EMF Equation of Synchronous Generator or Alternator:

        We know that Synchronous Generator or Alternator will generate an EMF. The following

is the derivation of emf equation of Synchronous Generator or Alternator.

Let        Φ  = Flux per pole, in Wb

              P  = Number of poles
              N = Synchronous speed in r.p.m
              f = Frequency of induced emf in Hz
              Z = Total number of conductors
             Zph = Conductors per phase connected in series
             Zph = Z/3 as number of phases = 3

Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.

The average value of emf induced in a conductor =  dΦ/dt
For one revolution of a conductor,
  eavg per conductor = (Flux cut in one revolution/Time taken for one revolution)
Total flux cut in one revolution is Φ x P.

Must Read:

 Principle and working of Synchronous generator or alternator

Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.

             

Substituting in above equation

                            eavg per conductor = 2 f Φ volts

           Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a conductor

which is 180° electrical apart. So these two emf's will try to set up a current in the same direction
i.e. the two emf are helping each other and hence resultant emf per turn will be twice the emf
induced in a conductor.
                           emf per turn = 2 x (emf per conductor) = 2 x (2 f Φ)
                                                    = 4 f Φ volts.

Turn of full pitch coil

Let Tph be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated
winding, we can say that a are placed in single slot per pole per phase (So induced emf's in all
turns will be in phase as placed in a single slot. Hence net emf per phase will be algebraic sum of
the emf's per turn.
   
         Average Eph = Tph x (Average emf per turn)
         Average Eph = Tph x 4 f Φ

      But in ac circuits, RMS value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form
factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal emf.

       
             
Key point: This is the general emf equation for an induced emf per phase for full pitch,
concentrated type of winding.
where        Tph = Number of turns per phase

                     Tph = Zph/2                    --->As 2 conductors constitute 1 turn

          But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch
hence emf induced slightly gets affected. Let us see how the effect of distributed and short pitch
type of winding on the emf equation of Synchronous Generator or Alternator. The below are the
effects which make slight changes in the emf equation of synchronous generator or alternator
derivation.
  

Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Kc):

           In practice, short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is formed by connecting one coil side to
another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180°. The coil is
generally shorted by one or two slots.

Key Point: The angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as
'α'.
                                                α = Angle by which coils are short pitched.

Angle of short p
    As coils are shorted in terms of the number of slots i.e. either by one slot, two slots and so on
and slot angle is β then the angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot angle β.

 α  = β x Number of slots by which coils are short pitched

   or α  = (180° - Actual coil span of the coils)
      
  This is shown on the left side figure. Now let E be the induced emf
in each coil side. If the coil is full pitch coil, the induced emf in each coil side help each other.
Coil connections are such that both will try to set up a current in the same direction in the
external circuit. Hence the resultant emf across a coil will be algebraic sum of the two.

                    ER = E+ E = 2E

      
         

Now the coil is short pitched by angle α, the two emf in two coil sides r longer remains in phase
from external, circuit point of view. Hence the resultant emf is also no longer remains the
algebraic sum of the two but becomes a phasor sum of the two as shown in the figure to the left.
Obviously, ER in such a case will be less than what it is in case of full pitch coil.

From the geometry of the above figure, we can write,

                           AC is perpendicular drawn on OB bisecting OB.

                                         1(OC) = l(CB) = ER/2

                 and                  ∠BOA =  α/2

                                         cos(α/2) = OC/OA = ER/2E

                                               ER = 2Ecos(α/2)

This is the resultant emf in case of a short pitch coil which depends on the angle of short pitch
'α'. 

Key Point: Now the factor by which, induced emf gets reduced due to short pitching called pitch
factor or coil span factor denoted by Kc.

        It is defined as the ratio of resultant emf when the coil is short pitch to the result emf when
the coil is full pitched. It is always less than one.

              

where                             α   = Angle of short pitch

Distribution Factor (Kd):
       Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt made to use
all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced emf
more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding. 

Consider 18 slots 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole i.e. n = 9. 

                               m = Slots per pole per phase = 3 

                                β = 180°/9 = 20°
Let E = Induced emf per coil and there are 3 coils per phase. 

          In concentrated type, all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induce'
e,m.f. in all the' coils will achieve maxima and minima at the same time i.e. all of them will be in
phase. Hence resultant emf after connecting coils in series will be algebraic sum of all the emf's
as all are in phase. 

         As against this, in distributed type, coil sides will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots per
phase available under a pole as shown in the below figure.

  

    Though the magnitude of emf in each coil will be same as 'E', as each slot contributes phase
difference of β° i.e. 20° in this case, there will exist a phase difference of β° with respect to each
other as shown in the above figure(b). Hence resultant emf will be phasor sum of all of them as
shown in the figure to the left side. So due to distributed winding resultant emf decreases.

Key Point: The factor by which there is a reduction in the e.mf. due to the distribution of coils is
called distribution factor denoted as Kd.

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Let us see the derivation for its expression. 

         In general, let there be 'n' slots per pole and 'm' slots per pole per phase. So there will be 'm'
coils distributed under a pole per phase, connected in series. Let E be the induced emf per coil.
Then all the 'm' emf's induced in the coils will have successive phase angle difference
of β=80°/n.While finding out the phasor sum of all of them, phasor diagram will approach a
shape of a 'm' equal sided polygon circumscribed by a semicircle of radius 'R'.This is shown in
the below figure AB, BC, CD etc., represent emf per coil. All the ends are joined at 'O' which is
the centre of the circumscribing semicircle of radius 'R'.

Phasor sum of 'm' emf's

      The angle subtended by each phasor at the origin 'O' is β°. This can be proved below. All the
triangles OAB, OBC... are similar and isosceles, as AB=BC=CD=.....=E.

Let the base angles be 'x'.

                                            ∠OAB = ∠OBA = ∠OBC =..............=x

and                                       ∠AOB = ∠BOC =......=y  (say)

Now in △OAB ,                          2x + y = 180°

while                                  ∠OBA + ∠OBC + β = 180°

                                                                 2x + β = 180°
Comparing above two equations,    y = β

So                              ∠AOB = ∠BOC =∠COD =...........= β

If 'M' is the last point of the last phasor,

                   ∠AOM = m × β = mβ

and  AM = ER = Resultant of all the emfs

        Consider an △OAB separately as shown in the figure to the left. Let OF be the
perpendicular drawn on AB bisecting angle at apex 'O' as β/2.

                     l(AB) = E

                    l(AF) = E/2

and               l(OA) = R
                  

                                         Sin(β/2) = AF/OA = (E/2)/R

                                              E = 2R Sin(β/2)
         Now consider △OAM, and OG is the perpendicular drawn from 'O' on its base bisecting
∠OAM.

               

This is the resultant emf when coils are distributed. If all 'm' coils are connected, all would have
been in phase giving ER as the algebraic sum of all the emf's.
                                           ER = m × E

we have                           E = 2R Sin(β/2)

                                            ER  = 2mR Sin(β/2)

This is resultant emf when coils are connected.

      The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant emf when coils are distributed to
the resultant emf when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one.

            

where                           m = Slots per pole per phase

                                     β = Slot angle = 180°/n
                                     n = Slots per pole

     

When β is very small and m is large then the total phase spread is mβ. The phasor sum of coil
emf's now become the chord AB of a circle as shown in the figure to the left. 

          

             

Keypoint: The angle (mβ/2) in the denominator must be in radians.

NOTE: The above formula is used to calculate distribution factor when phase spread is mβ and
the winding is uniformly distributed.

Generalised expression for EMF equation of an Alternator: 

Considering full pitch, concentrated winding, 

                              Eph = 4.44 f ΦTph volts 

            But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this Eph will reduce

factors Kc and Kd. So generalised expression for the derivation of emf equation
of Synchronous generator or Alternator can be written as

                                 Eph = 4.44 Kc Kd f ΦTph volts 

For full pitch coil, Kc = 1

For concentrated winding Kd = 1 

Synchronous Motor – Construction,

Principle, Types, Characteristics
Synchronous motor is one of the most efficient motors. The ability to control their power factor
makes it very demandable especially for low speed drives. This course will discuss Synchronous
motor, its construction, working principle, types, characteristics, starting methods, applications,
model/ phasor diagram, advantages and disadvantages.

What is Synchronous Motor

A synchronous motor is an AC motor wherein, at steady state, the rotation of the shaft is
synchronized with the frequency of the supplied current; the rotation period is exactly equal to an
integral number of AC cycles.
These motors contain multi-phase AC electromagnets on the stator of the motor that create a
magnetic field that rotates in time with the oscillations of the line current. A synchronous-motor is
doubly fed if it is supplied with independent excited multi-phase AC electromagnets on both the rotor
and stator.

Construction of Synchronous Motor

The structure is same as of other motors. Stator and rotor are the main parts of a synchronous motor
while a frame is the cover and both stator and rotor make up the electric and magnetic circuitry of the
Synchronous motors. The main components of the motor are:

 Stator
 Rotor
 Exciter
 Frame

Fig. – Components of Synchronous Motor

Stator
Stator is the stationary part of the motor. It has a cylindrical frame which has slots to carry winding
circuitry. The Stator consists of the core, which is generally made up of steel. This core is insulated
to prevent the flow of eddy currents.
Fig. 3 – Components of Stator

The winding circuit of the stator is called Stator Winding. It is supplied 3 phase AC power.

Rotor
Rotor is the rotating part that rotates exactly at the same speed as the stator magnetic field. It is
excited by a DC source.

The rotor consists of a number of poles, which depends on the speed and frequency of the machine.
The relation between the pole, speed and frequency is defined as

Where,

N = Speed of Motor in rpm

f = frequency, and

p = No. of poles
Types of Rotor Construction in Synchronous Motor
There are two types of rotor constructions in Synchronous Motors. They are:

 Salient Pole Rotors

 Non-Salient Pole Rotors

Salient Pole Rotors

In Salient Pole Rotors, the poles protrude from the rotor surface.

Fig. 4 – Salient Pole Rotor

Non-Salient Pole Rotors

In Non-Salient Pole Rotors, winding are placed in slots machined rotors.
 Fig. 5 – Non-Salient Pole Rotor

Exciter
It is a small generator placed in the rotor, which provides excitation power for excitation. It consists
of a field winding and armature winding. The field winding is placed in stator and the armature
winding is placed in the rotor of the machine.

Frame
It protects the motor and covers the whole assembly.

Working Principle of Synchronous Motor

The operation of a synchronous motors is that the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field of a stator
and rotates at a speed approaching it. The rotor winding is excited by a DC source and the stator
winding is excited by AC source.
 Fig. 6 – Synchronous Motor Working Principle

Salient points regarding the working principle of Synchronous Motor are:

 Due to 3 phase AC, a 3 phase rotating magnetic field is produced by stator winding.
 Rotor winding produces a constant magnetic field.
 At some rotations, the poles of two magnetic fields attract each other while at some instant,
they repel each other.
 The rotor will not start to rotate due to its inertia. So an external source will provide initial
rotation.
 Once the rotor starts moving at the synchronous speed, the external source is shut off.
 The magnetic field of a rotor is not produced by the magnetic field of the rotor but through
induction. Hence, the air gap between rotor and stator is not kept very small.

Types of Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors can be classified into two types based on how the rotor is magnetized.

 Non-Excited Synchronous Motors

 Direct Current (DC) Excited Synchronous Motors
Non Excited Synchronous Motor
The rotor is made up of steel. At synchronous speed, it rotates with the rotating magnetic field of the
stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The rotor is made of high-retentively
steel such as cobalt steel.

Non-Excited Synchronous Motors are available in three designs:

 Hysteresis Synchronous Motors

 Reluctance Synchronous Motors
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

Hysteresis Synchronous Motors
Hysteresis motors are single phase motors where the rotor is made of ferromagnetic material. The
rotors have high hysteresis loss property. They are made up of Chrome, Cobalt Steel or Alnico.

Fig. 7 – Hysteresis Synchronous Motor

They are self-starting and do not need additional winding. This has a wide hysteresis loop which
means once it is magnetized in a given direction; it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse
the magnetization.
Reluctance Synchronous Motors
Reluctance is always minimum when a piece of iron rotates to complete a magnetic flux path. The
reluctance increases with the angle between them when the poles are aligned with the magnetic field
of the stator. This will create a torque pulling the rotor into alignment with the pole near to the stator
field.

Fig. 8 – Reluctance Synchronous Motor

The rotor poles generally have squirrel-cage winding embedded, to provide torque below
synchronous speed to start the motor.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

A permanent Magnet Motor uses permanent magnets in the steel rotor to create a constant magnetic
flux. The rotor locks in when the speed is near synchronous speed.
 Fig. 9 – Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

The stator carries winding which are connected to an AC supply to produce a rotating magnetic field.
Permanent magnet motors are similar to brushless DC motors.

Direct Current (DC) Excited Synchronous Motor

Direct Current (DC) Excited Synchronous Motor requires DC supply to the rotor to generate a
magnetic field. It has both stator winding as well as rotor winding. The direct current can be supplied
from a separate DC source or from a DC generator connected to the motor shaft.

Characteristics of Synchronous Motor

Some of the key characteristics of a synchronous motor which differentiates it from other motors are
as follows:

Speed
Speed of ranges from 150 rpm to 1800 rpm. The speed is synchronous and does not depend on load
conditions. Speed always remain constant from no load to full load.

The relation between the pole, speed, and frequency is defined as

Where,

N = Speed of Motor in rpm

f = frequency, and

p = No. of poles

Starting Torque
External force is required to start the synchronous motor as it has no starting torque.
Rating
The power rating of synchronous motors ranges between 150kW to 15MW.

Efficiency
The Synchronous Motors are highly efficient machines and their efficiency is much greater than
induction motors.

Maintenance
The Synchronous motors use brushless Exciter which decreases the maintenance problem.

Power Factor Correction

These motors have high power factor correction, Hence they are used in areas where power factor
correction is needed.

Starting Methods of Synchronous Motor

As we all know that Synchronous motors cannot self-start as it has no starting torque. Therefore
different ways are used to start the motor. External force is used at start for bringing up the speed up
to synchronous speed. The three main ways are:

 Reduce frequency of stator to a safe starting level.

 Use external prime mover.
 Use of damper winding.

Model Diagram and Phasor Diagram of Synchronous

Motor
Field structure is stimulated by direct current in synchronous motor. Due to the rotating magnetic
field, the voltage induced in the stator winding and this voltage is called counter emf (E).
 Fig. 10 – Model Diagram of Synchronous Motor

The effect of armature reaction is substituted by Fictitious Reactance (Xa). When Xa is combined
with the leakage reactance of the armature it gives Synchronous Reactance (Xs). When Xs is
combined with the Armature Effective Resistance (Re), it gives the Synchronous Impedance (Zs).

Fig. 11 – Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motor

In order to draw the phasor diagram, Vt is taken as the reference phasor and below points are to be
followed:

 If a machine works as a asynchronous motor then the direction of armature current will be
opposite to that of the excitation emf.
 Phasor excitation emf always lags phasor terminal voltage.

Application Areas of Synchronous Motor

The application areas of Synchronous motor includes:

 The basic use of a synchronous motor is “power factor correction” which means to increase
the power factor of a system.
 Synchronous motors are used in voltage regulation
 Synchronous motors are generally used for low speed, high power loads.
 Synchronous motors are generally used in air and gas compressors and vacuum pumps.
 Synchronous motors also find their application in crushers, mills and grinders.
 They are also used in exhausters, fans, and blowers.

Advantages of Synchronous Motor

The advantages of Synchronous motor includes:

 The advantage of using synchronous motor is the ability to control the power factor. An over
excited synchronous-motor has leading power factor and is operated in parallel to induction
motors thereby improving the system power factor.
 Speed remains constant irrespective of the loads in synchronous motors. This quality helps in
industrial machines where constant speed is required irrespective of the load.
 Synchronous motors are built with wider air gaps than induction motors which make them
mechanically more stable.
 Electro-magnetic power varies linearly with the voltage in synchronous motors.
 Synchronous motors usually operate with higher efficiencies (more than 90%) especially in
low speed compared to induction motors.

Disadvantages of Synchronous Motor

The disadvantages of Synchronous motor includes:
 Synchronous motors require dc excitation which is supplied from external sources.
 These motors are not self-starting motors and need some external arrangement for its starting
and synchronizing.
 The cost per kW output is commonly higher than that of induction motors.
 Unless the incoming supply frequency is adjusted, there is no possible way to adjust the
speed.
 They cannot be started on load because its starting torque is zero.
 Collector rings and brushes are required which results in high maintenance cost.
 Synchronous motors cannot be useful for applications requiring frequent starting of
machines.