CHAPTER THREE

GROUNDWATER MOVMENT
Does GW Move?
 How?
 Why?
 Where?
 Sluggishly ….
 (Established) Hydraulic Principles– GW
FLOW. Mainly due to the hydrologic cycle.
 From one point to another owing to
hydraulic gradient, hydraulic conductivity or
transmissivity of the medium
 3.1 Darcy’s Law
 Who is Darcy?
 He was a French Hydraulic Engineer
investigating the flow of water through
horizontal beds of sand to be used for water
filtration.
 While he was doing such, he observed some
hydraulic phenomena and established what is
known as Darcy’s law in 1856.
 Groundwater in its natural state is invariably
moving : Basically due to the Hydrologic
Cycle.

 This movement is governed by established

hydraulic principles.

 The flow through aquifers, most of which are

natural porous media, can be expressed by the
Darcy’s law, which is one of the established
hydraulic principles.
Darcy’s LAW States:
 Q ~ hL and Q ~1/L and from continuity Q
~A
 Thus Q ~ hL.A/L; Where Q = flow through
porous media, hL = Head Loss, L = Flow
path length and A is Cross Sectional Area
Normal to flow.
 Inserting The proportionality Constant, K:
 Q = -K. hL.A/L
3.1.1 FORMULATION of Darcy’s Law
 Darcy’s Law can be Verified
Experimentally and Mathematically since
it is possible to Solve for hL.

2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + hL
γ w 2g γ w 2g
 But for the flow in porous media, V ~ 0
and Hence the Bernoulli Equation
reduces to:
 p1   p2 
 hL =
 + z1  −  + z 2 
γw  γw 

 Basically hL is due to the energy loss by

frictional resistance dissipated as heat
energy.
 It follows that the head loss is
independent of the inclination of the
cylinder.
3.1.2 Specific Discharge (q)
 Also called Darcy Velocity.

Q ∆h
 q=v= = −k
A ∆

 So! What is special with Darcy Velocity?

 The Darcy Velocity assumes that flow occurs
through the entire x-section of the material
without regard to solids & pores, while
keeping the same velocity as that happens in
the porous media (kind of sluggish flow )

 Actually, the flow is limited to the pore space

only and thus, truly one could tell about the
(average) interstitial velocity.

 Va = Q
nA
 And….
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ......... + Qn
Va =
Aactual

Q
Va =
A*n
 Thus Va > v why?
 But to Define Va is difficult since
►microstructure of material should be
considered.
► is non-uniform,
► involves endless accelerations,
decelerations, and changes in direction.
Thus the actual velocity depends on
specifying a precise point location within
the medium.
So we usually go for Darcy’s Velocity, v, in
porous media flow ……
3.1.3 Validation of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s Law is Valid:
 i) Saturated & unsaturated LAMINAR flow.
 ii) Steady & unsteady flow condition
 iii) Flow in aquifers and aquitards.
 iv) Flow in homogenous & heterogeneous
media
 v) Flow in isotropic & an isotropic media.
 vi) Flow in rocks and granular media
 Darcy’s Law is valid for Laminar flow
condition since it is a linear law.

(
v = −k dh
d
)
m
, m = 1.0

 Reynolds number is used to distinguish b/n

Laminar and Turbulent flow.

Inertial force ρvD

NR = =
visouse force µ
 Refer Moody’s Curve for flow classification.
 For the porous media, D refers to the
effective grain diameter (d10 ).
 Darcy’s law is valid for NR < 1 and does
not go beyond seriously up to NR =10.
 And Unfortunately, flow through Porous
media could not go beyond the limit except
some deviations. So Darcy’s law is
applicable aquifer flow in most instances.
 3.2 HYRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
 Hydraulic Conductivity is a coefficient of
proportionality describing the rate at which water
can move through a permeable medium. Refer the
Darcy’s equation.
 A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if it
will transmit in unit time a unit volume of
groundwater at prevailing kinematic Viscosity
through a x-section, A, at right angles to the
direction of flow, under unit hydraulic grad. K
(L/T)
 The equation of continuity is given as:

Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2 = cons tan t
 And the Darcy’s equation is

∆h
V = K
L
∆h
 & thus Q = AK
L
3.2.1 Permeability (Intrinsic Permeability
and Hydraulic Conductivity.
 Commonly referred as similar and used
interchangeably. But in technical definitions they
are different.
 Of course, both refer to the ease with which water
flow through a medium, BUT
▄ Permeability (Intrinsic Permeability)
characterizes the ability of a porous medium to
transmit a fluid.
 It is dependent only on the physical
properties of the porous medium: grain
size, grain shape and arrangement, pore
interconnections etc…
 On the other hand hydraulic conductivity
is dependent on the properties of both
porous media and the fluid/water .
 They are related with each other.
 …… in the following way
  Ki = Kµ/ ρg (L2)
Where µ absolute viscosity (dynamic viscosity)
and ρ density of fluid
In terms of Kinematic Viscosity, ν,
Ki = Kν / ρ (L2)
 3.2.2 Determinations of
Hydraulic Conductivity
 Can be determined by variety of Techniques:
1. Empirical Formulas
2. Laboratory Methods Constant Head Permeameter
Variable Head Permeameter
3. Tracer Tests
4. Auger hole method
5. Pumping Tests
1. Empirical Formula
 Usually having the general shape of
formula as :
K = Cd2
K = fsfnd2
where C is Dimensionless constant, d is
characteristic grain diameter, fs is the grain
shape factor, fn the porosity factor
* They have limited application for
calculation of K, because;
 The formulas were determined from small
point samples and hence they are well
applied to those samples (materials and
conditions).

 Thus they give us approximate values of K

and it is not surprising that if different such
formula give us various values of K with
wide gap.

 For preliminary works the value of C is

often taken as 100 and d is the effective
grain size (d10)
2 Laboratory Methods
 Constant Head Permeameter
 A permeameter is a laboratory device used to
measure the intrinsic permeability and
hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock
sample.
 The constant head permeameter is the one
which can measure the hydraulic
conductivities of consolidated and
unconsolidated formations under low heads.
 Water enters the medium cylinder from the
bottom and is collected as overflow after
passing upward through the material/sample.
 The hydraulic conductivity is determined from the
equation of Darcy as:

K = VL/ (Ath)

Where L = length of sample; t = time of

measurement; A = Area of sample; h = head loss
for the flow through the sample for a given
particular test and V = Volume of water collected
through time t after passing through sample.
 Variable/falling head Permeameter
 Here water is added to the fall tube; it flows
upward through the cylindrical sample and
collected as an overflow.
 The test in falling head permeameter
consists of measuring the rate of fall of the
water level in the tube and collecting volume
of water overflow through time.
 Variable Head Permeameter

Porous
Plate
 The flow rate is given by:

K = aLln(h1/h2)/At
 3. Tracer Tests
 Field determination of hydraulic
conductivity.
 Conducted by measuring the time interval
for a water tracer to travel b/n two
observation wells or test holes. The tracer
can be a die such as sodium flourescein or
salt.
 Consider the figure below:
 Tracer is injected in hole A and subsequent
samples of water from hole B are taken.
 The first arrival time of tracer in the hole is
known and
 Va is measured from : Classical physics
Va = L/t (1)
 B/c the tracer flows through the aquifer
with the average interstitial velocity, va,
then; ….. From Darcy’s law
Va = Kh/(nL) (2)
 Equating the two eqations:
K = nL2/ht
 But the tracer test method suffer
from serious limitations such as,
 The holes need to be close together;
otherwise, the travel time interval can
excessively be long. For this requirement,
the value of K is highly localized.
 Unless the flow direction is accurately
known, the tracer may miss the d/s hole
entirely. Multiple sampling holes may
help, but costly.
 If the aquifer stratified with layers having
different hydraulic conductivities, the first
arrival of the tracer will result in
conductivity considerably larger than the
average for the aquifer.
4 Auger Hole method
 relatively simple method and most
adaptable to shallow water table
conditions.
 The value of K obtained is essentially that
for a horizontal direction in the immediate
vicinity of the hole.
K = C/864 (dy/dt)
Where dy/dt is measured rate of rise (cm/sec)
C = Constant (dimensionless)
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/day)
 5. Pumping Tests
 The most reliable method of estimating
aquifer hydraulic conductivity is the pumping
test of wells.
 Based on observations of water levels near
pumping wells an integrated K value over
sizable aquifer section can be obtained.
 It is the superior method where the sample is
not disturbed.
 It will be dealt in the ……

“next subsequent chapters”.

Chapters 4 and 5…. COMING!
 3.3 Aquifer flow and
transmissivity
 3.3.1 Aquifer Flow
 Aquifer flow can be one dimensional,
two dimensional or more.
 Darcy’s equation can be used to
calculate one dimensional flow in
aquifers.
 To obtain the volume rate of flow in
aquifer, Darcy’s velocity is multiplied by
cross sectional area of an aquifer
normal to the flow.
 Q = Av = -AKdh/dl = Aki
 Q = -WbKi

Q
k
b l

w
3.3.2 Transmissivity (T)
 It is widely used term in groundwater
hydraulics
 Defined as the rate at which water of prevailing
kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic
gradient.
Thus T = Kb (L2/T)
Where b is the saturated thickness of an aquifer.
 The coefficient of transmissivity is the rate at which
water flows through a vertical strip of the aquifer
one meter wide and extending through the full
saturated thickness, under the hydraulic gradient of
one (100 %).
 It indicates how much water will move through the
formation. It can also be defined as the product of
the average hydraulic conductivity and the saturated
thickness of the aquifer.
 It is one of the most important parameter in
groundwater system analysis
 And in terms of Darcy’s Equation,
 Q = -WbKi = Q = -WTi
 The saturated thickness (b) for confined
aquifer is fairly constant and hence the value
of T is constant;
 However, the saturated thickness (b) for
unconfined aquifers is variable as the water
table varies. Hence the transmissivity for
unconfined aquifers vary as a function of the
water table variation.
Transmissivity (illustrated)

T = Kb
Q = T.w.dh/dl
Factors affecting estimation of T
3.4 Flow in anisotropic aquifers
 Anisotropy is the rule where the directional
properties of hydraulic conductivity exist.
 It comes due to two main cases:
1. individual particles are seldom
spherical so that when deposited under water
they tend to rest with their flat sides down.
2. alluvium typically consists of layers of
different materials, each possessing a unique
value of K.
 In typical field situation, horizontal hydraulic
conductivity (Kx) is usually grater than Vertical
hydraulic conductivity (Kv). This is b/c of the
above mentioned reason and can be proved.

Horizontal flow
 Consider an aquifer of n horizontal layers each
individually isotropic, with different thickness a
hydraulic conductivity (Fig below)
 For horizontal flow parallel to the layers, the
flow per unit width in the upper layer, q1 is
given by :
 q1 = K1iz1 Where i is the hydraulic
gradient; K1 and z1 are indicated in the
figure.

 Similarly, q2 = K2iz2 and the total flow qx in the

horizontal direction is given by:
 qx = i(K1z1 + K2z2 +………….+ Knzn)
(1)
 If the whole aquifer system is taken as
taken as homogeneous; then the total flow
is:
 qx = Kxi(z1 +z2+ ………+ zn) (2)
 Where Kx is the horizontal hydraulic
conductivity for the entire system.
 Equating (1) and (2) we have,

 Kx = (K1z1 + K2z2 +………….+ Knzn) )/

(z1 +z2+ ………+ zn)
 Kx = (K1 + K2 +…………. + Kn)/n
(Arithmetic mean)
 3.4.2 Vertical Flow
 If there is a vertical flow through the
system, the flow q per unit horizontal area
for the top layer can be expressed as: qz =
K1Δh1/z1. and this flow rate is kept
constant.
 Δh1 = qzz1/K1

 Δh2 = qzz2/K2 and ….. Δhn = qzzn/Kn

 ΔH =ΣΔh = qz(z1/K1 + z2/K2+ ………+

zn/Kn)……. (1)
 ΔH = qz (z1 +z2 +…..zn)/(Kz)
☻ Equating the two equations, we have

 Kz = (z1 +z2 +…..zn) /( (z1/K1 + z2/K2+

………+ zn/Kn)
 Kz = n /( (1/K1 + 1K2+ ………+ 1/Kn)
(Harmonic mean)
 In mathematical terms, harmonic mean is
less than arithmetic mean; thus, Kx > Kz .
3.4.3 Average Hydraulic
Conductivity (overall average )
 Kx and KZ were average hydraulic
conductivities in their respective directions.
 It is not ACCUSTOMED to determine the
hydraulic conductivities of each layer and
determine the average hydraulic
conductivities, except in rare circumstances
as limited in research and academic
purposes.
 The overall average hydraulic conductivity is
computed from the geometric mean or the
arithmetic mean of the logarithm of the
average horizontal and vertical hydraulic
conductivities.


K av = K x .K z
(log K x + log K z )
log K av =
2
 Homogeneity and Isotropy
 Homogeneous - a geologic unit that has the same properties at
all locations. K, n, b, vary little T,S are constant throughout the
unit.
 Heterogeneous - Hydraulic properties vary spatially.
 Isotropic - The condition in which hydraulic properties of the
aquifer are equal in all directions. Varies with grain shape and
orientation
 Anisotropy - The condition under which one or more of the
hydraulic properties of an aquifer vary according to the
direction.
3.5 Groundwater flow directions
 Flow nets: a net work of flow lines and
equipotential lines intersecting at right
angles.
 Flow line is an imaginary path by which
a particle of water follows/flows in its
course of seepage through a saturated soil
mass.
 An equipotential line is the line which
joins points with equal potential head.
Flow lines and Equipotential lines
. Properties of flow net
 Flow and equipotential lines are smooth
curves.
 Flow and equipotential lines meet at right
angles to each other.
 No two flow lines cross each other
 No flow or equipotential lines start at the
same point.

NB To draw flow nets, we need to have

boundary conditions.
 Boundary Conditions
 Impermeable ( No flow boundary )
 There is no flow through such a boundary.
Flow lines run parallel to the boundary and
GW head contour lines (equipotential lines)
are perpendicular to this boundary.

 Constant head boundary

 This could be the boundary with open water
bodies such as perennial rivers, lakes or seas.
The flow lines are perpendicular to this open
water bodies.( refer figure from board).
 Water table ( variable head) boundary

 It is the boundary which may be

influenced by recharge or discharge from
an aquifer. Water table may be served as
constant head boundary if there is no
recharge/discharge and not influenced by
other phenomena in which water table is
fairly constant.
3.5.2 Flow in relation to GW
Contours
 Contour maps of water levels (both
unconfined and confined aquifers) are
made in the majority of hydro geologic
investigations used to determine GW flow
direction and, when properly drawn,
represent a very powerful tool in aquifer
studies.
 Contour maps, when accompanied with
other data, also allow for the analysis and
calculation of the flow velocity, particle
travel time, hydraulic conductivity and
transmissivity.
GRONDWATER FLOW DIRECTION

 Manual contouring
 Computerized contouring

Three well method for localized flow

direction other interpolation technique can
be used in contouring.
The computerized contouring is handled by a
computer software. These days most works
of GW contouring are handled by computer
programes.
Flownets and pumping wells
Flow in Heterogeneous Isotropic systems
 Three well method
 3.6. General GW flow Equation
 The equation of continuity
Total mass inflow - total mass
outflow = change of mass storage
 The equation of Momentum
–Darcy’s law
 If we denote the mass of groundwater
flowing through the left face as:

ρq y ∆X∆Z
 mass flow through the right face by taking
the first two terms of a Taylor series
  ∂ (ρq y ) 
 ρq y + ∆Y  ∆X∆Z
 ∂Y 

The loss or gain of mass flow per time unit in

the Y-direction can then be expressed as:

∂ (ρq y )
− ∆X∆Y∆Z
∂Y
  ∂( ρq x ) ∂( ρq y ) ∂( ρq z )  ∂(∆M ) ∂(nρ )
− + +  ∆X∆Y∆Z = = ∆X∆Y∆Z
 ∂X ∂Y ∂Z  ∂t ∂t

 ∂q x ∂q y ∂q z 
− + + =0
 ∂X ∂Y ∂Z 
  Introducing the Darcy’s Equation yields:

 ∂ 2h   ∂ 2h   ∂ 2h 
K x  2  + K y  2  + K z  2  = 0
 ∂X   ∂Y   ∂Z 

For unsteady state flow considering the aquifer and water

compressibility /expansion:

∂ h
2
∂ h
2
∂ h
2
 ∂h 
K x  2  + K y  2  + K z  2  = Ss 
 ∂X   ∂Y   ∂Z   ∂t 
 Solution techniques for the flow equation is
dealt in subsequent chapters