Module No.

2 : ENERGY
It is a fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts of a system in the production of physical change within the system
and usually regarded as the capacity for doing work.
It is a usable power (such as heat or electricity) which is also the resources for producing such power.

Lesson No. 1 : ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

Electrochemistry is the science that unites electricity and chemistry. It is the study of the transfer of electrons. If a chemical reaction is driven by
an external applied voltage, or if a voltage is created by a chemical reaction, as in a battery, it is an electrochemical reaction

Electrochemical energy is defined as “the energy which converts electrical energy to chemical energy and vice versa.” The electrochemical
energy is related to fuel cells, photo electrochemical, and energy storage systems such as batteries, super capacitors or ultra-capacitors.

Electrochemical cell is a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or using electrical energy to cause
chemical reactions.

Electrochemical reaction is a process in which electrons flow between a solid electrode and substance, such as an electrolyte. This flow
triggers an electric current through the electrodes, causing the reaction to liberate or absorb heat. According to the first law of
thermodynamics, the energy given off in a chemical reaction can be converted into heat, work, or a mixture of heat and work. By running the
half-reactions in separate containers, we can force the electrons to flow from the oxidation to the reduction half-reaction through an external
wire, which allows us to capture as much as possible of the energy given off in the reaction as electrical work.

Electrochemical energy has a number of different uses, particularly in industry. The principles of cells
are used to make electrical batteries. In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores
chemical energy and makes it available in an electrical form. Batteries are made of
electrochemical devices such as one or more galvanic cells or fuel cells.

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 REDOX REACTION (Oxidation - Reduction Reaction)
Redox is a reaction involving the transfers of electrons. Oxidation is the loss of electrons from some chemical species, whereas Reduction
is the gain of electrons. We can’t have oxidation unless also have reductions.

HALF- REACTION
We say that the copper has been reduced, and we could write an equation to describe this change:

𝐶𝑢_2+2eˉ → Cu (copper)

We say that the silver has been oxidized, and again we can write an equation to show the change:

(Zinc) Zn → 𝑍𝑛_2+ 2ⅇ−

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 Galvanic Cell
 (aka Voltaic Cell) induces a spontaneous redox reaction to create a flow of electrical charges, or electricity. Non-rechargeable
batteries are examples of Galvanic cells.
 is any electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous chemical reaction can be used to generate an electric current.

The Anatomy of a BATTERY

Sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, and magnesium are all ELECTROLYTES. A compound that conducts electricity by
changing into ions when melted or dissolved into a solution.
Example of an electrolyte is sodium chloride (NaCl) like salt, water softening, ice melting. Our body also contains ELECTROLYTES from the
water we drink and the food we eat; they are minerals in our body that have an electric charge (our blood, urine, tissues, and other body
fluids). It helps,
 Balance the amount of water in your body.
 Balance your body's acid/base (pH) level.
 Move nutrients into your cells.
 Move wastes out of your cells.
 Make sure that your nerves, muscles, the heart, and the brain work the way they should.
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 Terminology for Galvanic Cells
Electrodes – the electrically conducting sites at which either oxidation or reduction take place.
Anode – oxidation occurs
Cathode – reduction occurs
Cell notation – list the metals and ions involved in the reaction.

Anode | electrolyte of anode || electrolyte of cathode | cathode

The previous example of copper and silver would be written as follows:

Cu(s) | Cu2+(aq)(1 M) || Ag+ (1 M) | Ag(s)

Electrolytic Cell
 A cell in which electrolysis occurs, consisting of an electrolyte through which current from an external source is passed, by a
system of electrodes, in order to produce a chemical reaction.
 Its reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte produce an electric current.

ELECTROLYTIC CELL GALVANIC CELL

 Converts electrical energy into chemical energy.  Converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Like charging up a rechargeable battery from a wall outlet.  Like using a battery to power a device.
 Uses electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical  Collects electrical energy from a spontaneous chemical
reaction to occur. reaction.

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 Cell Potential:
Table 13.1 Standard reduction potentials for several of the half-reactions involved in the cells discussed in the text. A more extensive
table of potentials appears in appendix I.

STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL shows the potential of any half reaction when connected to a standard hydrogen electrode. We can
determine the standard cell potential for any pair of half- reactions by using the equation:

Eocell = Eored – Eoox

Where:
Eored is the standard reduction potential of the cathode.
Eoox is the standard reduction potential of the anode.

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 Example 1:
Copper and iron (generally in the form of steel) are two of the many metals used in designing machines.
a) Using standard reduction potentials identify the anode and the cathode and determine the cell potential for galvanic cell composed of
copper and iron. Assume standard conditions.
b) We can also construct a galvanic cell using copper and silver. Confirm that the potential of the following galvanic cell is 0.462 V.

Cu(s) | Cu2+ (1 M) || Ag+ (1 M) | Ag(s)

Solution:
(a) Using table 13.1, we find the following two half reactions;

𝐹𝑒 2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Fe(s) Eo = -0.44 V

𝐶𝑢2+(aq) + 2 e- → Cu(s) Eo = 0.337 V

Iron must be oxidized for combination of these two half-reaction to yield a positive cell potential:

Fe(s) + 𝐶𝑢2+𝐶𝑢2 + (aq) → 𝐹𝑒 2+(aq) + Cu(s) Eocell = ?

Using equation 13.2

Eocell = 0.337 V – (-0.44) = 0.78 V

Copper is the cathode in this cell because copper is reduced; iron is the anode because it is oxidized.

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 (b) Find the two half-reaction in table 13.1;

𝐴𝑔+ (aq) + e- → Ag(s) Eo = 0.7994 V

𝐶𝑢2+(aq) + 2 e- → Cu(s) Eo = 0.337 V

From the values of the standard reduction potentials, we can see that copper is oxidized, and silver is reduced. We then use equation 13.2 to
find the cell potential:

Cu(s) + 2 𝐴𝑔+(aq) → 𝐶𝑢2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) 𝐸𝑜cell = 0.462 V

NONSTANDARD CONDITIONS
The equation that describes cell potential under nonstandard conditions is called the Nernst equation:

𝑹𝑻
E = Eo - 𝒏𝑭 In Q

Where:
Eo standard cell potential
n is the number of electrons transferred in the redox reaction
J C
F is the Faraday constant (96,485 V−mol or 96,485mol)
Q is the reaction quotient
R (8.314)
T temperature

aA + bB →cC + dD

[𝑪]𝒄[𝑫]𝒅
Q= [𝑨]𝒂[𝑩]𝒃

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 Example 2:
3 Mn2+ (aq) + 2 Al(s) → 3 Mn(s) + 2 Al 3+ (aq)

Eocell = 0.48 V

If [Al 3+ ] = 1.50 M and [Mn2+ ] = 0.50 M

What is the cell potential at 28oC?

Calculate Q:

[𝑨𝒍𝟑+]𝟐 [1.50]2
Q = [𝒎𝒏𝟐+]𝟑 = [0.50]3 = 18

3 Mn2+ 6e- → 3 Mn

Al → 2 Al 3+ + 6e-

# mol e- = 6

𝑹𝑻
E = Eo - 𝒏𝑭 In Q

8.314 x 301
= 0.48 – ( )(In 18)
6 x 96,485 v

= 0.48 – 0.0125

= 0.4675

= 0.47 V

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 CELL POTENTIALS and FREE ENERGY
∆Go = -nFEo
Where:
n is the number of electrons or mole.
F is the Faraday constant.
Eo standard cell potential.

EXAMPLE 3:
Cr(s) | Cr2+ (aq) || Zn2+ (aq) | Zn(s)
What is the chemical reaction that takes place, and what is the standard free energy change for that reaction?
Solution:
First we need the balance chemical equation, which in this case can be written immediately because two electrons are transferred in each
half-reaction (n = 2):

𝑍𝑛2 + (aq) + Cr(s) → Cr2+ (aq) + Zn(s)

Now if we look up the standard reduction potentials, we find,

Zn2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Zn(s) Eo = -0.763 V

Cr2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cr(s) Eo = -0.910 V

The cell potential is:

Eocell = -0.763 V – (-0.910 V) = 0.147 V

Now, we find the standard free energy change;

∆Go = -nFEo
J
= (-2 mol)(96,485 V−mol)(0.147 V) = (-2.84)(104 J)

= -28.4 kJ

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 BATTERIES
Is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy by the chemical reactions in the device.

PRIMARY BATERRIES (or primary cells)

Are used once and disposed of and it is single-use batteries that cannot be recharged. Ex.(dry cell battery, zinc-carbon battery,
mercury battery and etc.)

SECONDARY BATTERIES (or secondary cell)

It can be recharged allowing for much longer life cycle. Ex.(Lead storage battery, lead acid battery and etc.)

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 ELECTROLYSIS
Is the process of passing an electric current through an ionic solution or molten salt to produce a chemical reaction. Two categories of
electrolytic cells based on nature of electrodes used:

Passive Electrolysis – if the electrodes are chemically inert materials that simply provide a path for electrons.

Active Electrolysis – when the electrodes are part of the electrolytic reaction.

Electroplating
Is the process of depositing a thin coat of metal by using electricity.

CURRENT and CHANGE

Charge = current x time
Q=Ixt
Where:
Q is in coulombs
I in amperes (coulombs/second)
t in seconds
Example 4:
In a process called flash electroplating, a current of 2.50 x 103 A passes through an electrolytic cell for 5.00 minutes. How many moles of
electrons are driven through the cell?
Solution
Q=Ixt
Q = 2500 A x 300 s = 7.50 x 105 C
Now use Faraday’s constant
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒−
7.50 x 105 C x 96, 485 𝐶 = 7.77 mol e-

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 Example 5:
What mass of nickel metal can be plated on to the catrode from a NiSO4 solution using a current of 8a for 15 minutes?

Solution
Ni 2+ + 2e− → Ni

1 mol Ni = 2 mol e−

Q=Ixt

1 C =1A.1s

1 mol e− = 96,485 C

15 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 s 8a 1C 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒− 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 58 𝑔

x 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 x x 1 𝐴.1𝑠 x x 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒− x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 = 2.16 g
1 1 96,485 𝐶

Example 6:
How much current is needed to plate 5 g of copper metal on the cathode from a CuSO4 solution in 2 hours?

Solution

Cu 2+ + 2e− → Cu

1 mol Cu = 2 mol e−

1 mol Cu = 63.5 g

5g 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒− 96,485 C 1 A.1s 1

x x 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢 x 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒− x x 7,200 𝑠 = 2.1 A
1 63.55 𝑔 1𝐶

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 Common battery types and their suitable for particular application:
Dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow current to flow. It is suitable for portable equipment
and it is a primary type battery.

Mercury battery a mercury battery, it is also called a mercuric oxide battery or mercury cell, is non-rechargeable electrochemical battery.
These batteries have been used in the ship of button cells for watches, hearings aids, and calculators and in a larger form for other devices,
including walkie-talkies.

Lead batteries a lead storage battery, is also known as a lead-acid battery, is the oldest type of rechargeable battery and one of the most
common energy storage devices. And it used for vehicles, where they have the ability to provide high currents for cranking power.

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 CORROSION
Is the degradation of metals by chemical reactions with the environment and involves a slow combination of oxygen with metals to
form oxides.

3 Types of Corrosion:
1) UNIFORM CORROSION - is one of the most visible forms of corrosion.
2) GALVANIC CORROSION – occurs only when two different metals contact each other in the presence of an appropriate electrolyte.
3) CREVICE CORROSION – when two pieces of metal touch each other, they tend to leave a small gap.

CORROSION PREVENTION
Coatings

We have already noted the use of electroplating but there’s another way of protecting a material used coating practice is painting it
protects the underlying material, from exposure to water and oxygen.

CONGRATULATIONS!
You have just finished this module.

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