronic means a complete inspection of the control system shall be
conducted annually.
34.4 Where appropriate, in the interest of safety, more frequent inspections should
be carried out.
34.5 Where the main source of electrical power is used for supplying power for
lighting purposes only:
the equipment and installation shall be generally inspected and tested under
working conditions and electric cables inspected as far as may be practicable
without dismantling any fixtures or casings; an insulation resistance test shall be
made on generators, cables and fittings, using a direct indicating ohmmeter of the
generator type, applying a d.c. voltage of 500 volts and the insulation resistance
measured shall be not less than 100,000 ohms; for cargo vessels of less than 20
356
years of age the option exists whereby the insulation resistance tests may be
performed on a five year periodicity; and all generators shall be run in turn or
simultaneously, and all main switches and circuit breakers operated on load.
34.6 Where the main source of electrical power is also used for supplying power
for driving essential auxiliary machinery, steering gear or windlass:
 generators and all motors driving essential auxiliary machinery shall be
inspected generally as far as may be practicable without dismantling any
fixtures or casings unless such dismantling is deemed necessary as a result of
test or observation;
 an insulation resistance test shall be made on generators, motors, cables, heaters
and fittings using a direct indicating ohmmeter of the generator type, applying a
d.c. voltage of 500 volts; the insulation resistance measured shall be not less
than 100,000 ohms;
 for cargo vessels of less than 20 years of age the option exists whereby the
insulation resistance tests may be performed on a five year periodicity;
 and all generators shall be run in turn or simultaneously and all main switches
and circuit breakers operated on load.
34.7 Where the power developed by the main propulsion units is transmitted to the
propeller by means of generators and motors, an inspection shall be conducted as
follows:
• the main propulsion generators and motors shall be inspected as far as may be
practicable, particular attention being paid to the ends of all windings of stators
and rotors;
• all air ducts in stator coils and the ventilating holes in rotors and retaining rings
of alternators shall be carefully examined;
• all cable runs shall be examined over their entire length, particular attention
being paid to the grounding of metallic protective coverings of sheaths;
• generator circuit breakers and set-up switchgear shall be examined and tested
for mechanical operation at no load; high potential bus insulators and supports
shall be inspected and found free from oil, dust or contamination liable to cause
tracking to ground; The propulsion system excitation and control systems shall
be energized and all permissive interlocks and indicators inspected;
• the excitation and control power need not be applied to the main machinery
during this inspection; and the insulation resistance of each propulsion motor
and generator shall be tested and the values obtained compared with the original
readings and those in the ships log; corrective action shall be requested where
the measured insulation resistance is less than 1 megohm or where any abrupt
decrease in the order of 25% of the original or previously recorded values are
noted.
34.8 The functioning of the complete emergency electrical supply system shall be
tested and this shall include the following, where applicable:
357
  operation of the emergency generator automatic starting system;
 operation of the transitional emergency battery automatic transfer system;
and
 operation of the emergency lighting system.
34.9 All essential electrical communication systems shall be tested to verify their
specified functioning.
34.10 The operation of electric and electro/hydraulic steering gear shall be tested
with particular attention paid to the functioning of the motor overload alarm, motor
stopped indication and supply circuit breaker tripped alarm, also the setting of
switches or links on the transfer panel where applicable.
34.11 Generator circuit breakers for generators rated 100 kW and above shall be
tested every five years to verify initial trip settings and satisfactory operation; the
tests may be conducted using either primary or secondary injection methods; if the
test is performed by secondary injection the integrity of all the circuit breakers
associated current transformers is to be verified on a ten year periodicity. The
actual generator circuit breaker settings shall be permanently indicated in an
accessible position within each circuit breaker compartment.

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD IEC 60092-352
Third edition, 2005-09
Electrical installations in ships – Part 352: Choice and installation of
ELECTRICAL CABLESIEC 2005
International Electrotechnical Commission
FOREWORD
(1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide
organization for standardization comprising all national electrotechnical
committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization
in the electrical and electronic fields. To this end and in addition to
other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical
Specifications, Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications
(PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC Publication(s)”). Their
preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National
Committee interested in the subject dealt with may participate in this
preparatory work. International, governmental and non-governmental
organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation.
IEC collaborates closely with the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
(2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters
express, as nearly as possible, an international consensus of opinion on
the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation
from all interested IEC National Committees.
(3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international
use and are accepted by IEC National Committees in that sense. While
all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of
IEC Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way
in which they are used or for any misinterpretation by any end user.
(4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National
Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications transparently to the
maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications.
Any divergence between any IEC Publication and the corresponding
national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in the latter.

359
(5) IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and
cannot be rendered responsible for any equipment declared to be in
conformity with an IEC Publication.
(6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this
publication.
(7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants
or agents including individual experts and members of its technical
committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury,
property damage or other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether
direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and expenses arising
out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or
any other IEC Publications.
(8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this
publication. Use of the referenced publications is indispensable for the
correct application of this publication.
(9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this
IEC Publication may be the subject of patent rights. IEC shall not be
held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard IEC 60092-352 has been prepared by
subcommittee 18A:
Cables and cable installations, of IEC technical committee TC 18:
Electrical installations of ships and of mobile and fixed offshore units.
This third edition cancels and replaces the second edition published in
1997, of which it constitutes a technical revision. Main changes with
respect to the second edition relate to:
−sizes of earth continuity conductors and equipment earthing
connections;
−bending radii for cables rated at 3,6/6,0 (7,2) kV and above;
−current carrying capacities in amperes at core temperatures of 70 °C
and 90 °C;
−tabulated current carrying capacities – defined installations.

The text of this standard is based on the following documents:

FDIS Report on voting 18A/277/FDIS 18A/280/RVD
Full information on the voting for the approval of this standard can be found in the
report on voting indicated in the above table.
IEC 60092 consists of the following parts under the general title
360
Electrical installations in ships:
Part 101: Definitions and general requirements
Part 201: System design – General
Part 202: System design – Protection
Part 203: System design – Acoustic and optical signals
Part 204: System design – Electric and electrohydraulic steering gear
Part 301: Equipment – Generators and motors
Part 302: Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
Part 303: Equipment – Transformers for power and lighting
Part 304: Equipment – Semiconductor convertors
Part 305: Equipment – Accumulator (storage) batteries
Part 306: Equipment – Luminaires and accessories
Part 307: Equipment – Heating and cooking appliances
Part 350: Shipboard power cables – General construction and test requirements
Part 351: Insulating materials for shipboard and offshore units, power, control,
instrumentation, telecommunication and data cables
Part 352: Choice and installation of electric cables
Part 353: Single and multicore non-radial field power cables with extruded solid
insulation for rated voltages 1 kV and 3 kV
Part 354: Single- and three-core power cables with extruded solid insulation for
rated voltages 6 kV (Um = 7,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)
Part 359: Sheathing materials for shipboard power and telecommunication cables
Part 373: Shipboard telecommunication cables and radio-frequency cables –
Shipboard flexible coaxial cables
Part 374: Shipboard telecommunication cables and radio-frequency cables –
Telephone cables for non-essential communication services
Part 375 Shipboard telecommunication cables and radio-frequency cables –
General instrumentation, control and communication cables
Part 376: Cables for control and instrumentation circuits 150/250 V (300 V)
Part 401: Installation and test of completed installation
Part 501: Special features – Electric propulsion plant
Part 502: Tankers – Special features
Part 503: Special features – A.C. supply systems with voltages in the range above
1 kV up to and including 11 kV
Part 504: Special features – Control and instrumentation
Part 506: Special features – Ships carrying specific dangerous goods and
materials hazardous only in bulk
Part 507: Pleasure craft
The committee has decided that the contents of this publication will remain
unchanged until the maintenance result date indicated on the IEC web site under

361
"http://webstore.iec.ch" in the data related to the specific publication. At this date,
the publication will be
• reconfirmed;
• withdrawn;
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.
A bilingual version of this publication may be issued at a later date.
This is a preview - click here to buy the full publication 60092-352 IEC:2005(E)

INTRODUCTION
IEC 60092 forms a series of International Standards concerning
electrical installations in seagoing ships and fixed or mobile offshore
units, incorporating good practice and co-ordinating as far as possible
existing rules.
These standards form:
 a code of practical interpretation and amplification of the
requirements of the International
Convention on Safety of Life at Sea;
 a guide for future regulations which may be prepared and
 a statement of practice for use by owners and builders of ships and
fixed or mobile and offshore units and other appropriate
organisations.
This revision of IEC 60092-352 has been prepared by Maintenance
Team 1 of IEC SC 18A, to update and include developments identified in
other parts of the 60092 series of standards applicable to electric cables
for electrical installations in ships, viz:
 the increase in maximum rated conductor temperature during
normal operation for EPR, XLPE type insulations – see IEC 60092-
351 – and the effect on current carrying capacities;
 the publication of IEC 60092-376 covering cables for control and
instrumentation 150/250V (300V);
 changes in test methods to demonstrate the capability of cables to
continue to operate in fire conditions and to limit the spread of
flame;
 the inclusion of a method for the determination of current carrying
capacities based upon those that have been accepted and established
in other applications of cable use. This method has been derived
362
 from a technical basis and allows a greater choice of use in different
installation methods as opposed to that currently specified, which
was established from experimental data on a limited number of
cables and installation information. The existing ratings are
included as informative annexes A and B, and their use is valid
under certain conditions, e.g. refurbishment of ships;
 the inclusion of a method for the determination of the cross-sectional
areas of earthing conductors based on the current carrying
capacities of the fuse or circuit protection device installed to protect
the circuit.
NOTE
Guidance for the use and installation of cables for offshore applications
is being prepared jointly by SC18A, MT 2 and TC 18, MT 18, and will
be issued by TC 18, MT 18.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS IN SHIPS –Part 352:

Choice and installation of ELECTRICAL CABLES
1 Scope
This standard provides the basic requirements for the choice and
installation of cables intended for fixed electrical systems on board ships
at voltages (U) up to and including 15 kV.
The reference to fixed systems includes those that are subjected to
vibration (due to the movement of the ship) or movement (due to motion
of the ship) and not to those that are intended for frequent flexing.
Cables suitable for frequent or continual flexing use are detailed in other
IEC specifications e.g. IEC 60227 and IEC 60245, and their uses on
board ship is restricted to those situations which do not directly involve
exposure to a marine environment e.g. portable tools or domestic
appliances.
The following types and applications of cables are not included:
 optical fibre cables;
 sub-sea and umbilical cables;
 data, telecommunication and radio frequency cables;
 the choice and installation of cables for use on offshore units.
2 Normative references

363
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the
application of this document.
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any
amendments) applies.
IEC 60092-101, Electrical installations in ships – Part 101: Definitions
and general requirements
IEC 60092-201:1994, Electrical installations in ships – Part 201:
System design – General
IEC 60092-203, Electrical installations in ships – Part 203: System
design – Acoustic and optical signals
IEC 60092-350:2001, Electrical installations in ships – Part 350:
Shipboard power cables – General construction and test requirements
IEC 60092-351, Electrical installations in ships – Part 351: Insulating
materials for shipboard and offshore units, power, control,
instrumentation, telecommunication and data cables
IEC 60092-353:1995, Electrical installations in ships – Part 353: Single
and multicore non-radial field power cables with extruded solid
insulation for rated voltages 1 kV and 3 kV Amendment 1 (2001)
IEC 60092-354, Electrical installations in ships – Part 354: Single and
three-core power cables with extruded solid insulation for rated
voltages 6 kV (Um = 7,2 kV); up to 30 kV (Um= 36 kV)
IEC 60092-359, Electrical installations in ships – Part 359: Sheathing
materials for shipboard power and telecommunication cables
IEC 60092-376, Electrical installations in ships – Part 376: Cables for
control and instrumentation circuits 150/250 V (300 V)
IEC 60228:2004, Conductors of insulated cables
IEC 60287 (all parts), Electric cables – Calculation of the current
rating
IEC 60331-21:1999, Tests for electric cables under fire conditions –
Circuit integrity – Part 21:
Procedures and requirements – Cables of rated voltage up to and
including 0,6/1,0 kV
IEC 60331-31:2002, Tests for electric cables under fire conditions –
Circuit integrity – Part 31:

364
Procedures and requirements for fire with shock – Cables of rated
voltage up to and including 0,6/1,0 kV
IEC 60332-1-2:2004, Tests on electric and optical fibre cables under
fire conditions – Part 1-2:
Test for vertical flame propagation for a single insulated wire or cable –
Procedure for 1 kW pre-mixed flame
IEC 60332-3-22:2000, Tests on electric cables under fire conditions –
Part 3-22: Test for vertical flame spread of vertically-mounted bunched
wires or cables – Category A
IEC 60533:1999, Electrical and electronic installations in ships –
Electromagnetic compatibility.
IEC 60684-2:2003, Flexible insulating sleeving – Part 2: Methods of
test Amendment 1 (2003)
IEC 60702-1:2002, Mineral insulated cables and their terminations with
a rated voltage not exceeding 750V
IEC 60702-2:2002, Mineral insulated cables and their terminations with
a rated voltage not exceeding 750 V – Terminations
IEC 60754-1:1994, Test on gases evolved during combustion of
materials from cables–Determination of the amount of halogen acid
gas.
IEC 60754-2:1991 Test on gases evolved during combustion of electric
cables – Determination of degree of acidity of gases evolved during the
combustion of materials taken from electric cables by measuring pH
and conductivity Amendment 1 (1997)
IEC 61034-2:2005 Measurement of smoke density of cables burning
under defined conditions – Test procedure and requirements.
3 Types, construction, installation and operating conditions of cables
3.1 Types of cables
Cables constructed in accordance with IEC 60092-350, IEC 60092-353,
IEC 60092-354, and IEC 60092-376 are recommended for use on board
ships. Cables (and their terminations) for use in special applications
which are constructed in accordance with IEC 60702-1 and IEC
60702-2 are also acceptable provided that due consideration has been
given to their intended application and use in a marine environment.
IEC Squirrel-Cage Motors
Marine motors
365
Orientation
■ Overview
Low-voltage motors in the marine version can be used as main and
auxiliary drives below deck on ships and in the offshore industry. The
thermal utilisation of the motors is matched to the generally higher
ambient temperatures on board ship. If the application demands
compliance with additional regulations, e.g. protection against explosion
hazards, the appropriate motor series must be chosen.
The classification authorities categorise the drives on board ships into
"essential services" and "non-essential services", depending on their
field of application. These include the following requirements of the
classification authorities:
IEC Squirrel-Cage Motors
Marine motors
Orientation
■ Benefits
The marine motors offer the user a number of advantages:
• Cast-iron versions can be supplied for corrosive atmospheres
especially for high humidity levels and salty air
• Increased corrosion protection using specially designed paint finishes
is available
• Certified marine motors can be supplied for use in areas to be protected
against explosion
• Due to the type tests already performed, individual acceptance testing
in the low-end output range is not necessary which means shorter
delivery times
■ Application
Our type approved marine motors are specially designed for use on
board ship below deck and for the offshore industry:
• Applications on board ship as main and auxiliary drives below deck,
e.g.:
- Fans (air conditioning, refrigeration plants)
- Pumps (for fire-extinguishing water, fuels, oils)
- Winches (anchor winches, warping winches, lifting gear)
- Compressors
- Bow thruster drives
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- Ex motors for areas subject to explosion hazards
• Application in the offshore industry
- Coastal areas, e.g. production platforms, production ships
Typical areas of application
■ Technical specifications
Frame design
Motors can be supplied depending on the motor series in a corrosion-
resistant aluminium housing and in a rugged low-vibration cast-iron
version.
Motor connection
Cable glands are not included in the standard scope of supply with the
exception of explosion-proof motors (see "Special versions").
All marine motors generally have an external earthing terminal.
Standards and regulations
In addition to the relevant standards and regulations, IEC 92-301 also
applies for electrical installation on board ship as well as the regulations
of the marine classification authorities.
Specifications of the IEC standards
Main drive
Bow thruster G_D081_EN_00042
Winches
Gen.
Diesel fans
Pumps,
Motor
Coolant temperature
KT
Maximum temperature for temperature class B F°C K K
IEC/EN 60034-1 40 80 105IEC 92-301 50 70 90IEC Squirrel-Cage
Motors
Marine motors
Orientation
■ Technical specifications (continued)
Temperature class and coolant temperature
Marine motors are designed in general for a coolant temperature KT 45
°C in temperature class F – used according to F – with thermal reserve.
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1MA and 1MJ motors as well as motors in Zones 2, 21 and 22 are
designed in temperature class F – used according to temperature class B
– with derating of approximately 4%. 1LA9 motors with increased
output in temperature class F – used according to temperature class F –
are also derated by approximately 4%. If temperature class F is used
according to B, further derating of approximately 10% (for non-standard
motors 1LA8, 1PQ8 15%) is required
Ambient temperatures that exceed 45 °C require appropriate derating as
shown in the table below:
Rating plate and acceptance test certificate
The metal rating plate indicates the relevant classification authority and
the associated coolant temperature.
Rating plate for a marine motor according to DNV In addition, an
acceptance test certificate 3.1 according to EN 10204 complete with the
certificate number of the marine classification authority will be supplied.
Degree of protection
The standard version is IP55 degree of protection or IP23 for motors
with through ventilation (series 1LL8), IP56 (non-heavy sea) – not for
1PQ8 and 1LL8 or IP65 (not possible for “Non-standard motors frame
size 315 and above”) are available optionally (see "Special versions").
Winding and motor protection
For monitoring the winding and bearings, the motors can be equipped
with thermistors, temperature sensors and resistance thermometers. Anti-
condensation heaters can also be fitted to the marine motors to prevent
condensation building up on the winding.
Paint finish
The standard paint finish is suitable for indoor installations or outdoor
installations which are roof-protected against weathering.
When motors are installed in corrosive sea atmospheres or in rooms that
are constantly wet, the special paint finish for the "world wide" climatic
group according to DIN IEC 60721-2-1 is recommended because this
ensures a higher degree of corrosion protection. Most marine motors are
finished in this special paint type as standard (see "Special versions").
The offshore paint finish CERAM-KOTE 54 can be supplied for
excessively aggressive atmospheres. Please enquire in this case.
Special coatings with thicker layers are available on request.
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Converter-fed operation
The standard insulation of the marine motors is implemented such that
converter-fed operation is possible without limits for mains voltages of
500 V +10%; exception: 1MA motors are only certified for mains
operation.
At higher voltages, the motors require greater insulation resistance.
1LA5, 1LA7 and 1LG6 standard motors as well as 1LA8 and 1PQ8 non-
standard motors are also available for converter-fed operation with
supply voltages of up to 690 V also with improved insulation in the
winding system.
It is important to note the extent to which the converter used must also
be acceptance tested by the marine classification authority.
IEC Squirrel-Cage Motors
Marine motors
■ Overview
Most non-standard motors frame size 315 and above of Siemens AG can
be used as marine motors if the appropriate order codes are used. The
following table shows the available series of non- standard motors frame
size 315 and above (individual acceptance required):
Motor series 1LH8 (please enquire).
For technical specifications and selection and ordering data, see the
relevant sections of "Non-standard motors frame size 315 and above".
For further information about order codes see "Special versions".
■ Overview
For technical specifications and selection and ordering data, see the
relevant sections of "Explosion-proof motors".
For further information about order codes see "Special versions".
IP55 Cast-iron 1LA8 315 ... 450 160 ... 1000 1)
Forced-air cooled motors with externally mounted fan for converter-fed
operation
IP55 Cast-iron 1PQ8 315 ... 450 160 ... 1000 1)
Self-ventilated motors with through ventilation for mains-fed and
converter-fed operation
IP23 Cast-iron 1LL8 315 ... 450 200 ... 1250 1)

369
Water-cooled motors for mains-fed and converter-fed operation
(technical specifications can be supplied on request) IP55 Steel 1LH8
450 485 ... 11501)
Self-ventilated motors in Zone 22 with protection against dust
explosions IP55 Cast-iron 1LA8 315 ... 450 160 ... 1000 1)
At a coolant temperature of 45 °C when used according to temperature
class F, the output is reduced by 4%.2)
At a coolant temperature of 45° C, the output is reduced by 4%. When
used in accordance with temperature class B, the output is reduced by a
further 15 %.
MARINE SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TIER I –POLICY
ACCEPTANCE OF MARINE AND OFFSHORE ELECTRICAL
CABLE
1 Policy Objective
1.1 To accept marine and offshore electrical cable (shipboard marine
cable) that is type approved by a recognized marine classification society
or listed by a product certification body in lieu of the Canadian specific
requirements as prescribed in Ships Electrical Standards (2008) -TP 127.
1.2 To align Marine Safety policy on cable construction with current
international standards.
1.3 To eliminate duplication and reduce effort expended by industry and
Transport Canada in the verification of cable type construction for
compliance with Ships Electrical Standards (2008)-TP 127.
1.4 To facilitate the shut-down of the Transport Canada Approved
Products Catalogue Index (APCI) webpage Approved Electrical Cables
2 Policy Statement
2.1 Marine electrical cable that is type approved by a recognized marine
classification society or listed by a product certification body as meeting
the standards for shipboard or offshore marine use developed by the
standards development organizations listed below will be acceptable for
installation on board Canadian vessels.

The acceptable standards are:

 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC);
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE);
 Canadian Standards Association (CSA); or
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 Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
The recognized marine classification societies are:
 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
 Bureau Veritas (BV)
DetnorskeVeritas (DNV)
 Lloyd's Register (LR)
Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
2 The acceptable product certification bodies are those accredited by the
Standards Council of Council (SCC) such as:
 Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
 Underwriters Laboratories Canada (ULC)
 Canada Standards Association (CSA/CSA International)
Intertek Testing Services Inc. North America (ETL)

2.2 Marine electrical cable for shipboard or offshore marine use that have
been previously accepted as meeting the requirements of Ships Electrical
Standards (2008) -TP 127 will continue to be acceptable for installation for
a period of 2 years from the effective date of this policy after which time
such cables for new installation shall meet the requirements of 2.1 above.
2.3 Marine electrical cables shall be selected such that they are suitable for
the intended purpose and installed in accordance any conditions
established as part of their approval and a suitable installation standard.
Final cable selection and installation shall be subject to design
approval/inspection of the Transport Canada Regional Centre or
Recognized Organisation acting on behalf of the Canadian administration.
2.4 Transport Canada Marine Safety no longer lists or issues product
approvals or notices, letters of acceptance for products of this nature, nor
does it approve manufacturers.
Note: Cold performance Testing/Certification
2.5 Cables shall meet minimum cold performance ratings in accordance
with the requirements of 2.1 above. Cables shall not be installed or
otherwise worked in temperatures or conditions for which the cable has not
been designed and tested. Vessel owners and designers may give special
consideration to electrical installations where very low temperatures may
be a factor.
3 Scope

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3.1 This policy applies to marine and offshore electrical cable for
installation on Canadian vessels.
3.2 This policy does not apply to electrical cable intended for use in marine
pleasure craft or small commercial vessels less than 24 metres in length.
4 Authority
4.1 This policy falls under the overall administrative authority of the
Director General, Marine Safety and the Marine Safety Executive (MSE)
committee has approved this policy for general application.
5 Responsibility/ further information
5.1 The Director Design Equipment and Boating Safety (AMSR) is
responsible for the development, implementation and maintenance of this
policy.
5.2 The Manager, Ship Design and Fishing Vessels (AMSRD) is the Office
of Primary Interest (OPI) for this policy.
5.3 The Director Design Equipment and Boating Safety (AMSR) and
Regional Directors, Marine Safety, are responsible for implementation of
this policy.
6 Related Documents
6.1 Ships Electrical Standards (2008) -TP 127
7 Background
Current Marine Safety policy prescribes Canadian specific requirement for
cable construction as detailed in TP 127. The on-line Approved Products
Catalogue Index currently includes a type approval function carried out by
headquarters but has not been updated for several years.
There is no Canadian regulatory requirement, nor any mandatory
international instrument requiring Transport Canada to issue certificate of
type approval or other such confirmatory document for cables. The current
edition of TP 127 closely follows the basic requirements of
Classification society rules and international requirements for construction
of cable.
However, the requirement for cold performance testing with Canadian
specific acceptance limits for all cable regardless of application has proven
problematic for industry.
A recent review of these Canadian specific requirements undertaken as
part of the Vessel Construction Regulations project has determined that
they are no longer necessary.

372
Although past practice has included issuance of letters of acceptance and
cable products have been listed on the APCI, in the vast majority of the
submissions the cable has already been type approved or listed by others to
comparable international standards.
7.18 Definitions
8.1 “Marine and Offshore Electrical Cable” or “Marine Shipboard Cable”
means distribution (power) cables, and control and signal cables for
installation aboard marine vessels, fixed and floating offshore petroleum
facilities, and mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs), that is designed and
constructed in accordance with the requirements of 2.14
9 Date of Application
9.1 This policy comes into effect on 25May, 2012.
10 Date for Review or Expiry
10.1 This policy will expire with the coming into force of the new Vessel
Construction Regulations CSA 2001.
11 RDIMS Reference
11.1 The English version of this document is saved in RDIMS under
reference number 5380320. The applied naming convention is
PUBLICATION TP 13585 – POLICY -ACCEPTANCE OF MARINE
AND OFFSHORE ELECTRICAL CABLE
11.3 This is the first approved and finalized revision of the English version
of this document.
Factory Acceptance Testing Guideline
Summary
According to the standard IEC 61551 the factory acceptance test (FAT) is
not a requirement but is necessary to carry out if the application software
of the logic solver is complex or if the architecture is using redundant
arrangements. The general questions in the planning phase of the FAT
concern the tests to be performed and how to deal with the tests.
The FAT is a practical way to test and verify the correct operation of the
safety instrumented system.
Factory Acceptance Testing Guideline Process Industry IEC 61511
Version: 1.0 Last Edited: 2006-08-25 www.sp.se/safeprod
1. Introduction
1.1. Purpose
The aim of this document is to try to describe the requirements concerning
factory acceptance testing, FAT, according to the standard IEC 61511. The
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FAT is a customized testing procedure for different types of systems and
the tests are executed before the final installation at the plant. The FAT is
not a requirement but recommended to be carried out, according to the
standard IEC 61511, if the application software of the logic solver is fairly
complex or if the architecture of the safety instrumented system is using
redundant arrangements. In many cases it is difficult to predict the correct
operation of the safety instrumented system or consequences due to
failures in some parts of the safety instrumented system. For that reason
the FAT is a valuable check of the safety issues. The test cases are selected
during the planning phase in order to test the safety measures as far as
possible.
1.3. Scope
This document covers the parts in IEC 61511 concerning the FAT. The
FAT can be used as an integration test or during validation of the safety
instrumented system.
2. Definitions and abbreviations
basic process control system (BPCS) system which responds to input
signals from the process, its associated equipment, other programmable
systems and/or an operator and generates output signals causing the
process and its associated equipment to operate in the desired manner but
which does not perform any safety instrumented functions with a claimed
SIL ≥1 (3.2.3 in IEC 61511-1) fault abnormal condition that may cause a
reduction in, or loss of, the capability of a functional unit to perform a
required function (3.2.21 in IEC 61511-1) failure termination of the ability
of a functional unit to perform a required function (3.2.20 in IEC 61511-1)
error discrepancy between a computed, observed or measured value or
condition and the true, specified or theoretically correct value or condition
(3.2.18 in IEC 61511-1) hazard potential source of harm (3.2.31 in IEC
61511-1) hazardous situation circumstance in which a person is exposed to
hazard(s) (3.1.3 in IEC 61508-4) hazardous event hazardous situation
which results in harm (3.1.4 in IEC 61508-4) harm physical injury or
damage to the health of people, either directly or indirectly, as a result of
damage to property or to the environment (3.2.30 in IEC 61511-1)
instrument apparatus used in performing an action (typically found in
instrumented systems) (3.2.38 in IEC 61511-1)
NOTE: Instrumented systems in the process sector are typically composed
of sensors (for example, pressure, flow, temperature transmitters), logic
374
solvers or control systems (for example, programmable controllers,
distributed control systems), and final elements (for example, control
valves). In special cases, instrumented systems can be safety instrumented
systems (see 3.2.72 in IEC 61511-1) process risk arising from the process
conditions caused by abnormal events (including BPCS malfunction)
NOTE: 1 The risk in this context is that associated with the specific
hazardous event in which SIS are to be used to provide the necessary risk
reduction (i.e., the risk associated with functional safety). (3.2.54 in IEC
61511-1) safety instrumented function (SIF) safety function with a
specified safety integrity level which is necessary to achieve functional
safety and which can be either a safety instrumented protection function or
a safety instrumented control function (3.2.71 in IEC 61511-1)
3. Factory acceptance test (FAT)
The main objective of the FAT is to test the safety instrumented system
(logic solver and associated software together). The tests are normally
executed during the final part of the design and engineering phase before
the final installation at the plant. The FAT is a customized procedure of
checking the safety instrumented system and the safety instrumented
functions according to the safety requirements specification, see fig. 1.
The FAT includes appropriate general testing procedures for verification of
the correct operation of the safety instrumented system. Since the testing
activities are general methods the FAT is applicable to programmable or
non programmable safety instrumented systems. The most important part
of the FAT addresses specification of the test cases i.e. clear description of
the test cases, well structured test procedures and relevant test cases.
3.1. Planning
The planning presents a set op of the appropriate tests to be carried out and
who is responsible for developing the test cases. Appropriate levels of
competence and independence of assessors are required. The realization of
tests shall be described as well as the personnel responsible to carry out the
test. The test protocol is developed during the planning and furthermore
who is responsible to attest the test protocol.
The procedures to carry out the FAT shall be well defined and documented
in a proper way. Each test procedure shall be described in a logical
sequence i.e. how to test the application software and hardware. The
needed competence for involved test personnel is described during the
planning. It is recommended that personnel with experience suitable for the
375
intended process application and safety instrumented system deals with the
FAT planning. Experience form different areas such as process Factory
Acceptance Testing Guideline design, hardware design, and software
design will contribute the FAT planning with relevant test cases. The
content of the FAT tests shall be appropriate for the intended safety
instrumented system.
The planning includes procedures for corrective action in case of
discovered failure during execution of the tests. The test planning shall
also include the test criteria on which the completion of the tests shall be
judged. The safety instrumented systems physical location and the function
dependency of other systems or interfaces are issues that are specified
during the planning phase.
The configuration of the logic solver is needed during the planning in order
to prepare the tests.
In order to develop integration tests it may be required to contact the
supplier of the logic solver or other relevant suppliers for the included
units in the safety instrumented system.
3.2. Test activities
The FAT is normally performed at the manufacturers work shop. The
manufacturer checks that the safety instrumented system works as intended
and according to the requirements stated in the safety requirements
specification, SRS. During the FAT the manufacturer checks as far as
possible that:
• the used equipment are according to the specification e.g. compatible
HW and SW versions
• the used equipment are installed according to manufacturer’s
specification
• the inputs and the outputs are connected according to the drawings
• the calibration of the equipment are correct
• the trip points operate according to the requirements in the SRS
• the logic solver and associated software operate according to the
requirements in the SRS
• the outputs and their actions behave according to the SRS
• the reset functions operate according to the SRS
• the alarms operate according to the SRS
• the operator functions operate according to the SRS
• the bypass functions operate according to the SRS
376
• the manual shutdown functions operate according to the SRS
• the diagnostic alarm functions operate according to the SRS
The outputs from the safety instrumented function are examined during
different test cases e.g. simulation of inputs in order to verify that the
safety instrumented functions meet the requirements in the safety
requirements specification.
If the FAT reveals weaknesses in the design and engineering phase or in
the safety requirements specification phase these phases have to be
modified according to the result of the FAT. In order to check the
modifications the safety instrumented system has to be re- tested.
The FAT should take place on a defined version of the logic solver and the
configuration of the logic solver has to be specified in order to establish
relevant test cases.
In order to perform the tests the need of tools is described and also a
description of the test environment.
Any modifications or change should be subject to a safety analysis in order
to determine the extent of the impact on each safety instrumented function
and the extent of re-test should be defined and implemented.
Proper maintenance can be performed and power systems kept in a
safe, reliable condition with the proper mixture of:
– Common sense
– Training
– Manufacturers’ literature and spare parts

377
MARINE CABLES (ship wiring cables, ship board cables)
Marine cables are for installations on board ships. They have been type
approved by a classification society and they have a construction that
follows standards for marine cables.
Conductor
Marine cable conductors are of stranded annealed copper combining the
flexibility and small dimensions to provide excellent installability and
economical solutions. To minimise the cable diameter and weight we
use sector shaped conductors for bigger cross-section.
Insulation Material
XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) is used as the main insulation
material. It withstands higher temperatures than ordinary thermoplastic
polyethylene. It is resistant against deformation and various chemicals. It
has excellent mechanical and electrical properties. The maximum
conductor temperature stipulated by IEC 60092-351 marine cable
standard is 90 ̊C.
Sheathing Material
The sheath (jacket) is composed of halogen free, flame retardant
thermoplastic compound. It fulfils the criterion of SHF1 according to
IEC 60092-359. In case of fire the sheathing material offers advantages
such as reduced emission of smoke and corrosive toxic gasses.
Quality Control
Each manufactured cable goes through a test procedure according to the
IEC 60092-300 series standards.
Fire Testing Methods
Flame retardance of a single cable is tested in accordance with IEC
60332-1. It is performed on a 60 cm cable sample with a gas flame for 1-
4 min depending on the cable diameter. The cable has to be self-
extinguishing within certain limits to fulfil the test. Please see figure 1.
Fire retardance is tested on bunched cables in accordance with IEC
60332-3, simulating the fire behaviour of the cables installed in a bunch.
The main category that is used is A. This is based on an amount of 7
litres of combustible material per metre.
The bunch of cables has to be minimum 3.5 m high when it is in a
burning chamber subjected to fire from a burner directed at the cables

378
for fourty minutes. The cable bunch may not burn more than 2.5 m
above the burner. Please see figure 2.
Fire resistance test is aimed at verifying the behaviour of a cable that
must work even when it is burning. There are two different testing
methods, IEC 60331-21 and IEC 60331-31, used for power and control
cables.
Ship cable standards require the IEC 60331-21 test, where the cable
sample is subjected to a flame at 750 ̊C for 90 minutes followed by a 15
minutes cooling period while the rated voltage is being applied between
the conductors.
No breakdown or short circuit is permitted during the test.
Please see figure 3. The optional testing method for cables with diameter
over 20 mm, is the more rigorous IEC 60331-31 test, in which a bent
cable, affected by mechanical impacts, is subjected to a 830 C̊ flame for
120 minutes.
Smoke density is tested according to IEC 61034-1 (apparatus) and IEC
61034-2 (procedure and requirements). It is done by placing cable in a
“smoke cube” (3x3x3 m). When the cable is burning, the light
transmittance is measured using a photometric system. This test is aimed
at simulating visibility when cables are burning on board a ship 60 %
(70 % for a single cable) visibility is satisfactory if it is attained
throughout the test.

Halogens
To test whether a material is halogen free or not, the tests IEC 60754-1
and 60754-2 are used. The acidity of the gasses from burning materials
is measured. Being halogen-free means that the materials used in the
cables do not contain any halogens – such as chlorine, bromine, iodine
and fluorine.
In order to attain the self-extinguishing effects that halogens have in
cables, ATH based materials are used instead.
This way the negative effects of halogens are avoided (corrosivity,
toxicity etc.)
Approvals
All above mentioned test are part of the IEC test procedures for marine
cables. As a confirmation of the successfully passed test our products
379
have type approval certificates from the following classification
societies:
 ABS American Bureau of Shipping
 BV Bureau Véritas
 DNVDet Norske Veritas
 GL Germanischer Lloyd
 LRS Lloyd’s Register of Shipping
 RINA RegistroItalianoNavale
 RMRS Russian Marine Register of Shipping
 Indian Register of Shipping

SWITCHGEAR

High voltage switchgear

A section of a large switchgear panel, in this case, used to control on-

board casino boat power generation.

380
Tram switchgear

This circuit breaker uses both SF6 and air as insulating gases.

SWITCHGEAR
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical
disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and
isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize
equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faultsdownstream. This type
of equipment is important because it is directly linked to the reliability of the
electricity supply.

The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches,
mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and
voltages rapidly escalated, making opening manually operated switches too
381
dangerous for anything other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-
filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By
the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed
structure with electrically operated switching elements, using oil circuit
breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast,
vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be
safely controlled by automatic equipment incorporating digital controls,
protection, metering and communications.

High voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for
operating motors and other electric machines. [1] The technology has been
improved over time and can be used with voltages up to 1,100 kV.[2]
Typically, the switchgear in substations is located on both the high voltage
and the low voltage side of large power transformers. The switchgear on the
low voltage side of the transformers may be located in a building, with
medium-voltage circuit breakers for distribution circuits, along with
metering, control, and protection equipment. For industrial applications, a
transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one housing, called a
unitized substation or USS.
Switchgears are as old as the electricity generation. The first models were
very primitive: all components were simply fixed to a wall. Later they were
mounted on wooden panels. For reasons of fire protection, the wood was
replaced by slate or marble. This led to a further improvement, because the
switching and measuring devices could be attached to the front, while the
wiring was on the back.[3]

Housing
Switchgear for low voltages may be entirely enclosed within a building. For
transmission levels of voltage (high voltages over 66 kV), often switchgear
will be mounted outdoors and insulated by air, although this requires a large
amount of space. Gas insulated switchgear used for transmission-level
voltages saves space compared with air-insulated equipment, although it has
a higher equipment cost. Oil insulated switchgear presents an oil spill hazard.
At small substations, switches may be manually operated, but at important
switching stations on the transmission network all devices have motor
operators to allow for remote control.

382
Types
A piece of switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be
insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of
switchgear is gas insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and
contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other
common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear.
The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them
to interrupt fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a
switchgear enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents.
The quenching of the arc when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts
open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall
into these five types:
Oil

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of
oil through the arc.
Gas
Main article: Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field,
and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF 6 to quench the stretched
arc.
Vacuum
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize
other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched by a
small amount (<2–3 mm). At or near zero current the arc is not hot enough to
maintain a plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the rise of
voltage. Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-
voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts. Unlike the other types, they are inherently
unsuitable for interrupting DC faults.[citation needed]

383
Air
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) or the magnetic force of
the arc itself to elongate the arc. As the length of the sustainable arc is
dependent on the available voltage, the elongated arc will eventually exhaust
itself. Alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed
chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly:
typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and
construction of the device.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Breakers that use carbon dioxide as the insulating and arc extinguishing
medium work on the same principles as an SF 6 breaker. By switching from
SF6 to CO2 it is possible to reduce the CO2 emissions by 10 tons during the
product life cycle.[4]

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for

example, air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually operated
switches may all exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a
multitude of standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards
are used, much of the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with
local national derivatives or variations.

Functions

One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption

of short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to
unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power
supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by allowing
more than one source to feed a load.
Safety
To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key
interlocking provides predefined scenarios of operation. For example, if only
one of two sources of supply are permitted to be connected at a given time,
the interlock scheme may require that the first switch must be opened to
release a key that will allow closing the second switch. Complex schemes are
possible.

384
Indoor switchgear can also be type tested for internal arc containment (e.g.
IEC 62271-200). This test is important for user safety as modern switchgear
is capable of switching large currents.]
Switchgear is often inspected using thermal imaging to assess the state of the
system and predict failures before they occur. Other methods include partial
discharge (PD) testing, using either fixed or portable testers, and acoustic
emission testing using surface-mounted transducers (for oil equipment) or
ultrasonic detectors used in outdoor switchyards. Temperature sensors fitted
to cables to the switchgear can permanently monitor temperature build-up.
SF6 equipment is invariably fitted with alarms and interlocks to warn of loss
of pressure, and to prevent operation if the pressure falls too low.
The increasing awareness of dangers associated with high fault levels has
resulted in network operators specifying closed door operation for operating
earth switches and racking breakers. Many European power companies have
banned operators from switch rooms while operating. Remote racking
systems are available which allow an operator to rack switchgear from a
remote location without the need to wear a protective arc flash hazard suit.

245 kV circuit breaker in air insulated

420 kV gas insulated switchgear
substation

385
High voltage circuit breaker standards—comparative guide
Abstract
IEEE_ C37 and IEC 62271 electrical standards govern the ratings,
performance, features, and testing of circuit breakers and switchgear.
The primary goal is to ensure that the circuit breakers serve the
intended purpose of safely protecting the electrical distribution system.
The secondary goal is to ensure that circuit breakers are electrically
and mechanically interchangeable so that the electrical grid can be
interconnected.
This paper will analyze and compare the similarities and differences
among the requirements of these electrical circuit breaker standards.
Introduction
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) were each founded
around the end of the 19th century. The objective of the first meetings
was to ensure the effective interconnection capabilities of the
components in the alternating current power distribution system.
Without electrical standards, the utility grids would be unreliable, costly
to operate, and difficult to connect.
Low frequencies are most suitable for powering three-phase motors in
most applications. Electric utilities desired higher frequencies for
powergeneration to reduce capital costs. Depending on the distances
from the power generation facility, it was economical to distribute
power at several different voltages.
Over time, manufacturers and users began meeting to “standardize”
these conflicting requirements by providing a preferred rating structure.
The committees went beyond just choosing preferred ratings—they set
specific criteria, like dimensions, for connections and other
requirements that ensured safety.
As systems grew during the 1920s, users suffered some spectacular
electrical failures. At that time, the standards organizations started to
specify the minimum design and testing criteria to prove ratings
assigned to power circuit breakers. In 1924, the Electric Power Club
(NEMA_) issued a standard prohibiting “flame-throwing”. In 1938,
AIEE (now IEEE) issued standard 19 prohibiting the emission of any
“appreciable quantity of oil”.
386
To establish the capabilities of circuit breakers, manufacturers and
third-party organizations built high power laboratories. During the
tests, thecircuit breakers must perform four basic functions:
to open, to close, to remain open withstanding voltage, and remain
closed conducting continuous and short-circuit currents.
This paper will address the requirements defined by the standards
forvoltage withstand, ratings, thermal load requirements, capacitor
switching, and testing.

Insulation—voltage withstand
While closed or open, the circuit breaker must be capable of
withstanding overvoltage without dielectric breakdown. Table 1
provides criteria on power frequency withstand overvoltage andlighting
impulse withstand over voltages for each preferred operating voltage
class.

387
High voltage circuit breaker standards—comparative guide
According to C37.09, after short-circuit testing, the circuit breaker must
be able to withstand a one-minute power frequency voltage test at 80%
of the original rated withstand voltage. Withstand voltage ratings is one
area in which IEEE has more conservative requirements than IEC. The
preferred power frequency withstand voltages (PFWV) is a factor of 3
times the respective IEEE rated maximum voltage and a factor of 2.3
times the IEC rated maximum voltage.
In addition to testing the circuit breaker at the power frequency, the
circuit breaker must undergo a series of lightning impulse withstand
voltage (LIWV) tests. The required wave-front rise-time requirement is
1.2 microseconds for both standards. In Table 1, IEEE LIWV ratings
are more conservative than IEC ratings. IEEE lighting impulse voltage
ratings are nearly 2 times the IEC rating for a given rated (maximum)
voltage. The averaged summation of the IEEE lightning impulse ratings
divided by the rated voltage yields 7.86 for IEEE versus 4.42 for IEC.
Ratings
On the IEC rating tables, the standard provides a footnote “b,”
indicating the voltages used in North America. For all North American
voltages, IEC has adopted the same TRV parameters for short-circuit
capabilities.
A key difference between the standards is that IEEE specifies maximum
rated voltages. IEC tolerances on operating voltages are ±5% while
IEEE are ±10%. So in the case of a 3.6 kV circuit breaker, the typical
operating voltage is 3.3 kV. The IEEE 4.76 kV circuit breaker, on the
other hand, would be designed to operate at 4.16 kV. On many
quantities, the IEC standards define explicit tolerances on measured test
characteristics. No such equivalent tables exist in IEEE standards.
The standard rated short-circuit duration for the IEEE circuit breaker is
2 seconds. The ability of a breaker to withstand a high short-circuit
current is an important factor in system coordination. Upstream circuit
breakers must remain closed so that downstream circuit breakers can
interrupt. The IEC circuit breaker must withstand the fault for only 1
second. IEC even has a preferred rating for 0.5 seconds. On this
criterion, IEEE is more conservative.

388
The IEC standard has adopted the R10 series of numbers based on the
tenth root of 10 for both short-circuit and continuous current ratings.
The R10 series was created by Charles Renard and was adopted by
ISO_ in the 1950s as a standard for defining preferred numbers. The
spacing between preferred numbers increases as the rating increases.
IEC standards provide additional preferred ratings as shown in Table 2.
The rated operating sequence establishes the closing, opening, making,
and breaking duty for which the breaker must be tested.
IEEE requires a delay of 15 seconds after the first opening and the
subsequent closings. This is more stringent than IEC, which allows for 3
minutes between openings and subsequent closings.

T
h
e

development of sealed interrupters using vacuum as the dielectric

medium has greatly improved both maintenance intervals and the life
expectancy of circuit breakers over the last several decades. Contacts
do not corrode, and arcing on some vacuum interruptions is no more
than defuse blue plasma.

389
Synthetic lubricants and precision computer designed parts allow
manufacturers to design circuit breakers with capabilities well beyond
the limits shown in Table 2.
Most manufacturers have the capabilities to run these no-load tests in
house, but obtaining a third-party certificate is desirable to most users.
Electrically, the IEEE breaker must sustain 800% It without
maintenance. The IEC standard does not have an equivalent mandatory
requirement unless the optional electrical duty Class E2 rating is
specified by the purchaser.
Thermal load requirements
Rated current is the capability of the breaker to carry the rated load
current when the breaker contacts are closed and conducting current
continuously. The standards set different temperature limits for current
carrying parts, connection points, and contacts. The allowed
temperature rise for the insulating parts vary based on the insulating
class used and the ambient temperature of the air surrounding the
equipment.
Temperature is a function of the resistance of the conductor and the
square of the current flowing through that conductor. The expected life
of the insulation is an inverse power function of the temperature of the
conductors where they contact the surface of the insulation. The rule of
thumb is that if the temperature increases by 10 degrees, the insulating
life is reduced by one half.
When comparing thermal capabilities of circuit breakers, the IEEE
standard is more conservative as outlined by Table 3. 3

390
For the temperature rise test, the temperatures of conductors are
measured by thermocouples placed on the part. For measuring the
ambient temperature, oil-filled containers are used to reduce
temperature variations. Three measuring points are specified at 3 feet
from the circuit breaker. One measurement is at the top, one at the
bottom, and one in the middle.
The standards have set no limit for the contact temperatures of a
vacuum breaker. The unspecified limit is attributed to the endurance
capacity of the vacuum interrupter relative to air, oil, and gas circuit
breakers.
Capacitor switching
Capacitors are often applied to the electrical grid to stabilize voltages
following power distributions and to improve power quality. The
preferred circuit breaker for capacitor switching is one that has a low
probability of re-strike. If the circuit breaker is unable to successfully
interrupt, the transient voltage can escalate on successive re-strikes.
Therefore, the standards have set series of test procedures and ratings
to help establish the circuit breakers capacitor switching capabilities.
Table 4 outlines the optional tests that can be conducted on breakers
intended for use on capacitor circuits.

391
If a capacitor exists on both the line and load side, it is referred to as a
back-to-back capacitor bank. IEEE has three ratings—C0, C1, and C2
—with C1 and C2 being equivalent to the defined IEC ratings.
A significant difference between the standards is that IEEE requires the
manufacturer to conduct cable capacitance switching while IEC does
not.
Testing
The prototype breaker used for the design must be tested in accordance
with the standards. Table 5 outlines some of the key test requirements.
IEEE C37.06 requires the breaker to switch currents in the range of 3%
to 7% and 95% to 100%. IEEE breakers must also undergo single-
phase asymmetrical testing. The IEEE circuit breaker that meets C37.54
criteria must successfully clear a series of fault interruptions that
accumulate to 800% of the rated short-circuit capacity of the breaker.

392
High voltage circuit breaker standards—comparative guide
Conclusion
The requirements of IEEE, for the most part, equal or exceed IEC
requirements. The reason for this is user participation at IEEE
meetings. Standard voting is based on individual for IEEE and by
country for IEC.

Table 6 provides a current summary of some of the key differences

between the standards.

393
The test laboratories, at great expense, design circuits to simulate the system
characteristics required and defined by the standard. It is expected of the
manufacturer to meet all the minimum requirements of the standard. The loss of
just one breaker could result in an entire plant shutdown. It is important that the
user and the manufacturer check for compliance to the standards.
Author Stephen M. Cary is a principal engineer at Eaton in Pittsburgh, PA, and is
responsible for medium voltage codes and standards. Steve has more than 20
years of application engineering experience and has authored a number of IEEE
technical papers. He has a mechanical engineering degree from Michigan State
University and an MBA from the University of Pittsburgh. Currently, he is
secretary of the IEEE C37.04 working group.
Stephen M. Cary, Principal EngineerEaton 2
White Paper WP012001ENEffective May 2013
EATON www.eaton.com

394
MARINE ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
Reference books: -
1. Basic Electro technology, - Reeds Vol. 6
2. Advanced Electro technology, - Reeds Vol. 7
3. Electrical Technology, - B L Theraja Vol. I to IV
4. Electrical Technology, - Edward Hughes
5. Practical Marine Electrical Technology, - Denis T. Hall
6. Marine Electrical Equipment and Practice, - H D Mc George
7. Marine Electrical Practice, - G O Watson
8. Marine Electrical Technology, - E A Fernandez
9. Electricity Applied to Marine Engineering, - W Laws

* Blue colour (Sr. No. 1 to 4) indicates numerical coverage also.

* Black colour (Sr. No. 5 to 9) indicates only theory coverage.

395
Electrical Power Distribution System
Elements
􀂃Main Switch Board – hub of distribution
􀂃Group starter boards – often part of MSB
􀂃Section boards
􀂃Distribution boards
􀂃Protection devices – isolate the faulty circuits from the system
􀂃Circuit breakers – interrupt the flow of current
􀂃Fuses – protection against large fault currents
􀂃Transformers – interconnect the high and low voltage sections
􀂃Monitoring devices
􀂃Protective relays
􀂃Meters

Most Common Power Generation

􀂃a.c.
􀂃Ease of transformation
􀂃Higher power/weight ratio
􀂃Economical
􀂃Ease of operation
􀂃3‐phase 3 wire – no neutral conductor
􀂃440V
􀂃60Hz

HV Application
􀂃Voltage above 1000V AC
􀂃Ships with very large electrical loads
􀂃Cruise liners, Offshore production platforms
􀂃Reduced size of conductors – reduced size of current
􀂃Generator star point normally earthed to ship’s hull through NER

Electrical Supply
􀂃Main Supply
􀂃Essential electrical service are essential for;
􀂃Safety of personnel
􀂃Safety of propulsion system
396
􀂃Safe navigation
􀂃Non‐essential
􀂃Emergency Supply

Preferential Tripping
􀂃A systematic method of shedding electrical load off a running
generator in the event of an overload to maintain generator operation
􀂃A preferential trip relay (normally set at 110% current) senses the
situation and sets an alarm and energise the timing relay instantly
􀂃Timing relay then operates to disconnect selected non‐essential
services in a definite order at set time interval
􀂃Each generator has its ownNormal overcurrent relay (normally set at
150% current, 20s delay)
􀂃Preference trip – instantaneous operation

Preferential Tripping – an example

􀂃A 500kVA generator generates 440V and 1136A FLC
􀂃1136A+124 = 1260A (110%) is sensed by preferential trip
􀂃Relay sets the alarms and energises the timer
􀂃After 5 seconds (if overcurrent exists) 1st non essential load is tripped
(e.g. air conditioning)
􀂃After 5 more seconds (if the condition exists) 2nd non essential load is
tripped And so on until generator is within its safe working limits again

Emergency Supply
􀂃For safe operation of shipping activity provisions are made to provide
limited amount of electrical power from an independent electrical power
source to designated emergency loads in case the main power fails.
Regulations governing emergency source of power are detailed in;
Some of the main Classification Societies for ships are:
􀂃 American Bureau of Shipping, New York.
􀂃 Bureau Veritas, Paris.
􀂃Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg.
􀂃 Nippon KaijiKyokai, Tokyo.
􀂃Det Norske Veritas, Oslo.
􀂃RegistroItalianoNavale, Genoa
397
Electrical equipment and services aboard ship must also meet the
minimum standards specified by various national and international
organisations.

For British registered ships in particular, it is necessary to comply,

with:
􀂃 Regulations for the Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Ships -
Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE).
In conjunction with the British Standards Institute (BSI) these
Regulations are being combined with the Recommendations for the
Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Offshore Installations.
􀂃The Merchant Shipping Rules– Maritime and Coastguard Agency
(MCA)
􀂃 Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) – IMO Convention
􀂃 British Standards (BS)
􀂃 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

Emergency Power Source

􀂃Generator OR Batteries OR Both
􀂃Self contained – independent of any other power supply
􀂃Generator must have an IC engine as its prime‐mover
􀂃Prime mover must have its own fuel tank (36 hours supply for
passenger ships and 18 hours for cargo ships)
􀂃Prime mover must have its own starting equipment – air/battery
􀂃Generator must have its switchboard in its vicinity
􀂃Must come into action following a total mains failure within 45 sec
􀂃Must be ready and available at all times
Emergency Services
􀂃Emergency Generator start up
􀂃Emergency lighting
􀂃Steering gear
􀂃Alarms
􀂃Communications
􀂃Emergency fire pump
􀂃Emergency bilge pump
􀂃Navigation lights, etc
398
Fig. EMERGENCY POWERSUPPLY--ESB Changeover

Power Generation & AC Generators

Alternator Rating
􀂃Alternators are rated in kVA
􀂃Operating pf is assumed to be 0.8 lagging unless otherwise specified
􀂃Alternators are rated in kVA because they are sources of A.C. power
􀂃A.C. power is composed of active and reactive power
􀂃pf is determined by the type of electrical load
􀂃kVA rating, thus, truly encompasses the load carrying potential
Operational Control of Synchronous Generator(s)
􀂃Two variable by which behaviour of an alternator may be controlled:
1. Frequency [Hz] → related to true power [kW] it supplies
2. Terminal Voltage [V] → related to reactive power [kVAR] it supplies
f = n.pSpeed in rev/s
E ∝nΦ
Φ=Strength of magnetic flux
P=Pairs of (Poles).
V = E −I Z
V=Terminal voltage
399
Z=Phase winding impedance
I=Load current

Single Generator: Real power [kW]

􀂃kW output is controlled (through the force or the torque exerted) by
the prime mover
􀂃If more power [kW] is required then prime mover needs to push
harder (governor increases fuel supply)
􀂃Harder push means rotor has to exert against a kind of ‘resistance’
􀂃Resistance is offered by the stator magnetic field to the rotor magnetic
field
􀂃Sudden increase in load [kW] on a generator causes reduction in the
load impedance [Ω]
􀂃This results in increased current flowing from the phase windings
􀂃Increase in current results strengthening of the associated stator field
(rotates synchronously)
􀂃Strengthened field exerts the torque on the rotor’s field and tries
‘retarding’ it and the rotor begins to slow down
􀂃Slowing down of the rotor is sensed by the governor and more fuel is
supplied
(Similar scenario when load is removed)

Single Generator: Reactive power [kVAR]

􀂃kVAR is controlled by the field current provided to the rotor winding
􀂃When a kVAR load is applied the stator’s field assumes a position
1. Less than 90° for capacitive loads (current leads the voltage)
2. More than 90° for inductive loads (current lags the voltage)
􀂃Depending on the nature of the load, stator field may be resolved into
vertical and horizontal components
􀂃Forinductive type of loads (e.g. motors) the vertical component of the
stator’s field negates (partially) the rotor’s field and hence terminal
voltage drops because generator is now ‘supplying’ reactive power
􀂃Forcapacitive loads vertical component strengthens the rotor’s field
and the terminal voltage experiences a rise because generator is ‘taking
in’ VAR

400
􀂃Therefore, AVR responds to the variation of terminal voltage to
restore normalcy
Lagging pf: over excitation
Leading pf: under excitation
Unity pf: normal excitation
Single Generator: conclusion
􀂃When an AC generator is running alone:
1. pf is determined only by the load
2. Altering the excitation merely changes the voltage
3. Adjustment of throttle will directly affect the frequency

Multiple Generators – real power [kW]

􀂃Consider two generators 1 and 2 running synchronously. i.e. their;
1. Frequency is same
2. Voltage is in phase
􀂃If 1’s throttle is increased its load share will increase while 2 will be
relieved of the same amount of load
􀂃Few seconds after disturbance, both sets will resettle at the same
frequency but in terms of phase 1’s voltage may reside ahead due to
increase in its speed
􀂃This voltage phase difference is known as power angle
􀂃Each generators power angle is directly related to its share of real
power [kW] supplied

401
402
403
Multiple Generators – real power [kW] / real power [kVAR]
􀂃The difference voltage is associated with the current that flows
between 1 and 2 and is known as circulating current
􀂃Circulating current lags the difference voltage by almost 90° (because
armature resistance is inductive predominantly)
􀂃And because circulating current is almost in phase with 1’s armature
current it is added to 1’s current and subtracted from 2’s current
􀂃This will cause an increase in 1’s armature current but decrease in
2’s armature current
􀂃And power [kW] being product of V and I, 1’s power increases while
2’s load share decreases
Multiple Generators – reactive power [kVAR]
􀂃Suppose we wish to increase 1’s share of kVAR load while reducing
that of 2
􀂃This change will be affected by increasing the field current of 1
(through AVR)
􀂃Note the increased magnitude of 1’s voltage but both the voltages are
in phase
􀂃Because of the difference, again a circulating current will take place
which will be 90° out of phase with the voltage for the same reason of
inductive reactance and will have no effect on the real power out put of
the machine
􀂃1’s armature current is therefore lagging which is associated with the
weakening of the magnetic field while 2’s current is leading and is
associated with the strengthening of the field
Multiple Generators – conclusion
pf is controlled by excitation
Excitation
􀂃Generators require d.c. currentto energize its rotor field
􀂃This current is called field currentwhose source can be a battery, d.c.
generator or a rectified a.c. source (exciter)
􀂃Therefore, excitation is the process of supplying correct d.c. field
current to the magnetic poles of the rotor in order to produce correct
voltage output at the generator terminals (E α n.Φ)
􀂃Excitation current controls, also, the pfand the torque
Excitation Methods
404
1. Rotary – shaft mounted
2. Static
Rotary Excitation
􀂃Exciters are generators (either a.c. or d.c.)
􀂃Traditionally, exciters were d.c. generators – commutator/brush gear
􀂃Marine industry uses a.c. exciters due to reduced maintenance
􀂃Rotary excitation have a relatively sluggishresponse to sudden load
changes
􀂃May take up to 1second to correct a 15%voltage dip
Rotary Excitation – brush type
Stator windings
Rotating d.c. field
Leads from AVR
Brush holder
Slip rings (x 02)
Brushless Excitation
􀂃This is a small a.c. generator attached to the end of main shaft
􀂃Stator (of exciter) carries d.c. exciter field
􀂃Rotor (of exciter) carries conductors into which voltage will be
induced
􀂃Exciter field is excited (energised) by an AVR
􀂃Exciter rotor conductors cut through exciter field hence threephase
a.c. voltage is induced in the rotor
􀂃a.c. is fed to 3‐phase full wave (diode) bridge rectifier (converts a.c.
into d.c.) which is also shaft mounted
Static Excitation (single phase)
􀂃d.c. field current is derived from the generator output – without the
necessity for rotary exciter
􀂃Excitation transformer consists to twoprimary windings (PR.1 and
PRI.2) and a secondary winding
􀂃On no load (generator floating on the bus), PRI.1 (shunted) provides
the excitation current to the rectifier unit for conversion into d.c.
􀂃Additional excitation, when generator is loaded, is provided by the
PRI.2 winding (series)
􀂃AVR units, normally, are not included on static excitation
􀂃Where AVR is part of such a system it is for finer voltage regulation
405
Static Excitation
􀂃Excitation mechanism is stationaryand consists of
transformer/rectifier unit
􀂃Transient voltage response time is improved – up to 0.1second to
correct a 15%voltage dip
􀂃Rotor field draws its d.c. field current from static exciter which is
powered from generator’s own voltageand current ‐ compounding
􀂃Exciters may be located inside the generator casing or inside the main
switchboard
Voltage Regulation
􀂃Electrical loads on a ship coming ON and OFF is normal
􀂃For small loads, current drawn is also small hence the voltage drop at
the generator terminal is small
􀂃On the other hand, Bigger loads cause, a corresponding change in
generator’s output voltage
􀂃Such voltage dipsare unhealthy for the proper operation of electrical
equipments
􀂃If allowed to sustain – voltage dips may result in power disruption
􀂃Generator voltage, therefore, is maintained within close range for
rated operation of the equipments
Voltage Regulation Methods
􀂃Dip correction measures manipulate the field current (E α n . Φ)
􀂃They may include compounding of generator or solid state circuitry
known as Automatic Voltage Regulators
􀂃An AVR will bring the rated voltage back within 1.5 seconds
Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR)
Sensing transformer
Range Adjustment
Terminal Strip: for connectingRegulator to generator field
􀂃Controls the generator’s output voltage (to +/– 2.5%) of its set value
over the full load range
􀂃Transient voltage dip is usually limited to 15% for a sudden load
change with recovery back to rated voltage within 1.5 seconds
Main Components of an AVR
􀂃Voltage sensing circuit: containing transformer, rectifier, smoothing
elements
406
􀂃Voltage reference bridge: containing zener diodes for establishing a
standard reference voltage and comparing it with the generated voltage
􀂃Amplifier: which converts the signal output from the voltage
comparison circuit into a control signal for actuating the control
element
􀂃Control element: that varies the excitation current in the manner
demanded by the amplifier
AVR block diagram
􀂃Control circuit cards of an AVR are fitted either within the
switchboard or local to the generator
􀂃Voltage sensing circuit transforms down, rectifies and smoothes the
output voltage
􀂃Output of sensing unit is low voltage d.c. signal that is proportional to
generator output voltage
􀂃Low voltage d.c. signal is compared with a set d.c. value produced by
a reference by circuit of zener diodes and resistors
􀂃Manual trimmer (normally not accessible to operator) is used to set
the voltage level e.g. 440V
􀂃An error signal is output from the comparator
􀂃Error signal is then amplified to suit the field circuit
regulatingthyristors
Zener Diode
􀂃It permits the current in “forward” direction like a normal diode
􀂃It also conducts in the “reverse” direction if the applied voltage is
larger than the “breakdown voltage”
􀂃When connected in parallel with a variable voltage so that it is reverse
biased, a zener conducts when the voltage reaches reverse breakdown
􀂃From that point on the voltage across diode remains same
Voltage comparison circuit
􀂃Zener diode will always have same volt drop across it (within limits)
when reverse biased
􀂃Zener bridge is balanced when generator output voltage is correct
􀂃Let’s say the zener diodes will drop 10V across when reverse biased
and the correct proportional d.c. output is 20V

Parallel Operation
407
􀂃Load shared between machines
􀂃Machine already on the bus – “running”
􀂃Machine to be connected with the bus – “incoming”
􀂃Incoming is run briefly (while still disconnected from the bus) for
smooth transition
􀂃Parameters such as voltage and frequency of the “incoming” are
monitored
􀂃When conditions for parallel operation are met CB is closed
􀂃Load is then shared between the machines
􀂃Whole operation is performed automatically, but manual option is
also available for emergencies etc.

Parallel Operation – conditions

1. Voltage of the incoming is equal or slightly higher than that of the
running machine
2. Frequency of the incoming is equal to or slightly higher than that of
the running machine
3. Voltage of the incoming must be in phasewith the busbar voltage
4. Phase sequence of the incoming machine must be similar to that of
the busbar – a condition that is fulfilled when the machines are installed
initially

Parallel Operation – condition # 1

􀂃A small difference of voltage will produce a circulating current
between incoming and busbar of the acceptable magnitude
􀂃A large difference of voltage between incoming and busbar would be
like a short‐circuit
􀂃Incoming voltage is set by adjusting the rotor field excitation current
and simultaneously checking the effect of adjustment on the voltmeter on
synchronising panel – (E α n x Φ)
Parallel Operation – condition # 2
􀂃Incoming frequency is set by adjusting the speed of the primemover
through governor control and simultaneously checking the effect of
adjustment on the voltmeter on synchronizing panel – (f = (pxN/60))
Parallel Operation – condition # 3

408
􀂃The phase voltages of the incoming and the busbar should be in the
synchronism at the moment the incoming is connected to busbarby
closing the incoming’s circuit breaker
􀂃Synchronising lamps or synchroscope may be used to identify this
particular timing

METHODS –Synchronising Lamps

􀂃3 lamps
􀂃Lamp 1 connected in the same phase
􀂃Lamps 2 and 3 connected across different phases as shown
􀂃Difference in frequencies will cause lighting of the lamps in rotation
􀂃Clockwise: incoming is running too fast
􀂃Anti‐clockwise: incoming is running too slow
􀂃Correct timing: lamp 1 is dark and lamps 2 and 3 are equally bright
Synchroscope Method
􀂃Synchroscope indicator is connected to the rotor
􀂃Rotor is influenced by the resulting magnetic forces of the two sets of
windings
􀂃Difference in frequencies will cause imbalance in the forces and thus
the indicator will rotate
􀂃ACW rotation will indicate the incoming running slow
􀂃CW rotation means incoming is running fast
􀂃At same frequencies indicator will take vertical position
􀂃This position is hard to achieve in practice
􀂃Therefore breaker is closed when the indicator is rotating slowly CW
(about 4 seconds per revolution), breaker is closed between 5−toand
5−pastthe 12’O clocksynchroscope position
Past Paper: July ’08
Explain, with the aid of a circuit diagram, the operation of a
synchroscope. (10)
Suggested Answer
Construction
􀂃A synchroscope, as shown in the diagram, consists of two sets of
windings, fixed and moving (armature)
􀂃Armature, in turn, consists of two windings electrically connected
together in parallel fashion across the incoming machine’s two phases
409
􀂃One of the armature winding is connected via an inductor and the
other through a resistor.
􀂃Current through inductor would lag the voltage by 90° while the
current through resistor would be in phase
􀂃Respective currents passing through armature windings would result
in two magnetic fields out of step with each other by 90°
􀂃Both the magnetic fields combine together and produce a rotating
magnetic field – armature’s rotating magnetic field
􀂃Rotating magnetic field’s speed of rotation (frequency) reflects the
frequency of the incoming machine
􀂃Armature windings are mounted on a rotor with pointer which is free
to rotate about its centre
􀂃Fixed set of windings are connected in series in conjunction with a
resistor that ensures that current is always in phase with the supply
voltage
􀂃This set of winding is connected across the same phases of the busbar
as those of the armature
􀂃Passage of current will produce a magnetic field in the fixed windings
but this field would be alternating in nature rather than rotating (no
phase lag).
􀂃Frequency of alternation would directly reflect the busbar frequency
Suggested Answer
Operation
􀂃Synchroscope operates due to the interaction of rotating magnetic
field of the armature and the alternating magnetic field of the fixed
windings
􀂃Interaction implies that like poles will tend to repel each other and
vice versa
􀂃When the frequencies of the busbar and incoming are synchronous,
the pointer assumes a stationary vertical position because the south
poles are now lined up with the north poles
􀂃Pointer will be vertically up when both the frequencies are
synchronous but also are in phase – maximum values are attained at
the same instant in time

410
􀂃But the pointer will be vertically down and be stationary when the
frequencies are same but they are out of phase
􀂃In case both the frequencies are not same, then the pointer will have
to keep rotating so that opposite poles are kept aligned – CW rotation
will indicate incoming being faster and vice versa

Effects of “asynchronous” closing of CB

􀂃At the instant of closing the circuit breaker “CB”, the voltage phase
difference causes a large circulation current between the machine
which produces a large magnetic force to pullthe generator voltages
into synchronism.
􀂃This means rapid acceleration of one rotor and deceleration of other.
The large forces may physically damage the generators and their prime‐
movers and the large circulating current may trip each generator
breaker :Blackout, danger, embarrassment
Load sharing
􀂃Load types
􀂃Active power [kW]
􀂃Reactive power [kVAR]
􀂃For a singlea.c. generator pfis determined by the load
􀂃Altering excitation merely changes the output voltage
􀂃Altering throttle will directly affect the frequency
􀂃Duringparallelrunning of the generators, the kW and kVAR load of
individual machines may be adjusted separately

Fig. VECTOR DIAGRAM

411
 Fig. CAPACITIVE REACTANCE/INDUCTIVE REACTIVE POWER
“To obtain maximum efficiency and reliability of generators, they have
to be operated and maintained properly. When generators are
maintained, many precautions must be followed to avoid damage.
Usually this damage results from maintenance personnel lacking
thorough knowledge of generator design, construction, application and
proper maintenance.”

Maintenance
􀂃Plan well in advance
􀂃Safety first, e.g.
􀂃Prime mover is shut down/ locked off
􀂃Generator CB is locked off
􀂃Auto start circuits are disabled
􀂃Electric heaters are switched off and isolated
􀂃Follow prescribed procedures especially from the manufacturer
􀂃Terminal box inspection
􀂃Slip rings inspection

412
􀂃Stator winding Insulation/ Rotor winding insulation health due to, e.g.
Natural ageing – brittleness, shrinkage and cracks
􀂃Electrical causes – single phasing, unbalanced voltages, overheating
effects, test failures etc
􀂃Mechanical causes – vibration, loose ties and wedges, fan blades,
loose connections, foreign objects
􀂃Thermal causes – overloading, short circuited laminations, loss of
cooling
􀂃Environmental contamination – dust particles, moisture, oil
􀂃DUST: with a soft lint‐free cloth, low pressure dry compressed air
(very carefully), vacuum cleaner (with plastic coated nozzle)
􀂃OIL: wash windings with special degreasant liquid
􀂃SLIP RINGS: check for uniform wear, carbon brushes are free to move
􀂃Excitation transformers, AVR, diodes are free from dust, dirt, oil and
dampness
􀂃IR testing of the windings – record value and compare with history
(minimum acceptable value = 1MΩ)

Fig. L6:Values of cos Øand tan Øfor commonly-used equipment

Sr. No Equipment and appliances cos Ø tan Ø
0% 0.17 5.80
25% 0.55 1.52
1 Common induction motor 50% 0.73 0.94
loaded at 75% 0.80 0.75
100% 0.85 0.62
2 Incandescent lamps 1.0 0
3 Fluorescent lamps (uncompensated) 0.5 1.73
4 Fluorescent lamps (compensated) 0.93 0.39
5 Discharge lamps 0.4 to 0.6 2.29 to
1.33
6 Ovens using resistance elements 1.0 0
7 Induction heating ovens (compensated) 0.85 0.62
8 Dielectric type heating ovens 0.85 0.62
9 Resistance-type soldering machines 0.8 to 0.9 0.75 to
0.48
413
10 Fixed 1-phase arc-welding set 0.5 1.73
11 Arc-welding motor-generating set 0.7 to 0.9 1.02 to
0.48
12 Arc-welding transformer-rectifier set 0.7 to 0.8 1.02 to
0.75
13 Arc furnace 0.8 0.75

Electrical loads demand more power than they consume.

Induction motors convert at most 80 - 90% of the delivered power into useful
work or electrical losses. The remaining power is used to establish an
electromagnetic field in the motor. This field is alternately expanding and
collapsing (once each cycle) so the power drawn into the field in one instant
is returned to the electric supply system in the next. Therefore, the average
power drawn by the field is zero and reactive power does not register on a
kilowatt-Hour meter. The magnetizing current creates reactive power.
Although it does no useful work it circulates between the generator and the
load - placing a heavier drain on the power source as well as the transmission
and distribution system.
 Replace over-sized motors with NEMA Premium™ efficiency motors
of the right horsepower. Any motor’s power factor is dramatically
worse when it is loaded significantly below the full nameplate
horsepower rating.
 Shut down idling motors. When totally unloaded, even uncoupled, a
motor still draws over half its full-load reactive power.
 Avoid operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
Over-voltage increases reactive power.
Front Panel Enclosure Rating
An important controller characteristic is the front panel enclosure rating. These
ratings can be in the form of an IP rating or a NEMA rating. IP (Ingress Protection)
ratings apply to all controllers and are usually IP65 or higher. This means that from
the front panel only, the controller is completely protected from dust and against
low pressure jets of water from all directions with only limited ingress permitted.
IP ratings are used in the U.S., Canada, and Europe.

414
A controller’s NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) rating is
parallel to the IP rating. Most controllers have a NEMA 4 or 4X rating, which
means they can be used in applications requiring water wash down only (not oils or
solvents). The ‘X’ in a NEMA 4X rating means that the front panel won’t corrode.
NEMA ratings are used primarily in the U.S. and Canada.

415
PROTECTION AGAINST POWER LOSS
Ships with ship service, emergency, and casualty power distribution
systems can be protected against power loss (according to the type of
failure) as follows:
a. Failure of One Generator. A remote generator can be connected by
bus ties to power the switchboard that normally receives power from the
failed generator.
b. Circuit or Switchboard Failure. Vital loads can be transferred to an
alternate or emergency source of power by means of a transfer switch
near the user equipment.
c. Failure of Both Normal and Alternate Power Supplies. On some
ships, when both normal and alternate sources of ship power fail, vital
auxiliaries connected to an emergency switchboard receive power from
an emergency or dual purpose generator. A dedicated emergency system
is not provided on all ships.
d. Failure of Ship Service and Emergency Circuits. Temporary
circuits can be rigged with the casualty power distribution system. They
will supply power to vital auxiliaries if any ship service or emergency
generator can be operated.

Automatic Starting of a Standby Generator

The STANDBY ship service generator or emergency generator will start
when loss of voltage is sensed on a bus. Depending on the generator’s
automatic startup sequence, and the load shedding system’s actions in
splitting the plant, the generator breaker may be closed manually to
parallel the standby generator with the system. The added generation
will help relieve the overload condition. In other systems, the generator
is started but the generator breaker must be closed by the operator.
Normally, the circuit breakers for an emergency generator close
automatically onto an emergency bus.

416
SYNCHRONISM
When a number of generators are connected to the same electric grid, they are said
to be in synchronism because they operate at the same frequency and the angular
differences between the voltage angles of each generator are stable and less than 90
degrees. Units operating in synchronism are magnetically coupled by their
connections through the power system. If any one changes its angle of operation,
all the others are affected.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AC SYSTEMS
Resistance
In an ac system, the voltage across a resistor and the current flowing thought it are
said to be in phase, that is, their zero value and their maximum values occur at the
same times. There are two types of fields associated with an ac electric system;
electric fields and magnetic fields. Electric fields relate to the voltage and
magnetic fields relate to the current.12
VLL = 3 *VLN = 1.732 *VLN
Since they operate at high voltage, transmission lines generate strong
electric fields. If they are heavily loaded, i.e., carrying large amounts of
power, they also will have strong magnetic fields.

Distribution lines, which operate at lower voltages, generate weak

electric fields, but can generate strong magnetic fields depending on the
local customer load levels. The waveforms of the voltage and current
associated with both of these characteristics are not in phase, that is, the
times of the maximum and zero values are not identical.

Induction and Inductive Reactance

When we discussed the operation of a generator, we noted that an electric voltage
is induced in a wire when a moving magnetic field “cuts” that wire.
Similarly, a current varying with time (an alternating current) will produce a
magnetic field around the wire carrying the current. Since the current is varying so
will the magnetic field. This varying magnetic field “cuts” the conductor and a
voltage is induced in the wire which acts to impede the originating current.
The relationship between the current and the induced voltage is defined by a
quantity called the inductance. One Henry is the amount of inductance required to
induce one volt when the current is changing at the rate of one ampere per second.
The letter L is used to represent the inductance in Henries.
The inductance, L, of one phase of a transmission or distribution line is
calculatedby considering the self-inductance of the individual phase conductor and
the mutual inductance between that phase and all other nearby phases both of the
417
same circuit/feeder and other nearby circuits/feeders. These quantities are
calculated based on the physical dimensions of the wires and the distances between
them. The induced voltage across an inductor will be a maximum when the rate of
change of current is greatest. Because of the sinusoidal shape of the current, this
occurs when the actual current is zero. Thus the induced voltage reaches its
maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current does—the voltage across an
inductor is said to lead the current by 90 degrees, or conversely, the current lags
the voltage by 90 degrees.
Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance, XL is a term defined to enable us to calculate the
magnitude of the voltage drop across an inductor. The inductive reactance is
measured in Ohms and it is equal to 2*p* f* L, where 2pf is the rotational speedin
radians per second; p is called pi and its value is 3.1416, f = frequency in hertz and
L = inductance in Henries. Inductances consume reactive power or VARs equal to
I2XL.
Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance
An electric field around the conductor results from a potential difference between
the conductor and ground. There is also a potential difference between each
conductor in a three phase circuit and with any other nearby transmission lines.
The relationship between the charge and the potential difference is defined by a
quantity called the capacitance. One Farad is the amount of capacitance present
when one coulomb produces a potential difference of one volt. The letter F is used
to represent the capacitance in Farads.
The capacitance C depends on the dimensions of the conductor and the spacing
between the adjacent lines and ground. Since the charge on a capacitor varies
directly with the voltage, when an alternating voltage is impressed across a
capacitor, the flow of charge (or current) will be greatest when the rate of change
of voltage is at a maximum. This occurs when the voltage wave crosses the zero
point. Thus in an alternating current system, the current across a capacitor reaches
its maximum value a quarter-cycle before the voltage does—the voltage is said to
lag the current by 90 degrees, or conversely, the current leads the voltage by 90
degrees.
Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance, XC, is a term defined equal to 1/2*p * f*C, where C
= capacitance in Farads. The unit of the capacitive reactance is Ohms. In a power
system the capacitive reactance is viewed as a shunt connecting the conductor to
ground.
Capacitors supply reactive power or VARsequal to I2Xc.
Figure 3.3 demonstrates the current and voltage relationships for a resistor, an
inductor and a capacitor.
Reactance
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Both inductive reactance and capacitive reactance have an impact on the
relationship between voltage and current in electric circuits. Although they are
both measured in Ohms, they cannot be added to the resistance of the circuit since
their impacts are quite different from that of resistance. In fact, their impacts differ
one from the other. The current through an inductor leads the voltage by 90
degrees, while current through a capacitor lags the voltage by 90 degrees. Because
of this difference, their effects will cancel one another.
The convention is to consider the effect associated with the inductive reactance a
positive value and that with the capacitive reactance a negative value and VARs as
consumed by inductive reactance and supplied by capacitive reactance. A general
term, reactance, is defined which represents the net effect of the capacitive
reactance and inductive reactance. It is denoted by the capital letter X.
Impedance
Once determined, the reactance is combined with the resistance of a circuit to form
a new quantity called Impedance which is denoted by the capital letter Z. To
determine a single number representation of the impedance, the concept known as
complex numbers is employed. Simply speaking, resistance and reactance are
treated as both legs of a right triangle separated by 90 degrees. A common way of
representing the impedance term is: Z = R + j (XL -XC)
where the letter j, is used as a convention to indicate that the reactance is not to be
directly added to the resistance. The magnitude of the impedance is determined by
Pythagoras’ Theorem, that is, the square of the impedance is equal to the sum of
the squares of the resistance and the reactance.
Z2 = R2 +X2, or
Z = (R2 +X2)0.5,
Where X = XL –XC
Ohm’s Law for Alternating Current
Ohm’s Law as originally construed for dc cannot be applied to ac circuits since it
recognizes only resistance and not the inductive and capacitive reactance effects.
The Law can be modified to take into consideration the effect of reactance by
simply replacing the term for the resistance with a term for the circuit’s impedance
and treating the voltage and the current as time varying quantities rather than as
constants as in a direct current circuit. In engineering textbooks, the ac quantities
are indicated by letters with lines drawn over them or by bold letters. We shall
follow this latter convention.
V = I *Z

POWER IN ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

In a dc circuit, the power is equal to the voltage times the current, or P = V* I. This
is also true in an ac circuit when the current and voltage are in phase; that is, when
the circuit is resistive. But, if the ac circuit contains reactance, there is a power
419
component associated with the magnetic and/or electric fields. The power
associated with these fields is not consumed as it is in a resistance, but rather
stored and then discharged as the alternating electric current/voltage goes through
its cycle. This leads to another definition:
Apparent power = Real or True power (associated with a resistance) + Reactive
power13 (associated with an inductance or capacitance)
Using symbols: S = P + jQ
13 Another name that has been used for this quality is Imaginary Power. The name
derived from the application of the complex number convention to calculate Z.
A related concept is that of power factor, which is defined as a magnitude of P
divided by a magnitude of S. In the electric power industry, if the power factor is
too low (typically under 0.85) because of the magnitude of the reactive component
Q, corrective actions are usually taken.

Real Power
Real power is available to do work and is equal to the value of the resistance
multiplied by the square of the current through the resistance. It is measured by a
quantity called megawatts (MW) or kilowatts (kW).
P = I2 x R
Reactive Power
Reactive power neither consumes nor supplies energy. The reactive power
associated with an inductive reactance is the value of the inductive reactance
multiplied by the square of the current through it. The reactive power is measured
by a quantity called volt-ampere reactive or VARs. As the length of a line
increases, its inductive reactance increases, and the more capacitive reactive power
needed to offset the effect and to maintain adequate voltage:
QL = I2 x XL
The capacitive reactive power, QC, relates to the establishment of the electric field
around a line. There are a number of ways to calculate this value, but the following
offer insight into its effects on the transmission system.
QC = 3 V2LN /XC or = 3 VLL IC
In a power system, under normal operations, the voltage level on any one line is
kept more or less constant, so the reactive power associated with the capacitance of
the line is also relatively constant. Charging current, IC, is defined as the line to
neutral voltage divided by the capacitive reactance
IC = VLN /XC
If the charging current becomes too large, much of the line’s current carrying
capacity may be “eaten up” by charging current. This situation sets limits on the
length of an overhead line or of a cable that can be operated without installing
some intermediate measures to offset the capacitive current. It is useful to visualize
the impact of various devices on the reactive power of a power system as follows:
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Sources of reactive power which raise voltage:
• Generators;
• Capacitors;
• Lightly loaded transmission lines due to the capacitive charging effect.
Sinks of reactive power which lower voltage:
• Inductors;
• Transformers;
• Most heavily loaded transmission lines due to the I2 *XL effect;
• Most customer load (due to the presence of induction motors and the supply to
other electric fields).
A synchronous generator can be made to be either a source of reactive power or a
sink by using the generator excitation system to vary the level of its dc field
voltage. During peak load conditions generators are usually operated to supply
reactive power to the grid. During light load conditions generators may be used to
absorb excess reactive power from the grid, especially where there are long
transmission lines or cables nearby.

ADVANTAGES OF AC OVER DC OPERATION

The use of ac allows the use of a multi-voltage level energy delivery system. High
voltages are used for the transport of large blocks of power; lower voltages are
used as smaller blocks of power are delivered to local areas; and the familiar
120/240 volt system is used for deliveries to individual customers. If the
transmission of large amounts of electricity (or large blocks of power) were to take
place using dc at the voltage levels normally found at the terminals of modern
generators (13kV to 30kV), real power losses associated with the resistance of the
transmission system would become prohibitive.
Use of dc for this purpose also would require that the supply voltage be the same,
or close to the same, as that required by the equipment connected to the system.
Considering the variety of types and sizes of electrical equipment; motors, lights,
computers, and so forth, this is an impractical requirement.
Substation Equipment
There are a number of designs used for substations. However, there are
elementscommon to all:
• Bus is the given name given to the electrical structure to which all linesand
transformers are connected. Buses are of two generic types: open air and enclosed.
Enclosed buses are used when substations are located in buildings or outdoors
where space is at a premium. They involve the useof an insulating gas such as
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to allow reduced spacing between energized phases. Bus
structures are designed to withstand the large mechanical forces that can result
from fields produced byhigh short-circuit currents. These forces vary with the third

421
power of thecurrent. A bus section is the part of a bus to which a single line or
transformeris connected.
• Protective relaysare devices that continuously monitor the voltages andcurrents
associated with the line and its terminals to detect failures ormalfunctions in the
line/equipment. Such failures are called faults andinvolve contact between phases
or between one or more phases andground.1 The relays actuate circuit breakers.
• Circuit breakers are devices that are capable of interrupting the flow of electricity
to isolate either a line or a transformer. They do so by opening the circuit and
extinguishing the arc that forms using a variety of technologies such as oil,
vacuum, air blast or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Breakers may be in series with the
line or transformer or may be installedon both sides of the bus section where the
line connects. They allow individual lines or transformers to be removed from
service (de-energized) automatically when equipment (protective relays) detects
operating conditions outside a safe range. They must be capable of interrupting the
very high currents that occur during fault conditions and are rated by the amount of
current they can interrupt. These fault current levels can be 20or 30 times larger
than the current flow under normal operating conditions, that is, thousands of
amperes. To minimize the impact of electrical “shocks” to the transmission system,
minimizing the total time for the relay to detect the condition and the circuit
breaker to open the circuit is a critical design issue. Circuit breakers also allow
lines or transformers to be removed from service for maintenance. Circuit breakers
normally interrupt all three phases simultaneously, although in certain special
applications, single-phase circuit breakers can be employed, which will open only
the phase with a problem.
• Transformersare devices that are used to connect facilities operating at two
different voltage levels. For example a transformer would be used to connect a 138
kV bus to a 13kV bus. The transformer connects to all three phases of the bus.
Physically the transformers can include all three phases within one tank or there
can be three separate tanks, one per phase.
Larger capacity units may have three separate tanks because their sizeand weight
may be a limiting factor because of transportation issues.
1 A malfunction can also be a situation where one phase is open without contacting
ground.
Transformerscan be designed with two mechanisms to adjust the voltage ratio. One
mechanism is the provision of more than one fixed tap positionon one side of the
transformer. For example, a transformer might have a nominal turns ratio of
345/138, with fixed taps on the 345kV winding of 327.8, 336.7, 345, 353.6 and
362.3. The transformer must bede-energized to adjust the fixed tap ratio. Another
mechanism is called tap changing under load (TCUL). In this mechanism the ratio
can be adjusted while the transformer is energized, providing greater operating
flexibility.
422
Some transformers have both types of mechanisms; with a fixed tap adjustment in
the high voltage winding and the TCUL adjustment in thelow voltage winding.
Another type transformer is an autotransformer, which is used when facilities at
nearly the same voltage are to be connected, for example, 138kVto 115kV. Rather
than having two separate paths for the electricity, connected only by the magnetic
flux through the transformer as in a conventional unit, the winding of
autotransformer involves a tap on the higher voltage winding which supplies the
lower voltage.
All larger transformers have mechanisms to remove the heat generated within the
tank involving some manner of circulating the transformer insulating/cooling oil
through an external heat exchanger involving fins mounted on the side of the
transformer and fans to circulate air across the fins to maximize heat dissipation.
• Disconnect switches are used to open a circuit when only “charging”current
present is due. These would be used primarily to connect or disconnect circuit
breakers or transformers which are not carrying load current.They are also used in
conjunction with circuit breakers to provideanother level of safety for workers by
inserting a second opening between station equipment out of service for work and
the still energized sectionof line or bus.
• Lightning arrestors are used to protect transformers and switchgear fromthe
effects of high voltage due to lightning stroke or a switching operation.They are
designed to flashover when the voltage at the transformer exceeds a pre-selected
level which is chosen by the station design engineers to coordinate with the basic
insulation level of the transformer (BIL).
• Metering equipment is provided to measure line and transformer loadingsand bus
voltages so operating personnel can ensure that these facilitiesare within acceptable
limits.Metering equipment also is provided at somelocations to measure the flow
of energy for the billing that is required forsales and purchases of energy between
various participants in the electricenergy market.

423
Table 3.1 Persons Who Contributed Significantly to the Early Development of
Electricity, its Technologies, and the Electric Utility Industry

Charles Brush (1849 – 1929) was an American inventor/businessman who

developed and successfully marketed an alternating current (AC) arc-light system
for outdoor (street) in the 1880s, which made him a wealthy man. His AC system,
similar to but different from Westinghouse’s, was the basis for the creation of
several early electric companies in which he had a large financial interest,
including Cleveland Electric Illuminating. The possession of several key Tesla
patents, and perhaps better salesmanship and access to financing, gave
Westinghouse and his equipment standards an edge which eventually
overshadowed Brush’s contributions.

Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931), American, was an inventor more than a scientist.
Famous in his own time for a series of inventions including the phonograph, the
microphone, and the light bulb, he did early research into radio (patenting a basic
concept in 1891) but did not make the key breakthrough (see Marconi). Perhaps
more important, Edison can be said to have invented the corporate R&D lab:
institutionalized commercial, invent-for-profit effort focused on with commercial
potential. Edison’s careful control of image tended to focus most public attention
on himself, and although he was the key researcher he employed many who
contributed a great deal, including for a while, Nikoli Tesla – far smarter if
possessed of far less business acumen and ego.

Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790) contributed so much to American

independence, folklore (“Apenny saved is a penny earned,” etc.), and myth that it
tends to overshadow his role as a serious and committed scientist whose
publications contributed greatly to understanding of electrical phenomena. Franklin
carried on an orderly line of research into electricity for several decades in the mid
18th century. Mostly interested in knowledge for knowledge’s sake, he nonetheless
was a prolific inventor, his most noteworthy electrical invention being the
lightning rod and the concept of grounding facilities like buildings and signal
towers.

Guiglielmo Marconi (1874 – 1937) was an Italian physicist who looked into
“Hertzian waves” (radio waves) late in the 19th century and received a patent for
“improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals” in 1897. He began
manufacturing the first radios for commercial sale in 1898, and by 1901 had
successfully sent signals across the Atlantic. His early radios transmitted only
Morse or similar codes, not voice, and his development and business were aimed at
two-way communication for ship-to-shore and similar needs. Commercial radio
424
broadcasting, which led to mass consumer sales of radios and changed the image
of electricity forever (see text), took nearly two decades, and a host of new patents
by many others, to develop.

Nikoli Tesla (1856 – 1943) was a Serbian American scientist who received over
700 patents during his lifetime, including three key patents for equipment used by
all electric utilities today: an improved transformer which proved practical and
efficient, multi-phase AC electrical power, and AC power transmission. He
invented florescent lighting, largely to prove that he could invent a lighting system
that did not infringe on Edison’s patents. Tesla sold his early patents to George
Westinghouse, which permitted Westinghouse to build his empire, and Tesla to set
up his own research lab in New York.

George Westinghouse (1846 – 1914) was an American engineer businessman

who was among the first, and certainly the most successful, of those to recognize
that alternating current (AC) had substantial system advantages over DC in terms
of business potential. He bought rather than invented his key patents but drove
considerable innovative development including hiring, for a time, Nikoli Tesla.

425
High voltage systems and their development in marine field
By Janaka Director (Engineering),
Hindustan Institute of Maritime Training, Chennai
What is High Voltage?
In Marine Practice majority of merchant ships have a 3-phase 3 wire, 440 V insulated neutral
earth power systems. This power system falls in the category of Low Voltage and meets the
power demands of medium capacity motors up to 200 kW.
Voltages upto&including 1000V is known as Low Voltage system and Voltages above 1000V is
called as High Voltage system.
Why HV in ships?
Higher power requirement on board vessels is the foremost reason for the evolution of HV in
ships. Higher power requirements have been necessitated by Development of larger vessels
required for container transport particularly reefer containers, Gas carriers needing extensive
cargo cooling.
Electrical Propulsion
For ships with a large electrical power demand it is necessary to utilise the benefits of a high
voltage (HV) installation. The design benefits relate to the simple ohms law relationship that
current (for a given power) is reduced as the voltage is increased. Working at high voltage
significantly reduces the relative overall size and weight of electrical power equipment.
AS PER OHMS LAW
POWER = VOLTAGE x CURRENT
For a given Power, Higher the Voltage,
Lesser is the Current
440 KW = 440,000 Watts = 440 Volts x 1000 Amps
1100 Volts x 400
Amps 11000 Volts x 40 Amps
When large loads are connected to the LV system the magnitude of current flow becomes too
large resulting in overheating due to high iron and copper losses.
P = VI CosФ
Copper loss =I² R [kW]
HV levels of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11 kV are regularly employed ashore for regional power
distribution and industrial motor drives.
The main disadvantage perceived by the user/maintainer, when working in an HV installation, is
the very necessary adherence to stringent safety procedures.

Advantages/Disadvantages of using HV
Advantages:
For a given power, higher voltage means Lower current, resulting in:
Reduction in size of generators, motors, cables etc.
Saving of Space and weight
Ease of Installation
Reduction in cost of Installation
Lower losses – more efficient utilization of generated power
Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the design and application of the
electrical equipment used in the power system.
Disadvantages:
1. Higher Insulation Requirements for cables and equipment used in the system.
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2. Higher risk factor and the necessity for strict adherence to stringent safety procedures.
Possible faults in a power system:
Short circuit fault:
1. Phase to phase fault
2. Phase to phase to ground / earth fault
3. 3 phase fault
4. 3 phase to ground / earth fault

LOAD GENERATOR
What is a Short Circuit & SC level?
A short circuit (or a fault) is said to have taken place when the current is not confined to its
normal path of flow but diverted through alternate path(s). During short circuit, the current rises
much above the normal value.
Short circuit level is the maximum possible current that flows at the point of fault during a short
circuit.
Effects of short circuit:
High currents during Short circuits can cause damage to electrical installation by giving rise to:
Excessive Thermal Stresses
Mechanical Stresses
Arcing
Methods adopted to prevent effects of short circuit in a system:
A well-designed Protective Relay system trips out a breaker(s) and isolates the faulty circuit
from the power source within a short time to prevent/minimise effects of high short circuit
current, as and when it occurs.
The equipment in the system, the cables, the switchgear, the busbar, the generators are designed
to withstand the effects of short circuit during that short period.
Calculation of the short circuit levels in the system is therefore required to help in:
a. Designing an appropriate Protective Relay System
b. Choosing the right switchgear with suitable short circuit withstand capacity to be used in the
system.
Reduction in S.C. Level by using HV An example:
Possible hazards:
Arcing:
An unintentional Electric Arc occurs during opening of a breaker, contactor or switch, when the
circuit tries to maintain itself in the form of an arc. During an insulation failure, when current
flows to ground or any other short circuit path in the form of accidental tool slipping between
conducting surfaces, causing a short circuit.
Results of an Electric Arc:
Temperatures at the arc terminals can reach or exceed 35,000° F or 20,000 ̊C or four times the
temperature of sun’s surface.
The heat and intense light at the point of arc is called the ARC FLASH.
Air surrounding the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are vaporised causing a pressure
wave termed as ARC BLAST.
Hazards of an Arc Flash:
During an arc flash, sudden release of large amounts of heat and light energy takes place at the
point of arc.
Exposure frequently results in a variety of serious injuries and may even be fatal, even when the
worker is ten feet or more from the arc center.
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Equipments can suffer permanent damage nearby inflammable materials may be ignited resulting
in secondary fires.
Hazards of Arc Blasts & ejected materials:
An arc flash may be accompanied by an arc blast
The arc blast causes equipment to literally explode ejecting parts with life threatening force.
Heated and vaporised conducting materials surrounding the arc expand rapidly causing effects
comparable to an explosive charge.
They may project molten particles causing eye injuries.
The sound that ensues can harm the hearing
Potential injuries:
At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high enough to instantly destroy skin and
tissue. Skin temperatures above 100 ̊C (about 210 ̊F) for 0.1sec result in irreversible tissue
damage, defined as an incurable burn.
Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause ordinary clothing to burst into flames even
if not directly in contact with the arc. Synthetic fibers may melt and adhere to the skin resulting
in secondary burns.
Even when safety goggles are worn, arc flash may cause severe damage to vision and or
blindness. Intense UV light created by arc flash can damage the retina. Pressure created from arc
blasts can also compress the eye, severely damaging vision.
Hearing can also be affected by the loud noise and extreme pressure changes created by arc
blasts. Sound blasts with arc blasts exceed 140dB which is equal to an airplane taking off.
Sudden pressure changes exceeding 720lbs/sq.ft for 400ms can also rupture eardrums. Even at
lesser pressure, serious or permanent damage to hearing may occur.
Work Procedures
Working procedures are divided in to three distinct groups.
- Dead working
- Live working
- Working in the vicinity of live parts
Working in the vicinity of live parts:
All work activity in which the worker enters the vicinity of live zone with his body or with tools
and equipment without encroaching in to live zone.
Using the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and following safe work practices will
minimize risk of electrical shock hazards Dead Working:
Work activity on electrical installations which are neither live nor charged, carried out after
taking all measures to prevent electrical danger.
PRECAUTIONS BEFORE STARTING WORK
- Obtain PTW/Sanction- to- Test Permit before commencing work
- Test and prove that the equipment is DEAD before earthing. (with a HV line tester)
- Earth the equipment
General Information PERMIT-T0-WORK:
Issued by an authorised person to a responsibleperson who will perform the task of
repair/maintenance generally valid only for 24-Hrs.
Permit to be re-validated by the permit-holder if work extends beyond 24 Hrs. after issue.
Formats will vary and be customized for a particular vessel/marine installation.

Permit To Work- BROAD GUIDELINES:

Prepared in Carbon-copiedDuplicate and has atleast five sections.
FIRST section states the nature of work to be carried out.
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SECOND section declares where electrical isolation and earthing have been applied and where
Danger /Caution notices have been displayed.
THIRD section is signed by the Person receiving thePermit acknowledging that he is satisfied
with the safety precautions taken and the Isolation/ Earthing measures adopted.
FOURTH section is signed by the Permit-holder that the work has been completed/suspended.
FIFTH Section is signed by the Issuing authority cancelling the Permit.

INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTS OF HV EQUIPMENT:

A 5000 VDC Megger, Hand-cranking or Electronic can be used for equipmentsuto 6.6KV.
For routine testing of IR, 5000 VDC must be appliedfor 1 minute either by cranking at constant
Speedwith a Hand-cranking megger or by maintaining a 5000 VDC continuously by a PB in an
Electronic Megger.
IR values taken at different temperatures are unreliable, particularly if the temperature
differences are more than 10 degrees.
Before applying an IR test to HV equipment its power supply must be switched off, isolated,
confirmed dead by an approved live-line tester and then earthed for complete safety.
The correct procedure is to connect the IR tester to the circuit under test with the safety earth
ConnectionON. The safety earth may be applied through a switch connection at the supply
circuit breaker or by a temporary earth connection local to the test point. This is to ensure that
the operator never touches a unearthed conductor. With the IR tester now connected, the safety
earth is disconnected (using an insulated extension tool for the temporary earth). Now the IR test
is applied and recorded. The safety earth is now reconnected before the IR tester is disconnected.
This safety routine must be applied for each separate IR test.
At prescribed intervals and particularly after a major repair work on an equipment or switchgear,
a PolarisationIndex(PI)may be taken to assess the condition of insulationof the equipment. PI
readings are less sensitive to temperature changes.
POLARISATION INDEX(PI):
When the routine IR value tests (taken at differenttemperatures) are doubtful or during annual
refit or after major repairs are undertaken, a PI test is conducted.
PI value is the ratio between the IR values recordedafter application of the test voltage
continuously for 10 minutesto the value recorded after 1 minute of application.
A PI value of 2.0 or more is considered satisfactory.
A motor-driven megger is essential for carrying outa PI test.
Safety testing of HV equipment:
Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power
supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely observe the on-
loadoperation of internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by
temperature measurement with an recording infra-red camera froma safe distance. The camera is
used to scan an area and the recorded infra-red image is then processed by a computer program
to display hot-spots and a thermal profile across the equipment.
A typical HV layout:
(Propulsion plant) HV/LV Power Supply system:
Developments:
High Voltage Shore Connection: (HVSC) It is envisaged that the effect of increasingly stricter
air emissions legislation implemented throughmainly local air quality controls will see an
increasing number of vessels installing high voltage shore connection (HVSC) in the near future.

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Shore power supply facilities have adopted high voltage rather than low voltage by necessity in
order to keep the physical size of related electrical equipment such as shore connection cables
manageable.
Inevitably high voltage would otherwise introduce new risks to ship’s crew and the shipboard
installations if necessary safety features were notbuilt into the HVSC system or safe operating
procedures were not put in place.
Those onboard systems that are designed to accept high voltage shore power, typically involving
incoming power receptacles, shore connection switchgear, step-down transformer or isolation
transformer, fixed power cables, incoming switchgear at the main switchboard and associated
instrumentation. HVSC is often referred to as Cold Ironing
High Voltage (HV):
The system nominal voltage is considered to be in the range from 1 kV AC to 15 kV AC.
Electrical System Grounding Philosophy:
The manner in which electrical system is grounded (e.g., ungrounded system, solid neutral
grounding system, low impedance neutral grounding system, or high impedance neutral
grounding system), including ground potential transformer method. Circuit protection strategy is
built around the selected method of system grounding in terms of over voltage prevention, over
current prevention or continued operability under single phase grounded condition.
Cable Management System:
The cable management system is the ship’s interfacepoint with the shore power system. The
cable management system is typically composed of flexible HV cables with the plug that extends
to the shore power receptacle, cable reel, automatic tension control system with associated
control gears, and instrumentation. Shore power is fed to the shore connection switchboard via
the cable management system.
Shore Connection Switchboard:
Where no cable management system is provided onboard, the shore connection switchboard is
normally the ship’s interface point with the shore power system. HV shore power is connected to
this shore connection switchboard by means of an HV plug and socket arrangement. The shore
connection switchboard is provided with a shore power connecting circuit breaker with circuit
protection devices.
Onboard Receiving Switchboard:
The receiving switchboard is normally a part of theship’s main switchboard to which the shore
power is fed from the shore connection switchboard.
Capacity
HVSC installation is to be sufficiently rated to supply the following:
i) Normal services required in port
ii) Emergency services
iii) Services needed to support the ship’s operations in port Equipotential Bonding Equipotential
bonding between the ship and the shore is to be provided. An interlock is provided such that the
HV shore connection cannot be established until the equipotential bonding has been established.
The bonding cable may be integrated into the HV shore power cable. If the equipotential bonding
cable is intended to carry the shipboard ground fault current, the cable size is to be sufficient to
carry the design maximum ground fault current.
System Grounding Compatibility
Arrangements are to be provided so that when the shore connection is established, the resulting
system grounding onboard is to be compatible with the vessel’s original electrical system
grounding philosophy (for instance, the shipboard ungrounded power distribution system is to
remain ungrounded, or the shipboard high impedance grounding system is to remain high
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impedance grounded within the design grounding impedance values). Ground fault detection and
protection is to remain available after the shore connection has been established.
Voltage rating
The voltage rating of electrical equipment insulation materials is to be appropriate to the system
grounding method, taking into consideration the fact that the insulation material will be subjected
to √3 times higher voltage under single phase ground fault condition.
Example for Ungrounded LV Ship’s System:
Shore side
Ship side
Step down transformer
HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV
Neutral grounding resistor
Equipotentialbonding440V
Example for Grounded HV Ship’s System (where NGR Value is Compatible with the Ship’s
Design Ground Current Range, Otherwise 1:1 Isolation Transformer may be Required)
Shore side
Ship side (ungroundedor High Impedance Grounding via GPT)
HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV
Neutral grounding resistor
Equipotential bonding6.6 kV
Example for Ungrounded Ship’s System (e.g., Oil Carriers and Gas Carriers):
Shore side
Ship side(ungroundedor High Impedance Grounding via GPT)
HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV
Neutral grounding resistor
Equipotential bonding
6.6 kV1:1 Isolation transformers
Example for Ungrounded Ship’s System where Shore side Option for Ungrounded
Neutral is Available (e.g., Oil Carriers and Gas Carriers)
Load Transfer
Temporary Parallel Running:
Where the shipboard generator is intended to run in parallel with the shore power for a short
period of time for the purpose of connecting to the shore power or back to ship power without
going through a blackout period, the following requirements are to be complied with:
(i) Means are to be provided to verify that the incoming voltage is within the range for which the
shipboard generator can be adjusted with its automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
(ii) Means are to be provided for automatic synchronization
(iii) Load transfer is to be automatic
(iv) The duration of the temporary parallel running is to be as short a period as practicable
allowing for the safe transfer of the load. In determining the rate of the gradual load transfer, due
regard is to be paid to the governor characteristics of shipboard generator in order not to cause
excessive voltage drop and frequency dip.
Shore side
Ship side (ungroundedor High Impedance Grounding via GPT)
HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV
Neutral grounding resistor
Equipotential bonding
6.6 kV
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Load Transfer via Blackout
Where load transfer is executed via blackout (i.e.,without temporary generator parallel running),
safety interlock arrangements are to be provided so that the circuit breaker for the shore power at
the shoreconnection switchboard cannot be closed while the HV switchboard is live with running
shipboard generator(s).
Safety Interlocks
An interlock, which prevents plugging and unplugging of the HV plug and socket outlet
arrangements while they are energized, is to be provided.
Handling of HV Plug
While the HV shore connection circuit breakers are in the open position, the conductors of the HV
supply cables are to be automatically kept earthed by means of an earthing switch. A set of pilot
contactors embedded in the HV plug and socket-outlet may be used for this purpose. The earthing
switch control is to be designed based on a fail-to-safe concept such that the failure of the control
system will not result in the closure of the earthing switch onto the live HV lines.
HV Shore Connection Circuit Breakers
Arrangements are to be provided to prevent the closing of the shore connection circuit breaker when
any of the following conditions exist:
(i) Equipotential bonding is not established
(ii) The pilot contact circuit is not established
(iii) Emergency shutdown facilities are activated
(iv) An error within the HV connection system that couldpose an unacceptable risk to the safe supply
of shoreside power to the vessel. These errors may occur within the alarm system, whether on board
the ship or at the shoreside control position, or within any relevant safety systems including those
which monitor systemperformance.
(v) The HV supply is not present HVSC Circuit Breaker Control:
HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be remotely operated away from the HVSC equipment.
HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be madeonly when it has been established that personnel
are evacuated from the HV shore connection equipment compartments. The operation manual is to
describe these established procedures.
HVSC Emergency Shutdown:
In the event of an emergency, the HV system shall be provided with shutdown facilities that
immediately open the shore connection circuit breaker. These emergency shutdown systems are to be
automatically activated.
Any of the following conditions are to cause emergency shutdown of the shore power supply:
(i) Loss of equipotential bonding
(ii) High tension level of HV flexible shore connection cable, or low remaining cable length of cable
management system
(iii) Shore connection safety circuits fail
(iv) The emergency stop button is used
(v) Any attempts to disengage the HV plug while live (this may be achieved by the pilot contactors
embedded in the plug and socket such that the pilot contactors disengage before the phase contactors
can disengage)
Harmonics
Where power converter equipment is provided within the shore connection system in order to obtain
desired voltage and/or frequency, the total voltageharmonic distortion of the converter is not to
exceed 5 percent at any operating load.
Tests:
HV Switchboard
Type Test
HV switchboards are to be subjected to an AC withstand voltage test in accordance with Table-2
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or other relevant national or international standards. A test is to be carried out at the manufacturer’s
test facility in the presence of the Surveyor.
Onboard Test
After installation onboard, the HV switchboard is to be subjected to an insulation resistance test in
accordance with Table-2 in the presence of the Surveyor.
Equipment Design:
Air Clearance
Phase-to-phase air clearances and phase-to-earth air clearances between non-insulated parts are to be
not less than the minimum, as specified in Table
Nominal Voltage kV

Minimum Air Clearance mm (in.)

3 - 3.3 55 (2.2)
6 - 6.6 90 (3.6)
10 – 11 120 (4.8)

Creepage Distance
Creepage distances between live parts and between live parts and earthed metal parts are to be
adequate for the nominal voltage of the system, dueregard being paid to the comparative tracking
index of insulating materials under moist conditions according to the IEC Publication 60112 and to
thetransient overvoltage developed by switching and fault conditions.
HYLAM BASE-CLEARANCE-METAL SUPPORT-CLEARANCE
METAL SUPPORT-CREEPAGE PATH
HIGHER THE VOLTAGE, GREATER WILL BE THE CLEARANCE &CREEPAGE DISTANCES
BUSBAR INSULATOR
Shore Connection Switchboard:
Construction
The HV shore connection switchboard is to be designed, manufactured and tested in accordance with
a recognized standard code of practice as given by IEC.
Circuit Breaker
(i) Shore connection HV circuit breaker is to be equipped with low voltage protection (LVP)
(ii) The rated short-circuit making capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than theprospective
peak value of the short-circuit current
(iii) The rated short-circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than the
maximum prospective symmetrical short-circuit current
(iv) HV shore connection circuit breaker is to be remotely operated HV Circuit Breakersmay be
Air-Break (scarcely used)
Oil-Break (not used in ships)
Gas-Break (SF – 6 - Sulphur Hexafluoride)
Vacuum-Break (Most Popular)
CONCLUSION:
Future Electrical ship:
• Future HV ships systems at sea may require voltages up to 13.8 kV to minimize fault levels
• It is therefore essential that all Marine Engineering personnel are trained in safe working practices
for these voltages.
• The Electrical officers of the near future must be fully trained to carry out maintenance and defect
rectification on Medium Voltage (MV) systems.
• This will mean a considerable increase in the electrical content of all training.
• Training will also need to be given to non-technical personnel to ensure everybody is aware of the
dangers of these higher voltages.
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9High Voltage Testing
(High Voltage Engineering - J R Lucas, 2001)

9.0 High Voltage Testing Procedure

Electrical equipment must be capable of withstanding overvoltages during operation. Thus by
suitable testing procedure we must ensure that this is done.
High voltage testing can be broadly classified into testing of insulating materials (samples of
dielectrics) and tests on completed equipment.
The tests carried out on samples of dielectric consist generally of the measurement of
permittivity, dielectric loss per unit volume, and the dielectric strength of the material. The first
two can be measured using the High Voltage Schering Bridge.
The tests carried out on completed equipment are the measurement of capacitance, the power
factor or the total dielectric loss, the ultimate breakdown voltage and the flash-over voltage. The
breakdown voltage tests on completed equipment are only done on a few samples since it
permanently damages and destroys the equipment from further use. However since all equipment
have to stand up to a certain voltage without damage under operating conditions, all equipment
are subjected to withstand tests on which the voltage applied is about twice the normal voltage,
but which is less than the breakdown voltage.
9.1 General tests carried out on High voltage equipment
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9.1.1 Sustained low-frequency tests
Sustained low frequency tests are done at power frequency (50 Hz), and are the commonest of all
tests. These tests are made upon specimens of insulation materials for the determination of
dielectric strength and dielectric loss, for routine testing of supply mains, and for work tests on
high voltage transformers, porcelain insulators and other apparatus.
Since the dielectric loss is sensitive to electric stress, the tests are carried out at the highest
ultimate stress possible. For testing of porcelain insulators and in high tension cables, voltages as
high as 2000 kV may be used.
High voltage a.c. tests at 50 Hz are carried out as Routine tests on low voltage (230 or 400 V)
equipment. Each one of these devices are subjected to a high voltage of 1 kV + 2 ×(working
voltage). A 230 V piece of equipment may thus be subjected to about 1.5 to 2 kV. These tests are
generally carried out after manufacture before installation.
The high voltage is applied across the device under test by means of a transformer. The
transformer need not have a high power rating. If a very high voltage is required, the transformer
is usually build up in stages by cascading. By means of cascading, the size of the transformer and
the insulation bushing necessary may be reduced in size. The transformers are usually designed
to have poor regulation so that if the device under test is faulty and breakdown occurs, the
terminal voltage would drop due to the high current caused. A resistance of about 1 ohm/volt is
used in series with the transformer so as to limit the current in the event of a breakdown to about
1 A. The resistance used could be of electrolyte type (which would be far from constant, but
would be a simple device) such as a tube filled with water.
In all high voltage tests, safety precautions are taken so as to ensure that there is no access to the
testing area when the high voltage is on. There would be switches that would automatically be
operated when the door to the area is opened etc.

9.1.2 High Voltage direct current tests

These tests are done on apparatus expected to operate under direct voltage conditions, and also
where, due to the inconvenience of the use of high capacity transformers required for extra high
tension alternating voltage tests and due to transport difficulties, alternating voltage tests cannot
be performed after installation.
A special feature of importance of the d.c. test is the testing of cables which are expected to
operate under a.c. conditions. If the tests are done under a.c. conditions, a high charging current
would be drawn and the transformer used would have to have a current rating. It is thus normal
to subject the cable (soon after laying it, but before energising it) to carry out a high voltage test
under d.c. conditions. The test voltage would be about 2 (working voltage) and the voltage is
maintained from 15 min to 1.5 hrs. This d.c test is not complete equivalent to the corresponding
a.c. conditions, it is the leakage resistance which would determine the voltage distribution, while
in the a.c. conditions, it is the layers of different dielectrics that determine the voltage
distribution in the cable. Although the electric field differs in the 2 cases, it is likely that the
cable will stand up to the required a.c. voltage.
The methods used to generate these high d.c. voltages have already been described.

9.1.3 High-frequency tests

High frequency tests at frequencies varying from several kHz are important where there is a
possibility of high voltage in the lines etc., and in insulators which are expected to carry high
frequency such as radio transmitting stations. Also in the case of porcelain insulators, breakdown
or flashover occurs in most cases as a result of high frequency disturbances in the line, these
439
being due to either switching operations or external causes. It is also found that high frequency
oscillations cause failure of insulation at a comparatively low voltage due to high dielectric loss
and heating.
High voltage tests at high frequency are made at the manufacturing works so as to obtain a
design of insulator which will satisfactorily withstand all conditions of service.
In the case of power line suspension insulators, it is possible that breakdown or flash over would
occur due to high frequency over voltages produced by faults or switching operations in the line.
Sudden interruptions in the line would give rise to resonant effects in the line which would give
rise to voltage waves in the line of high frequency. These might cause flashover of the insulators.
The behaviour of insulating materials at high frequencies are quite different to that at ordinary
power frequency.
The dielectric loss per cycle is very nearly constant so that at high frequencies the dielectric loss
is much higher and the higher loss causes heating effects.The movements of charge carriers
would be different.
At high frequency the polarity of electrodes might have changed before the charge carriers have
travelled from one electrode to the other, so that they may go about half-way and turn back
(figure 9.2).
There are two kind of high frequency tests carried out.
These are (a) Tests with apparatus which produces undamped high-frequency oscillations.
Undamped oscillations do not occur in power systems, but are useful for insulation testing
purposes especially for insulation to be in radio work.
(b) Tests with apparatus producing damped high-frequency oscillations.
When faults to earth or sudden switching of transmission lines occur, high frequency transients
occur whose frequency depends on the capacitance and inductance of the line and will be about
50 kHZ to about 200 kHZ.
These are damped out with time.

9.1.4 Surge or impulse tests

These tests are carried out in order to investigate the influence of surges in transmission lines,
breakdown of insulators and of the end turns of transformer connections to line. In impulse
testing, to represent surges generated due to lightning, the IEC Standard impulse wave of 1.2/50
s wave is generally used. By the use of spark gaps, conditions occurring on the flash over to line
are simulated. The total duration of a single lightning strike is about 100 s, although the total
duration of the lightning stroke may be a few seconds.
Overvoltages of much higher duration also arise due to line faults, switching operations etc, for
which impulse waves such as 100/5000 s duration may be used.
In surge tests it is required to apply to the circuit or apparatus under test, a high direct voltage
whose value rises from zero to maximum in a very short time and dies away again comparatively
slowly. Methods of generating such voltages have already been discussed earlier.
While impulse and high frequency tests are carried out by manufacturers, in order to ensure that
their finished products will give satisfactory performance in service, the most general tests upon
insulating materials are carried out at power frequencies.

Flash-over Tests
Porcelain insulators are designed so that spark over occurs at a lower voltage than puncture, thus
safeguarding the insulator, in service against destruction in the case of line disturbances. Flash-
over tests are very importance in this case.
Figure 9.2 Movement of charge carriers
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The flash-over is due to a breakdown of air at the insulator surface, and is independent of the
material of the insulator. As the flash-over under wet conditions and dry conditions differ, tests
such as the one minute dry flash-over test and the one minute wet flash-over test are
performance.
(i) 50 percent dry impulse flash-over test, using an impulse generator delivering a positive 1/50
s impulse wave.
The voltage shall be increased to the 50 percent impulse flash-over voltage (the voltage at which
approximately half of the impulses applied cause flash-over of the insulator)
(ii) Dry flash-over and dry one-minute test
In this the test voltage (given in the B.S.S.) is applied. The voltage is raised to this value in
approximately 10 seconds and shall be maintained for one minute. The voltage shall then be
increased gradually until flash- over occurs.
(iii) Wet flash-over and one minute rain test
In this the insulator is sprayed throughout the test with artificial rain drawn from source of
supply at a temperature within 10 degrees of centigrade of the ambient temperature in the
neighborhood of the insulator.
The resistivity of the water is to be between 9,000 and 11,000 ohm cm.
In the case of the testing of insulating materials, it is not the voltage which produces spark-over
breakdown which is important, but rather the voltage for puncture of a given thickness (i.e.
dielectric strength). The measurements made on insulating materials are usually, therefore, those
of dielectric strength and of dielectric loss and power factor, the latter been intimately connected
with the dielectric strength of the material.
It is found that the dielectric strength of a given material depends, apart from chemical and
physical properties of the material itself, upon many factors including,
(a) thickness of the sample tested
(b) shape of the sample
(c) previous electrical and thermal treatment of the sample
(d) shape , size , material and arrangement of the electrodes
(e) nature of the contact which the electrodes make with the sample
(f) waveform and frequency of the applied voltage (if alternating )
(g) rate of application of the testing voltage and the time during which it is maintained at a
constant value .
(h) temperature and humidity when the test is carried out
(i) moisture content of the sample.
9.2 Testing of solid dielectric materials
9.2.1 Nature of dielectric breakdown
Dielectric losses occur in insulating materials, when an electrostatic field is applied to them.
These losses result in the formation of heat within the material. Most insulating materials are bad
thermal conductors,so that, even though the heat so produced is small, it is not rapidly carried
away by the material. Now, the conductivity of such materials increases considerably with
increase of temperature, and the dielectric losses, therefore, rise and produce more heat, the
temperature thus building up from the small initial temperature rise. If the rate of increase of heat
dissipated, with rise of temperature, is greater than the rate of increase of dielectric loss with
temperature rise, a stable condition (thermal balance) will be reached. If, however, the latter rate
of increase is greater than the former, the insulation will breakdown owing to the excessive heat
production, which burns the material.
Now, the dielectric losses per cubic centimetre in a given material and at a given temperature, are
directly proportional to the frequency of the electric field and to the square of the field strength.
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Hence the decrease in breakdown voltage with increasing time of application and increasing
temperature and also the dependence of this voltage upon the shape, size, and material of the
electrodes and upon the form the electric field.
The measurement of dielectric loss in insulating materials is very important, as they give a fair
indication as to comparative dielectric strengths of such materials. In the case of cable, dielectric
loss measurements are now generally recognized as the most reliable guide to the quality and
condition of the cable.
9.2.2 Determination of dielectric strength of solid dielectrics
A sheet or disc of the material of not less than 10cm in diameter, is taken and recessed on both
sides so as to accommodate the spherical electrodes (2.5 cm in diameter) with a wall or partition
of the material between them 0.5mm thick. The electrical stress is applied to the specimen by
means of the two spheres fitting into the recesses without leaving any clearance, especially at the
centre. The applied voltage is of approximately sine waveform at 50Hz. This voltage is
commenced at about 1/3 the full value and increased rapidly to the full testing voltage.
Sometimes insulators after manufacture are found to contain flaws in the form of voids or air
spots.These spots (due to non-homogeneity) have a lower breakdown strength than the material
itself, and if present would gradually deteriorate and cause ultimate breakdown after a number of
years.
High degree ionisations caused in these spots would give rise to high energy electrons which
would bombard the rest of the material, causing physical decomposition. In plastic type of
materials,there might be carbonizations, polymerisations, chemical decomposition etc.,which
would gradually diffuse into the material the by-products, causing chemical destruction.
The useful life of a component using such material will depend on the weak spots and the
applied voltage. If the applied voltage is small, the life of the component is longer. From design
considerations the voltage to be applied if a particular life span is required can be calculated.
The schering bridge type of measurement gives an average type of measurement,where the p.f.
and the power loss indicates the value over the whole of the length.Thus small flaws if present
would not cause much of a variation in the overall p.f. Thus in the schering bridge type of
measurement such flaws would not be brought out.
The loss factor of a material does not vary much for low voltages, but as the voltage is increased
at a certain value it starts increasing at a faster rate. This is the long time safe working voltage,
since beyond this, the specimen would keep on deteriorating.
If the apparatus need be used only for a short period, the applied voltage can be higher than this
safe value.
In a long length of cable, the greater part of the cable would be in good conditions but with a few
weak spots here and there.
In a Schering bridge type of measurement, since it measures the overall loss, such small
individual spots cannot be detected. It is necessary that such spots are detected as these increase
with time and finally cause its breakdown.
In high voltage transformers also there might be such small discharges occurring which would
not be measured by the ScheringBridge.
The method is to apply suitable high voltage to sample, and subject it to a number of duty cycles
(heat cycles, make and break cycles). Discharges caused are made to give pulses to a high
frequency amplifier. The discharges caused are observed before and after such duty cycles to see
whether there is any appreciable increase in the pulse intensity after the cycle of operation. The
methods of discussion have been discussed in an earlier chapter.
9.3 Impulse Testing

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These are done as tests on sample of apparatus. The impulse test level is determined by the
operating level (4 to 5 times the normal operating value ) Apply on to the sample a certain
number (say 10) positive impulse and 10 negative impulses of this particular value. They should
withstand this voltage without any destruction.
To test the ultimate impulse strength, apply increasing amounts of impulse voltage until
destruction occurs; during the tests it is necessary to see whether there is any damage. The
damage may not be immediately visible, so we have it on a high frequency (single sweep and
high speed) oscilloscope.
In the event of complete damage, breakdown of the insulator due to the application of the
impulse voltage will be indicated as in (i). If the insulator has suffered only a minor damage the
wave form would show no distortion, but would show as in (ii). If there is no damage caused due
to the impulse, the waveform will be complete and undistorted as in (iii).
In testing high voltage insulators whose actual breakdown is in air (i.e flashover takes place
before breakdown of insulator) the porcelain itself can be tested by immersing the whole
insulator in liquid of high permeability so that there would be no outside flashover, and actual
breakdown of the insulator would occur.

7 High Voltage Generators for Testing

7.0 Generation of High Voltages
The power systems engineers is interested in high voltages primarily for power transmission, and
secondly for testing of his equipment used in power transmission. In this chapter we are
interested in generating high voltages for testing of insulation. Thus generation has to be carried
out in the testing laboratory. In many testing laboratories, the primary source of power is at low
voltage (400 V three phase or 230 V single phase, at 50 Hz).
Thus we need to be able to obtain the high voltage from this. Since insulation is usually being
tested, the impedances involved are extremely high (order of Mrents small (less than an ampere).
Therefore high voltage testing does not usually require high power. Thus special methods may
be used which are not applicable when generating high voltage in high power applications.
7.1 Generation of High Alternating Voltages
Single transformer test units are made for high alternating voltages up to about 200 kV.
However, for high voltages to reduce the cost (insulation cost increases rapidly with voltage) and
make transportation easier, a cascade arrangement of several transformers is used.
7.1.1 Cascade arrangement of transformers
Figure 7.1 shows a typical cascade arrangement of transformers used to obtain up to 300 kV
from three units each rated at 100 kV insulation. The low voltage winding is connected to the
primary of the first transformer, and this is connected to the transformer tank which is earthed.
One end of the high voltage winding is also earthed through the tank. The high voltage end and a
tapping near this end is taken out at the top of the transformer through a bushing, and forms the
primary of the second transformer. One end of this winding is connected to the tank of the
second transformer to maintain the tank at high voltage. The secondary of this transformer too
has one end connected to the tank and at the other end the next cascaded transformer is fed.
This cascade arrangement can be continued further if a still higher voltage is required.

Insulating Pedestal
In the cascade arrangement shown, each transformer needs only to be insulated for 100 kV, and
hence the transformer can be relatively small. If a 300 kV transformer had to be used instead, the

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size would be massive. High voltage transformers for testing purposes are designed purposely to
have a poor regulation.
This is to ensure that when the secondary of the transformer is short circuited (as will commonly
happen in flash-over tests of insulation), the current would not increase to too high a value and to
reduce the cost. In practice, an additional series resistance (commonly a water resistance) is also
used in such cases to limit the current and prevent possible damage to the transformer.
What is shown in the cascade transformer arrangement is the basic principle involved. The actual
arrangement could be different for practical reasons.
7.1.2 Resonant Transformers
The resonance principle of a series tuned L-Ccircuit can be made use of to obtain a higher
voltage with a given transformer.
Let Rrepresent the equivalent parallel resistance across the coil and the device under test. The
current I would be given by since R is usually very large, the Q factor of the circuit (Q =
R/Lwould be very large, and the output voltage would be given by It can thus be seen that a
much larger value that the input can be obtained across the device under test in the resonant
principle.
Figure 7.3 shows the application of the resonance principle at power frequency.

High Voltage Cables

5.0 High Voltage Cables
High Voltage Cables are used when underground transmission is required. These cables are laid
in ducts or may be buried in the ground. Unlike in overhead lines, air does not form part of the
insulation, and the conductor must be completely insulated. Thus cables are much more costly
than overhead lines. Also, unlike for overhead lines where tappings can easily be given, cables
must be connected through cable boxes which provide the necessary insulation for the joint.
Cables have a much lower inductance than overhead lines due to the lower spacing between
conductor and earth, but have a correspondingly higher capacitance, and hence a much higher
charging current. High voltage cables are generally single cored, and hence have their separate
insulation and mechanical protection by sheaths. In the older paper insulated cables, the sheath
was of extruded lead. Figure 5.1 shows three such cables, as usually laid out.
The presence of the sheath introduces certain difficulties as currents are induced in the sheath as
well. This is due to fact that the sheaths of the conductors cross the magnetic fields set up by the
conductor currents. At all points along the cable, the magnetic field is not the same, Hence
different voltages are induced at different points on the sheath. This causes eddy currents to flow
in the sheaths. These eddy currents depend mainly on (a) the frequency of operation, (b) the
distance between cables, (c) the mean radius of the sheath, and (d) the resistivity of the sheath
material.
5.1 Power loss in the Cable
Power loss in the cable can occur due to a variety of reasons (Figure 5.2). They may be caused
by the conductor current passing through the resistance of the conductor - conductor loss
(also sometimes called the copper loss on account of the fact that conductors were mainly made
out of copper), dielectric lossescaused by the voltage across the insulation, sheath lossescaused
by the induced currents in the sheath, and intersheath lossescaused by circulating currents in
loops formed between sheaths of different phases. The dielectric loss is voltage dependant, while
the rest is current dependant.
Figure 5.1 - Layout of three, single-core cables

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High Voltage Cables
5.1.1 Dielectric loss
For a perfect dielectric, the power factor is zero. Since the cable is not a perfect dielectric, the
power factor is not zero. The current leads the voltage by an angle of less than 90°, and hence
there is a power loss (Figure 5.3).
If C is the capacitance of the cable, and E is the applied voltage, then charging current i = E C
power loss P = E I cos = E (i/cos 2C
The power loss is proportional to E2 and tan

5.1.2 Conductor loss

The conductor loss
Pcis given by Pc= I2Rcwatt
WhereRcis the resistance of the conductor and Iis the current in the cable.
5.1.3 Sheath loss
The losses occurring in the sheath of a cable is usually obtained by the empirical formula of
Arnold. Arnold's formula for the sheath loss Pshis given by where rm= mean radius of sheath
d = distance between cables (centre to centre)
Rsh= resistance of full length of cable
I = current in cable
The sheath loss is usually about 2 to 5 % of the conductor loss.
5.1.4 Intersheath Loss
Intersheath losses are caused by the induced emf between the sheaths causing a circulating
current.
This loss is thus present only when the sheaths of adjacent cables are connected together. The
sheaths need to be connected together in practice, as otherwise sparking could occur causing
damage to the sheaths. The intersheath loss Pishcan be calculated as follows.
The mutual inductance
Msh between a core of one cable and the sheath of an adjacent cable is given by The voltage
induced Eish is given by Eis h = I.shE
Figure 5.3 - Loss angle wattdrRI10x7.7=Pm2sh23-shand the induced current Iishis given by
Therefore the intersheath loss Pishis given by Generally, the sheath resistance Rsh>>sh so that
The inter sheath loss is larger than the sheath loss and may range from 10% to 50% of the copper
loss. Thus the total power loss (exclusive of the dielectric loss) is given as Total Power loss = P
Since the whole expression is dependant on I2, we may express the loss in terms of an effective
resistance Reff.
This gives the total power loss in terms of the effective resistance as Ptotal= I2Reff
Since the sheath loss is usually very small, the effective conductor resistance can be written as
5.1.5 Cross-bonding of Cables
When three single phase cables are used in power transmission, currents are induced in the seaths
and lead to sheath circulating currents and power loss. These may be substantially reduced, and
the current rating of the cable increased by cross bonding of the cables (Figure 5.4). Cross
bonding of cables are done except for very short lengths of cable.
The continuity of each cable sheath is broken at regular intervals; the cables between two
adjacent discontinuities being a minor section. 3 minor sections make up a major section, where
the sheaths are solidly bonded together and to earth. A residual sheath voltage exists, and the
desired balance, giving negligible sheath voltage between the solid grounded positions is
achieved by transposing the cables at each cross-bonded section. To prevent excessive voltage

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build up at the cross bonded points, especially during faults, these points are earthed through
non-linear resistors which limit voltage build up. The cable is also transposed. (Figure 5.5)

5.2 Impregnated Paper Insulation

The insulation consists mainly of paper tape impregnated with compound. The paper must be
free from ligneous fibres and from metallic or other conducting spots. The compound with which
the paper is insulated should be of such a consistency that it is plastic at ordinary temperatures,
and has no tendency to drain away from the cable.
The impregnating compound varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but they all are based o
paraffinic or naphthenic mineral oil, with resin frequently added to lower the viscosity and to
improve its impregnating qualities. The paper is made from Manila fibre or wood pulp.
Impregnated paper can withstand an electric stress if about 5 to 10 times that which could be
withstood by dry paper insulation. The dielectric strength of impregnated paper is about 200 to
300 kV/cm. Initially, they may be able to withstand about 400 to 600 kV/cm. The cause of
breakdown is usually the non-homogeneity of the dielectric. When a test voltage is applied, the
weakest part of the dielectric breakdown and deterioration starts getting more and more. This is
accentuated by the fact that the cable is not carrying the same current all the time. The
deterioration results in the formation of voids and gasses. When the voltage is raised, ionisation
or glow discharge can occur in the voids and ionic bombardment of thee surface. Some of the oil
suffers condensation and hydrogen and other gases are evolved. Thus the long term breakdown
strength and the instantaneous break down strengths differ. This value may decrease with time
due to deterioration to about 160 to 200 kV/cm. In the case of a badly impregnated dielectric, the
breakdown stress will continue to decrease and ultimately leads to breakdown. With the use of a
safety factor, not more than about 40 kV/cm is allowed in service (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.5 - Non-linear resistor earthing

5.2.1 Properties required of cable insulation
Dielectrics used for cable insulation must have the following properties.
1. High Insulation resistance
2. High dielectric strength
3. Good mechanical strength
4. Immune to attack by acids and alkali in the range 0 - 100°C
5. Should not be too costly
6. Should not be hygroscopic (tending to absorb water), or if hygroscopic should be enclosed in a
water tight covering.

5.2.2 Principle underlying the design of high voltage cable insulation

By means of dielectric tests on cables, it has been observed that the long term breakdown stress
is increased if the cable is subjected to pressure. This is due to the fact that the
pressurediscourages the formation of voids.
Even for a badly impregnated cable, the application of pressure improves the power factor (or
loss tangent) considerably. If the cable is subjected to a pressure of about 15 atmospheres, the
long term dielectric strength improves to about 400 kV/cm and a working stress of about 150
kV/cm may be used (Figure 5.7).

Comparison of the curves for (a) well impregnated cable at atmospheric pressure, (b) badly
impregnated cable at atmospheric pressure, and (c) badly impregnated cable at a pressure of 15

446
atmospheres for about 47 hours, shows the advantages of the pressure on the reduction of power
factor. Further the curves show how the long term breakdown stress is improved by pressure.
In modern high voltage cables, with the use of better materials, the power factor has been
reduced from about (0.007 to 0.01) to about (0.002 to 0.003).
For high voltage cables, impregnated paper insulation is very commonly used. The paper is
porous and contains in itself the impregnating compound. There are no voids present as the oil is
present between the layers of the paper which forms the insulation.
5.2.3 Paper insulated power cables
The conductor of the cable is stranded, and this is lapped round with the paper tape. It is first
heated to about 100°Ctaking care not to burn it. A vacuum is then applied for 20 to 50 hours to
get rid of any trapped air inside the cable, and while still under vacuum, impregnating compound
is poured into the tank and thereafter a pressure of 50 p.s.i. (about 0.35 MN/m2) is applied.
Impregnating of the paper prevents void formation in the dielectric, as voids can easily lead to
the breakdown of the dielectric. As paper is hygroscopic, a seamless lead sheath is extruded over
the insulation so that no moisture will get in.
For high voltages, pressurised cables are used where the impregnated paper insulation is kept
under pressure. A pressure of about 15 atmospheres is applied so that any potential voids would
be instantaneously filled.
The pressure may be applied by having either oil or gas under pressure. When the cable is
pressurised, longitudinal reinforcement to prevent bulging and reinforcement to prevent hoop
stress are used. With pressurised cables, the long term breakdown strength does not differ much
from the short term strength, and as such using a safety factor, a working stress of about 100 to
120 kV/cm may be used.
5.2.4 Insulation Resistance
For a single core cable (figure 5.8), the insulation resistance between the conductor and the outer
sheath is given by the following.

Presentation Description
Safeties & Applications of High Voltage in Ships
Mohd.HanifDewan, Chief Engineer and Maritime Lecturer & Trainer, Bangladesh . 5/17/2014 1

High Voltage in Ships

We all know about the voltages used on board a ship. It is usuallya 3phase, 60 H z, 440 Volts
supply being generated and distributed on board. Every day the owners and designers aim for
bigger ships for more profitability. As the ship size increases, there is a need to install more
powerful engines and other machineries. This increase in size of machineries and other
equipment demands more electrical power and thus it is required to use higher voltages on board
a ship.

Any Voltage used on board a ship if less than 1kV (1000 V) then it is called as LV (Low
Voltage) system and any voltage above 1kV is termed as High Voltage. Typical Marine HV
systems operate usually at 3.3kV or 6.6kV. Passenger Liners like QE2 operate at 10kV.

Defination: The numerical definition of high voltage depends on context. Two factors
considered in classifying a voltage as "high voltage" are the possibility of causing a spark in air,
and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity. The definitions may refer to the voltage
between two conductors of a system, or between any conductor and ground.

447
In electric power transmission engineering, HIGH VOLTAGE is usually considered any voltage
over approximately 33,000 volts. This classification is based on the design of apparatus and
insulation. The International Electro technical Commission and its national counterparts (IEC,
IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500
V for direct current—and distinguish it from low voltage (50–1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC)
and extra-low voltage (<50 V AC or <120 V DC) circuits. This is in the context of building
wiring and the safety of electrical apparatus. - In the United States 2005 National Electrical Code
(NEC), high voltage is any voltage over 600 V (article 490.2). - British Standard BS 7671:2008
defines high voltage as any voltage difference between conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC
or 1500 V ripple-free DC, or any voltage difference between a conductor and Earth that is higher
than 600 V AC or 900 V ripple-free DC.
In electric power transmission engineering, HIGH VOLTAGE is usually considered any voltage
over approximately 33,000 volts. This classification is based on the design of apparatus and
insulation. The International Electro technical Commission and its national counterparts (IET,
IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500
V for direct current—and distinguish it from low voltage (50–1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC)
and extra-low voltage (<50 V AC or <120 V DC) circuits. This is in the context of building
wiring and the safety of electrical apparatus. - In the United States 2005 National Electrical Code
(NEC), high voltage is any voltage over 600 V (article 490.2). - British Standard BS 7671:2008
defines high voltage as any voltage difference between conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC
or 1500 V ripple-free DC, or any voltage difference between a conductor and Earth that is higher
than 600 V AC or 900 V ripple-free DC.

WHAT IS CLASSED AS HIGH VOLTAGE?

In marine practice, - voltages below 1,000Vac (1kV) are considered low voltage, and - high
voltage is any voltage above 1kV. Typical marine high voltage system voltages are 3.3kV, 6.6kV
and 11kV.

THE MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY AND LOW

VOLTAGE SUPPLY ON BOARD SHIPS ARE:
1. High voltage systems are more extensive with complex networks and connections,
2. Isolated equipment MUST BE earthed down
3. Access to high voltage areas should be strictly limited and controlled
4. Isolation procedures are more involved
5. Switching strategies should be formulated and recorded
6. Specific high voltage test probes and instruments must be used
7. Diagnostic insulation resistance testing is necessary
8. High voltage systems are usually earthed neutral and use current limiting resistors
9. Special high voltage circuit breakers have to be installed:

Why High Voltage in Ships?

- Higher power requirements on board vessels is the foremost reason for the evolution of HV in
ships.
- Higher power requirements have been necessitated by development of larger vessels required
for container transport particularly reefer containers.
- Gas carriers needing extensive cargo cooling Electrical Propulsion.
- For ships with a large electrical power demand it is necessary to utilise the benefits of a high
voltage (HV) installation.
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- The design benefits relate to the simple ohms law relationship that current (for a given power)
is reduced as the voltage is increased. Working at high voltage significantly reduces the relative
overall size and weight of electrical power equipment.  
AS PER OHMS LAW POWER = VOLTAGE x CURRENT
For a given Power, Higher the Voltage, Lesser is the Current 440 KW = 440,000 Watts = 440
Volts x 1000 Amps =1100 Volts x 400 Amps =11000 Volts x 40 Amps.
- The design benefits relate to the simple ohms law relationship that current (for a given power)
is reduced as the voltage is increased. Working at high voltage significantly reduces the relative
overall size and weight of electrical power equipment.  
- When large loads are connected to the LV system the magnitude of current flow becomes too
large resulting in overheating due to high iron and copper losses.
P = VI CosФ; Copper loss =I² R [kW] HV levels of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11 kV are regularly
employed ashore for regional power distribution and industrial motor drives. For example, a
motor (let us assume a bow thruster), may be of a smaller size if it designed to operate on 6600
Volts. For the same power, the motor would be of a smaller size if it is designed for 6600Volts
when compared to 440Volts.
Thus these are the major reasons why recent ships have shifted towards high voltage systems.
The main disadvantage perceived by the user /maintainer, when working in an HV installation, is
the very necessary adherence to stringent safety procedures.

Advantages/Disadvantages of using HV
Advantages: For a given power, Higher voltage means Lower current, resulting in:
- Reduction in size of generators, motors, cables etc.
- Saving of Space and weight
- Ease of Installation
- Reduction in cost of Installation - Lower losses – more efficient utilization of generated power
- Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the design and application of the
electrical equipment used in the power system.
Disadvantages:  
1. Higher Insulation Requirements for cables and equipment used in the system.
2. Higher risk factor and the necessity for strict adherence to stringent safety procedures.

Marine Electrical System

Maritime electric systems include power generation, distribution and control, and consumption
of electric power on supply - service and: fishing vessels as well as offshore installations.
Electric propulsion has increased especially for vessels with several large power consumers, for
example cruise ships, floating production systems, supply - and service vessels. Maritime electric
systems are auto no mous power systems. The primemovers, including diesel engines, gas - and
steam turbines, are integral parts of the systems. The power consumers are large compared with
the total capacity of the system, as for example thruster and propulsion systems for DP vessels,
drilling systems, H V AC systems on board ship.

Marine Electrical System:

The overall power train efficiency with DEP is around 87 - 90%. Use of permanent magnets in
electric generators and motors as well as general advances in semiconductor technology may
improve this figure to around 92 -95% in the near future.
Electrical transmission will consist of three basic energy conversions: From (rotating)
mechanical energy into electrical energy: Electric Generator
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From electrical energy in to (rotating) mechanical energy: Electric Motor some forms of fixed or
controlled electrical conversion in between: power converter.

Systematic overview of existing types:

Electrical Generators Mechanical to Electrical:
Electrical Generators - D C Generators - A C Generators
Electrical Motors Electrical to Mechanical:
Electrical Motors - Driving motors - Synchronous Motor - Positioning motors Power converters
Electrical to Electrical: Power conversion or transformation Fixed transformers Controlled
converters Static converters –Inverter.

Power Distribution:
As the demand for electrical are 3.3 kV or 6.6 kV but 11 kV i s used on so me offshore platforms
and specialist oil / gas production ships e.g on some FPSO (floating production, storage and
offloading) vessels. By generating electrical power at 6.6 kV instead of 440 V the distribution
and switching of power above about 6 MW becomes more manageable. As for electrical Power
increases on ships (particularly passenger ferries, cruise liners, and specialist offshore vessels
and platforms) the supply current rating becomes too high at 440 V. To reduce the size of both
steady state and fault current levels, it is necessary to increase the system voltage at high power
ratings.

Component parts of an HV:

The component parts of an HV supply system are standard equipment with: HV diesel generator
sets feeding an HV main switch board. Large power consumers such as thrusters, propulsion
motors, air - conditioning (A / C) compressors and HV transformers are fed directly from the HV
switch board. An economical HV system must be simple to operate, reasonably priced and
require a minimum of maintenance over the life of the ship. Experience shows that a 9 M W
system at 6 .6 kV would be about 20 % more expensive for installation costs. The principal parts
of a ships electrical system operated at HV would be the main generators, HV switch board, FV
cables, HV transformers and HV motors. An example of a high voltage power system is shown.

Ship HV Voltage system:

In the example shown the HV generators form a central power station for all of the ship's
electrical services. On a large passenger ship with electric propulsion, each generator may be
rated at about 10 MW or more and producing 6.6 k V, 60 Hz three –phase a.c. voltages. The
principal consumers are the two synchronous a.c. propulsion electric motors (PEMs) which may
each demand 12 MW or more in the full away condition. Each PEM has two stator windings
supplied separately from the main HV switchboard via transformers and frequency converters. In
an emergency a PEM may therefore be operated as a half - motor with a reduced power output.
A few large induction motors are supplied at 6 .6 kV from the mainboard with the circuit breaker
acting as a direct - on -line ( DOL) starting switch.

Ship HV Systems:
These motors are:
- Two forward thrusters and one aft thruster - Three airconditioning compressors,other main
feeders supply the 440V engine room sub-station (ER sub) switchboard via step-down
transformers. An interconnector cable links the ER sub to the emrgency switchboard. Other 440
V sub - stations (accommodation, galley etc.) around the ship are suppllied from the ER sub.
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- Some installations may feed the ships sub stations directly with HV and step- down to 440 V
locally. - The PEM drives in this example are synchronous motors which require a controlled
low voltage excitation supply current to magnetise the rotor poles. - This supply is obtained from
the HV switchboard via a step-down transformer but an alternative arrangement would be to
obtain the excitation supply from the 440 V ER sub switchboard.

Hazardous Electrical Voltage Training Checklist

The training requirements below apply to all employees who face a risk of electrical shock that is
not reduced to a safe level by electrical installation requirements and who must work on or near
energized components. All Qualified High Voltage Electrical Workers who work on high voltage
equipment (> 600 volts) are required to be trained on safety-related work practices that pertain to
their jobs and in the following topics below:
• The skills and techniques necessary to distinguish exposed live parts from other parts of
electrical equipment.
• The skills and techniques necessary to determine the nominal voltage of exposed live parts. :
Hazardous Electrical Voltage Training Checklist The training requirements below apply to all
employees who face a risk of electrical shock that is not reduced to a safe level by electrical
installation requirements and who must work on or near energized components. All Qualified
High Voltage Electrical Workers who work on high voltage equipment (> 600 volts) are required
to be trained on safety-related work practices that pertain to their jobs and in the following topics
below:
• The skills and techniques necessary to distinguish exposed live parts from other parts of
electrical equipment.
• The skills and techniques necessary to determine the nominal voltage of exposed live parts.
• The clearance distances and the corresponding voltage to which the Qualified Person will be
exposed.
• Safely de-energizing of parts and subsequent electrical lockout and tagging procedures as
required by the electrical standard.
• Proper precautionary work techniques.
• Proper use of PPE to include non-conductive gloves, aprons, head protection, safety glasses,
and face shields. :
• The clearance distances and the corresponding voltage to which the Qualified Person will be
exposed.
• Safely de-energizing of parts and subsequent electrical lockout and tagging procedures as
required by the electrical standard.
• Proper precautionary work techni ques.
• Proper use of PPE to include non-conductive gloves, aprons, head protection, safety glasses,
and face shields.
• Proper selection and use of rated test instruments and equipment, including the capability to
visually inspect all parts of the test equipment for defects.
• Use of insulating and shielding materials for employee protection to include auxiliary shields,
guards, mats, or other specific equipment.
• Proper use of insulated tools or other non-conductive devices such as fuse pullers, fish tapes,
hot sticks, ropes, or handlines.
• The importance of illumination and to work only in properly illuminated areas. :
• Proper selection and use of rated test instruments and equipment, including the capability to
visually inspect all parts of the test equipment for defects.

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• Use of insulating and shielding materials for employee protection to include auxiliary shields,
guards, mats, or other specific equipment.
• Proper use of insulated tools or other non-conductive devices such as fuse pullers, fish tapes,
hot sticks, ropes, or handlines.
• The importance of illumination and to work only in properly illuminated areas.
• Proper work techniques for work in enclosed or confined work spaces.
• Removal or special handing of any conductive materials and equipment.
• Proper and safe use of portable ladders around electrical equipment.
• Removal of any conductive jewelry or apparel.
• Proper alerting techniques such as using safety signs and tags, barricades,attendants, and work
practices.
• Any other safety related work practice not listed above but necessary for them to safely do their
job:
• Proper work techniques for work in enclosed or confined work spaces.
• Removal or special handing of any conductive materials and equipment.
• Proper and safe use of portable ladders around electrical equipment.
• Removal of any conductive jewelry or apparel.
• Proper alerting techniques such as using safety signs and tags, barricades, attendants, and work
practices.
• Any other safety related work practice not listed above but necessary for them to safely do their
job.

Electric Shock:
Voltages greater than 50 V applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if
they produce electric currents in body tissues that happen to pass through the chest area.
Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or
death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage
and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental
contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim's airways are affected.

Hazards of High Voltage

Arcing: An unintentional electric arc occurs during opening of a breaker, contactor or switch,
when the circuit tries to maintain itself in the form of an arc. During an insulation failure, when
current flows to ground or any other short circuit path in the form of accidental tool slipping
between conducting surfaces, causing a short circuit.  results of an electric arc: Temperatures at
the arc terminals can reach or exceed 35,000° f or 20,000˚c or four times the temperature of
sun’s surface. The heat and intense light at the point of arc is called the arc flash. Air surrounding
the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are vaporised causing a pressure wave termed as
ARC BLAST.

Hazards of an Arc Flash:

- During an arc flash, sudden release of large amounts of heat and light energy takes place at the
point of arc. - Exposure frequently results in a variety of serious injuries and may even be fatal,
even when the worker is ten feet or more from the arc center. - Equipments can suffer permanent
damage. - Nearby inflammable materials may be ignited resulting in secondary fires.

Hazards of Arc Blasts & ejected materials:

- An arc flash may be accompanied by an arc blast
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- The arc blast causes equipment to literally explode ejecting parts with life threatening force.
- Heated and vaporised conducting materials surrounding the arc expand rapidly causing effects
comparable to an explosive charge.
- They may project molten particles causing eye injuries. The sound that ensues can harm the
hearing.

Potential injuries:
- At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high enough to instantly destroy skin and
tissue. Skin temperatures above 100˚C (about 210˚F) for 0.1sec result in irreversible tissue
damage, defined as an incurable burn. 
- Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause ordinary clothing to burst into flames
even if not directly in contact with the arc. Synthetic fibers may melt and adhere to the skin
resulting in secondary burns.
- Even when safety goggles are worn, arc flash may cause severe damage to vision and or
blindness. Intense UV light created by arc flash can damage the retina. Pressure created from arc
blasts can also compress the eye, severely damaging vision.  
- Hearing can also be affected by the loud noise and extreme pressure changes created by arc
blasts. Sound blasts with arc blasts exceed 140dB which is equal to an airplane taking off.
Sudden pressure changes exceeding 720lbs/ sq.ft for 400ms can also rupture eardrums. Even at
lesser pressure, serious or permanent damage to hearing may occur.

Short Circuit  
A short circuit (or a fault) is said to have taken place when the current is not confined to its
normal path of flow but diverted through alternate path(s). - During short circuit, the current rises
much above the normal value. - Short circuit level is the maximum possible current that flows at
the point of fault during a short circuit.   Effects of short circuit: High currents during Short
circuits can cause damage to electrical installation by giving rise to excessive Thermal Stresses,
Mechanical Stresses, Arcing.

Methods adopted to prevent effects of short circuit in a system: - A well-designed Protective

Relay system trips out a breaker(s) and isolates the faulty circuit from the power source within a
short time to prevent/ minimise effects of high short circuit current, as and when it occurs. - The
equipment in the system, the cables, the switchgear, the busbar,the generators are designed to
withstand the effects of short circuit during that short period.   Calculation of the short circuit
levels in the system is therefore required to help in: a. Designing an appropriate Protective Relay
System b. Choosing the right switchgear with suitable short circuit withstand capacity to be used
in the system.
Reduction in S.C. Level by using HV An example: :
High Voltage on Ships, Safety, Equipment Testing
High Voltage Safety and Precautions:
High Voltage Safety and Precautions Making personal contact with any electric voltage is
potentially dangerous. At high voltage (>1000 V) levels the electric shock potential is lethal.
Body resistance decreases with increased voltage level which enhances the current flow.
Remember that an electric shock current as low as 15 mA can be fatal. So,the risk to people
working in HV areas is greatly minimised by the diligent application of sensible general and
company safety regulations and procedures . Personnel who are required to routinely test and
maintain HV equipment should be trained in the necessary practical safety procedures and
certified as qualified for this duty.
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High Voltage Safety and Precautions (cont’d) Approved safety clothing, footwear, eye protection
and hard hat should be used where danger may arise from arcs, hot surfaces and high voltage etc.
Safety equipment should be used by electrical workers includes insulated rubber gloves and
mats. These protect the user from electric shock. Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it
is still protecting the user. Testing companies can test at up 300,000 volts and offer services from
glove testing to Elevated Working Platform or EWP Truck testing. A insulated material or
rubber mat can be used as a dead front of all electrical installations and equipments.

The access to HV switchboards and equipment must be strictly controlled by using a permit-
to-work scheme and isolation procedures together with live-line tests and earthing -down before
any work is started . The electrical permit requirements and procedures are similar to permits
used to control access in any hot-work situation, e.g. welding, cutting, burning etc. in a
potentially hazardous area.

General Information PERMIT-T0-WORK:

- Issued by an authorised person to a responsible person who will perform the task of
repair/maintenance.
- Generally valid only for 24-Hrs. Permit to be re-validated by the permit-holder if work extends
beyond 24 Hrs. after issue Formats will vary and be customized for a particular vessel/marine
installation.

Permit To Work- BROAD GUIDELINES:  

Prepared in duplicate copy and has at least five sections:
- 1st section states the nature of work to be carried out.
- 2nd section declares where electrical isolation and earthing have been applied and where
Danger /Caution notices have been displayed.
- 3rd section is signed by the Person receiving the Permit acknowledging that he is satisfied with
the safety precautions taken and the Isolation/ Earthing measures adopted.
- 4th section is signed by the Permit-holder that the work has been completed/suspended.
- 5th Section is signed by the Issuing authority cancelling the Permit.

For the purposes of safety, HV equipment includes the LV field system for a propulsion motor as
it is an integrated part of the overall HV equipment From the HV generators, the network
supplies HV motors (for propulsion, side thrusters and air conditioning compressors) and the
main transformer feeders to the 440 V switchboard. Further distribution links are made to
interconnect with the emergency switchboard

HV Circuit breakers and contactors:

HV Circuit breakers and contactors probably the main difference between a HV and an LV
system occurs at the HV main switchboard. For HV, the circuit breaker types may be air-break,
oil-break, gas-break using SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) or vacuum-break. Of these types, the most
popular and reliable are the vacuum interrupters, which may also be used as contactors in HV
motor starters. Each phase of a vacuum circuit breaker or contactor consists of a fixed and
moving contact within a sealed, evacuated envelope of borosilicate glass. The moving contact is
operated via flexible metal bellows by a charging motor/spring or solenoid operating mechanism.
The high electric strength of a vacuum allows a very short contact separation, and a rapid restrike
-free interruption of the arc is achieved.

454
When an alternating current is interrupted by the separating contacts, an arc is formed by a metal
vapour from the material on the contact surfaces and this continues to flow until a current zero is
approached in the a.c. wave form. At this instant the arc is replaced by a region of high dielectric
strength which is capable of withstanding a high recovery voltage. Most of the metal vapour
condenses back on to the contacts and is available for subsequent arcing. A small amount is
deposited on the shield placed around the contacts which protects the insulation of the enclosure.
As the arcing period is very short (typically about 15 ms), the arc energy is very much lower than
that in air-break circuit-breakers so vacuum contacts suffer considerably less wear.

Because of its very short contact travel a vacuum interrupter has the following advantages:
- compact quiet unit
- minimum maintenance
- non-flammable and non-toxic
- The life of the unit is governed by contact erosion but could be up to 20 years.

In the gas-type circuit breaker, the contacts are separated in an SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) gas
which is typically at a sealed pressure chamber at 500 kPa or 5 bar (when tested at 20° C).

HV Insulation Requirements:
The HV winding arrangements for generators, transformers and motors are similar to those at LV
except for the need for better insulating materials such as Micalastic or similar. The HV
windings for transformers are generally insulated with an epoxy resin/powdered quartz
compound. This is a non-hazardous material which is maintenance free, humidity resistant and
tropicalised. Conductor insulation for an HV cable requires a more complicated design than is
necessary for an LV type. However, less copper area is required for HV conductors which allow
a significant saving in space and weight for an easier cable installation. Where the insulation is
air (e.g. between bare-metal live parts and earth within switchboards and in terminal boxes)
greater clearance and creepage distances are necessary in HV equipment.

INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTS OF HV EQUIPMENT:  

- A 5000 VdcMegger, Hand-cranking or Electronic can be used for equipmentsupto 6.6kV.  
- For routine testing of IR, 5000 Vdc must be applied for 1 minute either by cranking at constant
speed with a Hand-cranking megger or by maintaining a 5000 Vdc continuously by a PB in an
Electronic Megger. IR values taken at different temperatures are unreliable, particularly if the
temperature differences are more than 10°C.

SAFETIES OF IR TEST TO HV EQUIPMENTS

1. Before applying an IR test to HV equipment its power supply must be switched off, isolated,
confirmed dead by an approved live-line tester and then earthed for complete safety.
2. The correct procedure is to connect the IR tester to the circuit under test with the safety earth
connection ON. The safety earth may be applied through a switch connection at the supply
circuit breaker or by a temporary earth connection local to the test point. This is to ensure that
the operator never touches a unearthed conductor. 3. With the IR tester now connected, the safety
earth is disconnected (using an insulated extension tool for the temporary earth). Now the IR test
is applied and recorded. The safety earth is now reconnected before the IR tester is disconnected.
This safety routine must be applied for each separate IR test.   At prescribed intervals and
particularly after a major repair work on an equipment or switchgear, a PolarisationIndex (PI)

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may be taken to assess the condition of insulation of the equipment. PI readings are less sensitive
to temperature changes.

POLARISATION INDEX (PI):

When the routine IR value tests (taken at different temperatures) are doubtful or during annual
refit or after major repairs are undertaken, a PI test is conducted.   - PI value is the ratio between
the IR value recorded after application of the test voltage continuously for 10 minutes to the
value recorded after 1 minute of application. - PI value = 2.0 or more is considered satisfactory.
A motor-driven megger is essential for carrying out a PI test.

High Voltage Equipment Testing:

The high voltage (e.g. 6.6 kV) installation covers the generation, main supply cables, switchgear,
transformers, electric propulsion (if fitted) and a few large motors e.g. for side-thrusters and air
conditioning compressors. For all electrical equipment the key indicator to its safety and general
condition is its insulation resistance (IR) and this is particularly so for HV apparatus. The IR
must be tested periodically between phases and between phases and earth. HV equipment that is
well designed and maintained, operated within its power and temperature ratings should have a
useful insulation life of 20 years.
Large currents flowing through machine windings, cables, bus-bars and main circuit breaker
contacts will cause a temperature rise due to I 2 R resistive heating. Where overheating is
suspected, e.g. at a bolted bus-bar joint in the main switchboard, the local continuity resistance
may be measured and checked against the manufacturers recommendations or compared with
similar equipment that is known to be satisfactory. A normal ohmmeter is not suitable as it will
only drive a few mA through the test circuit. A special low resistance tester or micro-ohmmeter
(traditionally called a ducter) must be used which drives a calibrated current (usually I = 10 A)
through the circuit while measuring the volt-drop (V) across the circuit. The meter calculates R
from V/I and displays the test result. For a healthy bus-bar joint a continuity of a few m Ω would
be expected.

Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power
supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely observe the on-load
operation of internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by temperature
measurement with an recording infra-red camera from a safe distance. The camera is used to
scan an area and the recorded infra-red image is then processed by a computer program to
display hot-spots and a thermal profile across the equipment.

Safety testing of HV equipment:  

Normally the safe testing of HV equipment requires that it is disconnected from its power
supply. Unfortunately, it is very difficult, impossible and unsafe to closely observe the on-load
operation of internal components within HV enclosures. This is partly resolved by temperature
measurement with an recording infra-red camera from a safe distance. The camera is used to
scan an area and the recorded infra-red image is then processed by a computer program to
display hot-spots and a thermal profile across the equipment.

SANCTION-FOR-TEST SYSTEM
- following work on a high voltage system, it is often necessary to perform various tests. Testing
should only be carried out after the circuit main earth (CME) has been removed.
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- a sanction-for-test declaration should be issued in an identical manner to a permit to work
provided and it should not be issued on any apparatus where a permit to work or where another
sanction- for test is in force.

Note That:
A sanction-for-test is not a permit to work. An example of a sanction-for-test declaration is
shown in the c ode of safe working practices (COSWP) 2010 edition annex 16.2.1.
Additional Procedures Needed for HV systems.
Limitation of access form
When carrying out high voltage maintenance, it may be dangerous to allow anyone to work
adjacent to high voltage equipment, as workers may not be familiar with the risks involved when
working on or nearby high voltage equipment. The limitation of access form states the type of
work that is allowed near high voltage equipment and safety precautions. the form is issued and
signed by the chief engineer AND electrical officer, and countersigned by the persons carrying
out the work.

Additional Procedures Needed for HV systems.

Earthing Down
Earthing down is a very important concept to understand when working with high voltage
systems. It is important to ensure that any stored electrical energy in equipment insulation after
isolation is safely discharged to earth. The higher levels of insulation resistance required on high
voltage cabling leads to higher values of insulation capacitance (c) and greater stored energy (w).
This is demonstrated by the electrical formula:
energy stored (w) joules = (capacitance x voltage²)/2
Earthing down ensures that isolated equipment remains safe.

There are two types of earthing down a high voltage switchboard:

1. CIRCUIT EARTHING – an incoming or outgoing feeder cable is connected by a heavy earth
connection from earth to all three conductors after the circuit breaker has been racked out. This is
done at the circuit breaker using a special key. This key is then locked in the key safe. The circuit
breaker cannot be racked in until the circuit earth has been removed.
2. BUSBAR EARTHING – when it is necessary to work on a section of the busbars, they must
be completely isolated from all possible electrical sources. This will include generator incoming
cables, section or bus-tie breakers, and transformers on that busbar section. The busbars are
connected together and earthed down using portable leads, which give visible confirmation of the
earthing arrangement.:

High voltage safety checklists for the following can be found in onboard “Company Safety
Manual” and sample can be found in the “Code of Safe working Practices for Merchant Seaman
(COSWP)” 2010 edition:
• working on high voltage equipment/installations
• switchgear operation
• withdrawn apparatus not being used
• locking off
• insulation testing
• supply failure
• entry to high voltage enclosures
• earthing
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• working on high voltage cables
• working on transformers
• safety signs
• correct personal protective equipment Personnel should not work on High Voltage equipment
unless it is dead, isolated and earthed at all high voltage disconnection points. The area should be
secured, permits to work or sanction for test notices issued, access should be limited and only
competent personnel should witness the testing to prove isolation.:

DEFINATIONS OF SAFETY TERMS

Interlock - An electrical, mechanical, or key-locked device intended to prevent an undesired
sequence of operations.
Isolating switch - A switch intended for isolating an electric circuit from the source of power. It
has no interrupting rating, and is intended to operate only after the circuit has been opened by
some other means.
Life safety equipment - Equipment that provides critical protection for safety in the event of an
emergency or other serious hazard. Life safety equipment, which is electrically energized, should
be worked on using Energized Electrical Equipment (EEW) procedures to ensure that the
protection provided by the equipment is not lost (e.g., fire alarm and evacuation).
Lockout - The placement of a lock on an energy-isolating device according to procedure,
ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated
until the lockout device is removed.
Lockout / tagout - A standard that covers the servicing and maintenance of machines and
equipment in which the unexpected re-energization of the equipment or release of stored energy
could cause injury to employees. It establishes performance requirements for the control of such
hazardous energy.
Ground fault circuit interrupt (GFCI) - A device whose function is to interrupt the electric circuit
to the load when a fault current to ground exceeds a predetermined value that is less than that
required to operate the over-current protective device of the supply circuit.
Ground - A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical
circuit or equipment and the earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Hazardous location - An area in which an airborne flammable dust, vapor or gas may be present
and would represent a hazard if a source of ignition were present:
De-energized electrical work - Electrical work that is performed on equipment that has been
previously energized and is now free from any electrical connection to a source of potential
difference and from electrical charges.
Disconnecting (or Isolating) switch - A device designed to close and/or open an electric circuit.
Dry location - Locations not normally subject to dampness or wetness, as in the case of a
building under construction.
Energized electrical work - Repair, maintenance, troubleshooting, or testing on electrical circuits,
components, or systems while energized (i.e., live). Only Qualified High Voltage Electrical
Workers are permitted to work on energized circuitry of 50 volts/25 amps to ground or greater.
Exposed electrical parts - Energized parts that can be inadvertently touched or approached nearer
than a safe distance by a person. Parts not suitably guarded, isolated, or insulated. Examples
include terminal contacts or lugs, and bare wiring.

Work Procedures in High Voltage

Working procedures are divided in to three distinct groups.
1. Dead working
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2. Live working
3. Working in the vicinity of live parts Dead Working:  Work activity on electrical installations
which are neither live nor charged, carried out after taking all measures to prevent electrical
danger.  

Precautions before starting work

- Obtain PTW/Sanction- to-Test Permit before commencing work
- Test and prove that the equipment is DEAD before earthing. (with a HV line tester)
- Earth the equipment:

Working in the vicinity of live parts:

- All work activity in which the worker enters the vicinity of live zone with his body or with
tools and equipment without encroaching in to live zone.
- Using the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and following safe work practices will
minimize risk of electrical shock hazards.

HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT

A typical high voltage installation will incorporate only high voltage rated equipment on the
following:
1. Generating sets
2. High voltage switchboards with associated switchgear, protection devices and instrumentation
high voltage cables
3. high voltage/low voltage step-down transformers to service low voltage consumers
4. high voltage/high voltage (typically 6.6kV/2.9kV) step-down transformers supplying
propulsion converters and motors
5. High voltage motors for propulsion, thrusters, air conditioning and compressors.

A high voltage electrical shock is a significant danger to any person carrying out electrical work.
Any simultaneous contact with a part of the body and a live conductor will probably result in a
fatal electric shock. There is also a risk of severe burn injuries from arcing if conductors are
accidentally short-circuited. A high voltage electric shock will almost certainly lead to severe
injury or a fatality.

Factors that could increase the risk of receiving an electric shock:

1. High voltage work may be carried out close to a person that is not familiar with high voltage
hazards. therefore, the area must be secured from the surrounding non-electrical work and danger
notices posted.
2. Areas of earthed metal that can be easily touched increase the possibility of electric shock
from a high voltage conductor.
3. High voltage insulation testing (flash testing) can be particularly hazardous when several parts
of the equipment are energised for a period of time.
4. Equipment using water as part of the high voltage plant can lead to an increased risk of injury.
5. Using test instruments when taking high voltage measurements can increase the risk of injury
if the protective earth conductor is not connected. This can result in the enclosure of the
instrument becoming live at dangerous voltages.
6. High voltage equipment will store energy after disconnection. for example, on a 6.6kv
switchboard, a fatal residual capacitive charge may still be present hours or even days later.

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7. if, during maintenance, a high voltage circuit main earth is removed from the system, it must
not be worked on as the high voltage cabling can recharge itself to a high voltage (3–5kv).:
Dangers Working With High Voltage Equipments.
High Voltages solid state A C -DC - AC conversion
Solid State Switching Principle:
- The power systems engineers is interested in high voltages primarily for power transmission,
and secondly fortesting of his equipment used in power transmission in laboratory.
- High voltage can be obtained locally from power generating plant through the use of solid state.
- In many testing laboratories, the primary source of power is at low voltage (400 V three phase
or 230 V single phase, at 50 Hz). From which high voltage can be obtained.
- On board ship the sametechnology can be used to use high voltage
- Laboratory test are aimed to design the required high voltage-Since insulation is usually being
tested, the impedances involved are extremely high (order of Mohmand the currents small (less
than an ampere).
- High voltage testing does not usually require high power. Thus special methods may be used
which are not applicable.
- Then generating high voltage in high power applications. - In the field of electrical eng. &
applied physics, high voltages are required for several applications as:
1. a power supply (eg. hv dc) for the equipments such as electron microscope and x-ray machine.
2. required for testing power apparatus – insulation testing. -High impulse voltages are required
for testing purposes to simulate over voltages due to lightning and switching.

Solid State Switching Principle:

- Some times, high direct voltages are needed in insulation test on cables and capacitors. Impulse
generator charging units also require high dc voltages of about 100-200kV.
- Normally for the generation of dc voltages of up to 100 kV, electronics valve rectifiers are used
and the output currents are about 100 mA. The rectifier valves require specialconstruction for
cathode and filaments since a highelectro static field of several kV / cm exists between the anode
and cathode in the non-conduction period.
- The ac supply to the rectifier tubes may be of power frequency or may be of audio frequency
from an oscillator. The latter is used when a ripple of verysmall magnitude is required without
the use of costly filters to smoothen the ripple.

Half and Full Wave Rectifier

Rectifier circuits for producing high dc voltages from ac sources maybe Half - Wave Full-Wave
a. b. The rectifier can be an electron tube or a solid state device. Nowadays, single electron tubes
are available for peak inverse voltages up to 250kV and semiconductor or solidstate diodes up to
250kV. For higher voltages, several unitsare to be used in series. When a number of units are
used in series, transient voltage distribution along each unit becomes non-uniform and special
care should be taken to make the distribution uniform .

Voltage Multiplier Circuits

Both full-wave as well as half - wave circuits can produce a maximum direct voltage
corresponding to the peak value of the alternatingvoltage. When higher voltages are required
voltage multiplier circuits are used. The common circuits are the voltage doubler circuit Used for
higher voltages. Generate very high dc voltage from single supply transformer by extending the
simple voltage doubler circuit.

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Types of High Voltages:
High d.c. voltages High a. c. voltages of power frequency High a. c. voltages of high frequency
High transient or impulse voltages of very short duration - lightning overvoltages Transient
voltages of longer duration – switching surges.

The voltage doubler circuit makes use of the positive and the negative half cycles to charge
twodifferent capacitors. These are then connected in series aiding to obta in double the direct
voltage output. Figure shows a voltage doubler circuit. In this case, the transformer will be of
smallrating that for the same directvoltage rating with only simple rectification. Further for the
samedirect voltage output the peak inverse voltage of the diodes will be halved. Voltagedoubler
circuit.

High Alternating Voltages:

High Alternating Voltages Required in laboratories and a.c. tests as well as for the circuit of high
d.c. and impulse voltage. Test transformers are generally used. Single transformer test units are
made for high alternating voltages up to about 200 kV. However, for high voltages to reduce the
cost (insulation cost increases rapidly with voltage) and make transportat i on easier, a cascade
arrange m ent of several t r ansfor m ers is u s ed. For higher vol t age requi r e m ent, se r ies
connect i on or cascading of the several ident i caluni t s of t r ansfor m er is a ppl i ed.

Driving forces for shore connection:

Driving forces for shore connection Regulations like MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI Limits on SOx
and NOx emissions from ship exhausts and prohibit deliberate emissions of ozone depleting
substances. EU Directive 2005/33/EG Limits the amount of sulphur to 0,1% in all marine fuel
used while at berth for more than 2 hours in European ports EU Recommendation 2006/339/EG
The commission recommends its membership countries to promote shore side electricity
facilities Cost of producing electricity on board

Driving forces for shore connection:

SO, It is envisaged that the effect of increasingly stricter air emissions legislation implemented
through mainly local air quality controls will see an increasing number of vessels installing high
voltage shore connection (HVSC) in the near future.   Shore power supply facilities have adopted
high voltage rather than low voltage by necessity in order to keep the physical size of related
electrical equipment such as shore connection cables manageable. Inevitably high voltage would
otherwise introduce new risks to ship’s crew and the shipboard installations if necessary safety
features were not built into the HVSC system or safe operating procedures were not put in place.:
SO, It is envisaged that the effect of increasingly stricter air emissions legislation implemented
through mainly local air quality controls will see an increasing number of vessels installing high
voltage shore connection (HVSC) in the near future.   Shore power supply facilities have adopted
high voltage rather than low voltage by necessity in order to keep the physical size of related
electrical equipment such as shore connection cables manageable. Inevitably high voltage would
otherwise introduce new risks to ship’s crew and the shipboard installations if necessary safety
features were not built into the HVSC system or safe operating procedures were not put in place.
Those onboard systems that are designed to accept high voltage shore power, typically involving
the following things:
- incoming power receptacles,
- shore connection switchgear,
- step-down transformer or isolation transformer,
461
- fixed power cables,
- incoming switchgear at the main switchboard and
- associated instrumentation. HVSC is often referred to as cold ironing.  
The system nominal voltage is considered to be in the range from 1 kV ac to 15 kv ac.
Infrastructure Considerations:
Voltage, frequency and grounding of the supplying network and ship network Continuous and
temporary power demand Cable management systems On shore On board Location of ship berth
Location of shore connection point on board Available space on board Existing ship distribution
network Safety management

Electrical System Grounding Philosophy:

The manner in which electrical system is grounded (e.g., ungrounded system, solid neutral
grounding system, low impedance neutral grounding system, or high impedance neutral
grounding system), including ground potential transformer method. Circuit.Protection strategy is
built around the selected method of system grounding in terms of over voltage prevention, over
current prevention or continued operability under single phase grounded condition. 

SYSTEM GROUNDING COMPATIBILITY  

Arrangements are to be provided so that when the shore connection is established, the resulting
system grounding onboard is to be compatible with the vessel’s original electrical system
grounding philosophy (for instance, the shipboard ungrounded power distribution system is to
remain ungrounded, or the shipboard high impedance grounding system is to remain high
impedance grounded within the design grounding impedance values). Ground fault detection and
protection is to remain available after the shore connection has been established.

Cable Management System:

The cable management system is the ship’s interface point with the shore power system. The
cable management system is typically composed of flexible hv cables with the plug that extends
to the shore power receptacle, cable reel, automatic tension control system with associated
control gears, and instrumentation. Shore power is fed to the shore connection switchboard via
the cable management system.

SHORE CONNECTION SWITCHBOARD

where no cable management system is provided onboard, the shore connection switchboard is
normally the ship’s interface point with the shore power system. hv shore power is connected to
this shore connection switchboard by means of an hv plug and socket arrangement. The shore
connection switchboard is provided with a shore power connecting circuit breaker with circuit
protection devices.  
ONBOARD RECEIVING SWITCHBOARD
The receiving switchboard is normally a part of the ship’s main switchboard to which the shore
power is fed from the shore connection switchboard.

EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING  
Equipotential bonding between the ship and the shore is to be provided. An interlock is provided
such that the HV shore connection cannot be established until the equipotential bonding has been
established. The bonding cable may be integrated into the HV shore power cable. If the
equipotential bonding cable is intended to carry the shipboard ground fault current, the cable size
is to be sufficient to carry the design maximum ground fault current.  
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Example for Grounded HV Ship’s System (where NGR Value is Compatible with the Ship’s
Design Ground Current Range, Otherwise 1:1 Isolation Transformer may be Required) :
Example for Grounded HV Ship’s System (where NGR Value is Compatible with the Ship’s
Design Ground Current Range, Otherwise 1:1 Isolation Transformer may be Required)    
Neutral grounding resistor Shore side Ship side (ungrounded or High Impedance Grounding via
GPT) HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV E qu i p ote n t ial b o nd i n g:
Neutral grounding resistor 6.6 kV HV transformer secondary 6.6 kV 1:1 isolation transformer
Ship side (ungrounded or High Impedance Grounding via GPT) Shore side Example for
Ungrounded Ship’s System (e.g., Oil Carriers and Gas Carriers): Equipotential bonding
Equipotential bonding Equipotential bonding Equipotential bonding

LOAD TRANSFER  
Temporary Parallel Running:   Where the shipboard generator is intended to run in parallel with
the shore power for a short period of time for the purpose of connecting to the shore power or
back to ship power without going through a blackout period, the following requirements are to be
complied with: i ) Means are to be provided to verify that the incoming voltage is within the
range for which the shipboard generator can be adjusted with its automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) ii) Means are to be provided for automatic synchronization iii) Load transfer is to be
automatic iv) The duration of the temporary parallel running is to be as short a period as
practicable allowing for the safe transfer of the load. In determining the rate of the gradual load
transfer, due regard is to be paid to the governor characteristics of shipboard generator in order
not to cause excessive voltage drop and frequency dip.

Load Transfer via Blackout  

Where load transfer is executed via blackout (i.e., without temporary generator parallel running),
safety interlock arrangements are to be provided so that the circuit breaker for the shore power at
the shore connection switchboard cannot be closed while the HV switchboard is live with
running shipboard generator(s).   Safety Interlocks   An interlock, which prevents plugging and
unplugging of the HV plug and socket outlet arrangements while they are energized, is to be
provided.
Marine Shore Connection Concept:
Shore Connection Feeder Shore Connection Box
The High Voltage shore connection is an integrated system of both power and control equipment
for seamless power transfer The Shore connection concept will comply to the international
standards, which are being developed
Shore Connection System Solutions (Example) In this example the cable and cable reel are
located on board the vessel The power cable from the Shore-Connection Box is connected
directly to the Main Switchboard Power transfer is seamless Synchronization and load transfer of
the shore power will be controlled in the Engine Control Room and it is fully automatic Light
grey = ABB delivery for OPS RED lines = HV circuit BLACK lines = control circuit

On board Installation:
Handling of HV Plug   While the HV shore connection circuit breakers are in the open position,
the conductors of the HV supply cables are to be automatically kept earthed by means of an
earthing switch. A set of pilot contactors embedded in the HV plug and socket-outlet may be
used for this purpose. The earthing switch control is to be designed based on a fail-to-safe

463
concept such that the failure of the control system will not result in the closure of the earthing
switch onto the live HV lines.

HV Shore Connection Circuit Breakers  

Arrangements are to be provided to prevent the closing of the shore connection circuit breaker
when any of the following conditions exist:  
i ) Equipotential bonding is not established
ii) The pilot contact circuit is not established
iii) Emergency shutdown facilities are activated
iv) An error within the HV connection system that could pose an unacceptable risk to the safe
supply of shoreside power to the vessel. These errors may occur within the alarm system,
whether on board the ship or at the shoreside control position, or within any relevant safety
systems including those which monitor system performance.
v) The HV supply is not present

HVSC Circuit Breaker Control:  

HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be remotely operated away from the HVSC
equipment. HV shore connection circuit breakers are to be made only when it has been
established that personnel are evacuated from the HV shore connection equipment
compartments. The operation manual is to describe these established procedures.

HVSC Emergency Shutdown:  

In the event of an emergency, the HV system shall be provided with shutdown facilities that
immediately open the shore connection circuit breaker. These emergency shutdown systems are
to be automatically activated.
Any of the following conditions are to cause emergency shutdown of the shore power supply:  
i ) Loss of equipotential bonding
ii) High tension level of HV flexible shore connection cable, or low remaining cable length of
cable management system
iii) Shore connection safety circuits fail
iv) The emergency stop button is used
v) Any attempts to disengage the HV plug while live (this may be achieved by the pilot
contactors embedded in the plug and socket such that the pilot contactors disengage before the
phase contactors can disengage)

Tests of HV Switchboards  
Type Test   HV switchboards are to be subjected to an AC withstand voltage test in accordance
with Table-2 or other relevant national or international standards. A test is to be carried out at the
manufacturer’s test facility in the presence of the Surveyor.   Onboard Test   After installation
onboard, the HV switchboard is to be subjected to an insulation resistance test in accordance
with Table-2 in the presence of the Surveyor.  

EQUIPMENT DESIGN: Air Clearance Phase-to-phase air clearances and phase-to-earth air
clearances between non-insulated parts are to be not less than the minimum, as specified in Table
Creepage Distance  
Creepage distances between live parts and between live parts and earthed metal parts are to be
adequate for the nominal voltage of the system, due regard being paid to the comparative

464
tracking index of insulating materials under moist conditions according to the IEC Publication
60112 and to the transient overvoltage developed by switching and fault conditions.

Shore Connection Switchboard:

Construction: The HV shore connection switchboard is to be designed, manufactured and tested
in accordance with a recognized standard code of practice as given by IEC. Circuit Breaker
i) Shore connection HV circuit breaker is to be equipped with low voltage protection (LVP)
ii) The rated short-circuit making capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than the
prospective peak value of the short-circuit current
iii) The rated short-circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breaker is not to be less than the
maximum prospective symmetrical short-circuit current
iv) HV shore connection circuit breaker is to be remotely operated:

HV Circuit Breakers may be  

1. Air-Break (scarcely used)
2. Oil-Break (not used in ships)
3. Gas-Break (SF – 6 - Sulphur Hexafluoride)
4. Vacuum-Break (Most Popular) :

Electric Propulsion and High Voltage Practice:

Marine Electric Propulsion Integrated electric propulsion (IEP) or full electric propulsion (FEP)
or integrated full electric propulsion (IFEP) is an arrangement of marine propulsion systems such
that gas turbines or diesel generators or both generate three phase electricity which is then used
to power electric motors turning either propellers. It is a modification of the combined diesel-
electric and gas propulsion system for ships which eliminates the need for clutches and reduces
or eliminates the need for gearboxes by using electrical transmission rather than mechanical
transmission of energy.

Marine Electric Propulsion System:

Electric propulsion for many new ships is now re-established as the popular choice where the
motor thrust is governed by electronic switching under computer control. The high power
required for electric propulsion usually demands a high voltage (HV) power plant with its
associated safety and testing procedures. Passenger ships have always been the largest
commercial vessels with electric propulsion and, by their nature, the most glamorous. This
should not, however, obscure the fact that a very wide variety of vessels have been, and are, built
with electric propulsion.

Early large passenger vessels employed the turboelectric system which involves the use of
variable speed, and therefore variable frequency, turbo-generator sets for the supply of electric
power to the propulsion motors directly coupled to the propeller shafts. Hence, the
generator/motor system was acting as a speed reducing transmission system . Electric power for
auxiliary ship services required the use of separate constant frequency generator sets. A system
that has generating sets which can be used to provide power to both the propulsion system and
ship.
Marine Electric Propulsion services has obvious advantages, but this would have to be a fixed
voltage and frequency system to satisfy the requirements of the ship service loads. The provision
of high power variable speed drives from a fixed voltage and frequency supply has always
465
presented problems. Also, when the required propulsion power was beyond the capacity of a
single d.c .motor there was the complication of multiple motors per shaft.

Developments in high power static converter equipment have presented a very convenient means
of providing variable speed a.c .and d.c . drives at the largest ratings likely to be required in a /
marine propulsion system. The electric propulsion of ships requires electric motors to drive the
propellers and generator sets to supply the electric power. It may seem rather illogical to use
electric generators, switchgear and motors between the prime-movers (e.g. diesel engines) and
propeller when a gearbox or length of shaft could be all that is required.
There are obviously sound reasons why, for some installations, it is possible to justify the
complication of electric propulsion : Flexibility of layout Load diversity between ship service
load and propulsion Economical part-load running Ease of control Low noise and vibration
characteristics:

FLEXIBILITY OF LAYOUT
The advantage of an electric transmission is that the prime-movers, and their generators, are not
constrained to have any particular relationship with the load as a cable run is a very versatile
transmission medium. In a ship propulsion system it is possible to mount the diesel engines, gas
turbines etc., in locations best suited for them and their associated services, so they can be
remote from the propeller shaft. Diesel generator sets in containers located on the vessel main
deck have been used to provide propulsion power and some other vessels have had a 10 MW
generator for ship propulsion duty mounted in a block at the stern of the vessel above the ro-
rodeck . Another example of the flexibility provided by an electric propulsion system is in a
semi-submersible, with the generators on the main deck and the propulsion motors in the
pontoons at the bottom of the support legs.

LOAD DIVERSITY:
Certain types of vessels have a requirement for substantial amounts of electric power for ship
services when the demands of the propulsion system are low. Tankers are one instance of this
situation and any vessel with a substantial cargo discharging load also qualifies. Passenger
vessels have a substantial electrical load which, although relatively constant, does involve a
significant size of generator plant. There are advantages in having a single central power
generation facility which can service the propulsion and all other ship loads as required.

ECONOMICAL PART-LOAD RUNNING

Again this is a concept that is best achieved when there is a central power generation system
feeding propulsion and ship services, with passenger vessels being a good example. It is likely
that a typical installation would have between 4-8 diesel generator sets and with parallel
operation of all the sets it becomes very easy to match the available generating capacity to the
load demand. In a four engine installation for example, increasing the number of sets in
operation from two that are fully loaded to three partially loaded will r esult in the three sets
operating at a 67% load factor which is not ideal but also not a serious operating condition, It is
not necessary to operate generating sets at part-load to provide the spare capacity to be able to
cater for the sudden loss of a set, because propulsion load reduction may be available
instantaneously, and in most vessels a short time reduction in propulsion power does not
constitute a hazard.

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The propulsion regulator will continuously monitor the present generator capability and any
generator overload will immediately result in controlled power limitation to the propulsion
motors. During manoeuvring, propulsion power requirements are below system capacity and
failure of one generator is not likely to present a hazardous situation.

EASE OF CONTROL:
The widespread use of controllable pitch propellers ( cpp ) has meant that the control facilities
that were so readily available with electric drives are no longer able to command the same
premium. Electric drives are capable of the most exacting demands with regard to dynamic
performance which, in general, exceed by a very wide margin anything that is required of a ship
propulsion system.

LOW NOISE:
An electric motor is able to provide a drive with very low vibration characteristics and this is of
importance in warships, oceanographic survey vessels and cruise ships where,/-for different
reasons, a low noise signature is required. With warships and survey vessels it is noise into the
water which is the critical factor whilst with cruise ships it is structure borne noise and vibration
to the passenger spaces that has to be minimised.

For very high power, the most favoured option is to use a pair of high efficiency, high voltage a.c
synchronous motors with fixed pitch propellers (FPP) driven at variable speed by frequency
control from electronic converters. A few installations have the combination of controllable pitch
propellers (CPP) and a variable speed motor. Low/medium power propulsion (1-5 MW) may be
delivered by a.c. induction motors with variable frequency converters or by d.c. motors with
variable voltage converters.

The prime-movers are conventionally constant speed diesel engines driving a.c. generators to
give a fixed output frequency. Gas turbine driven prime- movers for the generators are likely to
challenge the diesel option in the future. Conventionally, the propeller drive shaft is directly
driven from the propulsion electric motor (PEM) from inside the ship. From experience obtained
from smaller external drives, notably from ice-breakers, some very large propulsion motors are
being fitted within rotating pods mounted outside of the ship’s hull. These are generally referred
to as azipods , as the whole pod unit can be rotated through 360° to apply the thrust in any
horizontal direction, i.e. in azimuth . This means that a conventional steering plate and stern side-
thrusters are not required.

Ship manoeuvrability is significantly enhanced by using azipods and the external propulsion unit
releases some internal space for more cargo/passengers while further reducing hull vibration.
Gradual progress in the science and application of superconductivity suggests that future
generators and motors could be super-cooled to extremely low temperatures to cause electrical
resistance to become zero.
Integratedelectric-drive system derived from a commercially available system that has been
installed on ships such as cruise ships requires a technology that is more torque-dense (i.e., more
power-dense). Candidates for a more torque-dense technology include a permanent magnet
motor (PMM) and a high-temperature superconducting (HTS) synchronous motor. In addition,
electric drive makes possible the use of new propeller / stern configurations, such as a podded
propulsion. . . that can reduce ship fuel consumption further due to their improved hydrodynamic
efficiency.
467
Marine Electric Propulsion
- Podded drives offer greater propulsion efficiency and increased space within the hull by
moving the propulsion motor outside the ships hull and placing it in a pod suspended underneath
the hull.
- Podded drives are also capable of azimuth improving ship maneuverability. Indeed, podded
drives have been widely adopted by the cruise ship community for these reasons.
- The motors being manufactured now are as large as 19.5 MW, and could provide the total
propulsion power.

Azipod drive unit:

Propulsion motor For efficient operation of propulsionmotor there is a requirement for a
compact, power dense, rugged electrical machine to be utilized for the propulsion motor. For the
full benefits of electric propulsion to be realized the machine should also be efficient,
particularly at part load, In order to achieve suitable compact designs rare earth permanent
magnet materials may be required. The machine topologies available for PMM are deemed to be
those based on radial, axial and transverse fluxdesigns.

Marine Electric Propulsion:

Due to its flexibility, energy efficiency and superior performance, electric propulsion is widely
used in today's marine technology Functionally the propulsion drive can be divided into
following parts: supply transformer, propulsion motor and frequency converter.
- In an AC drive, a frequency converter is used to control the speed and torque of electric motor.
The speed of the AC electric motor can be controlled by varying the voltage and frequency of its
supply. A frequency converter works by changing the constant frequency main electrical supply
into a variable frequency output.
- The ideal simplicity of the induction motor, its perfect reversibility and other unique qualities
render it eminently suitable for ship Propulsion.

Electric propulsion
- Diesel-Generator sets to produce electricity to common grid for propulsion and ship use.
- Variable speed drives to rotate fixed pitch propellers.
- Commonly used in Cruise vessels, LNG tankers, Off-shore vessels and Ice breaking vessels due
to reduced fuel oil consumption, lower emissions and increased pay-load :
Generator system of Conventional Cargo Ships Electricity demand is small. 2 Generators are
equipped. Only one set of either is usually operated.

Large Diesel Engine for Main Engine:

Features Very big (24m, 15m) Super heavy (2000 ton) High Power (60,000 kW) High Efficiency
(over 50 %) Large Diesel Engine for Main Engine
Configuration of Electric Propulsion System for Ships:
Configuration of Electric Propulsion Gen. Motor speed can be controlled by the frequency of
electric power. Generator outputs constant frequency (60Hz) Powerconverter supply suitable
frequency and demanded power Gen. Power Converter Motor Speed Control by frequency
Constant Frequency 60 frequency for control
Configuration of Electric Propulsion System for Ships:
Comparison with Conventional and Electric Propulsion system:
468
High D.C. Voltages Generation of high d. c. voltages is mainly required in research workin the
areas of pure and applied physics. Needed in insulation test. Use rectifier circuit (diode) to
convert a. c. to d. c. voltage. – vacuum rectifiers, semiconductor diodes.

Impulse High Voltage:

Impulse voltages (IVs) are required in hv tests to simulate the stresses due to external and
internal overvoltages, and also for fundamental investigations of the breakdown mechanisms.
Usually generated by discharging hv capacitors through switching gaps on to a network of
resistors and capacitors. In hv technology, a single, unipolar voltage is termed an impulse
voltage. Rectangular and wedge -shaped IVs are normally used for basic experiments while for
tes ting purposes, double exponential IVs are used. Standard test of impulse voltages can be
represented as double exponential wave, and its mathematical equation is defined as follows; V =
Vo [exp(-αt) – exp( -βt ) ] Where α and β are constants of micro second values.

Controlled Rectification:
The generated three power supply on a phase a.c. electrical ship has a fixed voltage and
frequency. This is generally at 440 V and 60 Hz but for high power demands it is likelv to be 6.6
kV and 60 Hz. Speed control for a propulsion motor requires variable voltage for a d.c. drive and
variable frequency * voltage for an a.c. d r ive. The set bus-bar a.c. voltage must be converted by
controlled rectification (a.c.-d.c.) ind/or controlled inversion (d. c. * a. c.)' to match the
propulsion motor type. A basic rectifier uses semiconductor diodes which can only conduct
current in the direction of anode (A) to cathode (K) and this is automatic when A is m ore
positive than K. The diode turns-off automatically when its current falls to zero. Hence, in –a
single-phase a.c. circuit a single diode will conduct only on every other half-cycle and this is
called half-wave rectification.

Controlled Rectification:
In this circuit an inductor coil (choke) smooth the d. c. load current even though the d. c. voltage
is severely chopped by the thyristor switching action. An alternative to the choke coil is to use a
capacitor across the rectifier output which smooths the d. c. voltage. Full wave controlled
rectification from a three-phase a.c. supply is achieved in a bridge Circuit with six thyristors as
shown Other single-phase circuits using a biased arrangement with two diodes and a centre-
tapped transformer will create full-wave rectification Similarly, four diodes in a bridge formation
will also produce a full-waved. c. voltage output. An equivalent three phase bridge requires six
diodes for full-wave operation. A diode, having only two terminals, can not control the size of
the d. c. output from the rectifier. For controlled rectification it is necessary to use a set of three-
terminal devices such as thyristors (for high currents) or transistors (for low-medium currents).

Three-phase controlled rectifier bridge circuit.

A basic a.c.-d.c. control circuit using a thyristor switch is shown in the next slide. Compared
with a diode, a thyristor has an extra (control) terminal called the gate (G). The thyristor will
only conduct when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode and a brief trigger voltage
pulse is applied between gate and cathode (gatemust be more positive than cathode). Gate
voltage pulses are provided by separate electronic circuit and the pulse timing decides the
switch-on point for the main (load) current. The load current is therefore rectified to d.c. (by
diode action) and controlled by delayed switching. In this circuit an inductor coil (choke)
smooththed. c. load current even though the d. c. voltage is severely chopped by the thyristor
switching action. An alternative to the choke coil is to use a capacitor across the rectifier output
469
whichsmooths the d. c. voltage. Full wave controlled rectification from a three-phase a.c. supply
is achieved in a bridge Circuit with six thyristors as shown

The equivalent maximum d. c. voltage output is taken to be about 600 V as it has a six -pulse
ripple effect due to the three-phase input waveform. Controlled inversion process - A d. c.
voltage can be inverted (switched) repeatedly from positive to negative to form an alternating
(u.c.) voltage by using a set of thyristor (or transistor) switches. A controlled three-phase
thyristor bridge inverter is shown. The inverter bridge circuit arrangement is exactly the same as
that for the rectifier. Here, the d. c. voltage is sequentially switched on to the three output lines.
The rate of switching determines the output frequency. For a.c. motor control, the line currents
are directed in to (and out of) the windings to produce arotating stator flux wavewhich interacts
with the rotor to produce torque. The processes of controlled rectification and inversion are used
in converters that are designed to match the drive motor.

Converter Types:
The principal types of motor control converters are:
a.c.-d. c. (controlled rectifier for d. c. motors).
a.c.-d.c.-a.c. (PWM for induction motors)
a.c.-d.c.-a.c. (synchroconverter or synchronous motors).
d.c.-a.c. (cycloconverter for synchronous motors)

These are examined below:

a.c.-d.c. converter.
This is a three phase a.c. controlled rectification circuit for a d.c. motor drive. Two converters of
different power ratings are generally used for the separate control of the armature current and the
field current which produces the magnetic flux. Some systems may have a fixed field current
which means that the field supply only requires an uncontrolled diode bridge.
4. Shaft rotation can be achieved by reversing either the field current or the armature current
direction.
5. Ship applications for such a drive would include cable-laying, offshore
6. drilling, diving and supply, ocean survey and submarines. a.c.-d.c.-a.c. P W M converter. This
type of converter is used for induction motor drives and uses transistors as the switching devices.
Unlike thyristors, a transistor can be turned on and off by a control signal and at a high switching
rate (e. g. at 20 kHz in a P W M converter). The input rectifier stage is not controlled so is
simpler and cheaper but the converter will not be a blg to allow power from the motor load to be
regenerated back into the mains supply during a braking operation.

Controlled rectification converter and d. c .motor

PWM converter and a. c. induction motor

Converter Types
From a 440 Y a.c. supply, the rectified d.c. (link) voltage will be smoothed by the capacitor to
approximately 600 V. The d.c. voltage is chopped in to variablewidth, but constant level, voltage
pulses in the computer controlled inverter section using IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar
transistors). This process is called pulse width modulation or P W M. By varying the pulse
widths and polarity of the d.c. voltage it is possible to generate an averaged sinusoidal ac. output
over a wide range of frequencies typically 0.5 -120Hz. Due to the smoothing effect of the motor
inductance, the motor currents appear to be nearly sinusoidal in shape. By sequentially directing
470
the currents into the three stator windings, a reversible rotating magnetic field is produced with
its speed set by the output frequency of the P W M conve r ter.

Converter Types
Accurate control of shaft torque, acceleration time and resistive braking are afew of the many
operational parameters that can be programmed into the VSD, usually via a hand-held unit. The
VSD can be closely tuned to the connected motor drive to achieve optimum control and
protection limits for the overall drive.
• Speed regulation against load changes is very good and can be made very precise by the
addition of feed back from a shaft speed encoder. VSDs, being digitally controlled, can be easily
networked to other computer devices e. g. programmable logic controllers (PLCs) for overall
control of a complex process.

a.c.*d.c.+a.c. synchroconverter
This type of converter is used for large a.c. synchronous motor drives (called a synchrodrive) and
I is a pplied very successfully to marine electric propulsion. A synchroconverter has controlled
rectifier and inverter stages which both rely on natural turn-off (line commutation) for the
thyristors by the three phase a.c. voltages at eitherend of the converter. Between the rectification
and inversion stages is a current - smoothing reactor coil forming the d.c. link. An operational
similarity exists between a svnchrodrive and a d.c. motor drive. DC link synchroconverter and a
dc motor drive.

This view considers the rectifier stage as a controlled d.c. supply and the inverter / synchronous
motor combination as a d.c. motor with the switching inverter acting as a static commutator. The
combination of controlled rectifier and d.c. link is considered to be a current source for the
inverter whose task is then to sequentially direct blocks of the current into the motor windings.
The size of the d.c. current is set by the controlled switching of the rectifier thyristors. Motor
supply frequency (and hence its speed) is set by the rate of inverter switching. The six inverter
thyristors provide six current pulses per cycle (known as a six -pulse converter)

A simplified understanding of synchroconverter control is that the current source (controlled

rectification stage) provides the required motor torque and the inverter stage controls the
required speed. To provide the motor e. m. f. which is necessary for natural commutation of the
inverter thyristors, the synchronous motor must have rotation and magnetic flux in its rotor poles.
During normal running, the synchronous motor is operated with a power factor of about 0.9
leading (by field excitation control) to assist the line commutation of the inverer thyristors. The
d.c. rotor field excitation is obtained from a separate controlled thyristor rectification circuit.

As the supply (network) and machine bridges are identical and are both connected to a three -
phase a. c. voltage source, the reroles can be switched into reverse. This is useful to allow the
regeneration motor power back into the mains power supply which provides an electric braking
torque during a crash stop of the ship.

Cycloconverter circuit and out put voltage waveform.

Converter Types:
a.c. - a.c. cycloconverter While a synchroconverter is able to provide an output frequency range
typically up to twice that of the mains input (e.g. up to 120 Hz), a cycloconverter is restricted to a
471
much lower range. This is limited to less than one thtird of the supply frequency (e.g. up to 20
Hz) which is due to the way in which this type of converter produces the a.c. output voltage
wave form. Ship propulsion shaft speeds are typically in the range of 0 - 145 rev/ m in which can
easily be achieved by the low frequency output range of a cycloconverter to a multi-pole
synchronous motor. Power regeneration from the motor back into themain power supply is
available. A conventional three phase converter from a.c. to d.c. can be controlled so that the
average output voltage can be increased and decreased from zero to maximum with in a half-
cycle period of the sinusoidal a.c. input.

Converter Types:
By connecting two similar converters back - to -back in each line ana.c. output frequency is
obtained. The switching pattern for the thyristors varies over the frequency range which requires
a complex computer program for converter control. The corresponding current waveform shape
(not shown) will be more sinusoidal due to the smoothing effect of motor and line inductance.
The output voltage has ripple content which gets as the output frequency it is this feature that
limits useful frequency. There is no connection between the three motor windings because the
line converter shave to be isolated from each other to operate correctly to obtain line
commutation (natural) switching of the thvristors. The converters may be directly supplied from
the HV line but it is more usual to interpose step-down transformers. This reduces the motor volt
age and its required insulation level whileal soproviding additional line impedance to limit the
size of prospective fault current and harmonic voltage distortion at the main supply bus-bar.

THE FUTURE:
Propulsion of ships by help of standard diesel engines usually gives a non-optimal utilization of
the energy. Today an increased use of diesel electrical propulsion of ships can be seen. New
power electronics and electrical machines will be developed for propulsion and thrusters, as well
as other application on board. Knowledge has to be developed about how such large motor drives
will influence the autonomous power systems on-board. Even development of new integrated
electrical systems for replacement of hydraulic systems (top- side as well as sub-sea) are
becoming areas of need.

To introduce solar energy to the ship we need to convert the solar energy to electrical energy.
electrical energy we can use and transport throughout the ship. photo-voltaic cells convert solar
into electrical energy. An inverter is needed to convert the direct current (dc) to an alternating
current (ac), so the 50 or 60 hz electric grid can transport the electrical energy through the ship.
These energy conversions reduce the efficiency of the whole chain. Imtech marine is developing
a new way to transport electrical energy through the ship, a plug-and-play dc grid. With a dc grid
in a diesel-electric propulsion system less energy conversions are needed, There is no need for
bulky transformers. It is plug-and-play, if you decide pv-panels are still too expensive today, you
can decide to buy them later and with no extra effort connect them to the dc grid at any time.
To introduce solar energy to the ship we need to convert the solar energy to electrical energy.
electrical energy we can use and transport throughout the ship. photo-voltaic cells convert solar
into electrical energy. An inverter is needed to convert the direct current (dc) to an alternating
current (ac), so the 50 or 60 hz electric grid can transport the electrical energy through the ship.
These energy conversions reduce the efficiency of the whole chain. Imtech marine is developing
a new way to transport electrical energy through the ship, a plug-and-play dc grid. With a dc grid
in a diesel-electric propulsion system less energy conversions are needed, There is no need for

472
bulky transformers. It is plug-and-play, if you decide pv-panels are still too expensive today, you
can decide to buy them later and with no extra effort connect them to the dc grid at any time.

SOLAR ENERGY FOR SHIP

Ships also can benefit from the sun. The deck of a ship is always outside in the sun. With a deck
area of more than 9000 square meters for a Panamax sized ship, a lot of energy can be harvested
for free. With increasing PV-panel efficiency and decreasing cost due to mass production, solar
energy can be beneficial next to existing ways to produce electrical energy. There are of course
some challenges to overcome before integrating solar energy on a ship, but the maritime industry
is driven by innovation to come with clever solution. Ship already sailing solely on solar energy
is the planet solar. With its 500 square meters of solar panels and large li -ion battery, it is
accomplishing a journey around the world. The project is promoting renewable energy and solar
energy around the world. Imtech marine has contributed as technology partner for this one of a
kind pioneering ship.

Typical system of all electrical ship Generator sets complete with prime movers and engine
controls H V /LV Switch boards, distribution systems and group starter boards Propulsion and
thruster motors complete with power electronic variable speed drives Power conversion
equipment Shaft braking Power factor correction and harmonic filters (as necessary) Power
management Machinery control and surveillance Dynamic positioning and joystick control
Machinery control room and bridge consoles Setting to work and commissioning Operator
training.

Future electrical ship

Future HV ships systems at sea may require voltages up to 13.8 kV to minimize fault levels It is
therefore essential that all Marine Engineering personnel are trained in safe working practices for
these voltages. The Electrical officers of the near future must be fully trained to carry out
maintenance and defect rectification on Medium Voltage (MV) systems. This will mean a
considerable increase in the electrical content of all training. Training will also need to be given
to non-technical personnel to ensure everybody is aware of the dangers of these higher voltages.

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 Electricity Is Dangerous
There are four main types of electrical injuries: electrocution (death due to
electrical shock), electrical shock, burns, and falls.
AVOID THE PAIN & COST OF AN INJURY
❚You will receive a shock if you touch two wires at different voltages at the
same time.
The danger from electrical shock depends on
•theamount of the shocking current through the body,
•theduration of the shocking current through the body, and
•thepath of the shocking current through the body.
❚You will receive a shock if you touch a live wire and are grounded at the
same time.
❚When a circuit, electrical component, or equipment is energized, a potential
shock hazard is present.

Most common injuries:

Back
Fingers/Hands
Knees

Electrical burn on hand and arm

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Arm with third degree burn from high-voltage line

Contact electrical burns. The knee on the left was energized, and the knee on
the right was grounded

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From the article below, answer the following questions.
1. What is meant by a “real time system”?
Output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time,
otherwise unintended operation will result.
2. How are PLCs different from other computers?
PLCs are armored for severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold) and have the
facility for extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements.

Programmable Logic Controllers

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for
automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly
lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines,
such as packaging and semiconductor machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC
is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

Features
The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe conditions (such
as dust, moisture, heat, cold) and have the facility for extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements.
These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process
variables (such as temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning
systems. Some use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors,
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The
input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O
modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.

2.2 Adult Education

It is very important to be mindful of both the principles of Adult Education and the
characteristics of adult learners.
2.2.1 Principles of Adult Education 1
•Adults must want to learn.
Trade Essentials clients have stated the primary reason for participating in an
Essential Skills program andobtaining certification was personal satisfaction, not job
mobility or an increase in pay.
•Adults will learn only what they believe they need to learn.
They have a practical approach to learning as they need to know how this learning
affects them now.
•Adults learn by doing.
Ninety-eight percent of the apprentices in the Trade Essentials Project identified
their preferred learning style as kinesthetic.
•Adult learning focuses on problems and the problems must be realistic.
The Essential Skills Inventories use trade-specific materials and focus on the
apprentice’s ability to solve problems since that is the nature of their jobs.
•Experience affects adult learning.
All apprentices bring a varied background of acquired skills and knowledge together
with an attitude about learning.
􀂃Adults learn best in an informal situation.

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Many of the apprentices indicated they appreciate the opportunity to learn with
their peers at a time convenient to them (evenings, Saturdays) and in a setting
where they are comfortable sharing their knowledge with others. For the first time,
there is a place dedicated to apprentices where they can access the information and
the support they need.
•Adults want guidance.
While experienced in their individual trades, apprentices may need help to create a
learning plan to meet their objective.

2.2.2 Characteristics of Adult Learners 2

􀂃Adult students are mature people and prefer to be treated as such. Being
“lectured at” can cause resentment and frustration. Apprentices are usually
kinesthetic learners and need to be active when learning. They also learn from each
other in a classroom setting.
•Adults are goal/relevancy–oriented. Adults need to know why they are
learning because their needs are concrete and immediate. They will be more
interested in theory if it links to practical application.
•Adults may have insufficient confidence. A number of apprentices may have
had prior experiences within the education system that have led to feelings of
inadequacy, fear of study and failure. Many apprentices have been out of a formal
learning situation for 20 years or more. Returning to a classroom environment can
be daunting and challenging.
•Adults are often tired when they come to class as they are juggling work,
family and other responsibilities. Most apprentices are working full time and are
attending a program in the evenings and on occasional Saturdays. Many drive
considerable distances, as well as driving in winter conditions.
•Adults learn best when they are ready to learn and when they have
identified their own learning needs as opposed to being controlled by
someone else. They want to choose options based on their own needs. Providing
the apprentices with a chance to selfassess and identify their strengths and
weaknesses is an important first step.
Adults learn at different rates and in various ways according to their
learning styles, educational levels, experiences and relationships.
The first section of the ESI is a Learning Styles Inventory. Most apprentices have
never identified their own learning styles and this is often an “aha” moment for
them. Being able to use this information for learning and studying techniques is
invaluable to them.
􀂃Adults have accumulated life/work experiences.
They tend to favour learning that draws on their prior skills and knowledge. The
Essential Skills Inventory is an assessment for learning, providing an opportunity
for each apprentice to realize what he/she already knows and to move forward from
that base. The Essential Skills Inventory identifies skills in need of updating using
in-context materials and a guided selfassessment. The skills may have been learned
in a formal setting or on the job.
3 SECTION 3
3.1 The Essential Skills Inventory
Conducted in a manner that engages the apprentice and helps build confidence, the
completed Inventory provides a picture of the apprentice’s learning needs while
recognizing the skills that have already been acquired. The Inventory is as much a
477
process as a product. The time required to complete an Inventory will vary
depending on the apprentice but should be completed in one and a half to two
hours. Six of the nine Essential Skills are assessed in these Inventories and are in
this order: reading text (technical language), document use, numeracy, oral
communication, computer use and writing. The Inventory is divided into sections
and the section questions are ordered from simple to complex.
3.1.1 Process
Sit beside, not across from, the apprentice as a table or desk impedes good
communication and can be interpreted as one person being in a position of
authority over another. If a round table is available, use it. Apprentices are not
often asked to self assess, but will do so willingly if they are comfortable with the
assessor and understand the process.
3.1.2 Essential Skills Profiles
The concept of Essential Skills and Essential Skills Profiles will likely be new to the
apprentice. At the beginning of the interview therefore, introduce the trade-specific
Essential Skills Profile. Give the apprentice a hard copy of the profile to take away
with him/her. Encourage a thorough review of the profile as well as the Essential
Skills website (www.hrsdc.gc.ca/essentialskills) for additional information.
Gather the supplies you need prior to beginning the Essential Skills Inventory:
􀂃scientific calculator
􀂃pencils and an Eraser
􀂃intake form
􀂃skills summary form
􀂃ESI printed on coloured paper
􀂃Answer Key

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479
Navigation- and signalling lights
I.6.1 The masthead -light, sidelights- and stern light are separate to be supplied
from the navigation lights controller. Each circuit shall be protected against
overload and short circuit.
Masthead light(s), sidelights and a sternlight shall be duplicated or be fitted with
duplicate lamps on ships with 50 m in length and above.
The individual main- and reserve lights may have separate circuits in a common
cable.
I.6.2 The navigation lights controller may be extended for the supply of the
signalling lights specified in the "International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea (COLREGs)".
Other consumers shall not be connected to this panel.
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 4 Installation Protection and Power Distribution

480
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 4–8
I.6.3 Navigation- and signal light controller shall be supplied from the main- and
emergency electrical power source. An automatic switch over to the alternative
source of power is permitted and to be alarmed.
I.6.4 An navigation lights controller should facilitate ON/OFF controls of
individual Navigation lights.
I.6.5 An navigation lights controller should provide visual indications of
“ON”/”OFF” status of Navigation lights.
I.6.6 Pre-programmed navigation lights group settings may be provided.
I.6.7 The navigation lights controller shall be provided with a device for each light
which gives optical and acoustical alarm if the light disappears.
Where the monitoring device is connected in series with the navigation light, it
shall be ensured that a failure of the device does not cause the navigation light to
disappear.
I.6.8 An navigation lights controller shall present the status of all navigation lights
in a logical presentation, meeting the requirements set out in IMO Resolution
MSC.191(79).
I.6.9 All indicators of an navigation lights controller shall be dimmable. The
brightness of a display, if fitted, shall be controllable.
I.6.10 To prevent shortage of luminous intensity of LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
an alarm function should be activated to notify the Officer of the Watch that the
luminous intensity of the light reduces below the level required by COLREGs or
LEDs shall only be used within the lifespan (practical term of validity) specified by
the manufacturer to maintain the necessary luminous intensity of LEDs. The
specifications in the certificate of conformity for navigation lights are to be
observed.
I.6.11 Where navigation lights are supplied from the main source of electrical
power, the voltages at the lamp-holders shall not permanently deviate by more than
5 % above or below the rated voltage.
Where, in the event of a failure of the main electric power, navigation lights are
supplied from the emergency source of electrical power, the voltages at the lamp-
holders may temporarily deviate by up to 10 % above or below the rated voltage.

Steering gear control systems

A.6.1 Ships with electrically operated steering gear controls shall have two
independent steering gear control systems. Separated cables and wires are to be
provided for these control systems.
A common steering wheel or a common tiller may be used.
A.6.2 If a follow-up (FU) control system and a non-follow-up (NFU) control
system are provided, each of these systems shall be able to operate on each power
unit. Switching of the control systems shall be possible on the bridge.
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Where two identical control systems are installed, each control system can be
permanently assigned to a power unit.
If a follow-up control system is installed on the bridge wing, then the follow-up
tiller shall be fitted with a retaining spring to midship position, or a take-over
arrangement shall be installed on bridge wings.
A.6.3 Provision shall be made for operating the main and auxiliary steering gear
from the bridge and the steering gear compartment.
A.6.4 The power supplies to the electrical steering gear control systems shall be
taken from the power unit supplies in the steering gear compartment, or from the
corresponding power unit feeders in the main or emergency switchboard (see
A.2.4).
A.6.5 The electrical separation from each other of the steering gear control systems
shall not be impaired by the addition of extra systems, such as autopilot systems.
A.6.6 For change-over between different control systems a common control
selector switch may be provided. The circuits of the various control systems shall
be arranged electrically and physically separated.
A.6.7 On ships where an automatic control system like heading- or track control
system is installed, an override facility shall be installed close to the operator unit
of the automatic steering system. The Override facility shall be so designed that
self-induced return to automatic control is not possible except where the heading
preselection of the automatic system is automatically kept in line. The switch-over
from automatic- to manual control by "Override" is to be indicated optically and
audibly at the steering position.
The override facility shall be independent of the automatic control system or
follow-up control mode.
A.6.8 Different steering modes including steering gear control positions on the
bridge wings shall be changed over by all poles, when it cannot be verified that it is
free of reactive effects. Portable steering consoles are to be connected via plugs
with pin coding. It is necessary to ensure that the rudder-angle indicator can be
read within the range of operation of the portable steering console.
A.6.9 Repeaters and limit switches - if provided - shall be linked electrically and
mechanically to the respective control system and mounted separately to the rudder
stock or the adjusting devices.
A.7 Alarms and indicators
A.7.1 Alarms and indicators for steering gears and controls are to be gathered from
Table 7.1.
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 7 Power Equipment
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 7–4
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A.7.2 Depending on the rudder characteristic, critical deviations between rudder
order and response shall be indicated visually and audibly as actual steering mode
failure alarm on the navigating bridge. Thefollowing parameters shall be
monitored:
 Direction: actual rudder position follows the set value;
 Delay: rudder´s actual position reaches set position within defined time limits;
 Accuracy: the end actual position shall correspond to the set value within the
design offset tolerances.
A.7.3 The alarms/indicators listed in Table 7.1 shall be signalled visually and
audibly irrespective from the automation equipment.
Alarms and indicators on the bridge shall be announced at a position close to main
steering station.
A.7.4 In case of fixed relation between control system and power unit the alarms
No. 2 and No. 5 of
Table 7.1 may be grouped.
A.7.5 The energy supply for the alarms and indicators shall be in accordance with
A.2

GeneratorEngine Starting from Dead Ship Condition (extract)

Dead ship (blackout) condition is the condition under which the main propulsion
plant, boiler and auxiliaries are not in operation due to the unavailability of power
from the main power source. See ABS 4-8-2-4-1-1/7.7. In restoring the propulsion,
no stored energy for starting the propulsion plant, the main source of electrical
power and other essential auxiliaries is to be assumed available. It is assumed that
means are available to start the emergency generator at all times. The emergency
source of electrical, power may be used to restore the propulsion, provided its
capacity either alone or combined with other source of electrical power is
sufficient to provide at the same time those services required to be supplied by
ABS 4-8-2/5.5.1 to 4-8-2/5.5.8.
The emergency generator and other means needed to restore the propulsion are to
have a capacity such that the necessary propulsion starting energy is available
within 30 min of dead ship (blackout) condition as defined above. Emergency
generator stored starting energy is not to be directly used for starting the propulsion
plant, the main source of electrical power and/or other essential auxiliaries
(emergency generator excluded). For steam ships, the 30 min time limit is to be
taken as the time from dead ship (blackout) condition to light-off of the first boiler.

Governors (Propulsion and Ship Service Generator Engines)

The prime-mover governor performance is critical to satisfactory electric power
generation in terms of constant frequency, response to load changes, and the ability
to operate in parallel with other generators.

483
The steady state speed variation should not exceed 5% (e.g., 3 Hz for a 60 Hz
machine) of rated speed at any load condition.
Each prime mover should be under control of a governor capable of limiting the
speed, when full load is suddenly removed, to a maximum of 110% of the rated
speed. It is recommended that the speed variation be limited to 5% or less of the
over-speed trip setting. The prime mover and regulating governor should also limit
the momentary speed variation to the values indicated in this subclause.
The speed should return within 1% of the final steady state speed in a maximum of
5 seconds or as set by the limits specified in Table 7 IEEE Std 45-2002.
For emergency generators, the prime mover and regulating governor shall be
capable of assuming the sum total of all emergency loads upon closure to the
emergency bus. The response time and speed deviation shall be within the
tolerances indicated in the Table 7 IEEE Std 45-2002.
Generator sets should be capable of operating successfully in parallel when defined
as follows: If at any load between 50% and 100% of the sum of the rated loads on
all generators, the load (kW) on the largest generator does not differ from the other
by more than ± 15% of the rated output or +25% of the rated output of any
individual generator, whichever is less, from its proportionate share. The starting
point for the determination of the successful load distribution requirements is to be
at 75% load with each generator carrying its proportionate load.

Voltage Regulation (Propulsion and Ship Service Generator)

At least one voltage regulator should be provided for each generator. Voltage regulation should
be automatic and should function under steady state load conditions between 0% and 100% load
at all power factors that can occur in normal use. Voltage regulators should be capable of
maintaining the voltage within the range of 97.5% to 102.5% of the rated voltage. A means of
adjustment should be provided for the voltage regulator circuit. Voltage regulators should be
capable of withstanding shipboard conditions and should be designed to be unaffected by normal
machinery space vibration.
Solid-state voltage regulators are recommended for high reliability, long life, fast response, and
stable regulation. Regulator systems should be protected from under-frequency conditions. It is
recommended that voltage regulators for machines rated in excess of 150 kW be provided with
under-frequency and over-voltage sensors for protection of the voltage regulators.
Under motor starting or short-circuit conditions, the generator and voltage regulator together
with the prime mover and excitation system should be capable of maintaining short-circuit
current of such magnitude and duration as required to properly actuate the associated electrical
protective devices. This shall be achieved with a value of than not less than 300% of generator
full-load current for a duration of 2 seconds, or of such additional magnitude and duration as
required to properly actuate the associated protective devices.
For single-generator operation (no reactive droop compensation), the steady state voltage for any
increasing or decreasing load between zero and full load at rated power factor under steady state
operation should not vary at any point more than ± 2.5% of rated generator voltage. For multiple
units in parallel, a means should be provided to automatically and proportionately divide the
reactive power between the units in operation.

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Under transient conditions, when the generator is driven at rated speed at its rated voltage, and is
subjected to a sudden change of symmetrical load within the limits of specified current and
power factor, the voltage should not fall below 80% nor exceed 120% of the rated voltage. The
voltage should then be restored to within ± 2.5% of the rated voltage in not more than 1.5 s.
In the absence of precise information concerning the maximum values of the sudden loads, the
following conditions should be assumed: 150% of rated current with a power factor of between
0.4 lagging and zero to be applied with the generator running at no-load, and then removed after
steady state conditions have been reached.
For two or more generators with reactive droop compensation, the reactive droop compensation
should be adjusted for a voltage droop of no more than 4% of rated voltage for a generator. The
system performance should then be such that the average curve drawn through a plot of the
steady state voltage vs. load for any increasing or decreasing load between zero and full load at
rated power factor droops no more than 4% of rated voltage. No recorded point varies more than
± 1% of rated generator voltage from the average curve.
Isochronous operation of a single generator operating alone is acceptable. However, where two
or more generators are arranged to operate in parallel, it is recommended that isochronous
kilowatt load sharing governors and voltage regulation with reactive differential compensation
capabilities be provided. Care should be taken if operating machines in parallel to ensure that the
system minimum load does not decrease and cause a reverse power condition.
If voltage regulators for two or more generators are installed in the switchboard and located in
the same section, a physical barrier should be installed to isolate the regulators and their auxiliary
devices.
Where power electronic devices (such as variable frequency drives, soft starters, and switching
power supplies) create measurable waveform distortions (harmonics), means should be taken to
avoid malfunction of the voltage regulator, e.g., by conditioning of measurement inputs by
means of effective passive filters.
Power supplies and voltage sensing leads for voltage regulators should be taken from the
"generator side" of the generator circuit breaker. Normally, voltage-sensingleads should not be
protected by an over-current protection device. If short-circuit protection is provided for the
voltage sensing leads, this short-circuit protection should be set at no less than 500% of the
transformer rating or interconnecting wiring ampacity, whichever is less. It is recommended that
a means be provided to disconnect the voltage regulator from its source of power.

Generator voltage regulator characteristics

It is the function of the voltage regulator to control the excitation of the generator so as to
maintain constant generator terminal voltage, within defined limit e.g. +6%, to -10%. Since most
engine generator sets used in today's power systems are brushless type generators, relatively
inexpensive solid-state voltage regulator can be furnished to provide steady state regulation of 1
to 2% under any load condition from zero to 100% load. These solid-state controls are also
capable of rapid response to load changes and of boost excitation to provide current magnitude
capable of achieving selective coordination with the over-current protective devices in the power
system. As with the governors, voltage regulators are also available with droop characteristics.
The purpose of a droop characteristic in a voltage regulator is to enable the generator to share
reactive component of the load in proportion to the kilovolt ampere rating of the generator.
The amount of reactive load is also an important design factor. For example, if an engine is
delivering 800 kW at ,8pf, then the engine is delivering 1000 kVA. The reactive power, kilovar,
equals the square root of kilovoltampere squared minus kilowatt squared. So for this example,
the generator would be delivering 600 kvar reactive power. When generator sets are operating in
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parallel, allowing voltage to drop or droop, as the current out of the machine increases, it causes
the generators to share load almost proportionately. Why "almost proportionately"? It stems from
dissimilarities in current-transformer-to-full-load-rating ratio discrepancies. Because the
electrical loads driven by to-days power systems require precise frequency and voltage levels,
droop compensation in the voltage levels, droop compensation in the voltage control for kilovar
sharing is as objectionable as speed droop is for kilowatt sharing between the engines.
Modern voltage regulators for both brushless and brush-type generators are readily available and
provide constant voltage from no load to full load while achieving proportionate kilovar sharing
between the generators.
In most cases, the same regulator that would be used for droop compensation can also be used
for cross current compensation. The only difference lies in the connections of the regulator in the
power system. Cross current compensation for proportionate reactive load division (kilovar
sharing) is highly desirable design feature for paralleling systems employing automatic
unattended operation. The designer should also specify cross-current compensation for the
voltage regulation of these systems.

Droop characteristics - generator set

When selecting engine generator sets for parallel operation, the size of the sets is determined by
analyzing the voltage and frequency requirements in term of the load, transient response,
stability, and droop.
Droop is a function of the difference between no-load and full-load operation. It is the percent
difference in the values based on the no-load value. For instance a machine with 3% droop and a
no-load frequency of 61.8 Hz, the full load frequency will be 97% of the no-load frequency of 60
Hz. The frequency droop for this set -up is therefore 1.8 Hz. Similarly, if the voltage droop is 5%
on a nominal system voltage of 480 V AC, the voltage droop is 24 V AC.
However, today's engine generator sets can be furnished with relatively simple and reliable
electronic governors and voltage regulators, which make these sets suitable for unattended
automatic paralleling and load sharing. This is a basic key to paralleling engine generators for
emergency power systems. The electronic governor provides isochronous operation, and
automatic proportionate load division which make possible the automatic paralleling of
dissimilar size sets. The electronic governor provides a more adaptable engine generator set
because it will permit paralleling at any time without necessitating adjustment or requiring
droop. Similarly, voltage regulators are available to achieve automatic reactive load division to
provide constant voltage systems. These devices help to make automatic unattended emergency
power paralleling system highly practical.

1st harmonic 480 V

th
5 harmonic 9.5V
th
7 harmonic 6.5V
th
11 harmonic 5.5V
Distortion rms 12.76 V
rms 480.17V
Total harmonic distortion 2.6%
(THD)
Table 4-2: Voltage Distortion Calculations (typical)

486
The shipboard electric motor starting methods are as follows:
— Direct On Line (DOL) starting (also referred to as across-the-line starting)
— Wye-Delta Starting, Open Transition
— Wye-Delta Starting Close Transition
— Auto Transformer starting
— Solid state—Soft Starting
— Variable Frequency Drive

DOL starter (Refer to Figure 10-13)

a) Advantage
— Simple to operate, enclosure size is small.
— Due to full voltage operation, it provides high starting torque, high accelerating
torque and can attain full speed in a very
short time.
— Commonly used onboard ship, particularly for small size motors
b) Disadvantage
— Due to across the line full voltage starting, the current requirement for
breakaway torque is high, as much as 6 to 12 times the full load current on the
motor. This generates a transient voltage dip in the system, which directly affects
the generator response. Transient response simulation of the electrical system is
often necessary for larger motors. The range of the large motor is dependent on the
generator size onboard the ship. The shipboard em ergency generator is usually
small and regulatory body requirement is to directly connect the emergency fire
pump and steering gear pump on the emergency switchboard. It is necessary to
perform a starting voltage dip study for these pumps to ensure starting capability.
There are multiple options available to mitigate the issue. One is to provide large
size generator. Another is to provide reducedvoltage starting or solid state such as
soft start.

Reduced voltage starter

The autotransformer type starter controls the starting voltage much below the rated
voltage; the starting voltage is adjustable. A Wye-delta configuration also provides
a different voltage level for starting, which must transition from the wye
configuration to delta configuration. If the system transition is not acceptable for
the auxiliaries, closed transition is also available. However, these reduced voltage
starting systems must be thoroughly analyzed, for system performance, cost, size,
complexity and so forth. Refer to Figure 10-14 through Figure 10-16 for reduced
voltage starter.
Major concerns include
— When the starting voltage is reduced, the motor torque is also reduced. The
torque reduction is square proportion to the voltage reduction. The torque demand

487
must be within the reduced voltage torque generation to consider reduced voltage
starting application.
— The starting current also reduces with the reduction of voltage.

Steering system (italics in original)

The steering gear system should be of electrohydraulic or electrical type. If the pod
is used as a steering device, class and regulatory requirements for steering systems
shall apply for the pod steering system and the term rudder angle should be
interpreted as pod azimuth angle.
The podded propulsion unit should be provided with a dual redundant steering
system. If more than one azimuthing pod is provided, each shall have a fully
independent steering system. The steering system should be capable of moving,
stopping, and holding the pod unit at any desired angle within design limits.
Requirements for steering gear (Clause 32 of IEEE Std 45-2002) apply as far as
possible.

Transformers may be designed according to NEMA standards or IEC standards.

For converter transformers, it is essential that the design accounts for the additional
thermal losses due to the high content of harmonic currents.
The shipboard power distribution transformers for US application are the
following:
— Ship service power transformers HV /480 V
-— Ship service power transformers 480 V/120 V
— Propulsion drive power transformers (voltage rating varies)
— Emergency service power transformers 480 V/120 V
The shipboard power distribution transformers for IEC application are the
following:
— Ship service power transformers HV /400 V
— Ship service power transformers 400 V/230 V
— Propulsion drive power transformers (voltage rating varies)
— Emergency service power transformers 400 V/230 V
Ampacities for cables (extract)
... Current-carrying capacities should be adjusted as noted to suit the ambient temperature in
which the cable is installed if it differs from 45 °C. Cable ampacities in Table 25 of IEEE Std 45-
2002 [see 19.3.3 of this Handbook] are for single banked installations. Double-banked cables
should be derated in accordance with Note 6 of Table 25.
Conductors should be sized to limit conductor operating temperatures at the termination device
to those designated for the termination devices involved. For listed devices, unless marked with
higher temperature limits, the terminals of devices rated 100 A or less typically are limited to
operating temperatures of 60 °C. Devices rated in excess of 100 A typically are limited to 75 °C.
In selecting circuit conductors, the designer shall assure that the actual conductor temperature
does not exceed the temperature rating of the terminal device. The derating required for motor
488
circuits and continuous loads on devices such as circuit breakers that limits the actual current
allowed in circuit wiring can be considered when determining conductor operating temperature.
Other factors such as ambient temperature within enclosures and the single conductor
configuration of most terminations also can be taken into account when determining the actual
conductor temperatures attainable.
Other segments of the cable run where different thermal conditions exist from those at the
termination point will require separate derating considerations. The lowest ampacity calculated
for any 3-m section in the cable run would determine the cable size.
The ampacities for cable types manufactured and tested in accordance with U.S. Navy military
specifications MIL-C-24643A, MIL-C-24640A, and MIL-DTL-9 15G are to be in accordance
with MIL-HDBK-299. Ampacities at 45 °C are to be determined by dividing the 40 °C
ampacities in MIL-HDBK-299 by the 40 °C factors contained in Note 5 to Table 25 for the
appropriate insulating material. For double-banked installations, the values for U.S. Navy
military specification cables are to be multiplied by 0.8, in accordance with Note 6 to Table 25.

The power is in all larger installations generated as a three-phase voltage, because

— Three-phase distribution systems give a better utilization of the material in the generator itself, interconnecting
cabling, and other distribution equipment and loads.
— Smooth torque in rotating electrical machines, i.e. motors and generators.
— Satisfactory start-up torque with proper design of rotating electrical machines.
— Smoother rectified voltage in static frequency converters.
— A three-phase voltage generator can be regarded as three single-phase voltage sources connected in a common
point called the neutral point.

Electric propulsion is best exploited when applied to specialist ships such as offshore survey
vessels, drilling ships, semi-submersible drilling rigs, tugs, icebreakers, ferries, research vessels
and passenger/cruise vessels. In all cases electric drive justification requires consideration of the
global ship engineering system and operating requirements.

In general the advantages of diesel-electric propulsion can be summarized as follows:

- Lower fuel consumption and emissions due to the possibility to optimize the loading of
diesel engines / gensets. The gensets in operation can run on high loads with high
engine efficiency.
This applies especially to vessels which have a large variation in power demand, for
example for an offshore supply vessel, which divides its time between transit and
station-keeping (DP)operation.
- Better hydrodynamic efficiency of the propeller. Usually Diesel-electric propulsion
plants operate a FP-propeller via a variable speed drive. As the propeller operates
always on design pitch, in low speed sailing its efficiency is increased when running at
lower revolution compared to a constant speed driven CP-propeller. This also
contributes to a lower fuel consumption and less emission for a Diesel-electric
propulsion plant.
- High reliability, due to multiple engine redundancy. Even if an engine / genset
malfunctions, there will be sufficient power to operate the vessel safely. Reduced
vulnerability to single point of failure providing the basis to fulfill high redundancy
requirements.
- Reduced life cycle cost, resulting from lower operational and maintenance costs.
- Improved manoeuvrabilty and station-keeping ability, by deploying special propulsors
such as azimuth thrusters or pods. Precise control of the electrical propulsion motors
controlled by frequency converters enables accurate positioning accuracies.
489
- Increased payload, as diesel-electric propulsion plants take less space compared to a
dieselmechanical plant. Especially engine rooms can be designed shorter.
- More flexibility in location of diesel engine / gensets and propulsors. The propulsors
are supplied with electric power through cables. They do not need to be adjacent to the
diesel engines / gensets.
- Lower propulsion noise and reduced vibrations. For example a slow speed E-motor
allows to avoid the gearbox and propulsors like pods keep most of the structure bore
noise outside of the hull.
- Efficient performance and high motor torques, as the electrical system can provide
maximum torque also at low speeds, which gives advantages for example in icy
conditions.

A typical protection scheme may include the following functions (Example):

Main switchboard:
- Over– and under-voltage
- Earth fault

Alternator:
- Short circuit
- Over-current
- Stator earth fault
- Reverse power
- Phase unbalance, Negative phase sequence
- Differential protection
- Over- and under-frequency
- Over- and under-voltage
- Alternator windings and bearings over-temperature
- Alternator cooling air/water temperature
- Synchronizing check
- Over- and under-excitation (Loss of excitation)

Bus tie feeder:

- Short circuit
- Earth fault
- Synchronizing check
- Differential protection (in ring networks)

Transformer feeder:
- Short circuit
- Over-current
- Earth fault
- Thermal overload/image
- Under-voltage
- Differential protection (for large transformers)

Motor feeder:
- Short circuit
- Over-current
490
- Earth fault
- Under-voltage
- Thermal overload/image
- Motor start: Stalling I2t, number of starts
- Motor windings and bearings over-temperature
- Motor cooling air/water temperature

Derived from the above mentioned main tasks of a power management system the
following functions are typical:
- Automatic load dependent start / stop of gensets / alternators
- Manual starting / stopping of gensets / alternators
- Fault dependent start /stop of standby gensets / alternators in cases of under-
frequency and/or under-voltage.
- Start of gensets / alternators in case of a blackout (Black-start capability)
- Determining and selection of the starting / stopping sequence of gensets / alternators
- Start and supervise the automatic synchronization of alternators and bus tie breakers
- Balanced and unbalanced load application and sharing between gensets / alternators.
Often an emergency program for quickest possible load acceptance is necessary.
- Regulation of the network frequency (with static droop or constant frequency)
- Distribution of active load between alternators
- Distribution of reactive load between alternators
- Handling and blocking of heavy consumers
- Automatic load shedding
- Tripping of non-essential consumers
- Bus tie and breaker monitoring and control

If no operational data are available for container connections, the following values are to
be assumed when calculating the power demand:
20' Reefer container 8.6 kW
40' Reefer container 12.6 kW

Steering Gear
A.1 General
A.1.1 Every ship shall be provided with two as far as possible independent steering gear systems, as
follows:
1 main and 1 auxiliary steering gear
on every tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier of 10000 GT and upwards and in every other ship of 70
000 GT with 1 main steering gear with two or more identical power units
on every passenger ship with 2 main steering gears
Where electrical or electro-hydraulic steering gear is installed, the following Rules are to be observed.
A.1.2 The design of main and auxiliary steering gears shall conform to SOLAS, Chapt. II-1, Part C,
Reg. 29 and 30, and to the GL Rules set out in Machinery Installations (I-1-2), Section 14, A.
A.1.3 The electrical systems of main and auxiliary steering gears shall be so designed that a failure in one
of them shall not affect the operation of the other. This also applies when the main steering gear
comprises two or more identical power units, and an auxiliary steering gear need not therefore be
provided under the SOLAS regulations.
A.1.4 On every tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier greater than 10 000 GT the main steering gear
system shall be so arranged that in the event of loss of steering capability due to a single failure in any
part of the power actuating systems of the main steering gear, excluding the tiller, quadrant or
components serving the same purpose, or seizure of the rudder actuators, steering capability shall be

491
regained in not more than 45 s after the loss of one power actuating system. The isolation of the defect
part of the system shall be done by automatic means.
A.1.5 For increased vibration loads in the steering gear compartment, see Section 1, E.
A.2 Power supply
A.2.1 The power supply to steering gears is also required to comply with the provisions of Section 4, I.
A.2.2 A separate power supply circuit from the main switchboard is to be provided for
each steering gear power unit.
After an electrical power failure, the steering gear power units shall restart automatically
when the power is restored.
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 7 Power Equipment
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 7–2
A.2.3 On ships with a calculated rudderstock of more than 230 mm in diameter (see the
GL Rules for Machinery Installations (I-1-2), Section 14, A.4.1), without ice
strengthening, an alternative power source additional to the main power source is
required, which is capable of supplying the steering gear in such a way that this is able
to perform at least the duties of an auxiliary steering gear. It shall also supply the
steering gear control system, the remote control of the power unit and the rudder-angle
indicator. In addition,
the alternative power source shall be automatically connected within 45 s after a power
failure. This power source may be the emergency generator set, or an independent
power source intended only for this purpose and situated in the steering gear
compartment, and shall maintain operation:
for 10 minutes on ships of up to 10 000 GRT and
for 30 minutes on ships of 10 000 GRT and over.
A.2.4 The system is to be so designed that it is possible, from the bridge or the steering
gear compartment, to put each power unit into operation. Mechanically separated
switches are to be provided for this purpose.
The supply of the bridge remote control for the power units shall be run from the
associated switchgear in the steering gear compartment – same as steering gear
control system – and shall be made for its disconnection without any accessories.
For supplies to the steering gear control systems, see A.6.
A.3 Design of the electric drives
A.3.1 To determine the torque characteristics required for electric motors of power units,
account is to be taken of the breakaway torque and the effective maximum torque of the
steering gear under all operating conditions (see the GL Rules for Machinery
Installations (I-1-2), Section 14, A.4).
A.3.2 The following requirements apply to the modes of operation:
A.3.2.1 Steering gear with intermittent power demand:
S 6 - 25 % for converters and the motors of electro-hydraulic drives
S 3 - 40 % for the motors of electromechanical steering gears
The ratio of pull-out torque to rated torque is to be at least 1.6 in all cases.
A.3.2.2 Steering gear with constant power demand:
S 1 - 100 % continuous service
A.3.3 For the motor design, see Section 20.

A.4 Switchgear
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A.4.1 Each steering gear motor shall have its own separate switchgear. Combined contactor cabinets are
not permitted.
Each steering gear motor shall have an ammeter mounted in the main or emergency switchboard, as
applicable, or in the contactor cabinets.
A.4.2 The remote control systems of the power units and the rudder control shall be capable of being
disconnected or isolated inside the contactor cabinets (e.g. by removal of the fuse-links or switching off
the automatic circuit breakers). These switches or fuses are to be specially marked.
A.5 Protection equipment
A.5.1 The circuits for the control systems and motors of steering gears are to be protected only against
short circuits.
A.5.2 Where fuses are used, their current ratings shall be two steps higher than the rated current of the
motors. However, in the case of intermittent-service motors, the fuse rating shall not exceed 160 % of the
rated motor current.
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 7 Power Equipment
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 7–3
A.5.3 Protection equipment against excess current, including starting current, if provided, is to be required
to be not for less than twice the rated current of the motor so protected. Steering gear motor circuits
obtaining their power supply via an electronic converter and which are limited to full load current are
exempt from above requirement.
A.5.4 The instantaneous short-circuit trip of circuit breakers shall be set to a value not greater than 15
times the rated current of the drive motor.
A.5.5 The protection of control circuits shall correspond to at least twice the maximum rated current of the
circuit, though not, if possible, below 6 A.
A.6 Steering gear control systems
A.6.1 Ships with electrically operated steering gear controls shall have two independent steering gear
control systems. Separated cables and wires are to be provided for these control systems.
A common steering wheel or a common tiller may be used.
A.6.2 If a follow-up (FU) control system and a non-follow-up (NFU) control system are provided, each of
these systems shall be able to operate on each power unit. Switching of the control systems shall be
possible on the bridge.
Where two identical control systems are installed, each control system can be permanently assigned to a
power unit.
If a follow-up control system is installed on the bridge wing, then the follow-up tiller shall be fitted with a
retaining spring to midship position, or a take-over arrangement shall be installed on bridge wings.
A.6.3 Provision shall be made for operating the main and auxiliary steering gear from the bridge and the
steering gear compartment.
A.6.4 The power supplies to the electrical steering gear control systems shall be taken from the power
unit supplies in the steering gear compartment, or from the corresponding power unit feeders in the main
or emergency switchboard (see A.2.4).
A.6.5 The electrical separation from each other of the steering gear control systems shall not be impaired
by the addition of extra systems, such as autopilot systems.
A.6.6 For change-over between different control systems a common control selector switch may be
provided. The circuits of the various control systems shall be arranged electrically and physically
separated.
A.6.7 On ships where an automatic control system like heading- or track control system is installed, an
override facility shall be installed close to the operator unit of the automatic steering system. The Override
facility shall be so designed that self-induced return to automatic control is not possible except where the
heading preselection of the automatic system is automatically kept in line. The switch-over from
automatic-
to manual control by "Override" is to be indicated optically and audibly at the steering position.
The override facility shall be independent of the automatic control system or follow-up control mode.
A.6.8 Different steering modes including steering gear control positions on the bridge wings shall be
changed over by all poles, when it cannot be verified that it is free of reactive effects. Portable steering
consoles are to be connected via plugs with pin coding. It is necessary to ensure that the rudder-angle
indicator can be read within the range of operation of the portable steering console.

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A.6.9 Repeaters and limit switches - if provided - shall be linked electrically and mechanically to the
respective control system and mounted separately to the rudder stock or the adjusting devices.
A.7 Alarms and indicators
A.7.1 Alarms and indicators for steering gears and controls are to be gathered from Table 7.1.
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 7 Power Equipment
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 7–4
A.7.2 Depending on the rudder characteristic, critical deviations between rudder order and response shall
be indicated visually and audibly as actual steering mode failure alarm on the navigating bridge. The
following parameters shall be monitored:
Direction: actual rudder position follows the set value;
Delay: rudder´s actual position reaches set position within defined time limits;
Accuracy: the end actual position shall correspond to the set value within the design offset tolerances.
A.7.3 The alarms/indicators listed in Table 7.1 shall be signalled visually and audibly irrespective from the
automation equipment.
Alarms and indicators on the bridge shall be announced at a position close to main steering station.
A.7.4 In case of fixed relation between control system and power unit the alarms No. 2 and No. 5 of Table
7.1 may be grouped.
A.7.5 The energy supply for the alarms and indicators shall be in accordance with A.2

D.6.3 Auxiliary engines

D.6.3.1 Main generator sets
If several auxiliary engines are started electrically, at least two mutually independent batteries shall be
provided. The use of the main engine starter batteries, if there are any, is permitted.
The capacity of the batteries shall be sufficient for at least three starting operations per engine.
If only one of the auxiliary engines is started electrically, one battery is sufficient.
Emergency generator sets
a) Each emergency generator set that has to be started automatically shall be equipped with a
GLapproved starting device with sufficient power for at least three successive starting operations even at
an ambient temperature of 0 C.
If starting is impossible at this temperature or if lower temperatures are likely to be encountered, heating
shall be provided to ensure starting of the generator sets.
Additionally a second source of energy is to be provided capable of three further starting operations within
30 minutes. This requirement can be cancelled if the set can also be started manually.
b) To guarantee availability of the starting devices it is to be ensured that:
◦ electrical and hydraulic starter systems are supplied from the emergency switchboard
◦ compressed-air starter systems are supplied via a non-return valve from the main and auxiliary
compressed-air or by an emergency air compressor supplied with power via the emergency switchboard
◦ the starting, charging and energy storage equipment is located in the emergency generator room.
These equipment is intended for the operation of emergency generator sets only and shall not be used for
other purposes.
c) If automatic starting is not a requirement, starting equipment which ensures safe manual starting is
permitted, e.g. by hand-crank, spring-powered starter, manual hydraulic or ignition cartridge starter.
d) If a direct start by hand is not possible, starting devices as in a) and b) shall be provided, manual
initiation of the starting process is acceptable.
e) If a second source of starting energy is a mechanical starting facility, an electronical speed governor,
associated protection devices and valves shall have a back-up power supply independent of the first
source of starting energy. This back-up source shall be monitored.
f) If mechanical starting facilities are provided, an electronical speed governor, associated protection
devices and valves shall have two independent back-up power supplies. These back-up sources shall be
monitored.

Measuring equipment and indicators

Main propulsion plants shall be provided with at least the following measuring equipment and indicators at

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control stations:
H.1.1 At a local control station:
ammeter and voltmeter for each supply and each load component
ammeter and voltmeter for each exciter circuit
revolution indicator for each shaft
pitch indicator for plants with variable-pitch propellers
indication of the generators used for propulsion or the reserve power that is still available
on/off pushbuttons for each static converter
on/off signals for each static converter
selected static converter
plant ready for switching on
Rules I Ship Technology
Part 1 Seagoing Ships
Chapter 3 Electrical Installations
Section 13 Additional Rules for Electrical Main Propulsion Plants
Edition 2014 Germanischer Lloyd Page 13–8
plant ready for operation
plant disturbance
control from engine control room
control from the bridge
control from the local control station
reduced power and pushbutton “Overide reduction” or “request for reduction”
System-dependent alarms
H.1.2 At the propulsion main control station in the engine control room:
power meter
revolution indicator for each shaft
pitch indicator for plants with variable-pitch propellers
indication of the generators used for propulsion or the reserve power that is still available
on/off pushbuttons for each static converter
on/off signals for each static converter
plant ready for switching on
plant ready for operation
plant disturbance
reduced power and pushbutton “Overide reduction” or “request for reduction”
control from engine control room
control from the bridge
control from the local control station
indication of the generators used for propulsion
Changeover switch for port, estuary and sea operation
System-dependent alarms
H.1.3 Propulsion main control station on the bridge:
revolution indicator for each shaft
pitch indicator for plants with variable-pitch propellers
load indication of the generators used for propulsion or indication of the available power reserve
on/off pushbuttons for each static converter
on/off signals for each static converter
plant ready for switching on
plant ready for operation
plant disturbance
reduced power and pushbutton “Overide reduction” or “request for reduction”
control from engine control room
control from the bridge
control from the local control

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The main reason why electrification at this voltage had not been used before was the lack of
reliability of mercury-arc-type rectifiers that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the
requirement to use DC series motors, which required the current to be converted from AC to DC
and for that a rectifier is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to
operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in the railway industry.

It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they did not
have an ideal characteristic for traction purposes. This was because control of speed is difficult
without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any
given speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the best choice for traction
purposes, as they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed
characteristic.

In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance three-phase AC

induction motors. The N700 Shinkansen uses a three-level converter to convert 25 kV single-
phase AC to 1,520 V AC (via transformer) to 3,000 V DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with
thyristor) to a maximum 2,300 V three-phase AC (via a variable voltage, variable frequency
inverter using IGBTs with pulse-width modulation) to run the motors. The system works in
reverse for regenerative braking.

The choice of 25 kV was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage
and cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a
higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for
high-voltage equipment. It was found that 25 kV was an optimal point, where a higher voltage
would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs
incurred by the need for greater clearance and larger insulators.

Variations
This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or
discuss this issue on the talk page. (April 2015)

The Indian Traction Power uses a 25 kV autotransformer system to achieve efficiencies greater
than the 25 kV system and yet keeping the cost of installation similar to the 25 kV system.
Supply,[3] in common terms, the supply for the electric trains run by the Indian Rail uses only two
phases of the normal three-phase electric power supply. The usage of the two phases is a special
one, feeding a single phase transformer with the two phases instead of the conventional feeding
of a phase and a neutral. This increases the load that can be delivered. Feeding the two phases at
different feeders will be switched between R-Y, Y-B, R-B, to maintain the overall balance in the
system. This results in a slight imbalance on the three-phase supply locally which may affect
other customers of the Electricity Board but is better off than using a single phase. To an extent,
imbalances can be overcome by installing static VAR compensators[4] or reducing the traction
load when the imbalance becomes unacceptable. The system is not insulated from the
distribution network, like other systems. Older locomotives and the recuperating electrodynamic
brakes on newer locomotives create electrical noise. It is not necessarily practical to filter this
noise from the electricity distribution network, and this has led some countries to prohibit the use
of recuperating brakes.

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The high voltage leads to a requirement for a slightly higher clearance in tunnels and under
overbridges.

To avoid short circuits, the high voltage must be protected from moisture. Weather events, such
as "the wrong type of snow", have caused failures in the past. An example of atmospheric causes
occurred in December 2009, when four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel.

Distribution networks
Electric power from a generating station is transmitted to grid substations using a three-phase
distribution system.

At the grid substation, a step-down transformer is connected across two of the three phases of the
high-voltage supply. The transformer lowers the voltage to 25 kV which is supplied to a railway
feeder station located beside the tracks. SVCs are used for load balancing and voltage control.[5]

In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase
AC transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French TGV.[6]

Standardisation
Railway electrification using 25 kV, 50 Hz AC has become an international standard. There are
two main standards that define the voltages of the system:

 EN 50163:2004 - "Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"[7]

 IEC 60850 - "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"[8]

The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into
account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.

Lowest Highest
Lowest Highest
Electrification non- Nominal non-
permanent permanent
system permanent voltage permanent
voltage voltage
voltage voltage
25,000 V, AC,
17,500 V 19,000 V 25,000 V 27,500 V 29,000 V
50 Hz

This system is now part of the European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability
standards (1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and
2001/16/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").

Electric traction voltages

Q. What are the voltages used for electric traction in India?

Voltages used are 1.5kV DC and 25kV AC for mainline trains.

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Calcutta had an overhead 3kV DC system until the '60s.

The 1.5kV DC overhead system (negative earth, positive catenary) is used around Bombay (This
includes Mumbai CST - Kalyan, Kalyan - Pune, Kalyan - Igatpuri, Mumbai CST - Belapur -
Panvel, and Churchgate - Virar). There are plans [2/04] to change this to 25kV AC by 2010. In
preparation for this, BHEL has been retrofitting some Alstom EMUs with AC drives to allow
them to operate with both DC and AC traction as the system conversion proceeds (see the section
on EMUs). Conversion to 25kV AC has already been done on the Titwala-Kasara section; next
to be converted are Khapoli-Vangani, Vangani-Thane, and Titwala-Thane. The Madras suburban
routes (Madras-Tambaram in the '60s, extended later to Villupuram) used to be 1.5kV DC until
about 1967, when it was converted to 25kV AC (all overhead catenary supply). (This is where
the MG DC locos were used, e.g., the YCG-1 series.)

The 25kV AC system with overhead supply from a catenary is used throughout the rest of the
country. The WCAM series of locomotives are designed to operate with both DC and AC
traction as they move towards or away from the Bombay DC section. The new [2003] AC-DC
EMU rakes used in Mumbai are also designed to operate with both DC and AC traction as the
Bombay area switches over to the 25kV AC system. Read more about Mumbai area
electrification.

The Calcutta Metro uses 750V DC traction with a third-rail mechanism for delivering the
electricity to the EMUs.

The Calcutta trams use 550V DC with an overhead catenary system with underground return
conductors. The catenary is at a negative potential.

The Delhi Metro uses 25kV AC overhead traction with a catenary system on the ground-level
and elevated routes, and uses a rather unusual 'rigid catenary' or overhead power rail in the
underground tunnel sections (Line 2).

History of electrification
Q. What's the history of electric traction in India?

The first electric train ran between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla along the Harbour
Line of CR, on February 3, 1925, a distance of 9.5 miles. In 1926, Thana and Mahim were
connected. In 1927, electrification was complete up to Kalyan. In 1928, Borivili in the north was
connected (Colaba-Borivili of WR being inaugurated on May 1). In 1929, Kalyan - Igatpuri
section was commissioned. In 1930, the Kalyan - Poona tracks were opened to electric trains.

Was Mumbai's the first electric service in Asia?

It is sometimes stated that the electric train in 1925 was Asia's first electric, or electric suburban,
train service. This is however not true, because electric services were running in Japan since Jan.
31, 1895, on the Kyoto Electric Railway (officially listed under 'Exploitation Department', Kyoto
Municipality, in the annual reports of the Government of Japan's Department of Railways), but
this is sometimes classified as a tramway instead of a light rail system. (Interestingly, this was
also the year that the first Japanese steam locomotive was manufactured.) Electric railcar

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services ran on the Government Railways of Japan from about 1905, and (German-built) electric
locomotives were introduced in Japan in 1911. In 1919 the first the first entirely Japanese electric
locomotive was built (a class ED-40). In Indonesia, the first electrified section (1500V DC) of
the State Railways opened at Batavia (Jakarta) in 1925, the same year as in Bombay.

On November 15, 1931, electrification of the meter gauge track between Madras Beach and
Tambaram was inaugurated (1.5kV DC). After that the only electrification project undertaken
was Borivili - Virar, finished in 1936. For mainline traffic, GIPR undertook electrification of the
Karjat-Pune and Kasara-Igatpuri sections because it was realized that the heavy traffic to and
from Bombay would be suitable for electric haulage.

Following this there was a long gap, and the next electrification project started only 1953 or
1954, in the Calcutta area (Howrah-Burdwan via Bandel, Sheoraphulli-Tarakeshwar), using 3kV
DC traction. At this time, the idea of mainline electrification (Howrah-Mughalsarai) was
seriously mooted. Support for 25kV AC traction was also growing at about this time, especially
after some trials of AC locos from SNCF, and studies that concluded that the single-phase load
from electric traction would not seriously unbalance the 3-phase regional grids.

So the Calcutta area electrification was done keeping in mind the eventual migration to 25kV AC
system, in terms of the technical requirements (insulator specifications, etc.). The first 25kV AC
electrified section was Burdwan-Mughalsarai, completed in 1957, followed by the Tatanagar-
Rourkela section on the Howrah-Bombay route. The first actual train run (apart from trial runs)
using 25kV AC was on December 15, 1959, on the Kendposi-Rajkharswan section (SER).
Howrah-Gaya was electrified by about 1960. Electrification till Kanpur on the Howrah-Delhi
route was done by about 1972, and the entire Howrah-Delhi route was electrified on August 5,
1976. The Bombay-Delhi route was electrified by February 1, 1988.

Through the 1960s and early 1970s numerous studies were commissioned to investigate the
question of which of diesel or electric traction was really more economical and better in the long
run for IR. Most of these leaned towards electrification, especially for high-traffic sections. The
rise in oil prices in the mid-1970s tilted the argument further in favour of electric traction as
electricity generation in most of India is hydroelectric or coal-based.

India took the plunge from DC to AC electric traction in the mid-1950s, as mentioned above.
Since French developments led the field, the AC locomotives supplied at first (from SNCF)
followed that country's practice, whether built in India or France. These were the eight-wheeled
WAM-1 locomotives that are still in operation in some places.

The first train to be hauled by an electric locomotive from Delhi Jn. was the Assam Mail.

Bombay-Delhi (WR) route was fully electrified by Dec. 1987. The CR route was fully electrified
by June 1990, when the Bhusaval - Itarsi section was electrified.

The 2 * 25kV AC system (see below) began to be put in place in the 1990s; the first regular
service using this system was between Bina and Katni (CR) on January 16, 1995. This was later
extended to Bishrampur.

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[12/04] With the BG conversion between Tambaram and Madras Beach complete, the only
electrified MG line on IR is the Tambaram - Villupuram stretch. However, no train uses electric
traction (the YAM 1 locomotives used to service this section have been dismantled). Madras
Beach - Tambaram was originally on 1.5kV DC electrification but was converted around 1968 to
the 25kV AC system.

After a period of about 25 years of aggressive electrification, now [12/04] IR has most of the
busy routes of its network electrified (although not all), and this has resulted in about 65% of the
traffic being hauled by electric traction. Recently [12/04], therefore, IR has decided to slow
down the pace of electrification -- about 2600km of routes are scheduled to be electrified in the
next 10 years, compared to 5100km in the past 10 years. The focus will be on consolidating
electric traction for the busiest sections; some of the sections that will be converted to electric
traction in the next few years are Pune-Guntakal, Bina-Kota, and many 'B' sections of NR.

See also CORE's chronology of IR electrification.

Three phase locomotives

Q. How do the new 3-phase AC locos (WAP-5, etc.) work, and how do they compare with
the earlier locos?

Three-phase AC locos such as WAP-5 use some fairly new technology as compared to the earlier
generations of diesel-electrics and electrics. In most of the earlier locos, the traction motors
driving the axles are DC motors. DC motors were used because they afforded (in those days) far
superior speed and torque control compared to AC motors — the latter require variation of input
frequency and voltage for effective control, which was not an easy matter earlier.

Modern microprocessor technology and the availability of efficient and compact power
components have changed that picture. In 3-phase AC locos, the input (single-phase AC) from
the OHE is rectified and then 3-phase AC is generated from it, whose voltage, phase, and
frequency can be manipulated widely, without regard to the voltage, phase, frequency of the
input power from the OHE. AC traction motors can thus be driven with a great degree of control
over a wide range of speed and torque.

AC traction motors are also used on diesel-electrics nowadays. The WDP4 & WDG4 are
examples of this.

Details: There are 3 main stages in the power circuit of a 3-phase AC loco.

Input Converter : This rectifies the AC from the catenary to a specified DC voltage using GTO
(gate turn-off) thyristors. A transformer section steps down the voltage from the 25kV input. It
has filters and circuitry to provide a fairly smooth (ripple-free) and stable DC output, at the same
time attempting to ensure that a good power factor presented to the electric supply. There may
also be additional mechanisms such as transformers, inductors, or capacitor assemblies to
improve the power factor further.

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The transformer section is designed with high leakage impedance and other characteristics,
which together with the fine control possible with the GTO switching, allow the loco to present
nearly unity power factor, a very desirable situation from the point of view of the electricity
suppliers (the grid). The main transformer also has some filter windings which are designed to
further attenuate harmonics from the loco's traction motors which may pass through the filtering
in the DC link.

The input converters can be configured to present different power factors (lagging or leading) to
the power supply, as desired. IR's WAP-5 and other 3-phase AC locos are generally configured
to present a unity power factor (UPF). (Note: the power factor cannot be changed on the run.)

DC Link : This is essentially a bank of capacitors and inductors, or active filter circuitry, to
further smooth the DC from the previous stage, and also to trap harmonics generated by the drive
converter and traction motors. Since the traction motors and drive converters present non-linear
loads, they generate reactive power in the form of undesirable harmonics; the DC link acts as a
reservoir for the reactive power so that the OHE supply itself is not affected.

During regenerative braking this section also has to transfer power back to the input converter to
be fed back to the catenary. The capacitor bank in this section can also provide a small amount of
reserve power in transient situations (e.g., pantograph bounce) if needed by the traction motors.

Drive Converter : This is basically an inverter which consists of three thyristor-based

components that switch on and off at precise times under the control of a microprocessor (pulse-
width modulation). The three components produce 3 phases of AC (120 degrees out of phase
with one another). Additional circuitry shapes the waveforms so that they are suitable for feeding
to the traction motors. The microprocessor controller can vary the switching of the thyristors and
thereby produce AC of a wide range of frequencies and voltages and at any phase relationship
with respect to the traction motors. Various kinds of thyristor devices are used to perform the
switching.

Currently produced modern locos generally use GTO thyristors (Gate Turn-Off thyristors), but it
is expected that soon insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which offer extremely high
switching speeds allowing for finer control over the waveforms generated, will be the switching
technology of choice. The WAP-5, WAP-7, WAG-9, and WAG-9H models all use GTOs. At
present [5/02], no Indian loco uses IGBTs; some trial locos such as the 12X from Adtranz do use
this technology, as do many light-rail and metro locomotives or EMUs around the world. [5/02]
The new AC-DC EMUs in the Mumbai area (introduced on WR) use IGBTs.

The 3-phase AC is fed to the AC traction motors, which are induction motors. As the voltage and
the frequency can be modified easily, the motors can be driven with fine control over their speed
and torque. By making the slip frequency of the motors negative (i.e., generated AC is 'behind'
the rotors of the motors), the motors act as generators and feed energy back to the OHE — this is
how regenerative braking is performed. There are various modes of operation of the motors,
including constant torque and constant power modes, balancing speed mode, etc. depending on
whether their input voltage is changed, or the input frequency, or both.

AC motors have numerous advantages over DC motors. DC motors use commutators which are
prone to failure because of vibration and shock, and which also result in a lot of sparking and
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corrosion. Induction AC motors do not use commutators at all. It is hard to use a DC motor for
regenerative braking, and the extra switchgear for this adds to the bulk and complexity of the
loco. AC motors can fairly easily be used to generate power during regenerative braking. In
addition, DC motors tend to draw power from the OHE poorly, with a bad power factor and
injecting a lot of undesirable harmonics into the power system. AC motors suffer less from these
problems, and in addition have the advantage of a simpler construction.

Neutral zones / dead zones / phase gaps

Q. How are phase breaks (AC) or power gaps (DC) handled by the locomotives?

The catenary has breaks or gaps in its electrical continuity every once in a while at points where
successive sections are connected to different substations. A neutral section of catenary is usually
provided between the two live sections of different phases or connected to different substations.
At such points, single locomotives do not drop their pantographs, although on-board equipment
such as the traction motors, compressors, blowers, etc. are switched off manually by the driver
before the neutral section is entered. The main circuit breaker (DJ) is also opened. (Warning
boards at 500m and 250m before the neutral section are provided for this purpose). (Earlier,
locos used to routinely drop their pantographs for all neutral sections; this is no longer standard
practice.)

In the case of multiple unit operation, however, pantographs are usually dropped on all the
lashed-up locomotives, to avoid the possibility of short-circuiting adjacent sections of the
catenary. (The possibility is remote, as normally there is no power flow between lashed-up units,
hence the pantographs may not always be dropped, depending on the particular operational
procedures of a division.)

Q. Why is the neutral section provided with a dummy (neutral or electrically dead) cable?
Why can't it be a real gap?

Pantographs of electric locomotives have a spring mechanism or compressed-air assembly that

keeps the pantograph pushing up against the contact wire with a certain specific pressure. If the
neutral section were not wired and the contact wire simply ceased to exist, then then possibility
exists that if the driver has not dropped the pantographs at the time the loco reaches the neutral
section, then the pantograph will suddenly rise upwards unchecked; when the loco reaches the
other end of the neutral zone, it is then likely to smash into the catenary where the next contact
wire section begins. It should be noted that in practice, at neutral sections where it is or was a
requirement to drop the pantographs, it has been observed that IR crews almost never forget to
do so. But now with more locos and neutral sections coming up which do not require the
pantograph to be dropped, this does become a concern.

Q. How are DC locos swapped for AC locos at the point where traction power changes
from DC to AC?

Today [3/05] while the the Mumbai area is still mostly at 1.5kV DC, there are a couple of
important AC-DC transition points such as Igatpuri -- [2/06] now Kasara -- and Virar. In time,
when 25kV AC becomes the norm and DC traction is decommissioned, these transitions will be

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history and there will be no more traction changeovers! Sad for railfans, but perhaps more
efficient for IR. Already, CR has recently [2/06] switched the Kasara - Igatpuri section to 25kV
AC.

This is what used to happen at Igatpuri for a DC-AC change. The catenary connected to the DC
power supply does not reach all the way to the catenary connected to the AC power supply; there
is a neutral section between them.

------------||------------|| ||------------||------------
||------------||------------||------------||

DC Section <-------------- Neutral Section -------------> AC

Section

The catenary spanning the neutral section overlaps with both the DC and AC catenary sections as
indicated above. This cable can be connected to either the DC or the AC power supply. Before
the arrival of the DC loco, this section is connected to the DC supply. Once the loco gets
detached and goes off the main line (a DC branch loop is provided for this purpose from the last
DC section), the cable spanning the neutral section is switched over to the AC power supply and
energized, so that the AC loco can now come in. Before entering neutral sections, electric locos
often switch off power temporarily to the traction motors so as to prevent any transient
disturbances and sparking.

Because the neutral section is switched between AC and DC supply, it is also known as the
dynamic neutral section or the switched neutral section.

This is a different arrangement for DC/AC changeover than at a point like Virar (see below).

Also see the article on Mumbai area electrification.

Q. How do the AC-DC locos (WCAM series) switch from one power source to another on
the run?

At DC/AC changeover points as on the Virar-Vaitarna section, WCAM locos can switch from
one power source to another without stopping.

The WCAM-1 has a selector on the rightmost side of horizontal control panel for selecting the
pantograph. It has four positions, DC, AC, DC-ALT and AC-ALT. In DC and AC-ALT mode,
pantograph with two collector shoes is raised; in AC and DC-ALT, pantograph with one
collector shoe is raised. The DC pantograph has two shoes and is thicker in its contact area
than the AC pantograph because it has to carry a larger current corresponding to the
lower voltage.

The ALT positions allow the DC pantograph to be used for AC traction or the AC pantograph to
be used for DC traction, in case of damage to one or the other pantograph. I.e., the pantograph
itself does not control whether the DC or AC circuitry is in use; the selector switch controls
this. In real life, the driver rarely gets a chance to see which pantograph is up; all he knows is the
position of selector switch. Sometimes when a damaged pantograph is replaced, a pantograph of
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a different kind (one shoe instead of two) may be installed; the loco still works, although perhaps
suboptimally.

About the only time the driver must raise or lower the pantographs when the locomotive is in
motion is at the AC-DC changeover point a little north of Virar on the Virar-Vaitarna section --
at a 'dead zone' or neutral section where there is a length of overhead catenary with no electricity
supplied to it, between the AC and DC catenaries. This usually extends for a length of about two
or three catenary sections. About a kilometer before this dead zone, a sign alerts driver with a
'1000 meters' warning followed by another for '500 meters' and then a sign saying 'Dead Zone'.

Going from Mumbai towards Dahanu, the driver shuts most of the equipment in the loco off (air
compressor charged, traction motors cut off, motor generator switched off, etc.), then lowers the
DC pantograph and just waits while the loco coasts without power through the dead zone, until
the AC section of the catenary is reached. At this point, he raises the AC pantograph. After about
30 seconds, the voltmeter shows 25 kV and he restarts the traction and other equipment.

Note that this arrangement of the catenary is different from that at Igatpuri (see above for DC/AC
loco switchover). There, all locos have to stop and wait for the line voltage to be switched on in
the intermediate neutral section.

Just before the dead zone, there is also a sign, 'Open DS for speeds below 40km/h'. The 'DS' is
the main Disconnecting Switch, a manually operated circuit breaker in the DC supply path from
the pantograph, that isolates and grounds the 1.5kV DC downstream circuits from the 25kV
supply. If the speed is below 40km/h, the driver needs to keep on accelerating until the very last
moment and then throw this switch to isolate the DC circuits on the fly.

This tricky manoeuvre is necessary when the speed is that low, because of the danger of losing
momentum and stopping in the dead zone without power in case of any adverse conditions like
emergency brake application, or brake pipe parting, etc. (The dead zone is one length of catenary
and considering the cross-over structures on the DC and AC sides it is nearly two lengths, hence
the loco and train have to have enough momentum for the loco to get across this distance).

Q. What happens if the wrong selection has been made at the wrong time?

Not all IR locos have protection against incorrect line supplies, and the loco can be severely
damaged in such cases.

In some cases, this will blow a fusible link located near pantograph, and the driver will have to
raise the appropriate ALT pantograph to continue. No further damage is possible because the
only equipment that is live when pantograph is being raised is the voltmeter. All others like the
compressor, exhauster, and motor-generator have to be switched on manually after the
pantograph is raised and the voltmeter shows the correct reading.

Q. What happens if the pantograph isn't lowered when the loco enters the dead zone?

Usually there is no problem, if the master circuit breaker of the loco has been switched off. In
most cases of neutral sections, therefore, the driver does not have to lower the pantograph. If a
live loco enters this section without its master circuit breaker turned off, then there is a
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possibility of sparking or transient disturbances, which can trip protective circuits in the loco and
bring the train to a halt. (Rarely, it may trip breakers for the OHE and bring all the traffic to a
halt.) Regardless of this, and whether or not the pantograph is lowered, once the loco enters the
dead zone it loses power and will grind to a halt once it loses its momentum, if it cannot coast all
the way to the next live section.

Q. When does the driver have to lower and raise a pantograph on the run?

Normally, pantographs do not have to be lowered and raised on the run. The principal exception
is the case of the AC-DC switchover by the WCAM series locos as described above. Other than
that, there are a few points where the catenary has a gap (no cable physically present, not even a
neutral or dead section), for instance at level crossings where there is provision for extra-tall road
traffic, in which case the pantograph has to be lowered as the loco coasts through the gap. The
catenary may also be missing for short sections above diamond crossings or complex track
configurations. Also, pantographs may be lowered and raised occasionally for troubleshooting if
the driver suspects a problem.

In the AC sections, when the phase of the overhead cable's power supply changes (at the 'phase
breaks') the pantograph need not be lowered and raised at the dead zone. This happens in many
places, e.g., a couple of times on the Virar-Surat, Surat-Baroda routes. Usually the driver will
switch off and switch on the equipment in the loco in order to prevent transient effects from
damaging the equipment.

Q. Why do locos sometimes use the rear pantograph and sometimes the front pantograph?

There is in principle no difference between using the front and the rear pantographs for most
locos as each is fully capable of delivering the required electric current from the catenary to the
loco. (The AC-DC locos are special in that each loco is intended for a different traction supply.)
Generally on IR there is no need for both pantographs to be raised at once since there are usually
no unusual situations such as frost on the catenary or increased current collection requirements
seen with other countries' railways.

Yet, it is often seen that there are some definite patterns in pantograph usage. It has been the
practice in many areas for locos to always have their rear pantographs up. It is thought that this
practice arises from the idea that entanglement of the catenary by the front pantograph may result
in damage to the rear pantograph as well as the debris or broken equipment lands on it, and using
the rear pantograph lessens the chance of this. However, in recent years, this does not seem to
have been adhered to very much. Another pattern that has been seen, especially in northern India,
is for the front pantograph to be used extensively in the winter, but not in the warmer months. As
a variation of this, it is also known that in certain divisions or zones, orders have been issued for
drivers to use the rear pantographs at night. While the reasons for these usage patterns are not
entirely clear, it is thought that there is a concern about condensation and the accumulation of
dew on the catenary. An adequate technical explanation for the pantograph usage pattern is not
known at this time [1/07]. (Please note - theories about falling water from dew on the catenary
causing short circuits in loco equipment are implausible considering that locos operate just fine
in heavy rain.) It has been suggested that front pantograph use may be a historical vestige from
British practice carried over from conditions in the UK where sometimes the front pantograph

505
was raised to scrape ice from the catenary and allow the rear pantograph to collect current fully,
but this has not been substantiated either.

Electrical safety
a. General. All operating must be familiar with the following general safety precautions.
(1) Do not rely on safety devices. Never assume power is off or disconnected. Use and/or look
for a safety clearance tag before working on high voltage equipment.
(2) Use rubber gloves, with valid “usefulness” certification, when working on equipment or
transmission lines.
(3) Stand on good rubber mat when working on generator equipment or switchgear.
(4) Have a person qualified in first aid for electrical shock present at all times when working.
b. Rescue of shock victims.
(1) Protect yourself with dry insulating material.
(2) Open the circuit, wear rubber gloves to pull the victim away from the live conductor. Do not
touch the victim with bare hands until the circuit is open.
c. First aid. Look for hemorrhage, stoppage of breathing, wounds, fractures, etc. Indications of
shock include: pale face, clammy and sweaty conditions, weakness, and a weak and rapid pulse.
Do the following in any emergency.
(1) Send for a doctor or carry the victim to a doctor.
(2) Make sure the victim is comfortable. Keep the victim warm, quiet, and flat on the back.
(3) Loosen the victim’s clothing. If breathing has stopped, apply artificial resuscitation. Study the
procedures in TM 5-682, Section VIII. Do not wait until an emergency requiring aid occurs,
know what to do.
(4) Treat serious bleeding and stoppage of in that order before anything else is done.
Continue artificial resuscitation until the doctor arrives.
(5) Feel for the patient’s pulse. Failure to find a pulse does not indicate death. Immediately begin

9-1.4.1 Protective Devices. Protective devices within the system, such as relays and fuses, must
retain, respectively, their correct coordination settings or be of the proper size and type. Always
record previous data so that unintended changes in system coordination are not made.
9-1.4.2 Alarms. System alarms, if blocked during maintenance, must be returned to their correct
operating condition at the completion of the maintenance.
9-1.4.3 Interlocking. Interlocking is used to maintain proper electrical operation in the case of a
circuit loss or switching change. Interlocking provisions must be fully understood so to eliminate
the danger of electrical feedback from another source, possible paralleling of two
unsynchronized sources, or other unsafe operations.
9-1.5 Abnormal Conditions. Maintenance accomplished after the occurrence of fault conditions
that interrupted normal service imposes higher than usual maintenance risks. Faulty energized
equipment and lines must always be deenergized before any work is done. All abnormal
operating equipment and electrical components must be deenergized and tagged.
9-1.6 Defective Equipment. Electrical apparatus found to be in a dangerous condition or not
working properly must be removed from service immediately and tagged. Subsequently, a
complete report on the defective equipment must be provided by the worker to the authorized
individual-in-charge, the same day if feasible.
9-1.6.1 Defective equipment removed from service, such as: distribution, potential, and current
transformers; capacitors; and surge (lightning) arresters must positively be identified by an
authorized individual before they are put in storage. Existing defective equipment in storage or at
any other location must also be clearly identifiable.
506
9-1.6.2 Identify defective equipment by painting a large red “X” on the body (not on the top) of
the equipment. The red X must remain on such equipment until it has been repaired or until it has
been properly disposed of. Local policy may dictate use of their preferred defective equipment
identification marking.
9-1.6.3 It must be considered a serious neglect of duty, and willful disobedience of instructions
for a worker to deface in any way the identification marking on defective equipment or to place
such equipment in service while so identified. The worker in charge of repairing any piece of
defective equipment must be the only person authorized to remove the defective markings, and
then only after all repairs have been made and the equipment has passed all required testing.
9-2 SWITCHING. Opening or shutting a power switch can expose the electrical worker to some
degree of hazard. A mishap might occur if a switch is closed when a fault is still present on the
line. To prevent a mishap, the authorized individual must prepare a switching sequence and
identify all load isolation requirements. All switches operated in the switching sequence must be
correctly identified. The electrical worker will review the manufacturer’s operation manual for
any switch that is unfamiliar, and all safety steps listed in the operation manual will be
accomplished before opening or closing the switch.
WARNING
Switches can fail during switching operations, creating arc flash hazards.
Wear arc rated clothing and/or switching suits during these operations in accordance with
Chapter 4 requirements.

9-2.1 Air Switches. Many air switches cannot be opened if there is a load on the line, a large
magnetizing current from a transformer, or a heavy charging current from an unloaded
transmission line. Be sure to know the interrupting capabilities of each switch being operated.
9-2.1.1 Disconnect Switches. Disconnect switches of the non-load break-type must not be used
to interrupt loads and magnetizing currents, unless an engineering review has determined the
disconnect switch can safely interrupt the actual current. Switch sticks will be used when
necessary to provide the minimum working and clear hot stick distances. Assume disconnect
switches are of the non-load break-type unless you have positive proof otherwise. Operate non-
load break-type switches on the following basis:
9-2.1.1.1 Disconnect switches can be used to open a live line when not under load.
9-2.1.1.2 Disconnect switches can be used to open sections of deenergized lines where these
lines parallel other high-voltage lines. Use caution because induced voltages can build up in the
deenergized line and create dangerous switching conditions.
9-2.1.1.3 Evaluate the hazard before using disconnect switches to open a tie line or to break two
parallel high-voltage lines.
9-2.1.2 Airbreak Switches. Gang-operated airbreak switches equipped with arcing horns may be
rated for load-break operation, or they may only be rated for interrupting the magnetizing current
of transformers or the charging current of lines, or to make and break line parallels. Provide
ground mats for the operator to stand on for all substation airbreak switches when operating.
Either fixed or portable small iron-mesh mats must be used. The mats must be electrically
connected to the operating rod and the substation ground grid to equalize the ground gradient and
prevent any potential differences in case of insulation failure or flashover. Appropriate arc flash
rated personal protective equipment, rubber gloves, and hotsticks must be used when operating
airbreak switches.
9-2.1.2.1 The hinges of airbreak switches must be sufficiently stiff (and kept in this condition) so
that after the blades have been turned into the open position they will not accidentally fall back
on their line-side energized clips.
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9-2.1.2.2 The switch must be inspected after it has been opened to see that all blades have
opened the proper distance. Single-throw airbreak switches must be opened to the maximum
amount. Double-throw airbreak switches must be opened so that the blades clear both sides of
the switch by the same amount.
9-2.1.2.3 Install locks on all airbreak switch-operating mechanisms. Airbreak switches will be
kept locked except when opening or shutting the switch.
9-2.1.3 Interrupter Switches. Interrupter switches are designed to be opened under load. Metal-
enclosed interrupter switches have sometimes been used in place of circuit breakers as a more
economical switching method.
9-2.1.4 Inching. The method of opening manually operated non-load break-type disconnects in a
gradual manner is called inching, when the operator believes there is no load current. If a small
arc occurs from the charging current, it has been assumed that a cautious opening would allow
the arc to be broken; however, inching is dangerous and is prohibited.
9-2.2 Oil Switches. The consequences of operating a faulty oil switch, or closing into a faulted
circuit with an oil switch are likely to be catastrophic and, often fatal.
Switching procedures will be used to make sure that no energized oil switch is operated while
workers are in the vicinity. Unless the switch has been equipped for remote operation (at least 20
ft (6 m)) away, the switch must be completely deenergized by an upstream device before
switching. The switch must be locked out and tagged out before allowing maintenance. In
addition, no energized high-voltage oil switch must be operated unless routine maintenance has
been performed within the past year. The switch must be deenergized at the nearest upstream
device following the lockout/tagout procedures of Chapter 6. Once maintenance has been
performed on the switch, the switch shall be considered operational following the guidelines of
this paragraph. Oil switches must incorporate a mechanical stop to prevent inadvertent operation
to ground. Any abnormalities or defects discovered in any oil switch must be reported to an
authorized individual.
9-2.3 SF6 Switches. Follow all precautions specified by the manufacturer. Inspect the switch
before operating it for any signs of degradation, such as low SF6 pressure or signs of SF6
leakage (accumulation of powder around seals). Verify that the SF6 pressure gauge is in the
green zone before operating the switch; operating a switch with low SF6 pressure can result in
internal flashovers that will damage the equipment and cause personal injury. Before energizing
the switchgear for first use, verify that the shipping caps on all bushings and bushing wells have
been replaced with elbows or insulated protective covers or plugs. The switchgear must be
deenergized and grounded prior to conducting any maintenance, SF6 sampling, or SF6 filling
procedures.
9-2.4 Oil-Filled Vacuum Switches. Follow all precautions specified by the manufacturer.
Inspect the switch before operating it for any signs of degradation, such as oil leakage; operating
a switch without oil can result in internal flashovers that will damage the equipment and cause
personal injury. Before energizing the switchgear for first use, verify that the shipping caps on all
bushings and bushing wells have been replaced with elbows or insulated protective covers or
plugs. The switchgear must be deenergized and grounded prior to conducting any maintenance,
oil sampling, or oil filling procedures.
9-3 FUSES.
WARNING
Fuses might fail during handling if energized, creating arc flash hazards.
Wear arc rated clothing or switching suits when changing energized fuses in accordance with
Chapter 4 requirements. 9-3.1 Characteristics. A fuse is a single-phase device. Fuses can be

508
subject to partial melting or damage by currents that might not have been of sufficient magnitude
to blow the fuse.
9-3.2 Fuse Handling. Fuses must normally not be handled, except when they need to be
replaced. Pull them briskly, and remove completely. Use safety glasses and face shields when
replacing fuses in primary fuse cutouts, do not use your free arm in an attempt to shield your
eyes from possible flashes. The worker changing the fuses must stand firmly on a level surface.
Where operating in an elevated position, the worker will be secured with a safety lanyard/harness
to prevent a slip and fall if there is a flash. Fuse sticks must be used in all instances. Whenever
possible, deenergize the circuit before removing a fuse.
9-3.3 Operation of Energized Fuses. Open all lines protected with energized fuses in the same
manner as for air switches. Deenergize non-load-break type installations. For load-break
installations, wait for a short time after fuse replacement in order to allow the fuse to interrupt
any fault condition that might remain prior to the fuse replacement.
9-3.4 Open Fuse Holder. Do not leave outdoor fuse holders open for an extended period of
time. Water damage/moisture or warping could make closing them dangerous, or degrade their
protective ability.
9-3.5 Closed-Position Fuse Locking. Follow the fuse or switch manufacturer’s instructions, as
appropriate, to be sure that the fuse is securely locked, latched, and held fast in a closed position.
9-3.6 Bypassing. Do not bridge fuses or fuse cutouts internally. Where it is necessary to bypass
fused conductors, use plainly visible external jumpers and remove them as soon as possible.

G.3.2 SF6 switchgear

G.3.2.1 SF6 switchgear shall only be installed in spaces which are adequately ventilated. An exhaust fan
shall be provided. It shall be ensured that SF6 is prevented from flowing down to lower spaces.
Note
It shall be taken into consideration that the coming out gases in case of accidental arcing have toxic and
corrosive effects.
G.3.2.2 The SF6 cylinders shall be stored in a separate space with its own venting arrangements.
Measures shall be taken to ensure that, in the event of leakage, no gas can flow unnoticed into any lower
spaces.
G.3.3 Standing surface insulation
G.3.3.1 In front of switchboards a standing surface insulation shall be provided.
G.3.3.2 The insulation shall be done by a suitable insulating matting (e.g. according IEC publication
61111).
G.3.3.3 It shall be impossible to touch the front of the switchboard from outside of this insulating matting.
G.3.4 Auxiliaries for main switchboards
Auxiliaries necessary for the operation of the main switchboard have to be installed so that their function
is only affected by fire or other incidents within the same compartment.
G.4 Liquid cooled transformers
G.4.1 Liquid cooled transformers shall be provided with a collecting arrangement which permits the
proper disposal of the liquid.
G.4.2 A fire detector and a suitable fire extinguishing system shall be installed in the vicinity of the
transformer.
G.5 Ship service transformers
Ship service transformers with a degree of protection lower than the minimum required degree of
protection according to Section 8, Table 8.3 shall be installed in separate compartments.
G.6 Safety equipment
At least the following safety equipment has to be provided for medium-voltage facilities:
a voltage detector suitable for the rated voltage of the equipment
a sufficient number of earthing cables according to IEC publication 61230, including insulated fitting
tools
an insulating matting (mat for repair / maintenance)
a sufficient number of warning labels "Do not switch"

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safety instructions for gas insulated switchboards
G.7 Marking
All parts of medium-voltage installations are to be fitted with permanent warning labels drawing attention
to the voltage level and the danger.
If no operational data are available for container connections, the following values are to be assumed
when calculating the power demand:
20' Reefer container 8.6 kW
40' Reefer container 12.6 kW
For unrestricted operation of refrigerated containers and to consider all kind of reefer cargoes and
operation conditions (e.g. fruit cargo and cooling down) the diversity factor 0.9 is defined.
For certain cargoes and operation conditions (e.g. deep-frozen cargo, mixed cargo) lower values could be
necessary and accepted.
The power demand for the cargo holds ventilation is to be considered.

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