SECTION I.

THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Module 2. .MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Lesson 1. Mathematics and English as Languages
Lesson 2: The Language and Grammar of Mathematics
Lesson 3. The Language of Sets
Lesson 4: The Language of Logic

Learning Outcomes : At the end of the module, you should be able to:
 Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics
 Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
 Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly
 Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language

Overview
This module consist of four lessons : Mathematics and English as Languages
, The Language and Grammar of Mathematics, The Language of Sets, The Language of Logic . Each
lesson was designed as a self-teaching guide. Definitions of terms and examples had been incorporated.
Answering the problems in “your turn” will check your progress. You may compare your answers to the
solutions provided at the later part of this module in that way you will be able to measure your
achievement and as well as the effectiveness of the module. Exercises for further understanding will be
given to you in a separate file.

Introduction
Is mathematics really a language just like English, French, Chinese, or Japanese ? Based on the
definition that describes a language such as : a vocabulary of symbols or words; a grammar consisting of
rules on the use of these symbols, ;and range of meanings that can be communicated with these symbols,
all of these components are found in mathematics, so it qualifies as a language.

Discussion

Lesson 1. Mathematics and English as Languages

Mathematics and English are both languages that if you excel to both, you have a bigger chance
of being ahead in a world full of competition. The figure below will give you an overview on their
similarities and differences.

What have you notice so far?

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 Even though the words “noun”, “verb”, or pronoun” are not used in mathematics, the similarities
with the English language can be observed :
 Nouns could be constants such as numbers or expression with numbers:

( 13 ) ,−58
12 ,2 4−

 A verb could be equal sign¿ , or inequality symbols like ¿ or ≤ .

 Pronouns could be a variables like x∨ y :

−4
5 x−8 , 2 xy ,
x
 Sentences could be formed by putting together these parts :
3 x+ 7=24 , 2 x+3 y =7

Lesson 2: The Language and Grammar of Mathematics

Mathematics has a language features unparalleled in other languages, like presentation for
example “, y ,∨x “ for any real number or any numerical expression. In addition, the language of
Mathematics is packed with terms and symbols, which normally used in everyday conversation.

Mathematics has grammar too, but it is the mathematical logic that determines whether the
statements are true or not true, valid or not valid. Therefore, we need to view Mathematics as a language
and must learn it in a way a language is learned.

Mathematical Expression and Sentence

A sentence must contain a complete thought. In the English language an ordinary sentence must
contain a subject and a predicate.. Similarly, a mathematical sentence must state a complete thought.
While an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of interest. Below are examples of
mathematical expressions :

a. An ordered pair
1 4
b. A matrix [
−2 3 ]
c. A function f (x)
d. The set {1, 3, 5}
e.
Below are example of mathematical sentences or statement.

Combined
Mathematical English Translations
Sentences
- The sum of six and two all over four is two.
6+2 - The ratio of six plus two, and four is equal to two.
=2
4 - Two is the quotient when the sum of six and two is divided by
four.
2 ( 12−4 )=16 -Twice the difference of twelve and four is sixteen.
-The product of 2 and twelve less four is sixteen

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We also have some examples of algebraic sentences.

Algebraic Sentences English Translation

-Twice a number is equal to fourteen.
2 x=14 -Two times a number is fourteen.
-Thrice the difference of twice a number and one is four.
3 ( 2 x −1 )=4 -Three, multiplied to the difference of twice a number less one ,is
four
2(x=1) -The ratio of twice the sum of a number and one , and three is
=5
3 equal to five.

Example 1
. Translate the following expression and sentences in English into
Mathematical expressions and statement or vice versa. Use the letter n to represent the
unknown.
a. A number increased by 10 .
b. 2n + 1.
c. The difference between the ages of mom and son is 27.
d. 3 n−1=23

Solution
a. n+10 or 10+n
b. The sum of twice a number and 1.
c. m−n=27
d. The difference of thrice a number and 1 is twenty-three.

Your turn 1 .
Translate the following expression and sentences in English into
Mathematical expressions and statement or vice versa. Use the letter x to
represent the unknown.
a. Four times the square of a number
b. ( x , y )∈ A
c. x 2+ 1≠ 0
d. A sum of three consecutive numbers is eighteen.

Lesson 3. The Language of Sets

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The concept of sets was formalized by George Cantor, a German mathematician (1845-1918).
He defined set as a collection of definite distinguished objects called elements.

3.1 Set Notations

It is important to note that in Mathematics , there are certain conventions in the ways sets are
represented, written, and interpreted .The following examples will illustrate these conventions.

Example 2 The set is composed of five vowels of the English alphabet may be
named and can be denoted as A={ a , e , i ,o ,u } . Sets like A which has a
definite number of elements in roster method where the elements are listed . Commas are used
between each element and a pair of braces are used to enclose the list elements.

The set whose elements are all integers may be named and can be
Example 3
written as N={x∨x ∈ Z } . This is read as “Set N is the set of all values
of x such that xis an integer”. Sets like Set N which has indefinite number of elements are
written in
set-builder method . This notation is used whenever it is convenient or impossible to list all the
elements of a set; it merely describes the characterizing property of its elements in terms of
symbols.

We also have to take note of the frequently used set of numbers :

Your turn 2 Use The Roster Method to Represent a Set

a. The set of natural numbers less than 5.

b. The solution set of x +5=−1
c. The set of negative integers greater than −4

Your turn 3 Use The Set-builder Method to Represent a Set

a. Set M is the set whose elements are numbers greater than negative five but less than four .
b. Set P is the set whose elements are numbers greater than or equal to zero.
c. Set N is the set of even numbers greater than or equal to four but less than or equal to twenty.

More Concepts to Learn about Sets

Finite Set is a set whose elements are countable. Examples are :

o A={¿ , orange ,¿ , ¿ , ¿ } .
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 o Set B is the set of integers greater than zero but less than five.

Unit Set is a finite set that has only one element. Examples are:
o C={0}
o Set D is the set consisting of the number that is neither prime nor composite.

Infinite Set is a set where the number of elements is unlimited or not countable. Examples :
o E={… ,−6 ,−4 ,−2 ,0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , …}
o Set F is the set of positive integers

Empty or null set is a set that has no elements. Examples are :

o G={} or G=∅
o Set H is the set of months that start with the letter Z.

Cardinality or cardinal number of a set is the number of elements in it . For example , the
cardinal number of set A (describe above) is denoted by n ( A ) =5 . Take note that in
finding for the cardinality of a set elements that are listed more than once are counted
only once. For example the set T ={3 , 3 , 4 ,7,8 } has a cardinality of 4 and is denoted as
n ( T )=4

Equivalent Sets are sets that have the same number of elements. In other words, they have
the same cardinality. For example , set C and D are equivalent sets denoted by C Dsince
they have the one element each ; that is n ( C )=n( D) . However , Set A and Set B are not
equivalent because Set A has five elements and Set B has only four elements.

Equal sets are sets that have exactly the same elements. Examples are :
o If V ={a , e , i , o ,u } and W ={i , e , o , a , u } , then Sets V and W are equal denoted by
V =W .
o If N={x∨x ∈ Z } and L={… ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , … }, then N=L.

The symbol ∈ is used to indicate that an element belongs to a set ;while is used to indicate
that an element does not belong to a set .Example are :
o Given V ={a , e , i , o ,u } , we say that ais an element of V ” or in symbols, a ∈ V .
o Given N={x∨x ∈ Z } , we say that “ 0.5 is not an element of Set N or in symbols ,
0.5 ∉ N .

The symbol ⊂ is used to indicate that set is a proper subset of another set. By proper
subset , in given two sets A and B , every element of Set Ais also an element of Set B , but
not all elements of Set Bare elements of Set B are in Set A. Such a relation between sets is
denoted by A ⊂B and is read as “ A is a proper subset of B.” . It is important to note that the
set on the right of ⊂ is the one with more elements .

On the other hand , the symbol ⊄ is used to indicate that a set is not a subset of another
set ; meaning not all elements of the first set are also element of the second set.

The symbol ⊆ is used to indicate that equal sets are subset of one another . Suppose we are
given two sets , V ={a , e , i , o ,u } and W ={i , e , o , a , u } . Since Sets V and W are equal sets,
we say that V is a subset of W , and conversely, W is a subset of V . In set notation , we state
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 V ⊆ W and W ⊆ V .

Power set is the set composed of all the subsets of a given set. For example , the power set of
set A={2 , 4 , 6 } denoted as P ( A ) , is {∅ , { 2 } , { 4 } , { 6 } , { 2,4 } , { 2,6 } , { 4,6 } , {2,4,6 } }.
Do note that an empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself.

Sets that have common elements are called joint sets ; while those that do not have common
elements are called disjoint sets.

Your turn 4
Fill in the table below with corresponding notation of statement and
evaluate if what it states is true or false.

K={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } L={2 4 , 5 } M={0,4,7,10,15} N={2,4,5,3,1}

Notation Statement True/False

L⊂K
L⊄M
N⊆K
∅ ⊂N

Your turn 5
Do you notice any relation between the number of elements in a set and
number of elements in its power set ; that is the number of subsets (proper subsets plus
its equal set)?What seems to be the pattern? Can you come up with a formula?Go and
investigate! Put your observations in the table .

Number of Elements in a Set Number of Subsets

0
1
2
3 8
4
5
6
n

3.1 Set Operations

In this section we will discuss the set operations such as : Union, Intersection, Difference,
Complementation, and Cartesian Product.

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 The union of two sets X andY is the set composed of elements that belong to either Set X and
or Set Y or both sets , and is denoted by X ∪ Y which read as X unionY .

Example 4 If Set A is the set composed of months starting with letter J.

Set B is the set composed of months with exactly five letters.
Set C is the set composed of months starting with letter M.

then A=¿{January,June, July} B=¿{March, April} C=¿{March, May}

Find A ∪ B , A ∪ C , B∪C .

Solution
A ∪ B={January,March, April,June, July}
A ∪ C={January,March, May,June, July}
B∪ C=¿{ March, April, May}

In “March”, the common element of Sets B and C is written only once in B∪C.

Your turn 6 Perform the indicated operation. Use the same sets given in
example 4.

a. C ∪ B
b. A ∪ B ∪ C

The intersection of two sets X andY is the set composed of elements that belong to either Set
X and or Set Y or both sets , and is denoted by X ∩Y which read as X intersectionY .

Example 5 D is the set of single-syllable months.

If
E is the set of months with yas the letters.
F is the set of months with four letters or less.
then D=¿{March, May, June } E={January, February , July} F={May, June, July}

Find D ∩ E , E ∩ F , D ∩ F

Solution
D ∩ E=∅
E ∩ F=¿ {July}
D ∩ F=¿ {May, June}
Set D and E are disjoint sets so their intersection is empty set.

Your turn 7 Perform the indicated operation. Use the same sets given in
example 5.
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 a. F ∩ D
b. D ∩ E ∩ F
c. ( D ∩ E)∪( E ∩ F)

The difference of two sets X andY is the set of elements in set X , but its common elements
with Set of Y is taken out and is denoted by X −Y which is read as ”X minus Y . “ X −Y can
be understood also as the set composed of the elements of X with the elements of its
intersection with Y removed or in symbols, X −Y = X−( X ∩Y ) .

Example 6
Given
A=¿{January , June , July} D=¿{March, May, June} F=¿{May , June, July}

Find A−D , D−A , A−F , F− A

Solution
A−D=¿{January, July}
D− A=¿ {March , May}
A−F=¿{January}
F− A=¿ {May}

Note : A−D≠ D− A and A−F ≠ F− A.

Your turn 8 Perform the following using the same sets given in Example 6.

a. D−F
b. F−D
c. ( A ∪ D )−F
d. ( F ∩ D ) −A
e. ( A ∪ F ) −( A ∩ D )

The complement of a Set X relative to a universal set U is the set of elements in U that are
not in X and is denoted by X ' (read as” X prime”). The universal set is the totality of all
elements that are included under a defined condition. X ' can be understood as the set that
is composed of all elements of U with its common elements with X taken out , or in
symbols , X ' =U −X .

Example 7 If U ={−5 ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 }

A={0,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 }
B={−4 ,−2 ,0 , 2 , 4 }
Find A' and B'

Solution

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 A' ={−5 ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 }
B' ={−5 ,−3 ,−1 ,1 , 3 , 5}

Your turn 9 Perform the indicated set operations.

a. ( A ∪ B)'
b. ( A ∩ B)'
c. ( A ∪ B )− A'
d. B' ∩( A−B)

The Cartesian product of two sets X and Y is the set of all possible pairs of elements and is
denoted by X ×Y (read as “the Cartesian product of X and Y ”). Each pair of elements is
called an ordered pair ( x , y ) ,where the first element xis an element of the first set X ; that
is , x ∈ X; the second element yis an element of the second set Y ; that is y ∈Y .

Example 8 If M ={0,1} and N={1 ,2 }

Find M × N , N ×M , and M × M

Solution

M × N=¿{(0 , 1 ¿ , ( 0,2 ) ,(1,1), (1,2}

N × M ={ ( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 2,0 ) , ( 2,1 ) }
M × M ={( 0,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) }

Interchanging the Sets M and N, that is M × N to N × M , will result to equivalent set but not
equal set s of ordered pairs.

Your turn 10 Perform the indicated set operations using the given sets in Example 8

a. ( M × N ) ∪ ( N × M )
b. ( M × N ) ∩ ( N × M )
c. ( M × N )−( N × M )
d. ( N ∩ M ) × ( M ∪ N )

3.2 Venn Diagram

The Venn Diagram, named after John Venn (English logician, 1834-1923), is a geometric
representation of sets, set relation, and operations. It is usually utilizes overlapping or non-overlapping
circles drawn rectangle.

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 Venn Diagram and Sets Operations

Figure 1

Example 9 Determine Regions that Represent Sets

Use the Figure 2 to answer each of the following.

a. Which regions represent A ∩C ?
b. Which regions represent A ∪ C ?
c. Which regions represent A ∩ B' ?

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 Figure 2

Solution :
a. A ∩C is represented by all the regions common to
circles A and C. Thus A ∩C is represented by regions i and iv.

b. A ∪ C is represented by all the regions obtained by joining the

regions in circle A (i, ii, iv, v) and the regions in circle C (i, iii, iv, vii).
Thus A ∪ C is represented by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.

c. A ∩ B' is represented by all the regions common to circle A and

the regions that are not in circle B. Thus. A ∩ B is represented by
'

regions iv and v.

Example 10 See Figure 3 below to find the following.

a. A ∪B c. B− A
b. B∩ C d. C '

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 Figure 3
Solution:
a. A ∪ B={1.3 .5 .7 }
b. B∩ C={3.7 }
c. B− A={3 }
d. C ' ={1,5,9 }

Counting problems occur in many areas of applied mathematics. To solve these counting
problems, we often make use of a Venn diagram. In the next example, we can use Venn Diagram
to help us solve some word problems.

Example 11 A movie company is making plans for future movies it wishes to produce. The
company has done a random survey of 1000 people. The results of the survey
are shown below.

695 people like action adventures.

340 people like comedies.
180 people like both action adventures and comedies.

Of the people surveyed, how many people

a. like action adventures but not comedies?
b. like comedies but not action adventures?
c. do not like either of these types of movies?

Solution
A Venn diagram can be used to illustrate the results of the survey. We use two overlapping
circles (see Figure 4). One circle represents the set of people who like action adventures and the
other represents the set of people who like comedies. The region i where the circles intersect
represents the set of people who like both types of movies.
We start with the information that 180 people like both types of movies and write 180 in
region i . See Figure 5.

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a. Regions i and ii have a total of 695 people. So far we have accounted for 180 of these people in region
i. Thus the number of people in region ii, which is the set of people who like action adventures but do not
like comedies, is 695−180=515 .

b. Regions i and iii have a total of 340 people. Thus the number of people in region iii, which is the set of
people who like comedies but do not like action adventures, is 340−180=160.

c. The number of people who do not like action adventure movies or comedies is represented by region
iv. The number of people in region iv must be the total number of people, which is 1000, less the number
of people accounted for in regions i, ii, and iii, which is 855. Thus the number of people who do not like
either type of movie is 1000−855=145.

Your turn 11 An activities director for a cruise ship has surveyed 240 passengers. Of the 240
passengers,

135 like swimming. 80 like swimming and dancing.

150 like dancing. 40 like swimming and games.
65 like games. 25 like dancing and games.
15 like all three activities.
How many passengers
a. like exactly two of the three types of activities?
b. like only swimming?
c. like none of these activities?

Lesson 4: The Language of Logic

The term logic refers to the science that studies the principle of correct reasoning. Logic
requires the act of reasoning to form thoughts and opinions, as well as classification and
judgements. The foundation of logical argument is its proposition or statement The proposition
is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false) but not both true and false . The argument is then
built on premises. The premises are the propositions used to build the argument.

Example 12 Determine if each sentence is a proposition or statement.

a. Read the sentences.

b. The word dog has four letters .
c. How are you?

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 d. 92 +2 is a prime number.
e. x +1=5

Solution
a. Lingayen is the capital of Pangasinan, so this sentence is true and it is a
proposition..
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus it is
not a proposition.
c. You may not know whether 992 +2 is a prime number; however, you do know that
it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime
number. The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it
is a statement.
d. x +1=5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x ¿ 4, and
it is false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not
both.

Your turn 12 Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Open the door.

b. 7055 is a large number.
c. In the year 2020, the president of the United States will be a woman.
d. x >3.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement
is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if . . . then, and if
and only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I will go to
school.” is a compound statement. It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend the
meeting.” and “I will go to school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple statements.

George Boole (the one who published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848) used symbols such
as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧ ,∨ ,∼ , ⟶ and ⟷ to represent
connectives. See Table 1.

Table 1: Logic Connectives and Symbols

Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement

not p not p negation

p and q and p ∧q conjunction
p or q or p ∨q Disjunction
If p, then q If … then p →q conditional
pif and only if q if and only if p ↔q biconditional

Truth Value and Truth Tables

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The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values of
its simple statements.

Negation Operator (not )

The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the statement “Today is not Friday.” In
symbolic logic, the tilde symbol is used to denote the negation of a statement.
If a statement p is true, its negation p is false, and if a statement p is false, its
negation p is true. See the table below . The negation of the negation of a statement is the
original statement. Thus ( p) can be replaced by p in any statement.

Truth table for p

p ( p)
T F
F T

Example 13 Write the Negation of a Statement

a. Rodrigo Duterte is our president.

b. MMW is an easy subject.
c. The number 10 is a prime number
d. The fire engine is not red .

Solution
a. Rodrigo Duterte is not our president.
b. MMW is not an easy subject / MMW is a hard easy subject
c. The number 10 is not a prime number / The number 10 is a composite number
d. The fire engine is red .

Your turn 13 Write the negation of each statement.

a. Mayon Volcano is in Naga.

b. Ninoy is a hero.
c. The dog does not need to be fed.
d. Maria is not a teenager.

Example 14 Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form

Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
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Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.

Solution
a. p ∧q b. ∼ q ∧ r c. ∼ s ∨r d. q ⟶ s

Your turn 14 Use p, q, r, and s as defined in Example 14 to write

the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.

b. I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
c. I am going to the movie if and only if it is raining.
d. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie.

Translate symbolic statements into English sentences.

Example 15
Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a. q ∧ p b. ∼ r ∧ s c. s ⟷ ∼ p

Solution
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Atlanta.

Your turn 15 Consider the following statements.

e: All men are created equal.

t: I am trading places.
a: I get Abe’s place.
g: I get George’s place.
Use the above information to translate the dialogue in the speech bubbles at the left.

Conjunction Operator (and ∧)

This is a statement which is the result of combining two other statements with the
connective word and .
The conjunction of two statements is true only if both statements are true.

Truth table for ( p ∧q)

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 p q p ∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction Operator (and ∨ )

This is a statement which is the result of combining two other statements with the
connective word or.
The disjunction of two statements is false only if both statements are false.

Truth table for ( p ∨q)

p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 16 Determine the Truth Value of a Statement

a. 7 ≥ 5.
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.

Solution
a. 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 ¿5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the statement 7 ¿5 is a true statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.

Your turn 16 Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.

b. 4 ≤ 9.
c. −7 ≥−3.

Conditional Operator (if …then → )

Conditional statement can be written in if p, then q form or if p, q form. For instance, all
of the following are conditional statements.
o If you passed the test, then I will give you a reward.
o If you get sick, then you will be absent.
In any conditional statement represented by “if p, then q” or by “If p, q,” the p statement is
called antecedent / hypothesis and the q statement is called consequent/ conclusion.
The conditional statement is true in all cases, except when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false. In other words, a true statement is hypothesis cannot imply a false
conclusion.

Truth table for ( p → q)

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 p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 17 Determine the truth value of each of the following.

a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.

b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5>7.
c. If 5>3, then 2+7=4.
Solution
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.

Your turn 17 Determine the truth value of each of the following.

a. If 4 ≥3, then 2+5=6.

b. If 5>9, then 4 >9.
c. If Tuesday follows Monday, then April follows March.

Biconditional Operator (if and only if ⟷ )

Biconditional / equivalent statement is the result of combining two propositions in the
form…if and only if…
The equivalence is true if both propositions are true or both false.

Truth table for ( p ⟷ q)

p q p⟷q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example 18 State whether each biconditional is true or false.

a. x +4=7 if and only if x=3.

b. x 2=36 if and only if x=6.
Solution
a. Both equations are true when x=3, and both are false when x ≠ 3. Both equations have the same truth
value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If x=−6 , the fi rst equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus this is a false statement.

Your turn 18 State whether each biconditional is true or false.

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a. x >7 if and only if x >6.
b. x +5>7 if and only if x >2.

Truth Table
In this section, we consider methods of constructing truth tables for a statement that involves a
combination of conjunctions, disjunctions, and/or negations. If the given statement involves only two
simple statements, then start with a table with four rows (see the table below ), called the standard truth
table form, and proceed as shown in Example 19.

p q Given
Statement
T T
T F
. F T
F F

Example 19 Truth Tables

a. Construct a table for ∼(∼ p ∨ q)∨ q .

b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ∼(∼ p ∨ q)∨ q, given that p is true and q is false.

Solution
a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ∼ p column.
p q ∼p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

Now use the truth values from the ∼ pand q columns to produce the truth values for ∼ p ∨ q, as shown
in the rightmost column of the following table.

p q ∼p ∼ p ∨q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

Negate the truth values in the ∼ p ∨ q column to produce the following.

p q ∼p ∼ p ∨q ∼ ¿ ∨ q)
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

As our last step, we form the disjunction of ∼ ¿ ∨ q)with q and place the results in the rightmost column
of the table. See the following table. The shaded column is the truth table for ∼ ¿ ∨ q ¿∨ q .
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 p q ∼p ∼ p ∨q ∼ ¿ ∨ q) ∼ ¿ ∨ q ¿∨ q
T T F T F T row 1
T F F F T T row 2
F T T T F T row 3
F F T T F F row 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true, and q is false, the statement
∼ ¿ ∨ q ¿∨ q in the rightmost column is true.

Your turn 19 a. Construct a truth table for ( p ∧∼q ) ∨ ( ∼ p ∨q ) .

b. Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth
value of ( p ∧∼q ) ∨ ( ∼ p ∨q ) . given that p is true and q is false.

Compound statements that involve exactly three simple statements require a standard
truth table form with 23=8 rows.

Example 20 Truth Tables

a. Construct a truth table for ( p ∧q ) ∧ (∼r ∨ q ) .

b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ( p ∧q ) ∧ (∼ r ∨ q )given that p is true, q
is true, and r is false.

Solution
a. Using the procedures developed in Example 19, we can produce the following table.
The shaded column is the truth table for ( p ∧q ) ∧ (∼ r ∨ q ). The numbers in the squares below the columns denote
the order in which the columns were constructed.

p q r p ∧q ∼r ∼ r ∨q ( p ∧q) ∧¿ )
T T T T F T T row 1
T T F T T T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F T T F row 4
F T T F F T F row 5
F T F F T T F row 6
F F T F F F F row 7
F F F F T T F row 8

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that ( p ∧q ) ∧ (∼ r ∨ q ) is true when p is true, q is true, and r is
false.

a. Construct a truth table for (∼ p ∧r )∨(q ∧ ∼r)

Your turn 20 b. Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth
value of (∼ p ∧r )∨(q ∧−r)given that p is false, q is true, and r is false.

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Summary

The following tables summarizes essential concepts in this module.

1. Mathematics and English as Languages

Even though the words “noun”, “verb”, or

pronoun” are not used in mathematics, the
similarities with the English language can be
observed :
 Nouns could be constants such as numbers
or expression with numbers:

( 13 ) ,−58
12 ,2 4−

 A verb could be equal sign¿ , or inequality

symbols like ¿ or ≤ .

 Pronouns could be a variables like x∨ y :

−4
5 x−8 , 2 xy ,
x
 Sentences could be formed by putting
together these parts :
3 x+ 7=24 , 2 x+3 y =7

2. The Language and Grammar of Mathematics

A sentence must contain a complete thought. In See example 1 and answer Your Turn 1
the English language an ordinary sentence must
contain a subject and a predicate.. Similarly, a
mathematical sentence must state a complete
thought. While an expression is a name given to a
mathematical object of interest.
3. The Language of Sets
Sets like A={ a , e , i ,o ,u }which has a definite See example 2 and then try Your Turn 2.
number of elements in roster method where the
elements are listed

Sets like Set N={x∨x ∈ Z } . This is read as “Set See example 3 and then try Your Turn 3 .
N is the set of all values of x such that x is an
integer”which has indefinite number of elements
are written in set-builder method . This notation is
used whenever it is convenient or impossible to list
all the elements of a set; it merely describes the
characterizing property of its elements in terms of
symbols.

Set operations such as : Union, Intersection, See example 4, 5,6,7, and 8 and then try to answer Your
Difference, Complementation, and Cartesian Turn 6 to 10.

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 Product.

Answers to Your turn

1. a.4 x2
b.The elements of set A are x and y
c. The sum of the square of a number and 1 is not zero
d. x + ( x+1 ) + ( x +2 )=18
2. a. N={1,2,3,4 }
b. S={−6 }
c. Ζ−¿={−4 ,−2 ,−1 }¿
3. a. M ={ x∨−5< x <4 }
b. P={ y∨ y ≥ 0 }
c. N={x∨4 ≤ x ≤20 }

4.

Notation Statement True/False

L⊂K Set L is a proper subset of Set K . True
L⊄M Set L is not a proper subset of set M. True
N⊆K Set N is a subset of set K. True
∅ ⊂N Empty set is a subset of set N. True

5.
Number of Elements in a Set Number of Subsets
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
n 2n

6. a. C ∪ B=¿ {March , April , May}

b. A ∪ B ∪ C=¿{ January,March, April,June, July}∪{March, May}
¿ { January,March, April,May, June, July}
7. a. F ∩ D=¿{May, June}
b. D ∩ E ∩ F=¿ ∅ ∩{May, June, July}
=∅
c. ( D ∩ E ) ∪ ( E ∩ F )=∅ ∪{July }
¿ {July }
8. a. D−F=¿ {March}
b. F−D=¿{July}
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 c. ( A ∪ D )−F=¿{January,March,May, June, July}−¿{May , June, July}
¿ { January,March}
d. ( F ∩ D ) −A=¿{May, June}−¿ { January , June , July}
¿{May}
e. ( A ∪ F ) −( A ∩ D )=¿{ January , May, June , July}−¿{June}
¿{January,May,July}
9. a. ( A ∪ B)' =({−4 ,−2,0,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 })' ={−5 ,−3 ,−1}
b. ( A ∩ B)' =({0,2, 4 })' ={−5 ,−4 ,−3 ,−2,−1 ,1 , 3 ,5 }
c. ( A ∪ B )− A' = {−4 ,−2,0,1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }−{−5 ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 }
¿ { 0,1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } or A
'
d. B ∩ ( A−B )= {−5 ,−3 ,−1 , 1, 3 , 5 } ∩ {1 ,3 , 5 }
¿ {1 , 3 ,5 }
10. a. ( M × N ) ∪ ( N × M ) ={(0 ,1), ( 0,2 ) ,(1,1),¿
¿ {( 0 , 1 ) , ( 0,2 ) , ( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) , ( 2,0 ) ,(2,1)
b. ( M × N ) ∩ ( N × M ) ={(0 ,1), ( 0,2 ) ,(1,1) , ¿
¿ {( 1,1 ) }
c. ( M × N )−( N × M )={( 0 , 1 ) , ( 0,2 ) , (1,1 ) , ( 1,2 }−{ (1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 2,0 ) , ( 2,1 ) }
¿ {( 0 , 1 ) , ( 0,2 ) , ( 1,2 }
d. ( N ∩ M ) × ( M ∪ N )= {1 } × {0,1,2 }={( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) }

11. The intersection of the three sets includes the 15 people who like all three activities.

a. Because 140 students like volleyball and 85 like both sports, there must be 140−85=55 students who
like only volleyball.
b. Because 120 students like basketball and 85 like both sports, there must be 120−85=35 students who
like only basketball.
c. The Venn diagram shows that the number of students who like only volleyball plus the number who
like only basketball plus the number who like both sports is 55 + 35 + 85=175. Thus of the 200 students
surveyed, only 200−175=25 do not like either of the sports.

12. a. The sentence “Open the door” is a command. It is not a statement.

b. The word large is not a precise term. It is not possible to determine whether the sentence “7055
is a large number” is true or false, and thus the sentence is not a statement.
c. You may not know whether the given sentence is true or false, but you know that the sentence
is either true or false and that it is not both true and false. Thus the sentence is a
statement.
d. The sentence x >3 is a statement because for any given value of x , the inequality x >3 is
true or false, but not both.
13. a. Mayon Volcano is not in Naga.
b. Ninoy is not a hero.
c. The dog needs to be fed.
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 d. Maria is a teenager.

14. a. ∼ p ∧r c. r ⟷ q
b. ∼ s ∧−r d. p ⟶∼r

15. e ∧ ∼ t : All men are created equal and I am not trading places.
a ∨∼ t : I get Abe’s place or I am not trading places.
e ⟶ t : If all men are created equal, then I am trading places.
t ⟷ g : I am trading places if and only if I get George’s place.

16. a. True. A conjunction of two statements is true provided that both statements are true.
b. True. A disjunction of two statements is true provided that at least one statement is true.
c. False. If both statements of a disjunction are false, then the disjunction is false.

17. a. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, the statement is a false statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, the statement is a true statement.
c. Because the consequent is true, the statement is a true statement.

18. a. Let x=6.5 . Then the first inequality of the biconditional is false, and the second inequality of the
biconditional is true. Thus the given biconditional statement is false.
b. Both inequalities of the biconditional are true for x >2, and both inequalities are false for x ≤ 2.
Because both inequalities have the same truth value for any real number x, the given
biconditional is true.
19. a.
p q ∼p ∼q p ∧∼q ∼ p ∨q ( p ∧∼q ) ∨ ( ∼ p ∨q )
T T F F F T T row 1
T F F T T F T row 2
F T T F F T T row 3
F F T T F T T row 4

b. p is true and q is false in row 2 of the above truth table. The truth value of ( p ∧∼q ) ∨ ( ∼ p ∨q )in
row 2 is T (true).

20. a.
p q r ∼p ∼ p ∧r ∼ r ∨q (∼ p ∧r )∨(q ∧ ∼r)
T T T F F T F row 1
T T F F F T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F F T F row 4
F T T T T T T row 5
F T F T F T T row 6
F F T T T F T row 7
F F F T F T F row 8

b. p is false, q is true, and r is false in row 6 of the above truth table. The truth value of (∼ p ∧r )∨(q ∧ ∼r) in
row 6 is T (true).

References :
 Blay et. all, Mathematical Trips in the Modern World Outcomes-Based Approach
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  Nocon et. al , Essential Mathematics for the Modern World
 Baltazar et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
 Aufman,Richard et. al, Mathematics in the Modern World
 Mathematics in the World book from RBSI
 Domantay,Gloria, et. al. College Algebra

Photo credits:
Venn diagram worksheet, mathaids.com
2 Circle Venn Diagrams , https://news.efofex.com/2016/02/17/2-circle-venn-diagrams-a-teacher-
resource-project-upload/comment-page-1

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