BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology)

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
1 3 3
The Tissues and The integumentary System

ü Read course and unit objectives

ü Read study guide prior to class attendance
ü Read required learning resources; refer to unit terminologies for jargons
ü Proactively participate in classroom discussions
ü Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
ü Answer and submit course unit tasks.

VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy
& Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10th Edition

Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data
subscription will suffice)
At the end of the course unit (CM), learners will be able to:
Cognitive

• Describe the general makeup of a tissue

• Classify the four types of tissues based on the descriptions and functions
• Identify the structures and functions of the various epithelial tissues
• Describe the types of connective tissues
• Explain the locations and functions of each type of muscle tissue
• Discern the unique characteristics of nervous tissues
• Describe the general functions of the integumentary system
• Elaborate different structures and physiology of the Integumentary System

Adipose tissue - Type of loose connective tissue dominated by fat cells

Areolar tissue - Type of loose connective tissue that lies beneath almost all epithelia
Chondrocytes - Cartilage-forming cells
Columnar epithelium - Epithelial tissue composed of cells having a tall, columnar shape
Connective tissue - The most widespread, and the most varied, of all the tissues. It serves
to connect the body together and to support, bind, or protect organs
Cuboidal epithelium - Epithelial tissue consisting of cells having a cube-like shape
Endocrine gland - A gland that secretes its product, called a hormone, directly into the
bloodstream
Epithelium - The layer of cells forming the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of
mucous and serous membranes
Exocrine gland - A gland that secretes its product into a duct, which then empties onto a
body surface or inside a body cavity
Fibroblasts - Cells that secrete collagen, which forms scar tissue inside a wound
Fibrosis - The repair and replacement of damaged tissue with connective tissue, mainly
collagen
Glandular epithelium - Type of epithelium consisting of glands that secrete a particular
substance
Goblet cell - Modified columnar cell containing secretory vesicles that produce large
quantities of mucus
Granulation tissue - Newly formed tissue inside a wound
 Mucous membrane - Epithelial membrane that lines body surfaces that open directly to
the body’s exterior
Muscle tissue - Tissue consisting of contractile cells or fibers that effect movement of an
organ or body part
Nervous tissue - Tissue with a high degree of excitability and conductivity that makes up
the nervous system
Osseous tissue - Bone tissue
Osteocytes - Bone-forming cells
Reticular tissue - Tissue consisting of a loose network of reticular fibers and cells; forms
the framework of the spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow.
Serous membrane - Membrane composed of simple squamous epithelium resting on a
thin layer of areolar connective tissue; lines some of the closed body cavities and also
covers many of the organs in those cavities
Squamous epithelium - Epithelial tissue consisting of thin, flat cells
Stem cell - Specialized cell that can differentiate into many different types of cells
Tissue - Groups of similar cells that perform a common function

3A.1 TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY

As the human body contains trillion of cells, these cells further group together to form tissues.
These tissues were made from specialized cells that were made during development and
intended to group together to perform specific functions. The science that deals with the study
of tissues is called histology. Relating knowledge of different tissues can brought understanding
of underlying changes in the body such development, growth and even disease existence.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

A pathologist on the other hand, is a physician who examines tissues for changes that may
indicate damage or disease. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), the cells organize into three layers. The three layers
includes ectoderm as the outer layer, mesoderm as middle layer and endoderm forming the
inner layer. And while cells continue to divide, they also form distinct properties through the
process called differentiation.
There are four basic types of tissues in your body:

• Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, forms glands, and lines body cavities, hollow
organs, and ducts.
• Connective tissue - protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs
together, stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity.
• Muscular tissue - generates the physical force needed to make body structures move.
• Nervous tissue - detects changes inside and outside the body and generates transmits
nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help maintain homeostasis.

3A.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) specifies, epithelial tissues covers body surfaces, forms
glands, and lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts and perform several functions such
as:

1. It protects underlying structures. Skin, for instance, is an evident model of how tissues
provides protection. Other examples includes oral cavity and the linings of the digestive
tract.
2. It acts as a barrier. It prevents from contamination of harmful molecules by not allowing
infiltration of toxic microorganisms.
3. It permits passage of substances. Diffusion allows exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the lungs providing enough oxygenation in the body.
4. It secretes. All glands are made of epithelial tissue. The endocrine glands secrete
hormones, the mucous glands secrete mucus, and our intestinal tract contains cells that
secrete digestive enzymes in addition to the pancreas and the liver, which secrete the
major portions of digestive enzymes.
5. It absorbs. In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients from our digested food enter blood
capillaries and get carried to the cells of our body.

3A.2.1 Classification of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues are classified according to cell shape and to its cell layers.
According to Cell shape from Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)
• Squamous —Thin and flat cells that allow diffusion and filtration
• Cuboidal — Cube-shaped cells that may have microvilli at their apical surface for
secretion or absorption
• Columnar — Tall and thin cells that may have microvilli or cilia at their apical surface
for secretion and absorption
• Transitional — Change shape from flat to cuboidal and back. These cells are found in
organs that can stretch like the urinary bladder.
 According to Cell Layers
• Simple epithelium — has only one layer of cells and primary function is to move
materials
• Pseudostratified epithelium – has a single layer but appears to have many due to
cells’ nuclei are placed at many levels
• Stratified epithelium – has multiple layer of cells and intended for protection

More often than not, each epithelium is named after the shape and the layers. The shape and
number of layers of epithelial cells can change if constantly exposed to irritants.

3A.2.1.1 Simple Squamous Epithelium

Figure 3.1 Simple Squamous Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

It contains single-layered flat cells (figure 3.1) where certain substances are allowed to cross.
Because of this characteristic, processes such as diffusion, osmosis, secretion and filtration as
well as provision of a level of protection from friction are also possible. For instance, diffusion is
possible in the linings of an alveolus in the lungs. Moreover, filtration of mainly water can occur
in the kidneys leading to formation of urine while leaving large molecules such as protein and
blood cells back in the blood vessels. Additionally, protection was also made through the fluid
from the secretions of simple squamous epithelium because it lubricates the surfaces between
the organs thereby preventing damage from friction when the organs rub against one another or
the body wall. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.2 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Figure 3.2 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cube-like cell (figure 3.2) that aids in secretion
and absorption. Through this and their greater volume and organelles, they can enable active transport
and facilitated diffusion. Example of areas where you can find this would be the kidney tubules, glands
and their ducts, and the choroid plexus of the brain. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

3A.2.1.3 Simple Columnar Epithelium

Figure 3.3 Simple Columnar Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Simple columnar epithelia are made up of large, single layers of thin cells (figure 3.3) that
allows it to conduct complex processes such as mucus secretions. The mucus protects the lining
of the intestine, and the digestive enzymes complete the process of digesting food. The columnar
cells then absorb the digested foods by active transport, facilitated diffusion, or simple diffusion.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

3A.2.1.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Figure 3.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

The linings of the larger ducts of any glands, the epididymis and male urethra have
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium. When ciliated, it facilitates movement of unwanted
substances and help moves secretions like those found in the upper respiratory tract. As
discussed earlier, a pseudostratified columnar epithelium may look like to have many layers and
this is because of the cells appearing to be at different levels (figure 3.4). Some cells are lengthy
enough to touch the free surface while other cells falls short in length giving the false idea that
there are more than one layer. But originally, they were just a group of cells in single layer that
varies in height. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.5 Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Figure 3.5 Stratified Squamous Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Stratified squamous epithelium, whether keratinized or not, its main function is protection as
it forms a thick layer of epithelium (figure 3.5) made from several layers of cells.

One type of stratified squamous epithelium forms the outer layer of the skin and is called
keratinized squamous epithelium. The dead cells provide protection against abrasion, and form
a barrier that prevents microorganisms and toxic chemicals from entering the body, and reduces
the loss of water from the body. If cells at the surface are damaged or rubbed away, they are
replaced by cells formed in the deeper layers. In contrast, stratified squamous epithelium of the
mouth is composed of living cells with a moist surface. This nonkeratinized (moist) stratified
squamous epithelium also provides protection against abrasion and acts as a mechanical
barrier, preventing microorganisms from entering the body. Water, however, can move across it
more readily than across the skin. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

3A.2.1.6 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

The lining of the ducts of sweat glands, esophageal glands and parts of the male urethra are
made up of Stratified cuboidal epithelium that forms from layers of cube-like cells intended to
assist in secretion, absorption and protection. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.1.7 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells, but only the
surface cells are columnar. The deeper layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape. Like stratified
cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare. It is found in the mammary
gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male urethra. This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

3A.2.1.8 Transitional Epithelium

Figure 3.6 Transitional Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
In the unstretched state, transitional epithelium consists of five or more layers of cuboidal or
columnar cells that often are dome-shaped at the free surface (figure 3.6). As transitional
epithelium is stretched, the cells change to a low cuboidal or squamous shape, and the number
of cell layers decreases. Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can expand greatly, such as
the urinary bladder. It also protects underlying structures from the caustic effects of urine.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
3A.2.2 Cell Connection

According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011), most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve
cells are tightly joined into functional units by points of contact between their plasma membranes
called cell junctions. Cell junctions perform different functions in different tissues:

1. Tight junctions fuse cells together tightly to prevent substances from passing between
the cells. In can be found in tissues with simple epithelia like those that line the stomach,
intestines, and urinary bladder, tight junctions prevent the contents of these organs from
leaking out.

2. Some cell junctions hold cells

together so that they don’t separate
while performing their functions:

• Adherens junctions have a dense

layer of proteins just inside the
plasma membrane called a plaque
that runs along micro laments to form
a belt or strap-like structure called an
adhesion belt. Two adjacent cells are
joined by transmembrane
glycoproteins that insert into the
corresponding adhesion belts. This
arrangement resists separation even
when stretched.
• Desmosomes are like adherens
junctions, but the plaque binds to
intermediate laments and does not
form a belt. Instead of two cells
adhering along a belt, they adhere at
specific spots. Figure 3.7 Cell Connection
• Hemidesmosomes resemble half *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Desmosomes and tight junctions anchor cells to one another and
of a desmosome. They do not hemidesmosomes anchor cells to the basement membrane. Gap junctions
adhere adjacent cells but rather allow adjacent cells to communicate with each other. Few cells have all
these different connections.
attach cells to membranes.

3. Gap junctions form channels that allow ions and molecules to pass between cells. This
permits cells in a tissue to communicate and enables nerve or muscle impulses to spread
rapidly among cells.
3A.2.3 Glands
A gland is made of glandular epithelial cells that secretes substances either in the surface or in
the bloodstream. These glandular epithelial cells form both endocrine and exocrine glands.
Some glands contain both endocrine and exocrine glandular epithelium like the pancreas,
ovaries, and testes. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
• Endocrine gland – ductless and secrete substance called hormones directly into the
interstitial fluid then to the blood. Example of which includes thyroid gland, pituitary gland.
• Exocrine gland – secrete substances through tubes or ducts. For instance, sweat
glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands.

a. Structure based on shape of ducts:

a.1 Simple – the duct
ends directly into the
secretory portion
a.2 Compound–the duct
ends into multiple
secretory branches

b. Based on secretory units:

b.1 tubular – straight
Figure 3.8 Structure of Exocrine Glands
b.2 Acinar / alveolar – *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
saclike structure

c. Based on secretion types: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine

Figure 3.9 Secretion Types

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
3A.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissues contains various cells, fibers and other substances. It protects and
supports the body and its organs. No wonder it is one of the most abundant tissues.

Two major components according to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)

I. Cells
1.1 Fibroblasts - are large flat cells that move and secrete fibers and ground
substance.
1.2 Macrophages - develop from white blood cells. They eat bacteria and
cell debris by phagocytosis
1.3 Plasma cells - are small cells that develop from a white blood cell. They
secrete antibodies that attack and neutralize foreign substances.
1.4 Mast cells - are abundant along blood vessels. They produce histamine,
which dilates small blood vessels during inflammation and kill bacteria.
1.5 Adipocytes - They are found below the skin and around organs like hear
and kidneys.
1.6 White blood cells like Neutrophils that migrates to sites of infection ad
Eosinophils that migrate to sites of parasitic infection and allergic
responses.
II. Extracellular Matrix
2.1 Collagen – strong, flexible bundles of the protein collagen, the most
abundant protein in the body
2.2 Elastic fibers – stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin
and fibrillin. They are found in skin, blood vessels and lung tissues.
2.3 Ground substances - is the stuff between cells and fibers. It is made of
water and organic molecules (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
glucosamine). It supports cells and fibers, binds them together, and
provides a medium for exchanging substances between blood and cells.

Connective tissue cells are named according to their functions and suffixes are used to denote
their function. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Table 1. Naming Connective tissues and Example

SUFFIX AND MEANING EXAMPLE
• fibroblasts are cells that form fibers and ground substance in the
suffix -blast (germ)
extracellular matrix of fibrous connective tissue
produce the matrix
• Osteoblasts form bone
cells ending in -cyte (cell) • fibrocytes are cells that maintain it
maintain it • osteocytes maintain bone
cells ending in -clast (break)
• osteoclasts break down bone
break it down for remodeling
Functions of Connective Tissue : Connective tissue performs the following major functions
according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016):
1. Enclosing and separating other tissues. Liver and kidneys were encapsulated to help
them be separated from other tissues and organs. More so, connective tissues divides
structures such as muscles, nerves as well as blood vessels from one another.
2. Cushioning and insulating. Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissues it
surrounds and provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps conserve heat.
3. Connecting tissues to one another. Connective tissues binds, supports and strengthen
other tissues. For instance, tendons attaches muscles to bones while ligaments holds
bones together.
4. Supporting and moving parts of the body. Connective tissues accommodates
locomotion while providing rigid support. Examples of which includes surfaces of bones
and joints.
5. Storing compounds. Storing energy through fat tissues and cells provides reserves for
the body. Bones in addition, stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate.
6. Transporting. It transport materials throughout the body. For instance, blood, delivers
nutrients, enzymes and essential nutrients.
7. Protecting. It protects the body by destroying invading microorganisms and eliminating
cellular debris. Protection from injury can also be sought from bones.

3.1.1 Classification of Connective Tissue

Like epithelium, connective tissue is classified according to its cells, extracellular matrix, and
appearance under the microscope. Unlike epithelium, most connective tissue has a rich supply
of blood vessels. Two major categories of connective tissue are embryonic and adult connective
tissue. By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic connective tissue has become
specialized to form the types of connective tissue seen in adults. To further understand the
different classifications, an outline is presented in the table below.

Table 2. Classification of Connective Tissues

Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground Adipose
substance Reticular
Connective Tissue Dense, regular collagenous
Proper Dense – more fibers, less ground Dense, regular elastic
substance Dense, irregular collagenous
Dense, irregular elastic
Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage
Elastic
Connective Tissue Spongy
Bone – solid matrix Compact

Fluid Connective Blood

Red Marrow
Tissue Hemopoietic Tissue
Yellow Marrow
3A.3.1.1 Connective Tissue Proper
Table 3. Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissues

a. Areolar Connective Tissue

*Photoand
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Russo (2016)
Cellular components of these Areolar Connective Tissue include fibroblasts, which are mainly responsible for the
matrix. Other cellular components includes plasma cells, adipocytes and mast cells. Moreover, the basement
membranes of epithelia often rests on connective tissues thereby providing strength, elasticity and support.
(Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

b. Adipose Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells. They reduces heat loss and provide great amount of energy
reserve, support and protection. Unlike other connective tissue types, adipose tissue is composed of large cells
and a small amount of extracellular matrix, which consists of loosely arranged collagen and reticular fibers with
some scattered elastic fibers. The individual cells are large and closely packed together. Adipose tissue also
pads and protects parts of the body and acts as a thermal insulator.
c. Reticular Tissue

*Photo
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Russo (2016)
Reticular tissue are primarily made from specialized fibroblasts called reticular cells and reticular fibers. They
forms the framework of lymphatic tissue in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.

Classification of Connective Tissues (Recall)

Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground substance Adipose
Connective Tissue Reticular
Proper Dense, regular collagenous
Dense – more fibers, less ground substance
Dense, regular elastic

Table 4. Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissues

a. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
 b. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant elastic fibers among its collagen fibers. It allows stretching of
various organs. Examples includes the lungs, the arterial walls, trachea, bronchial tubes, vocal cords and
ligaments.

3A.3.1.2 Supporting Connective Tissues

Classification of Connective Tissues (Recall)
Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground substance Adipose
Reticular
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense, regular collagenous
Dense – more fibers, less ground substance
Dense, regular elastic

Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage
Elastic
Connective Tissue Spongy
Bone – solid matrix
Compact

Another type of a connective tissues are Supporting Connective Tissues. In this connective
tissue, specialized cells called chondrocytes, or cartilage cells makes up a Cartilage. When
grouped together, these chondrocytes forms an island called lacuna.
As an overview, cartilages provides greater support for surrounding structures. Though they are
rigid, it goes back easily when compressed. However, there are no blood vessels within cartilage.
Substances must diffuse through the extracellular matrix into the chondrocytes. This diffusion is
a relatively slow process which means that the cells and nutrients necessary for tissue repair do
not easily reach the damaged area, which is why cartilage injuries take a long time to heal.
 Table 5. Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage
a. Hyaline Cartilage

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Embryonic and fetal skeletons are initially made up of cartilage that eventually develops into a bone. In bones,
these hyaline cartilage are made up of chondrocytes and collagen fibers. It forms a layer sustainable to bear
certain amount of compression. It can be found in the ends of long bones, the ribs, nose, larynx and trachea, as
well in bronchial tubes.

b. Fibrocartilage

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Fibrocartilage, same as hyaline cartilage, consists differentiated fibroblasts and collagen fibers. But unlike
hyaline, fibrocartilage has more collagen that helps withstand pulling and tearing forces. Moreover, they provide
support in joining structures. They can be found in the pelvis, the disks between the vertebrae and in some joints,
such as the knee and temporomandibular joints.
c. Elastic Cartilage

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
Like all cartilage, elastic cartilage contains chondrocytes but more elastic fibers. The elastic fibers appear as
coiled fibers among bundles of collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape when bent.
The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain elastic cartilage.

Classification of Connective Tissues (Recall)

Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground substance Adipose
Reticular
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense, regular collagenous
Dense – more fibers, less ground substance
Dense, regular elastic

Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage
Elastic
Connective Tissue
Bone – solid matrix Spongy and Compact

Table 6. Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone

a. Bone

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
3A.3.1.3 Fluid Connective Tissues
Classification of Connective Tissues (Recall)
Areolar
Loose – fewer fibers, more ground substance Adipose
Connective Tissue Reticular
Dense, regular collagenous

Proper Dense – more fibers, less ground substance

Dense, regular elastic
Dense, irregular collagenous
Dense, irregular elastic
Hyaline
Supporting Cartilage – semisolid matrix Fibrocartilage
Elastic

Connective Tissue Bone – solid matrix

Spongy
Compact

Fluid Connective Blood

Tissue Hemopoietic Tissue
Red Marrow
Yellow Marrow

Table 7. Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood

a. Blood

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)

To provide more focus in tissues and its composition and structure, bones and blood will be
further elaborated on the weeks assigned for each.
3A.4 MUSCLE TISSUES
Muscular tissue is composed of elongated muscle cells called muscle fibers. The job of
muscular tissue is to generate force, which produces motion, maintains posture, and generates
heat. There are three types of muscular tissue and these are Skeletal Muscles, Cardiac Muscles
and Smooth muscles.

Table 8. Muscle Tissues

a. Skeletal Muscle

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Skeletal muscles are group of multi-nucleated cells with striations due to the arrangement of contractile proteins
within the cells. This further helps in the generation of force during voluntary commands. As described, skeletal
muscles can be found attached to the skeleton. However, the nervous system can cause skeletal muscles to
contract without conscious involvement, as occurs during reflex movements and the maintenance of muscle tone

b. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle has cylindrical, intermediate-sized cells that make up this tissue are connected to one another
by cell junctions called intercalated discs. These intercalated discs contains specialized gap junctions helps in
coordinating contractions. Cardiac muscle has striations and contracts involuntarily.
 *Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

c. Smooth Muscle

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Smooth muscle contains groups of small cells with one nucleus that are capable of stretching and are part of
blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, uterus, and bladder. Unlike skeletal muscles, smooth muscle tissue has
no striations and contracts involuntarily.
3A.5 NERVOUS TISSUE
According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), nervous tissue transmits impulses to coordinate
activities including involuntary controls because these specialized cells makes up the brain,
spinal cord and nerves.

Despite the complexity of nervous system functions, nervous tissue consists of only two types
of cells which are neurons and neuroglia. The neurons, or nerve cells, are responsible for
conducting action potentials. These action potentials are electrical signals that assists in cell
communication, making them sensitive to different stimuli. They convert these stimuli into nerve
impulses and conducts to other neurons, to muscle fibers or even to glands.

Nerve cells are composed mainly of cell body, dendrites and axons (Figure 3.10). The cell body
contains the nucleus and is the site of general cell functions. Dendrites and axons are nerve
cell processes. Dendrites usually receive stimuli leading to electrical changes that either
increase or decrease action potentials in the neuron’s axon. Action potentials usually originate
at the base of an axon where it joins the cell body and travel to the end of the axon. (VanPutte,
Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Neuroglia, on the other hand, are supporting cells that do not generate or conduct nerve
impulses but have many other important supportive functions such as nourishment, protection
and even maintenance of temperature for neurons.

Figure 3.10 Nervous Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
& Russo (2016)
3B. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
There are many components of the integumentary system. This includes the skin, hair, oil and
sweat glands, nails, and sensory receptors. The skin, or cutaneous membrane, provides
covering of the external surfaces of the body. As its largest organ, skin covers an area of about
2 square meters (22 square feet) and weighs 4.5–5 kg (10–11 lb), about 16% of total body
weight.

According to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016), major functions of the integumentary system
includes the following:
1. Protection. The skin serves as the primary defense against offending microorganisms. It
provides a barrier against ultraviolet light and helps maintain fluid inside the body, thus
preventing dehydration.
2. Sensation. Receptors in the skin makes it possible for human organism to perceive pain,
pressure as well as other sensation like temperature changes.
3. Vitamin D production. The body needs Vitamin D to help synthesize calcium absorption,
made possible by the skin’s sufficient exposure to early sunlight.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s surface and the
activity of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate body temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost through the skin and in gland
secretions.

3B.1 Skin
The skin is a multilayered organ that consists of two main parts: Epidermis and Dermis

Figure 3.11 Skin & Subcutaneous Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
& Russo (2016)
 • Epidermis, made from keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, is the superficial,
thinner portion of the skin (figure 3.11) that prevents water loss and resists abrasion. This
is due to the process called keratinization, a process where cells undergo changes in
shape and chemical composition to replace worn out cells.
• Dermis instead, is the deeper, thicker and dense connective tissue portion (figure 3.11).
According to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016), the dermis is responsible for most of the
skin’s structural strength.

3B.1.1 Epidermis

The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It contains four

principal types of cells: keratinocytes melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells (figure
3.12). Several distinct layers of keratinocytes in various stages of development form the bulk of
the epidermis. This is called thin skin.

Figure 3.12 Layer and Cells of the Skin

*taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
Epidermis has five layers, according to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011) and this section discusses
these layers from the deepest to the most superficial.
• Stratum Basale—also called as the stratum germinatum, is the deepest layer that consists
of either columnar or cuboidal cells aligned in single row. Some cells in this layer are stem
cells undergoing cell division to continually produce keratinocytes. They undergo mitotic
divisions about every 19 days. One daughter cell becomes a new stratum basale cell and
can divide again. The other daughter cell is pushed toward the surface, a journey that takes
about 40–56 days. As cells move to the surface, changes in the cells produce intermediate
strata.
• Stratum spinosum— 8 to 10 layers of many-sided keratinocytes that t closely together. This
layer provides strength and flexibility to the skin. Cells in the more superficial portions of this
layer are beginning to flatten.
• Stratum granulosum—3 to 5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing
apoptosis. A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the presence of the protein keratin
and membrane-enclosed lamellar granules.
• Stratum lucidum—4–6 layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large
amounts of keratin. This layer is found only in the areas of the body (thick skin) where
exposure to friction is greatest (for example, fingertips, palms, soles).
• Stratum corneum—25 to 30 layers of flattened dead cells from the deeper strata. The
interior of the cells contains mostly keratin that aids in its natural strength. Its multiple layers
of dead squamous cells filled with keratin help to protect deeper layers from injury and
microbial invasion. The stratum corneum cells are also coated and surrounded by lipids,
which help prevent fluid loss through the skin. When the skin is subjected to friction, the
number of layers in the stratum corneum greatly increases, producing a thickened area called
a callus. Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum can thicken to form a cone-shaped
structure called a corn.

3B.1.2 Dermis

The dermis is composed of dense collagenous connective tissue containing fibroblasts,

adipocytes, and macrophages. Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic
vessels extend into the dermis (figure 3.11).
 Structural strength of the dermis
solely relies on its collagen and
elastic fiber contents making them
durable to body movement.
However, collagen fibers runs
through different directions making
the skin to have tension lines or
cleavage lines. This is also the
reason why surgeons needs extra
care where to do their incisions.
Another common concern is the
presence of stretch marks. If the skin
is overstretched, it produces a
damage in the dermis and become
stretch marks. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Figure 3.13 Cleavage Lines Russo, 2016)
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by
VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Partition can also be seen in the dermis. The uppermost portion of the dermis is called dermal
papillae. It has a lot of blood vessels that keeps an avenue for providing nutrients,
thermoregulation and elimination of wastes. Moreover, they are aligned in parallels giving way
for the presence of fingerprints and footprints. These nipple-shaped structures project into the
undersurface of the epidermis and can contains blood capillaries, nerve endings for sensory
receptors, Corpuscles of touch or Meissner corpuscle and free nerve endings that helps with
sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, and itching. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

The deeper part of the dermis, also known as the reticular region, which is attached to the
subcutaneous layer, contains bundles of collagen and some coarse elastic fibers interspersed
with adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and sweat glands. (Tortora & Freudenrich,
2011)

3B.1.3 Skin Color

Skin color is caused by pigments such as melanin, hemoglobin and carotene. In the skin,
melanin plays responsible for its pale yellow to reddish brown to black shade. As evident,
melanin is quite abundant in moles and freckles and in certain areas of the body like the nipples
and areola. The lips, palms and soles, have contrariwise low amounts of melanin. Additionally,
melanin also protects the body from harmful effects of ultraviolet rays from the sun.
How does melanin is being produced? In the stratum basale of the epidermis and mucous
membranes all over the body, melanin are being formed by cells called melanocytes. Because
the number of melanocytes is about the same in all people, differences in skin color are due
mainly to the amount and shade of pigment that the melanocytes produce and transfer to
keratinocytes.

Carotene, another pigment, produces a yellowish hue brought about by increase intake of
carotene-rich foods such as squash and carrots. These vegetables are actually sources of
Vitamin A that found to be lipid-soluble that accumulates in the adipocytes and subcutaneous
tissues. Decreasing consumption in this case can eliminate the problem.

Consequently, certain conditions alters the skin color and can be attributed to other causes for
instance, pregnant mothers do have increased melanin production causing darkening of areas
like nipples, the genitalia and even more. Paleness and redness like blushing can be credited
to the amount of blood flowing through the skin. Cyanosis, on the other hand, were due to a
drop of oxygen saturation in the blood, producing a bluish discoloration of the skin.

To understand better, here are conditions that displays different skin color variations according
to (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011). Dark-skinned individuals have large amounts of melanin in the
epidermis. The more melanin that is present, the darker the skin. Light-skinned individuals have
little melanin in the epidermis. Thus, the epidermis appears translucent, and skin color ranges
from pink to red, depending on the oxygen content of the blood moving through capillaries in the
dermis. The red color is due to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells.
Albinism is an inherited trait that causes individuals to not produce melanin. People affected by
albinism are called albinos. Because most albinos do not have melanin in their hair, eyes, and
skin, they need to take extra precautions when exposed to the sun.

Melanocytes may not be evenly scattered throughout the skin, causing uneven melanin
distribution. For instance, the presence of freckles occurs due to melanin accumulation in
patches. A mole or nevus presents as a round pigmentation brought about by overgrowth of
melanocytes. Lastly, when the skin has portions that has complete or partial absence of
melanocytes, irregular white spots are evident. this condition is termed as vitiligo.

3B.3 Subcutaneous Tissue

Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is the subcutaneous layer. This layer consists of
areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue. Fibers that extend from the dermis anchor the
skin to the subcutaneous layer, which, in turn, attaches to underlying tissues and organs. The
subcutaneous layer serves as a storage depot for fat and contains large blood vessels that
supply the skin.
Clinically, subcutaneous tissues are being measured to calculate for an individual’s risks for
lifestyle diseases such as diabetes. The arms are examples of areas where subcutaneous
thickness is being evaluated. Yet, percentage of body fat varies on different population. And
individuals who have differing conditions like pregnancy and pathologic conditions cannot be
accounted for this kind estimation.

3B.4 Accessory Skin Structures

Hair, glands, and nails are accessory structures of the integumentary system that develop from
the epidermis of the embryo. Each of these accessory structures performs important functions
in the body. For example, hair and nails protect the body, and sweat glands help regulate body
temperature.

3B.4.1 Hair

Hair protects the skin and other structures of the body. Hairs or Pili, are found abundant in
almost every part of the body except for the palms and soles, lips, nipples and parts of the
genitalia. The thickness and pattern of distribution of hair is largely determined by genetic and
hormonal influences. Aside being crowning glory for women, hair was also found beneficial for
many reasons. For instance, hair on the head guards the scalp from injury and the sun’s rays,
eyebrows and eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign particles and hair in the nostrils filters
insects and foreign particles to protect the tissues of the respiratory system.

Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the hair papilla (figure 3.12). Blood vessels
within the papilla supply the hair bulb with the nourishment needed to produce the hair. Hair is
produced in cycles. During the growth stage, it is formed by epithelial cells within the hair bulb.
These cells, like the cells of the stratum basale in the skin, divide and undergo keratinization.
The hair grows longer as these cells are added to the base of the hair within the hair bulb. Thus,
the hair root and shaft consist of columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells. During the resting
stage, growth stops and the hair is held in the hair follicle. When the next growth stage begins,
a new hair is formed and the old hair falls out. The duration of each stage depends on the
individual hair. Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types of melanin.

Each hair is a thread of fused, dead, keratinized epidermal cells that consists of a shaft, root,
hair follicle and hair root plexuses (figure 3.14). The shaft is the superficial portion that projects
above the surface of the skin. The root is the portion below the surface that penetrates into the
dermis and sometimes into the subcutaneous layer. A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds
a softer center, the medulla. The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of overlapping
cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle. The hair follicle surrounds the root and is composed
of epidermal cells. Hair root plexuses are nerve endings that surround each hair follicle. They
are sensitive to touch and are stimulated if a hair shaft is moved.

Figure 3.14 Hair Follicle

(a) Hair follicle (b) Enlargement of the hair bulb and hair
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by
VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Associated with each hair are sebaceous glands and a bundle of smooth muscle cells called
arrector pili to raise, which extends from the upper dermis to the side of the hair follicle. In its
normal position, hair emerges at an angle to the surface of the skin. Under stress, such as cold
or fright, nerves stimulate the arrector pili muscles to contract, which pulls the hair shafts
perpendicular to the skin surface.

3B.4.2 Glands

Glands produce secretions that perform a variety of functions. There are two major glands
located in the skin and they are sebaceous and sweat glands.

Sebaceous glands lies in the dermis and open into hair follicles or directly onto the skin. It
secretes sebum as an oily substance that contains lipids and cellular debris. Rich in lipids, they
help to soften the skin, prevents water loss and lubricates skin and hair. However, when
sebaceous glands of the face become enlarged because of accumulated sebum, blackheads
develop. Bacteria metabolize the sebum and form pimples or boils.
 The skin of an adult individual contains 3 to 4
million Sweat glands or Sudoriferous
Glands as it appears to be the most numerous
of the skin glands. During active movements,
the body loses about 500ml of insensible
perspiration that doesn’t make the skin feel
damp. There are two types of sweat glands
and these are Eccrine and Apocrine.

Eccrine glands produces a

transparent, watery fluid called sweat that
contains small amount of potassium,
ammonia, lactic acid, uric acid and other
wastes. It is widespread through the body but
abundant in the palms, soles, forehead and
Figure 3.15 Glands of the Skin
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology upper torso.
by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

The Apocrine gland is limited to the axillary and pubic regions and produces a thicker sweat
often released during emotional stress. They are compared to scent glands as they respond to
stress and sexual stimulation. It secretes a non-strong odor unless it accumulates on the skin.
When this occurs, bacteria begins to degrade substances in the sweat, resulting to body odor.

3B.4.3 Nails

Figure 3.16 Nail

(a) Dorsal view (b) Lateral view of a sagittal section through the nail. Most of the epidermis is absent from the nail bed
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized cells of the epidermis. Functionally,
nails help us grasp and manipulate small objects, provide protection to the ends of the fingers
and toes, and allow us to scratch various parts of the body.

Each nail consists of several parts such as nail body, nail root, and nail matrix. The nail body is
the externally visible portion of the nails whereas its nail root is covered and extends to the nail
matrix.

The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum that extends onto the nail body. The nail also
attaches to the underlying nail bed, which is located distal to the nail matrix. The nail matrix and
bed are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that form the nail. The
nail matrix is thicker than the nail bed and produces most of the nail. A small part of the nail
matrix, the lunula, can be seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent- shaped area at the
base of the nail. Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow. Unlike hair, nails
grow continuously and do not have a resting stage. Dividing cells within the nail matrix become
keratinized as the nail grows outward. The average growth of fingernails is about 1 mm (0.04
inch) per week.

Various portions of nails have different colors. For example, the nail body is pink because the
blood vessels of the underlying skin partially show through. The free edge is white because it
extends past the tip of the finger or toe, and there is no underlying tissue. Finally, the lunula is
white because the nail is too thick in this region for any blood vessels to show through.

3B.5 Physiology of the Integumentary System

You may not think much about what the skin does, but it performs essential functions for your
health and well-being. Let’s look at these functions.

SENSATION

The skin is one of our connections to the outside world. Its specialized nerve receptors sense
pressure, pain, changes in temperature, and things we touch. These receptors include
mechanoreceptors, Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, thermoreceptors, and pain
receptors called nociceptors Although hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory receptors
around the hair follicle can detect the movement of a hair
TEMPERATURE

Our skin helps regulate your body temperature in many ways.

• Because the skin’s surface area is so large (2 m2, or 22 ft2), our body is able to radiate
to the outside air vast amounts of heat that your body has produced.
• The eccrine glands produce sweat to help eliminate heat via evaporation.
• The skin acts as a large reservoir of blood (8%–10% total blood ow). When you are hot,
increased blood flow to the skin delivers more heat to be radiated away and contributes
to higher sweat production. When you are cold, reduced blood flow to the skin conserves
body heat and reduces sweat production.
• When you are cold, arrector pili contract to raise the angle of body hairs and cause goose
bumps. The raised body hair reduces air microcirculation immediately above the skin’s
surface. The reduced air circulation helps impede the loss of body heat via the skin.
• The skin forms a protective barrier for the internal organs. Keratin protects the body from
heat, abrasion, chemicals, and microbes. Keratinocytes resist invasion by microbes, and
the Langerhans cells alert the immune system to the invaders. Furthermore, the skin can
usually repair itself following minor injuries, such as cuts and tears.

PROTECTION

As the largest organ in the body, the integumentary system performs many protective functions.
Being the body’s primary defense, the skin protects the body against invasion of pathogenic
microorganisms as well as extensive water loss. The skin, with its squamous epithelium
decreases chances of having abrasions brought about by friction and trauma whereas protection
from harmful effects of ultraviolet light were afforded by the presence of melanin in the skin.

Hair provides protection in several ways. The hair on the head acts as a heat insulator, eyebrows
keep sweat out of the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign objects, and hair in the nose
and ears prevents the entry of dust and other materials. The nails protect the ends of the fingers
and toes from damage and can be used in defense.

VITAMIN D PRODUCTION

A thirty-minute exposure to sunlight in a two-day frequency in a week can provide the body with
adequate Vitamin D. But why bother? Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium homeostasis
in the body. Vitamin D is converted to an active form by reactions in the liver and kidney.
Adequate levels of vitamin D are necessary because active vitamin D stimulates the small
intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate, the substances necessary for normal bone growth
and normal muscle function.

ABSORPTION AND EXCRETION

Though minor, the integumentary system also contributes in excretion as well as absorption.
Small amounts of salt, ammonia and urea are being excreted through the sweat glands. And
essentially, this system contributes to absorption of substances such as medication like in the
case of transdermal patches and intradermal implants.

Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston,

Massachussetts: Cengage Learning.

Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive

Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.

Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .

VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New
York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

To set the tone right, we will help each other in the appreciation of the initial phase of
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Discussion Board and Quiz in Canvas