ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

(MECHANICAL DESIGN ENGINEERING STREAM)

FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF BIDIRECTIONAL WOVEN GLASS FIBER

REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITE MATERIAL WITH DIFFERENT
FIBER ORIENTATION

A MASTERS THESIS SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

OF ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF MASTERS OF
SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL DESIGN ENGINEERING STREAM

MAIN ADVISOR: DANIEL T.(Dr.)

CO ADVISOR: MULUGETA H. (PhD CANDIDATE)

DONE BY: ALEMSEGED MOREDA

July 2019
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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 FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF WOVEN GLASS FIBER REINFORCED
EPOXY COMPOSITE MATERIAL WITH DIFFERENT FIBER
ORIENTATION

A MASTERS THESIS SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

OF ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF MASTERS OF
SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL DESIGN ENGINEERING STREAM

MAIN ADVISOR: DANIEL T.(Dr.)

CO ADVISOR: MULUGETA H. (PhD CANDIDATE)
DONE BY: ALEMSEGED MOREDA

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

(MECHANICAL DESIGN ENGINEERING STREAM)

July 2019
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Alemseged Moreda, entitled: fracture behavior of
woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite material with different fiber orientation and
submitted in partial fulfillments of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science
(Mechanical and Industrial Engineering) complies with the regulations of the University and
meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.

Signed by the Examining committee:

Behailu (PhD candidate) _______________ _______________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Dr. Samuel (Dr.) ________________ _______________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

DR Daniel T. _______________ _______________

Advisor Signature Date

Mr. Mulugeta H. (PhD candidate) _______________ _____________

Co - advisor Signature Date

Dr. Yilma _______________ _______________

School Dean signature Date

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Declaration
I, the under signed declare that this thesis work is my original work and has not
been presented for a degree in any other university, and that all sources of material
are duly acknowledged.

Alemseged Moreda _________________ ________________

Student Signature Date

This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Dr. Daniel Tilahun (PhD) ________________ ________________

Advisor Signature Date

Mr. Mulugeta H. (PhD candidate) ________________ _______________

Co - advisor Signature Date

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Acknowledgment
First, I would like to thank God for giving me endurance for the completion of this thesis. I
would like to express my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to my advisors Dr. Daniel T and
Mr. Mulugeta H. for their encouragement and helpful guidance throughout the course of this
thesis work. Without their guidance and support, this work would have been impossible. They
inspired and encouraged me to work on this project. Their supervision, advice, guidance, and
encouragement have helped me tremendously.
My deepest appreciation is to my parents whose love and support have helped me among other
things to achieve my goals as a student so far. I would like to take this opportunity to thank my
father, mother, sister, and brothers. Without their encouragement, love, and support, this work
would never have been accomplished.

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Contents
Declaration .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of tables.................................................................................................................................................. 8
List of figure ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms .......................................................................................................... 11
Chapter One ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.1 Background of the Study .................................................................................................................. 13
1.1.1 Classification of composite materials ........................................................................................ 13
1.1.2 Fiber reinforced composites ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.3 Application of fiber reinforced composite materials in industries ............................................... 2
In this research, fracture behavior of bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite
materials with different fiber orientation, going to investigate. ................................................................ 2
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 General Objective:- ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific Objective:-...................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope and Limitation .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Thesis Organization ............................................................................................................................ 5
Chapter two ................................................................................................................................................... 6
2. Literature Review...................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Composite materials fabrication method ............................................................................................ 6
2.1.1 Molding methods of composite materials .................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Composite material and its applications ...................................................................................... 7
2.2 Glass fiber ........................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Types of glass fiber .................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Woven glass fiber....................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Strength Characteristics ............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.3 Fiber Orientation ........................................................................................................................ 11

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 2.3 Matrix ................................................................................................................................................ 11
2.4 Previous research work on glass fiber/epoxy composite .................................................................. 12
2.4.1 Fracture analysis of composite materials ................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Mathematical models .................................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Damage analysis using fracture mechanics approach ....................................................................... 16
3.1.2 The Concept of Fracture mechanics and Fracture Toughness ................................................... 17
3.1.3 Stress intensity factor ................................................................................................................. 18
3.1.4 Data reduction ............................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter four ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Experimental Methods and Conditions ....................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2.1 Matrix......................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2.2 Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................ 23
4.2.3 Release agent (wax) ................................................................................................................... 23
4.2.3 Mold ........................................................................................................................................... 24
4.3 Dimension ......................................................................................................................................... 24
4.3.1 Specimen Dimension ................................................................................................................. 24
4.3.2 Fixture Dimension...................................................................................................................... 25
4.4 Sample preparation ........................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.1 Composition ............................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.2 Epoxy and hardener preparation ................................................................................................ 28
4.4.3 Hand lay- up process .................................................................................................................. 29
4.4.4 Curing ........................................................................................................................................ 31
4.4.5 Cleaning ..................................................................................................................................... 32
4.4.6 Cutting........................................................................................................................................ 34
4.6 Test Method and Experimental setups .............................................................................................. 38
4.7 Test apparatus ................................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter five................................................................................................................................................. 42
Result and Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 42
5.1 Experimental Result .............................................................................................................................. 42

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 5. 2 Compact Tension Test Result .......................................................................................................... 42
5.3 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................................. 56
Conclusion, Recommendation and Future work ......................................................................................... 56
6.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 56
6.2 Recommendation .............................................................................................................................. 56
6.3 Future work ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Reference .................................................................................................................................................... 58

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List of tables
Table4. 1: Detail of materials used ............................................................................................... 25
Table4. 2: Mechanical property of materials used [36] ................................................................ 25
Table4. 3: Compact tension specimen with different orientation ................................................. 27

Table5. 1: Standard Deviation ...................................................................................................... 45

Table5. 2: Strain energy release rate ............................................................................................. 54

List of figure
There are two distinct levels by which composite materials are classified. The first approach
based on nature of the matrix constituent. These include organic-matrix composites or polymer
matrix composites, metal matrix composites, and ceramic matrix composites [1]. Composite
materials said to have two constituents. The reinforcing constituent is the fiber that embedded in
the matrix. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is
usually a ductile material. The second approach to classification based on the reinforcement
form. These include particulate composite, flake composite, fiber reinforced composite and
laminated composite. Fiber reinforced composite material is shown in the Figure 1. 1 [1]. ........ 13
Figure1. 1: Fiber reinforced composite material [2] ....................................................................... 1
Figure1. 2: woven fiber composite [2]............................................................................................ 1
Figure1. 3: Methodology flow chart ............................................................................................... 4

Figure2. 1: Technique flow-charts of FRP by hand lay-up [7]. ...................................................... 7

Figure3. 2: Finite cracked sample subjected to point load [30] .................................................... 16

Figure3. 3: Loading Modes [32] ................................................................................................... 18
Figure3. 4: Load vs displacement curve of area method .............................................................. 20
Figure3. 5: compliance as a function of crack length [33] ........................................................... 21

Figure4. 1: doubly tapered compact tension [specimen [34]. ...................................................... 24

Figure4. 2: Fixture dimension ....................................................................................................... 25
Figure4. 3: hand lay-up process: (a) hand lay-up method pictures from lecture (b) picture in
AAIT mechanical workshop ......................................................................................................... 31
Figure4. 4: prepared Sample ......................................................................................................... 34
Figure4. 5: Fiber orientation of test specimen .............................................................................. 35
Figure4. 6: prepared Sample with different fiber orientation. ...................................................... 37

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Figure4. 7: Universal Testing Machine in Defense University, Engineering College which is
found in Bishoftu, Ethiopia. .......................................................................................................... 39
Figure4. 8: Experimental Setup for CT Specimen: (a) machine setup and (b) specimen setup. .. 41

Figure5. 1: Four groups of samples after test: (a) 00 oriented sample fracture, (b) 300 oriented
sample fracture, (c) 450 oriented sample fracture, and (d) 600 oriented sample fracture .............. 44
Figure5. 2: Compact Tension Test result for 00orientations, (a) force Vs Load line displacement,
(b) energy release rate Vs Load line displacement ....................................................................... 47
Figure5. 3: Compact Tension Test result for 300 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) energy release rate ............................................................................................ 49
Figure5. 4: Compact Tension Test result for 450 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) energy release rate ............................................................................................ 51
Figure5. 5: Compact Tension Test results for 600 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) Resistance- curve for the tensile fracture toughness tests ................................ 53
Figure5. 6: Resistance- curve for the tensile fracture toughness tests: each symbol type
corresponds ................................................................................................................................... 54

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Abstract
Glass fiber is by far the most predominant fiber used in the reinforced polymer industry and
among the most versatile. E Glass fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites have been widely
used as a substitute materials in automobile and aerospace applications, because of their
lightweight characteristics and better mechanical properties. Although glass fibers used for
different applications, they have the problem of crack formation and propagation at a working
load. Even if many studies have been made on woven (bidirectional) glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composite materials, we cannot stop or minimize the crack propagation yet. Therefore, there is a
need to conduct research in order to investigate the fracture behavior of this composite material.
Fracture behavior of woven glass fiber epoxy composite material, will be studied using the
experimental method. The fracture toughness; associated with fiber tensile failure in a woven
glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite material is measured using a compact tension test.
Investigation deals with the characterization of tensile properties according to the ASTM
standard D E399. Hand layup technique was employed to prepare the compact tensile specimen.
The values of the tensile fiber failure critical energy release rate were determined for all
orientations (00, 300, 450, and 600). The energy release rates of all the samples are 198.66 kJm-2
for CTS 0, 229.22 kJm-2 for CTS 30, 268.64 KJm-2 for CTS 45 and 232.98 KJm-2 for CTS 60.
The woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite material with 00 orientation has an overall
improvement of 22.62% strain energy release rate over that of CTS 30, CTS 45 and CTS 60.

Keywords: fracture toughness, energy release rate, woven glass fiber, glass epoxy composite,

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
Abbreviations/Acronyms

BD Bidirectional

FRP Fiber reinforced plastics

MPa Mega Pascal

KJ Kilo joule

CTS Compact tension specimen

ROM Rule of Mixture

GIC Critical strain energy release rate

SBS Short beam strength

DNS Double-notched shear strength

CSERR Critical strain energy release rate

σ Stress

LEFM Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

SIF Stress intensity factor

W Width

B Thickness

ASTM America Society for Testing and Material

E Equivalent module

C Compliance geometric correction function

GB General purpose

V Volume

mm Millimeter

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m Meter

Vcp Volume of composite material

Vep Volume of epoxy resin

Vgf Volume of glass fiber

L Length

Mgf Mass of glass fiber

Mep Mass of epoxy resin

Mh Mass of hardener

Mmat Mass of matrix

CT0 Compact tension sample of 0 degree orientation

CT30 Compact tension sample of 30 degree orientation

CT45 Compact tension sample of 45 degree orientation

CT60 Compact tension sample of 60 degree orientation

ml Milliliter

UTM Universal Testing Machine

a Crack length

Min Minute

̅ Mean

δ2 Variance

δ Standard deviation

KN kilo Newton

N Newton

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Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
A composite material commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials,
each of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with properties that
cannot achieved by any of the components acting alone. If the composite designed and fabricated
correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to
achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material.
Some composites also offer the advantage of being tailorable so that properties, such as strength
and stiffness, can easily be changed by changing amount or orientation of the reinforcement
materials. Using this definition, it can be determined that a wide range of engineering materials
fall into this category [1].

1.1.1 Classification of composite materials

There are two distinct levels by which composite materials are classified. The first approach
based on nature of the matrix constituent. These include organic-matrix composites or polymer
matrix composites, metal matrix composites, and ceramic matrix composites [1]. Composite
materials said to have two constituents. The reinforcing constituent is the fiber that embedded in
the matrix. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is
usually a ductile material. The second approach to classification based on the reinforcement
form. These include particulate composite, flake composite, fiber reinforced composite and
laminated composite. Fiber reinforced composite material is shown in the Figure 1. 1 [1].

Also Composite materials can take many forms but they separated into three categories based on
the strengthening mechanism. In fiber-reinforced composites, the fiber is the primary load-
bearing component. Fiberglass composites are examples of fiber-reinforced composites [1].

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 Figure1. 2: Fiber reinforced composite material [2]
1.1.2 Fiber reinforced composites
Structural composites typically use fiber as the reinforcement because many materials are stiffer
and stronger in the fiber form than in the bulk form [2].

Fiber reinforced composites can be classifies into continuous fiber composite, woven fiber
composite, chopped fiber composite and hybrid composite. In a woven glass fiber composite
material, the fibers braided or knitted to create interlocking fibers that often have orientations
orthogonal to the structural plane. They do not delaminate but have low strength and stiffness
compared to the continuous fiber composite. They are used in structures where there is a need to
have a structural, thermal or electrical property in the out of plane direction [2].

Figure1. 3: woven fiber composite [2]

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1.1.3 Application of fiber reinforced composite materials in industries
Marine:
Nowadays, fiberglass becomes the common material for recreational boats and yachts for many
years. These are not traditional laminated composites; rather the glass fibers are oriented
randomly giving the structure more uniform material properties. Fairly being cheap, glass fiber
used in large structures [3].
Sporting goods:
As carbon fiber provides lightweight and high stiffness, it used for golf clubs and tennis rackets.

Automotive:
Due to their higher costs, automotive industry has adopted composite materials slowly.
Particulate reinforced plastics have been used for some time but fiber reinforced composites have
only really been used in high end sports cars but are starting to make their way into traditional
vehicles. Racecars have used carbon fiber materials for many years [3].

Aerospace:
Carbon fiber composites now quit common in commercial and military aviation. The Boing 787
and Airbus A350XWB have roughly 50% of their structure from composite materials. Carbon
fiber materials are also common in helicopter systems, rocket motors, satellite systems, and
turbine engines [3].

In this research, fracture behavior of bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite
materials with different fiber orientation, going to investigate.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
In today’s world, there are many different materials used for different applications. These
materials have their own material properties including; mechanical, chemical, thermal, and
electrical properties. Fiber reinforced composite materials are among them. These materials are
used in many sectors such as automotive, aircraft, and shipping industries. Bodies manufactured
from fiber reinforced composite materials and other materials face catastrophic failure. Besides
the failure due to the nature of material and/or overload, these failures occur due to improper
selection of materials and manufacturing processes, improper fiber orientation and fiber epoxy
proportion etc. The failure of these materials causes loses of many lives and assets. [27]

In today’s science and /or a technologically driven world, glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite
materials are the most important materials used in different industries.

Since glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite material is predominantly used, there is a need to
conduct research in order to investigate the crack properties of the glass fiber reinforced
composite material. In this thesis work, fracture behavior of woven glass fiber epoxy composite
material will be investigated by using compact tension test specimen as per ASTM standard
DE399.

1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective:-
The general objective of this research is to study the fracture behavior (properties) of
bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite materials.

1.3.2 Specific Objective:-

 Experimental measurement of fracture toughness
 To investigate effect of fiber orientation

1.4 Scope and Limitation

Scope
In this research, fracture behavior of bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite
material investigated experimentally.

Limitation

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  Numerical analysis will not be done
1.5 Methodology
Figure 1.3 represents the flow chart of methodology.

Mathematical
modeling

Result organizing

Figure1. 4: Methodology flow chart

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1.6 Thesis Organization
This thesis work focuses on the fabrication and fracture toughness characterization of glass fiber
reinforced epoxy composite material and in discussing the result. The manuscript comprises of
six chapters.

Chapter 1: Introduces the background of glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite materials and
objectives of the project, methodology, statement of the problem, and scope.

Chapter 2: Reviewed all relevant research papers regarding glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composite materials, ranging from polymer types, fiber types, and composite’s chemical,
mechanical properties.

Chapter 3: This chapter states different theory’s which used for the prediction of fracture
mechanics parameters for experiment cases.

Chapter 4: This experiment deals with characterization of the fracture toughness Properties of
glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite. In this chapter the methods and materials for the
preparation of test specimen discussed and also the fracture toughness Properties investigation
designs plan stress intensity factor and strain energy release rate of glass fiber epoxy, has
been discussed.

Chapter 5: Here, the Characterization of composite material, which is the fracture toughness
Properties, performed well and discussed in detail.

Chapter 6: This chapter dedicated to the conclusion and future work of this thesis.

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Chapter two
2. Literature Review

2.1 Composite materials fabrication method

There are different methods to fabricate fiber reinforced composite materials. Many were
developed to meet specific design or manufacturing challenges faced with fiber reinforced
polymers. Selection of a method for a particular part, therefore, will depend on the materials, the
part design and end-use or application.

Hand lay-up: is a simple method for composite production. The process consists of building up

Or placing layers of composite fiber in a sequenced layup using a matrix of resin and hardener
[4].

The surfaces will be thoroughly cleaned in order to ensure that they were free from oil, dirt
etc., before bonding at room temperature and pressure. The laminate will allowed curing for
about 24 hours and then it cut to obtain test specimens with different orientations of glass fiber
[5].

Filament- winding process: is a relatively slowly with possibility to control the fiber direction
and the diameter of parts can be varied along the part. During the process, roving or tape is
drawn through a resin bath and wind in a rotational mandrel. When the mandrel is removed, a
hollow shape is the result. With this process can be realized variety parts as pipe, tubing,
pressure vessels, tanks, and items of similar shape.

Pultrusion process: Represents a continuous transportation of fiber bundles through a resin

matrix bath, following by a dropping of them into a preheated die. With this process results parts
with complex shapes, such as tubing, channels, I-beams, Z- sections and flat bars.

Resin transfer molding process: In this process, a set of mold halves are loaded with
reinforcement material then clamped together. Resin is then pumped, or gravity fed into the mold
infusing the reinforcement material. Once the mold is filled with resin, it is plugged and allowed
to cure. After curing, the mold halves are separated and the part removed for final trimming and
finishing [6].

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2.1.1 Molding methods of composite materials
There are many processing methods of composite materials, and big differences in different
types of molding processes of composite materials. The molding process about hand lay-up fiber
reinforced plastics (FRP), as represented using figure 2.1, is a typical process of preparing
thermo setting polymer matrix composites. We see that there are many manual labors in process.
Compounding of fibers and resins and curing reaction process of resin system are the forming
processes of composite materials and at the same time, the formation processes of composite
material products. Preparation of materials and products completes in the same process, which is
another character that the composite materials are different from metallic materials.

Mold preparation Resin glue preparation Cutting glass cloth

Coating release agent Hand lay-up pre-molding

Curing De molding Finishing Products

Figure2. 1: Technique flow-charts of FRP by hand lay-up [7].

2.1.2 Composite material and its applications

Different composite materials have many applications in engineering, biomechanics, and in
many other applications.

Fiber reinforced composite materials are demanded by the industry because of their high
specific strength, especially for applications where weight reduction is critical [5].

An advanced composite material is made of a fibrous material embedded in a resin matrix,

generally laminated with fibers oriented in alternating directions to give the material strength and

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stiffness. Fibrous materials are not new; wood is the most common fibrous structural material
known to man. [8].

Applications of composites on aircraft include:

Fairings
Flight control surfaces
Landing gear doors
Leading and trailing edge panels on the wing and stabilizer
Interior components
Floor beams and floor boards
Vertical and horizontal stabilizer primary structure on large aircraft
Primary wing and fuselage structure on new generation large aircraft
Turbine engine fan blades
Propellers

Graphite fibers: are used in place where required greater strength and higher thermal
conductivity, have six times the tensile strength of carbon fibers.

Carbon fibers: are used in rocket nozzle thoughts and ablation characteristics and insulating
capability.

Recent advance on the silica/polymer composite materials combining the unique properties of
the inorganic fillers and the organic polymers have widely been achieved in academic and
industrial fields and use for many applications such as uptakes for organic compounds and heavy
metal ions, functional coatings, bio-applications [9].

Institutd’Electroniqueet de Télécommunications de Rennes, Université de Rennes developed an

electromagnetic absorbing material to replace the polyurethane foam currently used in anechoic
chambers. In order to solve issues related to the polyurethane foam (flexibleness, imprecise cut
and inhomogeneous load dispersion), they propose the synthesis of new absorbent composites
made of epoxy foam loaded with carbon particles [10].

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Research on material science and engineering showed that the applications of Zinc ferrite
material (ZnFe2O4) and its composites in the fields of sensors, photo-catalysis and lithium ion
batteries, etc. [11].

Çukurova University, Chemistry Department studied that Novel shapeable phase change (PCM)
composite materials are the energy storing materials in latent heat storage systems. Storage
performance of a PCM plays a vital role in efficient latent heat storage applications. Many
applications can benefit from storing latent heat [12].

Scientists’ synthesized and characterized carbon/ceramic composite materials

for environmental applications. Resulted carbon/ceramic composite materials demonstrated
appropriate efficiency in adsorption of benzene used as a model toxic compound [13].

Anew composite material obtained by green synthesis, through deposition of zinc oxide onto
calcium carbonate precipitated in green seaweeds extract is used for therapeutic purposes. The
therapeutic effect of prepared composite material; was assessed in vivo as a topical application
for the burns treatment and compared with that of ZnO [14].

2.2 Glass fiber

A Glass fiber or Fiber glass can be defined as A material consisting of extremely fine filaments
of glass that are combined in yarn and woven into fabrics, used in masses as a thermal and
acoustical insulator, or embedded in various resins to make boat hulls, fishing rods, and the
like.

Although melting glass and drawing into fibers is an ancient technique, long continuous fiber
drawn from glass introduced in the 1930’s by Owens Corning as glass wool and given the
popular name fiberglass [15].

Fiberglass materials are popular for their attributes of high strength compared to relatively
lightweight. Fiberglass really is made of glass, similar to windows or the drinking glasses. The
glass heated until it is molten. Then it forced through superfine holes; creating glass filaments
that are very thin. Therefore, thin they are, better measured in microns [16].

Fiber glass weighs more than carbon fiber, the second most common reinforcement, and is not as
stiff, but it is more impact resistant and has a great elongation to break (that is, it elongates to a

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greater degree before it breaks). Depending upon the glass type, coating chemistry (sizing),
filament type, and fiber form; a wide range of properties and performance levels can be
achieved. Glass filaments supplied in bundles called strands. It is a collection of continuous glass
filaments. Roving generally refers to a bundle of untwisted strands packed like thread, on a large
spool. Single end roving consists of strands made up of continuous multiple glass filaments that
run the length of the strand. Multiple-end roving contains lengthy but not entirely continuous
strands, which added or dropped in a staggered arrangement during the spooling process. Yarn is
a collection of strands that twisted together [17].

Fiberglass really is made of glass, similar to windows or the drinking glasses in the kitchen. The
glass heated until it is molten, then it forced through superfine holes, creating glass filaments that
very thin, so thin they better measured in microns. These threads can then be woven into larger
swatches of material or left in the somewhat less structured although more familiar puffy
substance used for insulation or soundproofing. This will depend on, whether the extruded
strands made longer or shorter, and the quality of the fiberglass. For some applications, it is
important for the glass fibers to have fewer impurities, which involves additional steps in the
manufacturing process [18].

2.2.1 Types of glass fiber

There are different types of glass fibers. These are; A-glass: With regard to its composition, it is
close to window glass. In the Federal Republic of Germany, it mainly used in the manufacture of
process equipment. C-glass: This kind of glass shows better resistance to chemical impact.

E-glass: This kind of glass combines the characteristics of C-glass with very good insulation to
electricity. AE-glasses are Alkali resistant glass. Generally, glass consists of quartz sand, soda,
sodium sulfate, potash, feldspar, and a number of refining and drying additives. The
characteristics, with them the classification of the glass fibers to be made, are defined by the
combination of raw materials and their proportions. S-glass – High strength glass made with
magnesium alumino silicates used where high strength, high stiffness, extreme temperature
resistance, and corrosive resistance needed. S-2 glass is similar to, but with somewhat improved
properties with, S-glass. S-2 is a brand name originally created by Owens-Corning but spun off
in 1998 and is now a registered trademark of AGY Holdings Corp. Fibers used for structural
reinforcement composites generally fall into the categories of E-glass, AE-glass, and S-glass. Of

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all the fibers available for structural strengthening and reinforcement, E-glass is by far the most
used and is the least expensive [19].

2.2.2 Woven glass fiber

Researchers showed that the design and engineering of woven fabrics and their use as layering
materials to form composite structures for ballistic personal protection [21].

2.2.1 Strength Characteristics

Structural properties, such as stiffness, dimensional stability, and strength of a composite
laminate, depend on the stacking sequence of the plies. The stacking sequence describes the
distribution of ply orientations through the laminate thickness. As the number of plies with
chosen orientations increases, more stacking sequences are possible. For example, a symmetric
eight-ply laminate with four different ply orientations has 24 different stacking sequences.

2.2.3 Fiber Orientation

The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup depends on the orientation sequence of the
plies. The practical range of strength and stiffness of carbon fiber extends from values as low as
those provided by fiberglass to as high as those provided by titanium. This range of values is
determined by the orientation of the plies to the applied load. Proper selection of ply orientation
in advanced composite materials is necessary to provide a structurally efficient design [8].

2.3 Matrix
Types of matrix
There are three main types of composite matrix materials:

Ceramic matrix: ceramic matrix composites are a subgroup of composite materials. They
consist of ceramic fibers embedded in ceramics matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced
ceramic (CFRC) material. Ceramic matrix composites designed to overcome the major
disadvantages such as low fracture toughness, brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance,
faced by the traditional technical ceramics.

Metal matrix: Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at least
two constituent parts. These parts are a metal and another material or different metal. The metal
matrix reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear.

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Polymer matrix: Polymer matrix composites (PMCs); are divided into three sub types, namely,
thermoses, thermoplastic, and rubber. Polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating
structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. Polymer matrix composites are less dense
than metals or ceramics, can resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion and exhibit superior
resistance to the conduction of electrical current [21].

Epoxy Resin:
Low viscosity (500-800 centipoise 77°F) clear straw yellow modified epoxy resin. Modifications
include additives to promote leveling, air detrainment in rolled coatings, resiliency, toughness,
high impact resistance, and recoat ability, without removing amine blush or sanding between
coats. Shelf life is unlimited in closed containers stored below 90°F. Haziness and crystallization
will occur if stored at cold temperatures (below 50°F) for prolonged periods. Immersing the
closed container in hot tap water and heating to 120°F or above will bring the resin back to a
clear state. Neither crystallization nor heating will adversely affect the product. Crystallization
will reoccur if the material not totally brought back to a clear bright state after heating. Simply
warming cold material to room temperature will not melt the crystals. Heat must used [22].
Hardeners
All hardeners are mixtures of aliphatic polyamines, cycloaliphatic polyamines and/or amido
amines. Other materials are included to promote extremely low moisture sensitivity during cure,
and the ability to form clear, tough, non-milky films. There is no practical shelf life for hardeners
stored in closed containers below 90°F. Ten year old material have been used with no discernible
difference between it and fresh lots. Accelerators should not be used with these hardeners [22].

2.4 Previous research work on glass fiber/epoxy composite

2.4.1 Fracture analysis of composite materials

Influence of glass fiber percentage on mechanical properties
Wazery et al 2001[23] studied the influence of glass fiber percentage on the mechanical
properties such as tensile strength, bending strength and impact strength. The sample was
developed with varying fiber percentages (15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% by weight percentage) and

12 | P a g e
hardness of composites was evaluated by using Brinell hardness tester. The results revealed that
remarkable improvement in the mechanical properties of the fabricated composite with an
increasing in glass fiber contents. The study showed that best mechanical properties obtained at
60 wt. % of glass fiber of fabricated composites.
Mohamed A Torabizadeh 2012 [24] studied on tensile, compressive and shear properties of
bidirectional glass/epoxy composites subjected to mechanical loading and low temperature
services. In order to fully characterize bidirectional composite, several experimental tests are
performed using an environmental test chamber and a universal testing machine. Thermo-
mechanics loads are applied to a glass/epoxy bidirectional composite at room temperature (200c),
-200c, and -600c. The results indicate that low temperatures have a significant effect on
composite failure mode. It is also found that the strength and modulus of bidirectional
composites both increased with decreasing the temperature in all cases including tensile,
compressive, and shear loads. On the other hand, the results show that strain to failure decreased
by decreasing the temperature.

Through-thickness fracture behavior of bidirectional glass fibers/epoxy composites under various

in-planes loading using the compact tension test was made. The pure mode I, pure mode II and
mixed mode I/II fracture behavior of a Bidirectional (BD) glass fiber epoxy composite material
was investigated. The through-thickness crack propagation of the composite was examined, and
the energy absorbing processes associated with the through thickness fracture of Bidirectional
(BD) glass fiber epoxy composite material was characterized using compact tension shear (CTS)
specimen testing. Fracture parameters such as mode I and mode II components of fracture
toughness, and mixed mode toughness were reported for unidirectional glass fiber epoxy as a
function of loading angle. In all modes of loading, the crack started from the notch tip and
followed the fiber direction. It observed that the value of toughness increased from 1.02 MPm0.5
to 2.57 MPm0.5 in the composite by changing the mode of loading from pure mode I to Pure
mode II due to the change in the fracture mechanisms [25].

Fracture experiments were carried out on compact tension specimens of bidirectional and cross-
ply S-glass/epoxy and graphite/epoxy. In bidirectional specimens, crack extension was always
parallel to the fibers and was dependent on crack length. The study utilizes compact tension
specimens to investigate fracture behavior in bidirectional and cross-ply composites. The main

13 | P a g e
objectives are to identify the failure processes which occur in both types of laminates, determine
the critical strain energy release rate, GIC, and evaluate the suitability of a fracture mechanics
approach to cross-ply composites.

Composition of matrix and fiber optimization

Sudipto Shekhor Mondol investigated material properties of woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composite by varying fiber content and conducted tensile and impact tests. For tensile test, as
fiber content increases the strength of the composite also increases, but at some point it will
decline due to lack of bonding element. During impact test there is no major change in the
impact strength for different fiber resin ratio [26].

Effects of Orientation
Gayatri Vineela et al [27] studied impact behavior of fiber reinforced composites with change in
fiber orientation. In this research, three types (45/90, 0/90, and 30/60) of glass/epoxy composite
plates were investigated analytically and experimentally, subjected to drop weight impact of 80
mm diameter mild steel sphere. From the results, it is concluded that 30/60 laminate has more
damaged resistance than the other orientations.

ChavanV.B. et al 2017[28] studied on Development of Glass Fiber/Epoxy Composite Material

and its Characterizations and performed hardness test, tensile test and impact test. The effects of
stacking sequences with different weight ratios of fiber matrix of glass/epoxy laminated
composite plates were investigated. The effects of the fiber orientation 0° / 30° / 60° / 90° with
fiber matrix proportion 1 : 2 is effective which absorbs more impact energy when
compared to other fiber orientations and other fiber matrix proportions. The effects of the fiber
orientation 0°/ 900/00/900 with fiber matrix proportion 1:1.75 which shows better tensile strength
when compared Fiber orientations and other fiber matrix proportions. The effects of the fiber
orientation 0°/ 900/00/900 with fiber matrix proportion 1:2 which shows better flexural strength
when compared to other fiber orientations and other fiber matrix proportions.

2.4.2 Summary
A composite material defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better
properties than those of the individual components used alone. A fiber has a length that is much
greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d) ratio known as the aspect ratio and can

14 | P a g e
vary greatly. Continuous-fiber composites are often made into laminates by stacking single
sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations to obtain the desired strength and stiffness
properties with fiber volumes as high as 60 to 70 percent. There are different methods to
fabricate fiber reinforced composite materials. Hand lay-up is a simple method for composite
production. Different composite materials have many applications in engineering, biomechanics,
and in many others.

Structural properties, such as stiffness, dimensional stability, and strength of a composite

laminate, depend on the stacking sequence of the plies. The stacking sequence describes the
distribution of ply orientations through the laminate thickness.

The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup depends on the orientation sequence of the
plies.

Although many studies made on fracture behavior of composite (bidirectional glass/epoxy

composite) materials, still there is a need to study the fracture behavior of woven glass
fiber/epoxy composite material. Since bidirectional (BD) woven glass fiber epoxy composite
material faces the problem of crack, fracture properties of BD woven glass fiber epoxy laminated
composite materials have to be investigate. The compact tension test specimen is used to
investigate the fracture properties of woven glass fiber epoxy composite materials.

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Chapter Three
Mathematical models
3.1 Damage analysis using fracture mechanics approach
3.1.1 Stress distribution around a crack
Consider the cracked material specimen in Figure 3.2. In the immediately vicinity of the crack
the material does not behave in a linear elastic fashion and thus the large stresses predicted by
LEFM and the above equation are not realized. In a metal, plastic yielding occurs to relieve and
redistribute the stress. In other materials, such as polymers or ceramics, different types of
deformation, such as crazing or micro-cracking, may occur. For plastics, the material is usually
so brittle that stress concentration within the specimen will result in rippling. The above equation
is also unrealistic far from the crack where the shape of the specimen and the loading conditions
determine the stress field. In between these regions, however, is a region where the crack
dominates the stress field and the material deforms elastically. This is called the region of K
dominance. Equation (3.1) is valid in this region.

Figure3. 1: Finite cracked sample subjected to point load [30]

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3.1.2 The Concept of Fracture mechanics and Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness is the property, which is an indication of the amount of stress required to
propagate a pre existing flaw. It is a very important material property since the occurrence of
flaws is not completely avoidable in the processing, fabrication, or service of a
material/component. Flaws may appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions, weld defects,
design discontinuities, or some combination thereof. Since engineers can never be totally sure
that a material is flaw free, it is common practice to assume that a flaw of some chosen size will
be present in some number of components and use the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)
approach to design critical components. This approach uses the flaw size and features,
component geometry, loading conditions and the material property called fracture toughness to
evaluate the ability of a component containing a flaw to resist fracture [31].

Suppose the load on the specimen is increased until it breaks, i.e. fracture as shown in the figure
3.2. The resistance to this fracture may be characterized by the stress intensity at fracture, K,
called the fracture toughness. A stress intensity, K value represents a lower limiting value of the
material’s fracture toughness. This value is used to estimate the relation between failure stress
and defect size for a material in service where conditions of high tensile loading would be
expected [32].

Fracture Modes:
Figure 3.3 defines the three modes of loading: Mode I (opening or tensile mode), Mode II
(sliding or shear mode), and Mode III (tearing mode). Fracture mechanics concepts are
essentially the same for each mode. However the great majority of all actual cracking and
fractures cases in metals are mode I problems. A crack in the very early stage of development
will turn into a direction in which it experiences only Mode I loading, unless it is prevented from
doing so by geometrical confinement. For this reason fracture mechanics of metal is generally
confined to Mode I.

A Roman numeral subscript indicates the mode of fracture and the three modes of fracture are
illustrated using figure 3.3.

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 Figure3. 2: Loading Modes [32]

Mode I fracture is the condition in which the crack plane is normal to the direction of tensile
loading. This is the most commonly encountered mode.

3.1.3 Stress intensity factor

A parameter called stress-intensity factor, K is used to determine the fracture toughness of most
materials.

For compact tension specimen:

1
2
The fracture loads P, obtained from the tests are used to determine SIF values ( MPa.m ) as a
measure of fracture toughness by using the following data reduction scheme.
 P 
SIF    f x  ………………………………………………. (3.4)
1 
 BW 2 

Where: B = specimen thickness, cm, W = specimen width, cm, a = crack length, cm and

Where: f x  
2  x 0.866  4.64 x  13.32 x 2  14.72 x 3  5.64 x 4  [2]
3
(1  x ) 2

a
Where: x
w

a
0 . 45   0 . 55
w
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The crack length, a, should be selected such that

3.1.4 Data reduction

Currently, no data reduction scheme for mode I intra-laminar fracture toughness characterization
of laminated composite is available. Some researchers have used test standards from ASTM D
E399 of the isotropic materials to calculate stress intensity factor to characterize the toughness of
laminated composite materials using CT specimen. Usually the fracture behavior of materials
expressed in terms of critical strain energy release rate which represents the energy required for
crack growth [3]

The GI of orthotropic laminated plate with the pre-crack under mode I loading can then be
calculated from KIC according to Paris et al [3].

K 2 IC …………………………………………………………………………… (3.5)
GIC 
E*

Where E is the equivalent module of composite given by [3]:

2 E1 E2
E* 
E1 E
 v12  1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(3.6)
E2 2G12
There are four data reduction schemes.

Area method
For the energy area method, the change of strain energy in the material can be calculated using
the area under the load vs load line displacement curve from the loading point 1 to 2 as shown in
Fig 3.4 The crack length that changes by a value ∆a represents the dissipated energy during the
crack propagation and is indicated by shaded region.

This method is among the simplest method of data reduction. The critical strain energy released
can be calculated by [3]:

1 ……………………………………………………………… (3.7)
GIC  ( p1d 2  p2 d1 )
2 * t * a

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Where: P1, P2 are loads and d1, d2are displacements at the points 1 and 2, respectively.

Compliance calibration method

A number of means are available by which the material property GIC can be measured. One of
these is known as compliance calibration method, which employs the concept of compliance as

1
∗ 1 1 2
2

Figure3. 3: Load vs displacement curve of area method

the ratio of deformation to applied load [33].

Where p1 is load 1 at displacement 1 and p2 is load 2 at displacement 2.


C ….. ………………………………………………………………………... (3.8)
p

The total strain energy U can be written in terms of this compliance as:

1 1
U p  Cp 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(3.9)
2 2

20 | P a g e
 Figure3. 4: compliance as a function of crack length [33]
The strain energy release rate can then be determined by differentiating the curve of compliance
versus length:

U
Gi  ………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….……………. (3.10)
a

As Anderson, the critical strain energy release rate can be calculated using the change in
compliance, C.

p c2 C ….…………………….…………………………………...………….. (3.11)
G IC  *
2 B a

Where pc is the critical load associated with a given crack length and B is the thickness of the
specimen. The experimental Cvs. a data needs to be plotted and the best-fit function should be
found. And then, C is calculated by using:

C a   c1.x 3  c2 .x 2  c3 .x  c4 ………………………………………………………… (3.12)

Where:c1, c2, c3 and c4are the best fit coefficients. These coefficients were c1= 2497*10-7, c2 = -
1736*10-5, c3 = 4244*10-4, c4 = -3143*10-3

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J-Integral method
For a linear orthotropic material under mode-I loading the GIC can be equated with the J-Integral
proposed by Rice.

ASTM D E399
The ASTM E399 testing standard valid for isotropic materials gives the critical stress intensity
factor for CT specimen by:

K IC 
pc
h w
 
f a
w
………………………………………………………………… (3.13)

Where f ⁄ ) is the geometric correction function given by:

a ………… (3.14)
 w  (12a
f a
)1.5 
 
w
 
w w
   
w 0.886  6.64 a  13.32 a 2  14.72 a 3  5.6 a 4 
w 
w
But, for this thesis work we are going to use the compliance calibration method.

22 | P a g e
Chapter four
Experimental Methods and Conditions

4.2 Materials
Best reinforcement and matrix materials are chosen based on different parameters material
properties such as strength and stiffness.

4.2.1 Matrix
A. Hardener
Hardener is one of the matrix element used as a catalyst to cure the epoxy resin. This catalyst
initiates the chemical reaction of the epoxy resin and monomer ingredient from liquid to solid
state. As a result, the curing agent and/or hardener used for this research work is hardener with
trade name HY-915 hardener, which is purchased from local market.

B. Epoxy resin
The resins used (act) as the matrix of the composite to bind the composite materials together and
transfer the component stresses that may act on the part to the fibers in the composite. The fibers
are designed and selected to handle the designed stresses imposed. In this experiment, a general
purpose epoxy resin will be used. This is purchased from the local fiber glass production
industries in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

4.2.2 Reinforcement
Woven glass fiber is used as reinforcing material. It has 40% higher strength, better retention of
properties at elevated temperatures. The glass fiber with required quantity and type is purchased
from local market.

4.2.3 Release agent (wax)

A Release agent must be applied onto the mold surface to prevent the part from bonding to the
mold surface. It prevents resins from sticking on the mold. The type of release agent used for this
thesis work is Wax-based release agent

23 | P a g e
Ensure that the selected release system is compatible with the selected materials. It is best to
perform tests before using new materials. When tests are performed, the same materials,
application processes, and environmental conditions should be simulated in the test in order to
provide reliable results. Take care when new molds are used for the first time. A special
procedure is normally required to prepare the mold for the very first usage. In this experiment,
the tabletop will be covered waxes to act as the release agent.

4.2.3 Mold
Generally, two layers of flat plates are used to hold the flat shape of the layup.

4.3 Dimension
4.3.1 Specimen Dimension
A compact tension (CT) specimen’s dimension for fracture experiments on bidirectional woven
glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite materials is chosen based on ASTM standard D E399 and
reported using figure 4.1.

Figure4. 1: doubly tapered compact tension [specimen [34].

Where a is extension and is equal to 30 mm. ply thickness=8 plies or 5 mm.

24 | P a g e
4.3.2 Fixture Dimension

Figure4. 2: Fixture dimension

4.4 Sample preparation

4.4.1 Composition
To obtain the best strength and stiffness properties fiber volume has to be as high as 60 to 70
percent. Therefore, for this thesis work volume fraction of fiber is 60% per specimen. Matrix
materials composition, General purpose epoxy resin and hardener HY-951 is in 99:1in ratio[35].

The materials used to prepare composite is reported using table 4.1

Table4. 1: Detail of materials used

Constituent/ parameter Specification/ detail

Reinforcement Woven glass fiber (E-glass)
Epoxy General purpose epoxy
Hardener HY- 951

Table4. 2: Mechanical property of materials used [36]

Materials Density E (Gpa) Tensile strength

Woven glass fiber 2.45 89 4.69
Epoxy 1.54 3.5 0.06

25 | P a g e
The volume of the composite material is defined by the length, width and depth of the mold.
Equation 4.1 provides the total volume of the composite.

V= L*W*B…………………………………………………………………………… (4.1)

Volume of composite material is calculated using equation 4.2.

Vcp= Vep+Vgf………………………………………………………..……………………(4.2)

Where: Vcp is volume of the composite materials, Vep is volume of epoxy resin, Vgf is volume of
glass fiber, L is length of mold, W is width of mold and B is thickness of mold.

During specimen preparation, the mass of each material used is as follows:

Mgf=4434.8gm

Mep= 2926.968gm

Mh=29.565gmand then,

mass of matrix is:

Mmat= Mep+ Mh = 2956.533gm………………………………………………………….… (4.3)

Where: Mgf is mass of glass fiber, Mep is mass of epoxy resin, Mh is mass of hardener and Mmat is
mass of matrix.

Mass fraction of woven glass fiver with epoxy:

⍴ ∗
………………………………………........ (4.4)
⍴ ∗

4434.8gm 2.45 ∗ Vgf

2956.533gm 1.54 ∗ Vep

1.5=1.591∗

Vgf 0.9 Vep

26 | P a g e
Mcp= Mgf+ Mmat………………………………………………………………………..….. (4.5)

Vcp= Vep+Vgf

Vcp= Vep+0.9Vep

Vcp= 1.9 Vep, where: Vep=

⍴

Vcp= 1.9& '

⍴

()*+.*,,-.
Vcp= 1.9& ' = 1.9*1919.927
/.*0

Vcp=3647.671cm3= volume of die or composite

Table4. 3: Compact tension specimen with different orientation

Specimen Fiber Composition % No. of

Code Orientation specimens
Epoxy Woven
glass fiber
CT0 0o 40 60 3
CT30 30o 40 60 3
CT45 45o 40 60 3
CT60 60o 40 60 3

Hand tools used:

Equipment and supplies needed in composite materials hand lay-up are listed for the specific
application. These are:

27 | P a g e
1. Cutting of fibers
Scissors
Roller blade cutters
Blades
2. Mixing of epoxy and glass fiber
Mixing containers
Weighing scale or epoxy dispensers
Mixing sticks or electric mixers
Cups
Meter tape
3. Impregnation
Brushes
Rollers
Squeegees
4. Cleaning
Solvents (acetone)
Paper towel or cloths
Jugs
5. Safety wears (equipment)
Lab coat
Gloves
safety goggle
safety shoe

4.4.2 Epoxy and hardener preparation

Epoxy of HY-951, mixed with general purpose hardener, is used to prepare the composite
plate. The weight ratio for mixing epoxy and hardener is 99:1. This ratio is chosen for the sake of
safe curing of composite material at room temperature. Hardeners include anhydrides (acids),
amines, polyamides, dicyandiamide etc. The mixer, strewed with stirrer for about two minutes
continuously. The mixing performed in the mixing containers (Bowl). The bowl is made of
Nickel to prevent melting of the Bowl during the exothermic reaction with the tongue depressor
the mix is done slowly so as to not entrain any excess air bubbles in the resin.

28 | P a g e
4.4.3 Hand lay- up process
The first step is to mix the resin and the hardener. The proportions are usually given by the
supplier and can be found on the containers of the hardener or resin. The portions can be
either measured by weight or by volume but it is important to follow these proportions exactly as
this is a complete chemical reaction and all components must react completely for maximum
strength of the matrix. It is easiest to measure proportions using the volume method and a screw
in pump that inserts into the cans of resin and hardener. These pumps purchased along with the
containers of resin and hardener. Make sure to keep the resin pump and container top separate
from the pump and container top of the hardener because any contamination will initiate the
chemical reaction and cause the resulting blend to harden. The mixing is performed in the mixing
containers with the mixing stick and should be done slowly to not entrain any excess air bubbles
in the resin. Be careful to mix completely and deliberately for a full two minutes before applying.
It is best to use a “flat” stick- such as tongue depressor; a round stick does not work well as it
does not ‘paddle’ the mixture to blend it properly. Note: Plastic mixing containers may melt
during the exothermic reaction, so it is best to use containers that are specifically made for
the purpose of mixing epoxy resin. These are typically available from the resin vendor. Next an
adequate quantity of mixed resin & hardener is deposited in the mold and a brush or roller is
used to spread it around all surface. It is important not to add too much resin, which will cause
too thick of a layer, nor to add less than the necessary amount, which will cause holes in the
surface of the part when it is cured. An estimate of the amount of resin needed based on
weight of glass fiber cloth. One can assume 50 volume% resin/50% volume% fiber and then use
the density of the reinforcement to arrive at the weight of the resin. But according to literatures
and for this thesis work, the composition is 60% glass fiber and 40% is epoxy. It is good to then
add a small safety factor so that enough resin is mixed for the layup. The first layer of fiber
reinforcement then lay. This layer must be wetted with resin and then softly pressing using a
brush or a roller make the resin that added in the previous step wick up through the fiberglass
cloth. If the fiber is not completely wet, more resin can added over the top and spread around. At
this stage a second layer of glass fiber is added and special care must be taken to
eliminate all air bubbles possible. This can be accomplished by either rolling any air bubbles
out with a small hand rolling tool or brushing out the air bubbles with a paintbrush. This
step repeated until the desired thickness obtained. As the glass fiber layers are added to build

29 | P a g e
laminates and total part thickness the individual layers may be oriented at varying angles
to accomplish specific strength in the direction of the reinforcement weave. This called
‘clocking’. Sometimes during the buildup of successive layers of reinforcement; a cover sheet of
plastic can be temporarily put over the layup and rolled together with the layers underneath to
reduce the mess and squeeze out excess resin. It is important when the proper amount of resin
has been used for the layup that any excess resin in the cup is placed on and in an area that does
not have any flammable material, such as a concrete sink or slab.

(a) [35]

30 | P a g e
 (b)

Figure4. 3: hand lay-up process: (a) hand lay-up method pictures from lecture (b) picture in
AAIT mechanical workshop

Final layer:
After the final layer of fiber has been applied a layer of peel ply is applied on the
surface. This layer does not bond with the epoxy system being used and will ensure a good finish
of the component as well as protection from the effects of air during curing. The peel ply should
have a trace lining to make it easy to detect when the layup procedure is completed.

4.4.4 Curing
The part can be cured at elevated temperatures using an oven (usually somewhere around
160 degrees F) or at room temperature. The laminate will be allowed to cure for about 24 hours.
Generally, the proper curing time of each type of resin-hardener, as well as the working time, is
given by the supplier on the back of the containers. If the part is left on plastic sheeting be sure to
use proper plastic sheet that will survive the elevated temperature. Most plastic sheet available
from hardware stores (polyethylene) may melt. If planning the layup part is going to be moved to
a curing oven, then layup should be done on a caul plate- generally a sheet of aluminum or steel

31 | P a g e
>1/8” thick. For the purposes of this experiment and using an epoxy resin system, room
temperature curing is adequate.

4.4.5 Cleaning
Tools are cleaned after lay-up using an appropriate solvent. Normally acetone works well for
cleaning epoxy tainted tools. Cleaning must be performed before the resin starts curing. Once the
part is ready to be cured, it must be moved to an adequate location. In this case it can be moved
to a curing oven or simply left to cure in place until the next day. Then a cleanup must be done
before leaving the class. All the materials used (brushes, rollers, mixing tools, scissor),
including the table, must be cleaned using acetone and cloth. Also, the rest of the fiberglass
woven reinforcement must be collected from the table and floor.

Cleaning of brushes:
Wipe off excess epoxy with paper towel.
Use a small quantity of acetone (20ml) and work it through the brush thoroughly with
a dabbing motion.
Dry the brush by it against paper towel or with a swinging action.
Repeat the above procedure twice, each time with fresh acetone.
Store the clean brush in a closed acetone container. (This container should only contain
enough acetone to cover the brush hairs.) Replace the acetone in this container weekly to
remove the build-up of epoxy in the container.

Cleaning of tools:
First, take cloth (paper) and remove excessive resin.
Decant the required amount of acetone into a cup or similar holder.
Close storage container properly.
Clean tool thoroughly.
If required, apply fresh acetone to tool.
Dump contaminated acetone into a dedicated waste container.

Warning:
Acetone is extremely flammable with a low flash point. Containers for acetone, especially
when open may NOT under any circumstances be placed or stored near open flames, where

32 | P a g e
welding or grinding is in progress, smoking areas or electrical switches. How to dispose of
acetone: Soap and water can be used on skin if exposed. Some shop hand cleaners work well
also. Any excess acetone should be properly disposed of, it is a good idea to put it in a proper
disposal can with lid and disposed of correctly.

De-molding:
After the part has cured sufficiently, it can be de-molded. Care must be taken to ensure the
curing process has completed, as de-molding forces may cause damage to parts when the
resin is still in a soft, semi-cured phase.
Prepared sample:
Now here, woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite material with different fiber
orientation is ready for test and typical view of some composite board is show below.

33 | P a g e
 Figure4. 4: prepared Sample
4.4.6 Cutting
After curing the laminate for about 24 hours at room temperature, it is cut to obtain test
specimens with 4 different orientations of glass fiber (0°, 30o, 45° and 60°). The cutting process
will be done according to the designed procedures.

34 | P a g e
 00 450

600
300

Figure4. 5: Fiber orientation of test specimen

35 | P a g e
Prepared samples
Now here, laminated glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite material with different fiber
orientation is ready for test and typical view of some compact tension specimen is shown below.

(a)

(b)

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 (c)

(d)

Figure4. 6: prepared Sample with different fiber orientation.

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4.6 Test Method and Experimental setups
To study and evaluate the fracture behavior of bidirectional glass fiber/ epoxy composite
materials with different orientations; 00, 300, 450 and 600, compact tension specimen sample will
be developed using ASTM standard ASTM E399. For each orientation a total number of
3specimensare needed.

The CT specimen will be tested using UTM machine, model wp 310, equipped with a 50KN load
cell.

4.7 Test apparatus

Universal Testing Machine (UTM): Universal Testing Machine testing system is integrated
testing packages that can be configured to meet different testing needs. Each includes a load unit
with integrally mounted actuator and servo valves, a hydraulic power unit, and the control
system. The control system has three major parts: the system software running on a personal
computer, the digital controller, and a remote station control panel. These functions work
together to provide fully automated test control. Optional application software packages let you
further tailor the system to automate most any standard or custom test procedure.

Model No.

(a)

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 (b)

Figure4. 7: Universal Testing Machine in Defense University, Engineering College which is

found in Bishoftu, Ethiopia.

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Fracture Toughness Test for Mode one Fracture using Compact tension test (ASTM D E399)

Here compact tension sample was prepared for 0.3 ratio value between crack length, ‘a’
a
and crack width, ‘w’ (  0.3) . For each sample, 3 specimens were tested in the UTM machine
w
and these CT specimens were clamped with UTM machine by the help of clevis fixture, which is
made in Addis Ababa Institute of Technology mechanical work shop. The cross head speed will
be used is0.2mm/min. The region in front of the crack tip was black painted. Then, strips patterns
were streaked perpendicularly to the crack tip with 1mm spacing to form a 20mm scale rule for
the crack length monitoring. A stationery camera will be used to view a magnified image of the
area of the specimen containing the crack length. Load and load line displacement (elongation)
were recorded from the given test and stress intensity factor including critical one for the
recorded loads. The experimental setup for measuring the fracture toughness using CT specimen
is shown in the figure 4.8.

(a)

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Figure4. 8: Experimental Setup for CT Specimen: (a) machine setup and (b) specimen setup.

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Chapter five
Result and Discussion
5.1 Experimental Result
5. 2 Compact Tension Test Result
3 (three) test samples were prepared for each orientation (00, 300, 450, 600) of fiber for Compact
Tension test. And experimental result of these specific tests have been summarized using graphs,
which can relate different material properties that are used in fracture mechanics to show fracture
resistant of a given composite material, including critical strain energy release rate (Kc), strain
energy release rate (GC) , and R-curve (resistance curve)

Prepared samples after test

(a)

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(b)

(c)

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 (d)

Figure5. 1: Four groups of samples after test: (a) 00 oriented sample fracture, (b) 300 oriented
sample fracture, (c) 450 oriented sample fracture, and (d) 600 oriented sample fracture

5.2.1 Standard deviation of test specimens

n

 (x
n 1
1  x 2  x3  x 4  x5 .......... ....  x n )
X  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... (5.1)
n
3

 (x 1  x 2  x3 )
X  1
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( 5.2)
3
5

 (x 1  x ) 2  ( x 2  x ) 2  ( x3  x ) 2
 
2 1
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( 5.3)
3

   2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….... (5.4)

where x5 Mean

9( : ;< =>?

9 @A = ; ?B A<C=

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 Table5. 1: Standard Deviation

Samples Maximum force Standard Energy release rate Standard

(KJ/m^2) Deviation
(KN) Deviation

CTS 00 3.59 0.654 198.66 2.25

CTS 300 3.87 0.959 229.22 3.51

CTS 450 4.19 0.816 268.64 2.53

CTS 600 3.87 0.78 232.98 1.72

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5.2.2 Force and displacement graph of CT specimens

Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3 Average
4.5

3.5

3
Force, KN

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load line Displacement, mm

(a)

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 Gc1 Gc2 Gc3 Gc Average

601

501

401
G [KJ/m^2]

301

201

101

1
29.5 34.5 39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5
Extension [mm]

(b)

Figure5. 2: Compact Tension Test result for 00orientations, (a) force Vs Load line displacement,
(b) energy release rate Vs Load line displacement

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 Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3 Average
4.5

3.5

3
Force, KN

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load line Displacement, mm

(a)

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 Sample 1 Sample2 Sampe 3 Average

600

500

400
G [KJ/m^2]

300

200

100

0
29.5 34.5 39.5 44.5 49.5

Extension [mm]

(b)
Figure5. 3: Compact Tension Test result for 300 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) energy release rate

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 Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3 Average
5

4.5

3.5

3
Force, KN

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Load line displacement, mm

(a)

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 Gc1 Gc2 Gc3 Gc Average

450
400
350
300
G, [kJ/m^2]

250
200
150
100
50
0
29.5 31.5 33.5 35.5 37.5 39.5 41.5 43.5 45.5
Extension, (mm)

(b)

Figure5. 4: Compact Tension Test result for 450 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) energy release rate

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 Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3 Average
4

3.5

2.5
Force, KN

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Load line Displacement, mm

(a)

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 GI 1 GI 2 GI 3 GI Average
500
450
400
350
G [KJ/m^2]

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
29.5 31.5 33.5 35.5 37.5 39.5 41.5
Extension [mm]

(b)

Figure5. 5: Compact Tension Test results for 600 orientations. (a) Force Vs Load line
displacement, (b) Resistance- curve for the tensile fracture toughness tests

Where G1 energy release rate which stand for sample1, G2 energy release rate which stand for
sample1, G3 energy release rate which stand for sample1, and G is the average energy release
rate of the three samples of 600.

5.2.3 Strain energy release rate

The critical strain energy release rates of the CT specimen were computed with compliance
calibration method, which is one of the data reduction scheme. The results are shown in figure
5.6.

5.2.4 Critical strain energy, GC

The critical value, GC of KC is then found by measuring the critical load Pc needed to fracture a
specimen containing a crack length of ac, and using the slope of the compliance curve at this
same value of a.

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 GI 0 GI 30 GI 45 GI 60
600

500

400
G [KJ/m^2]

300

200

100

0
29.5 34.5 39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5
Extension [mm]

Figure5. 6: Resistance- curve for the tensile fracture toughness tests: each symbol type
corresponds

5.3 Discussion
Table5. 2: Strain energy release rate

Specimen Gc Percent variation

KJ/m^2 %
CTS 0 198.66 Reference
CTS 30 229.22 15.38
CTS 60 232.98 17.27
CTS 45 268.64 35.22

The fracture behavior of all the four samples is investigated. The crack propagated in the
direction of fiber lay-up.
Gayatri Vineela et al [27] studied fracture behavior of fiber reinforced composites with change in
fiber orientation. In this research, three types (45/90, 0/90, and 30/60) of glass/epoxy composite

54 | P a g e
were investigated analytically and experimentally. 30/60 composite material has 239.9 KJm-2
energy release rate. From the results, it is concluded that 30/60 composite material has more
damaged resistance than the other orientations.
Carlson, L et al 2000 [23] Fracture experiments were carried out on compact tension specimens
of cross-ply S-glass/epoxy with 0 and 90 degree orientations. Fracture toughness values were
determined by the compliance calibration technique and by measuring the area under the load-
displacement curve. Tests on cross-ply S-glass specimens were valid although the cracks
propagated were not always straight and other damage mechanisms were also present. 0 degree
oriented composite material has best fracture toughness properties with energy release rate value
178 KJm-2.

Depending on the literature, the result from this thesis work is acceptable.

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Chapter Six
Conclusion, Recommendation and Future work
6.1 Conclusion
The experimental investigation of fracture behavior of bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced
epoxy composite materials leads to the following conclusions. A woven glass fiber reinforced
epoxy composites with fiber orientation (00, 300, 450, and 600) are made by hand layup
technique. Mechanical property of composites such as fracture toughness is obtained for the
above woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite system. The average value fracture
toughness for each of the test varies within 15.38-35.22% from the corresponding specific test
specimens.
From experimental data, the strain energy release rate of CTS 0 was calculated to be 198.66
KJ/m^2. Overall, these results show an improvement 22.62% strain energy release rate over that
of CTS 30, CTS 45 and CTS 60. The difference in this case is mostly due to fiber orientation
and/ or fiber layup angle.

6.2 Recommendation
Nowadays, many structures are made from composite materials. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composite materials are manufactured for different applications. To manufacture woven glass
fiber reinforced epoxy composite material, manufacturers have to use the right fiber layup
orientation. The best fiber la up orientation is important to manufacture a composite material
with desired toughness.

Then in order to manufacture laminated composite material, zero (0) degree fiber layup
orientation is highly recommended.

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6.3 Future work
This thesis work mainly addresses the effect of fiber orientation on fracture behavior of
bidirectional woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite material. However, there are many
different related research areas which are highly important to improve the fracture property of
woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite materials. Here the following topics are suggested
for further studies. These are:

 Effect of fiber ply thickness on fracture property

 Effect of woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy laminated composite material
manufacturing process on fracture property.
 Reinforcement and matrix volume ratio difference and its significance on fracture
property of woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy laminated composite material.

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