geosciences

Article
The “Sant’Angelo in Criptis” Cave Church in Santeramo in
Colle (Apulia, South Italy): A Multidisciplinary Study for the
Evaluation of Conservation State and Stability Assessment
Anna Garavelli 1,2, * , Gioacchino Francesco Andriani 1,2 , Giovanna Fioretti 1,2 , Vincenzo Iurilli 1,2 ,
Antonella Marsico 1,2 and Daniela Pinto 1,2

1 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e Geoambientali, dell’Università di Bari “A. Moro”, Via Edoardo Orabona, 4,
70124 Bari, Italy; gioacchinofrancesco.andriani@uniba.it (G.F.A.); giovanna.fioretti@uniba.it (G.F.);
vincenzo.iurilli@uniba.it (V.I.); antonella.marsico@uniba.it (A.M.); daniela.pinto@uniba.it (D.P.)
2 Centro Interdipartimentale Laboratorio di Ricerca per la Diagnostica dei Beni Culturali, dell’Università di
Bari “A. Moro”, Via Edoardo Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
* Correspondence: anna.garavelli@uniba.it

Abstract: Sant’Angelo in Criptis (Santeramo in Puglia, South Italy) is a karst cave located in the Alta
Murgia National Park (aspiring geopark), presently degraded, but with signs of intense past visiting
activity for worship, as testified by the beautiful wall paintings and the large number of inscriptions
and engravings on the cave walls. With the aim to permit the desirable restoration and the following





 fruition of this ancient geo-cultural heritage, a multidisciplinary investigation of the cave was carried
out in this study. The 3D cave model permitted a detailed map of the area and highlighted that the
Citation: Garavelli, A.; Andriani,
cave vault, although very regular, somewhere presents chimneys that develop upwards, indicating
G.F.; Fioretti, G.; Iurilli, V.; Marsico,
areas where the rock thickness is now very small. The stability analysis indicates that presently, the
A.; Pinto, D. The “Sant’Angelo in
Criptis” Cave Church in Santeramo
cave does not show remarkable signs of instability, but block failures, toppling and roof collapse are
in Colle (Apulia, South Italy): A possible. Archaeometry investigations confirmed the past importance of this holy site, as testified by
Multidisciplinary Study for the the overlapping in the paintings of three different pictorial cycles and the use of precious pigments,
Evaluation of Conservation State and thus confirming the necessity of preservation through a conservation management strategy for a full
Stability Assessment. Geosciences future fruition of the cave.
2021, 11, 382. https://doi.org/
10.3390/geosciences11090382 Keywords: Sant’Angelo in Criptis; Alta Murgia; Geopark; cave church; karst; kinematic analysis;
laser scanner survey; 3D model; stability assessment; wall paintings; conservation
Academic Editors: Jesús F. Jordá
Pardo and Jesus Martinez-Frias

Received: 13 July 2021

1. Introduction
Accepted: 1 September 2021
Published: 10 September 2021
The karstic nature of the Apulia landscape and the history of this part of southern
Italy are testified by a lot of sites in which these features meet up. Since the pre-Christian
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
age, numerous caves in the Apulian region were used as places of worship, later becoming
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
churches or small sanctuaries [1,2]. In the last decades, the importance of these caves
published maps and institutional affil- as witnesses of past communities and happenings has greatly increased, since these are
iations. sites where the local people recover their own identity. Therefore, the cave churches have
been becoming milestones in landscape management, so local authorities aim to preserve
them in order to maintain both the local tradition and environment. Moreover, the caves
attract tourists and, as a consequence, the fruition of the sites in safety conditions implies
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
a need for caves’ stability assessment [3–5]. Furthermore, inside almost all these caves,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
paintings, engravings and graffiti art from different time periods enrich both the cave walls
This article is an open access article
and niches. Therefore, the archaeometry studies of these artworks can provide precious
distributed under the terms and information for understanding their history and to arrange preservation, as other studies
conditions of the Creative Commons on paintings in different Apulian artistic and archaeological contexts (for example: [6–11])
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// have shown.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Some of these Apulian cave churches are dedicated to Saint Michael Archangel,
4.0/). commonly known as Sant’Angelo, protector of the Lombard stock, imported from the near

Geosciences 2021, 11, 382. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11090382 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences

 Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 2 of 20

Some of these Apulian cave churches are dedicated to Saint Michael Archangel, com-
monly known as Sant’Angelo, protector of the Lombard stock, imported from the near
East and
East and spread
spread through
through central
central and
and southern
southern Italy
Italy [12–15].
[12–15]. The
TheSant’Angelo
Sant’AngeloininCriptis
Criptis
cave church (Santeramo in Colle, Bari) is one of these worship places, once full
cave church (Santeramo in Colle, Bari) is one of these worship places, once full of spiritual of spiritual
life and
life and pilgrim
pilgrim traffic,
traffic, now
now abandoned
abandoned and and forgotten.
forgotten.
It is a suggestive natural karst cavity, which
It is a suggestive natural karst cavity, which isis part
part of
ofaawider
widerand
andmoremorecomplex
complex
structure, locally known as “Iazzo Sant’Angelo” (Figure 1), consisting of threeadjacent
structure, locally known as “Iazzo Sant’Angelo” (Figure 1), consisting of three adjacent
buildings (Figure
buildings (Figure1b)1b)that
thatcover thethe
cover entrance of the
entrance of cave (Figure
the cave 1c) and1c)
(Figure overlap the north-
and overlap the
ern end ofend
northern theof
cave
the itself.
cave itself.

Figure1.1.(a)
Figure (a)Localization
Localizationof of the
the study
study site
site (red star) just inside the
the Alta
Alta Murgia
Murgia National
NationalPark
Park(green),
(green),the
theblack
blackline
lineisisthe
the
cross-sectionininFigure
cross-section Figure
3. 3.
(b)(b)
TheThe front
front of the
of the ancient
ancient buildings
buildings builtbuilt
overover the cave.
the cave. (c) entrance
(c) The The entrance
viewview
from from the inside,
the cave cave
inside, delimited
delimited by rock
by rock walls walls
of the of thechurch
ancient ancient church foundations.
foundations. (d) View of (d)the
View of the
central cavecentral cave
corridor corridor
with massivewith massive
columns.
columns.
The site was initially used as a church and later as a manor farm. In 1939, Archeological
The site was initially
Superintendence used
for Puglia as a church
declared and later as a historical
the considerable manor farm. In 1939,
interest of Archeolog-
the site and
ical Superintendence
subjected for constraints.
it to protection Puglia declared
The the considerable
cave historical
represents the core ofinterest of the structure,
the historical site and
subjected
being it to protection
characterized constraints.
by a beautiful The cave represents
underground the core(stalactites,
karst landscape of the historical struc-
stalagmites,
ture, being
columns characterized
delimiting uniqueby aniches
beautiful underground
carved karst landscape
into the rock), (stalactites,
in which fine, stalag-
stratified wall
mites, columns
paintings enrichdelimiting unique
both the cave wallsniches carved(Figure
and niches into the rock), in which fine, stratified
2a–c).
wall In
paintings
addition enrich both the cave
to paintings, cave walls and niches
collect (Figure 2a–c).
engravings and graffiti signs (Figure 2d)
from different time periods, indicating the sacredness of the place, which was an important
religious pilgrimage destination since early Christian periods and even before. As a matter
of fact, it is likely that the cavity was originally devoted to the pre-classical “cult of water”,
and later converted to Christianity and finally entitled, in the early Middle age, to St.
Michael the Archangel [16].
 x FOR PEER REVIEW
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 3 of 21
20

Figure 2.
Figure Wall paintings
2. Wall paintings andand ancient
ancient graffiti
graffiti in
in the
the Sant’Angelo
Sant’Angelo crypt. In detail:
crypt. In (a) the
detail: (a) the “Descent
“Descent of of the
the Holy
Holy Spirit
Spirit and
and
Christ Pantocrator” painting, (b) the “The Virgin and the Child flanked by the St. John and the St. Michael”
Christ Pantocrator” painting, (b) the “The Virgin and the Child flanked by the St. John and the St. Michael” painting painting (1. (1.
St.
Michael’s wings, 2. St. Michael’s body, 3. St. Michael’s face, 4. Virgin and Child, 5. St. John), (c) the niche containing
St. Michael’s wings, 2. St. Michael’s body, 3. St. Michael’s face, 4. Virgin and Child, 5. St. John), (c) the niche containing the the “St.
Michael
“St. the Archangel
Michael slaying
the Archangel the dragon”
slaying the dragon”painting and and
painting (d) a(d)
cross incised
a cross in the
incised incrypt wall wall
the crypt by pilgrims.
by pilgrims.

Presently,
In additionthe topaintings,
paintings,the engravings,
cave the graffiti
walls collect and the
engravings andcave are in
graffiti very(Figure
signs precarious
2d)
from different time periods, indicating the sacredness of the place, which wasthe
conditions as a whole, due to the natural and anthropogenic degradation affecting ancave
im-
after its religious
portant abandonment as worship
pilgrimage place (XVI–XVII
destination since early centuries) [16].
Christian periods and even before. As
a matter of fact, it is likely that the cavity was originally devoted tonational
The inclusion of the Sant’Angelo in Criptis in the Alta Murgia park (today
the pre-classical an
“cult
aspiring
of water”,UNESCO
and latergeopark
converted in Apulia, Southern
to Christianity andItaly, Figure
finally 1a) permits
entitled, in thetoearly
consider theage,
Middle site
as a typical example of geo-cultural
to St. Michael the Archangel [16]. heritage. In this context, the cave church might become
a toolPresently,
for dissemination of the the
the paintings, geological knowledge
engravings, and for
the graffiti and the increased
the cave areawareness about
in very precari-
the geological risks linked to human activities and for the landscape
ous conditions as a whole, due to the natural and anthropogenic degradation affecting theprotection.
cave For
afterthese reasons, its opening
its abandonment to visits
as worship placeis(XVI–XVII
consideredcenturies)
a very desirable
[16]. opportunityde-
spite the present conservation condition and the absence of any information regarding the
The inclusion of the Sant’Angelo in Criptis in the Alta Murgia national park (today
stability of the site does not permit today the public access to the area. To this purpose both
an aspiring UNESCO geopark in Apulia, Southern Italy, Figure 1a) permits to consider
the cave and the above church need major restoration and conservation. In this context, the
the site as a typical example of geo-cultural heritage. In this context, the cave church might
multidisciplinary investigations performed in this work, which is part of a research project
become a tool for dissemination of the geological knowledge and for the increased aware-
financed by the Caripuglia Foundation, aim to renew the interest in this important cultural
ness about the geological risks linked to human activities and for the landscape protection.
heritage and focused the attention on the present state of degradation and the stability of
For these reasons, its opening to visits is considered a very desirable opportuni-
the site.
tydespite the present conservation condition and the absence of any information regard-
ing theSant’Angelo
2. The stability of the site does
in Criptis not State-of-the-Art
Cave: permit today theand public access Overview
Historical to the area. To this
purpose both the cave and the above church need major restoration and conservation. In
Notwithstanding the beauty of the Sant’Angelo in Criptis site and its past importance
this context, the multidisciplinary investigations performed in this work, which is part of
as a cultural center, very limited information is available in the literature, both in ancient
a research project financed by the Caripuglia Foundation, aim to renew the interest in this
and in recent sources. Recent literature mainly concerns the description of the cave and its
important
mapping, the cultural heritage
paintings andandthe focused the attention
engravings ([16–22] and on the presenttherein).
references state of degradation
All of these
and the stability of the site.
reports were mainly devoted to the stylistic and iconographic study of the wall paintings,
to the readings of the graffiti and to the reconstruction of the importance of the site as a
cultural center, allowing to increase the attention on the complex after a period of total
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 4 of 20

oblivion. This permitted to frame and state the primary role of the Sant’Angelo in Criptis
site as a part of the rupestrian culture, highlighting its importance as a place to worship St.
Michael during the Longobard period (VII–X century), and even to highlight its importance
in the pre-Christian period as a worship place attributable to the pre-classical (or at least
very old) “cult of water” [16].
Before these investigations, very little was known in the literature, and the main diffi-
culty in the reconstruction of the ancient history of the area is the very limited information
which can be deducted from the reading of the historical sources, which are limited to the
topographic localization of the site in the 1100s, and to some news concerning the collection
of taxes from the abbot of Sant’Angelo in Criptis church [23]. Additional news concern the
site dated to the 1700s, when Sant’Angelo was named as a farm ([23] and references therein).
Thus, in the absence of complete literature data, the cave and the housing complex can be
considered now as the main sources of information for the reconstruction of Sant’Angelo’s
history and of its role in the pilgrimage paths.
All the available literature data regarding the cave describe it as a karst—sanctuary
grotto only partially modified by human actions. Through the entrance, connected to
the floor of the cavity by means of heaps of debris, which probably substitute a previous
wooden stair, the visitors enter in the main part of the cave from which three orthogonally
placed tunnels depart. The allocation of paintings on the walls is well-described by
Caragnano, 2005 [24]. The top cave wall at the entrance is marked by the allocation of the
“Descent of the Holy Spirit and Christ Pantocrator” painting (Figure 2a). Immediately on
the bottom ofthe debris, there is the handmade niche hosting the painting of “St. Michael
Archangel slaying the dragon”, which is actually very difficult to recognize due to the
very bad state of preservation (Figure 2c). On the rock walls at the left of the entrance,
there is the painting of “The Virgin and the Child flanked by the St. John and the St.
Michael” (Figure 2b). The iconography of all the paintings makes it possible to date them
between the 11th and 14th century [25]. In addition to the paintings, several ancient
graffiti and engravings cover the cave walls (Figure 2d). Their readings [21] reveal that the
first dedication of the Sanctuary to the Christian cult took place not after the V century;
furthermore the presence of early Christian symbology evidenced the deep devotion of
the visitors who probably frequented the cave from the beginning of the Christian era,
and even before. The impenetrable route carved into the rock and the suffering marks
left by pilgrims represent evidence that the cave was the location of a long and difficult
path of spiritual purification and pilgrimage. Between the 9th and the 14th centuries, the
cave was increasingly popular, so much so that it was probably necessary to dig create
new rooms space to accommodate pilgrims; in the 11th and 12th centuries, when the
climax of worship occurred, a church was built above and the accessibility to the arduous
mystic route in the cave was improved. Wall writings prove that during the next two
centuries, the site was still popular, however, its fame decreased until it was gradually
abandoned. Starting from the 16th century, the remains of the church were reused as shelter
for animals and shepherds [25]. From the 17th century, the complex of Sant’Angelo was
totally forgotten, and its deterioration began [25]. Up-to-date investigations on the cave
and housing complex are totally lacking. Only little information concerning the geology of
the area and some preliminary archaeological investigations are available [23], whereas
studies regarding a modern mapping of the cave, its stability assessment and archaeometry
investigations of the paintings present therein are totally absent. In this context, the modern
multidisciplinary investigations performed in this work aim to fill the lack of information,
to implement the knowledge of the area and to act as a base for any future recovery and
restoration projects.

3. Geological and Environmental Setting

The cave and the whole housing complex of Sant’Angelo in Criptis (locally also known
as Sant’Angelo di Lago Travato) are located in the area known as “Contrada Talpullo-Corte
Finocchio”, close to the eastern border of the Alta Murgia National Park, in the countryside
 restoration projects.

3. Geological and Environmental Setting

The cave and the whole housing complex of Sant’Angelo in Criptis (locally also
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 5 of 20
known as Sant’Angelo di Lago Travato) are located in the area known as “Contrada Tal-
pullo-Corte Finocchio”, close to the eastern border of the Alta Murgia National Park, in
the countryside north of Santeramo in Colle town. On the geological map of Italy, the site
falls
northinof
the N. 189 sheet
Santeramo “Altamura”
in Colle town. Onand, in detail, map
the geological in theofApulian
Italy, the Carbonate
site falls in Platform.
the N. 189
Exactly, it is in the central-western
sheet “Altamura” and, in detail, inarea the of the Murge,
Apulian a karstic
Carbonate plateauExactly,
Platform. whose it elevation
is in the
ranges from 300 to
central-western 700ofmthe
area above
Murge,sea level.
a karstic plateau whose elevation ranges from 300 to
700 The geomorphology
m above sea level. of the Murge plateau is an effect of a sequence of phases among
whichThekarst was fundamental
geomorphology of thebut not always
Murge plateauprevailing. The
is an effect of surface drainage,
a sequence of phasesinamong
fact,
produced
which karstevident landforms that
was fundamental in not
but many placesprevailing.
always have canceledThe the karstdrainage,
surface ones [26].in They
fact,
produced
are mainly evident
slightly landforms that in
incised valleys, manycalled
locally placeslame.
haveThecanceled
drainagethe evolved
karst ones [26].
both They
before
are after
and mainly
theslightly incised valleys,
Plio-Pleistocene locally called
transgression lame.
[27]. The The drainage
carbonate evolved
formation both before
involved is the
and after
Calcare di the Plio-Pleistocene
Altamura, dated to the transgression
Upper Cretaceous[27]. The[28],
carbonate formation
which records theinvolved
effects ofistec-
the
Calcare
tonic anddi Altamura, dated
morphogenetic to dating
events the Upper fromCretaceous
that age. [28], which records the effects of
tectonic and morphogenetic
Furthermore, the typicalevents dating both
karst forms, from epigean
that age. (doline) and hypogean (caves),
are largely modified by not-karst processes, such epigean
Furthermore, the typical karst forms, both as coastal(doline)
abrasion andin hypogean (caves),
the transgressive
are largely
phases, whichmodified by not-karst
have created sub-flat processes,
surfaces such as coastal
covered abrasion deposits
by Pleistocene in the transgressive
[29]. On a
phases,
wider which have
observation created
scale, sub-flat surfaces
the “stepped” structure covered
(Figure by3)
Pleistocene deposits
of the carbonate [29]. Onina
platform
wider
the observation
plateau, scale, the “stepped”
as a consequence of the crustal structure (Figurerelated
deformation 3) of theto carbonate
the placementplatform
of the in
the plateau, as a consequence of the crustal deformation related
Apennine chain [30,31], is fundamental in the recent (Quaternary) morphogenesis. to the placement of the
Apennine chain [30,31], is fundamental in the recent (Quaternary) morphogenesis.

Figure3.3.AAcross-section
Figure cross-sectionofofthe
theApulia
Apuliaforeland
forelandnear
nearthe
thestudy
studyarea
areahighlights
highlightsthe
thestepped
steppedstructure
structureofofthe
theMurgia
Murgiaplateau.
plateau.
LocationininFigure
Location Figure1.1.Legend:
Legend: (1–16):
(1–16): uplifted
uplifted shorelines
shorelines (middle–late
(middle–late Pleistocene),
Pleistocene), P-Q: P-Q: Bradanic
Bradanic trough trough cyclePlio-
cycle (late (late
cene–early Pleistocene),
Pliocene–early K: Apulia
Pleistocene), foreland
K: Apulia carbonates
foreland (Cretaceous).
carbonates Modified
(Cretaceous). fromfrom
Modified [30]. [30].

Overall,the
Overall, the Murgia
Murgia relief
reliefhas
hasa amonocline
monocline structure, with
structure, a SW
with dip (Figure
a SW 3). A 3).
dip (Figure slight
A
bending is believed to be due to an intraplate compressive phase of the Cretaceous
slight bending is believed to be due to an intraplate compressive phase of the Cretaceous period,
with axes
period, with roughly WNW WNW
axes roughly to ESE to
[32].
ESE [32].
The exhaustion of the Apennine
The exhaustion of the Apennine thrusts thrusts is related
is related to more
to more recent
recent distensive
distensive tecton-
tectonics,
ics, starting from the lower-middle Pleistocene, and to the general uplift of
starting from the lower-middle Pleistocene, and to the general uplift of the foreland mar- the foreland
margin
gin [31,33].
[31,33]. This evolved
This evolved into ainto a horst-and-graben
horst-and-graben relief relief corresponding
corresponding to the to the Murge
Murge plat-
plateau,
eau, whose whose top surface
top surface (known (known as “Murge
as “Murge Alte” orAlte”
“AltaorMurgia”)
“Alta Murgia”) is bordered
is bordered by straightby
straight scarps. On the other hand, the uplift led to the resumption of erosion in the
scarps. On the other hand, the uplift led to the resumption of erosion in the surface drain-
surface drainage network as much as in the hypogean karst voids, partly pre-existing and
age network as much as in the hypogean karst voids, partly pre-existing and obstructed
obstructed by deposits, which thus are now in a phase of “rejuvenation” of the relief and
by deposits, which thus are now in a phase of “rejuvenation” of the relief and of speleo-
of speleogenesis [34], showing recent erosive forms together with relics of ancient fillings,
genesis [34], showing recent erosive forms together with relics of ancient fillings, and with
and with new vertical passages.
new vertical passages.
4. Methodology
The multidisciplinary approach adopted in this work, which includes the geological
and geomorphological survey, kinematic cave stability analysis, laser scanner survey, 3D
modeling of the site and archaeometry investigations on the paintings therein, represents
an integrated investigation methodology applied to the study of cultural heritage aiming at
contributing to the protection and promotion of the site as a sustainable tourism resource.
The approach used permitted to obtain complementary information, filling the existing gap
in the limited literature on the Sant’Angelo in Criptis cave, and provided basic tools for
future implementations in different fields, from archaeometry to geology and geoengineer-
ing, as well as for historical reconstruction of the site. Ultimately, this study has the aims of
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 6 of 20

scientific documentation collection, dissemination and awareness, which are important

parts of fruition and enhancement processes of cultural heritage and tourism.

4.1. Geological and Geomorphological Survey

The site, within its context, has been first considered from a geological perspective. The
Alta Murgia has been considered as a geomorphological unit, a horst between a northern
scarp about 60 m high near the town of Cassano delle Murge, and the more imposing
southern scarp, about 120 m high south of Santeramo in Colle. A search for more caves in
the surrounding area has been carried out both in the regional inventory of caves [1] and
among caving clubs. The cave morphology has been considered as a morpho-sequence,
including both deposits and morphogenetic processes that shape its voids (erosion, karst
corrosion and calcite precipitation, joints and so on), and whose evolution is conditioned
by the structural features [35,36]. Man-made forms must be considered within such a
sequence, since they undergo the same morphogenetic agents in a cave environment.

4.2. Kinematic Analysis of the Cave Stability

In the total absence of similar data, the analysis of the cave’s stability was considered
propaedeutic to the other investigations, in order to allow safe access for researchers and
instruments into the cave for the complementary studies, but at the same time, funda-
mental for any future cave fruition. The stability studies were carried out by both in
situ and 3D model surveys. To perform a general assessment of the cave’s stability, the
above-mentioned field-based geomechanical surveys were conducted by means of both
the scanline and the random methods according to ISRM [37]. It is a near-surface rock
mass, in low-stress environments, whose mechanical behavior is significantly affected
by discontinuities, and thus it is likely to be highly anisotropic and can be considered as
discontinuous. The surveys were integrated with remote sensing techniques by means
of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) with a high-resolution digital camera, according to
the method proposed by Loiotine et al. [38]. This integrated approach was focused on
classifying rock masses according to the GSI and RMR systems [39,40] and evaluating their
practical modeling for the in situ representation along the roof and sidewalls of the cave.

4.3. The Laser Scanner Survey and the 3D Model Reconstruction

Laser scanner investigations were performed in this study with the aim to create the
virtual 3D cave model since visualizing a geological object in 3D greatly improves the
inspection capabilities of the scientist [41]. This methodology is also applied to the cave
survey [4,42,43] and to carry out geo-structural analysis of rock mass discontinuities [44–46].
In addition, the 3D technology can be easily applied for site and tourism planning and
management, marketing [47], geoheritage-oriented education and research, providing a
digital reference and record for future generations [48]. It allows, in fact, to collect a large
amount of exhaustive multidisciplinary information in a unique 3D model and provides
data for a lot of applications.
The 3D model of the cave as a point cloud survey derives from high-resolution laser-
scanning data: the high density of points allows the feature to be closely fitted, improving
the precision of its geometric characteristics [49]. For this study, a high-speed, high-accuracy
Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS), Leica HDS 3000, has been used [50]. The survey process
was developed to gather as much surface as possible. Due to the cave shape and the
presence of domes and chimneys on the roof, the scanner was strategically positioned in
several locations. In fact, multiple scans at different locations are required to capture the
entire survey site, due to the scanner line-of-flight being obscured by structures in one
or more of the scan locations. Scan resolutions ranging between 20 and 40 mm both in
horizontal and in vertical spacing were used to obtain the raw ground morphology. Each
scan contained the highest resolution control points (targets) of the previous scan, thus
providing overlaps to join scans into one single point cloud of the whole cave. The survey
was carried out starting from the cave entrance, scanning the cave in a clockwise direction,
 presence of domes and chimneys on the roof, the scanner was strategically positioned in
several locations. In fact, multiple scans at different locations are required to capture the
entire survey site, due to the scanner line-of-flight being obscured by structures in one or
more of the scan locations. Scan resolutions ranging between 20 and 40 mm both in hori-
zontal and in vertical spacing were used to obtain the raw ground morphology. Each scan
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 7 of 20
contained the highest resolution control points (targets) of the previous scan, thus provid-
ing overlaps to join scans into one single point cloud of the whole cave. The survey was
carried out starting from the cave entrance, scanning the cave in a clockwise direction,
leadingback
leading backtotothe
thestarting
starting point,
point, and
and then carrying on
on in
inthe
thebuilding
buildinguntil
untilarriving
arrivingonon
theoutside,
the outside,on
onthe
thecountryside
countryside plan
plan over the cave
cave (Figure
(Figure4).4).

Figure 4. 4.The
Figure The cave
cavepoint
pointcloud
cloudfrom
fromthe
theabove
abovepoint
point of
of view:
view: the
the black
black areas inside the
areas inside the cave
caveprofile
profileshow
showthe
theunscanned
unscanned
portions that
portions thatrepresent
representthe
thecolumnar
columnarstructures.
structures.

Thedata
The dataprocessing,
processing,performed
performed by by the Cyclone©
Cyclone© software
software[50],
[50],generates
generates3D3Dpoint
point
cloudscomposed
clouds composedbybymillions
millionsofofpoints
pointsaccording
accordingtotothethe spatial
spatial resolution
resolution previously
previously ar-
arranged. Where possible, the scan was cleaned of unwanted objects
ranged. Where possible, the scan was cleaned of unwanted objects and then joined to-and then joined
together
gether in ainunique
a unique point
point cloud.Outside
cloud. Outsidethe
thecave,
cave,the
the position
position of
of the
the overlapping
overlappingtargets
targets
was picked up by DGPS in order to georeference the whole point
was picked up by DGPS in order to georeference the whole point clouds. clouds.

4.4. Analysis of Wall Rock Paintings

4.4. Analysis of Wall Rock Paintings
Archaeometry investigations of wall rock paintings were conducted with the aim to
Archaeometry
evaluate the state ofinvestigations
conservation of wallpictorial
of the rock paintings were
layers and theconducted
preparatorywith the aim
plasters, theto
evaluate the state of conservation of the pictorial layers and the preparatory
presence of degradation products, as well as for the identification of secondary surface plasters, the
presence of degradation products, as well as for the identification of secondary
deposits. To this aim, a preliminary in situ observation of wall paintings was performed surface
deposits. To this
to evaluate, at aaim, a preliminary
macroscopic scale, in situgeneral
their observation of conservation,
state of wall paintingsthe was performed
presence of
toalteration
evaluate,products
at a macroscopic scale,
and to define thetheir general
strategy state of conservation,
of sampling. Since most ofthethepresence
wall rockof
alteration
paintingsproducts
in the caveandareto define thebystrategy
constituted of sampling.
the overlapping Since cycles,
of pictorial most ofsamples
the wall rock
repre-
sentative of each pictorial layer were taken during the sampling, but in a few cases, painted
fragments composed by the complete pictorial stratigraphy were sampled for more de-
tailed stratigraphic investigations. In each case, special attention was paid when selecting
samples from already damaged areas in order to preserve the integrity of paintings as
much as possible.
A total of 56 stratigraphic samples were collected from the different paintings dec-
orating the wall rock of the Sant’Angelo cave. Specifically, 25 samples were taken from
the wall painting which portrays the “Descent of the Holy Spirit and Christ Pantocrator”,
18 samples from the painting showing “The Virgin and Child flanked by St. John the Baptist
and the St. Michael the Archangel” and 13 samples from the “St. Michael the Archangel
slaying the dragon painting”.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 8 of 20

All the sampled fragments were preliminarily investigated under a stereomicroscope

and digital images were acquired in order to document their specific features. Thus,
cross-sections were obtained for the stratigraphic analysis of the samples finalized to
the characterization of pictorial layers and their state of conservation, as well as for the
identification of secondary surface deposits.
The analysis of samples’ stratigraphy was performed under reflected-light optical
microscopy (RL-OM) and scanning electron microscopy equipped with an X-ray microanal-
ysis EDS system (SEM-EDS). A Nikon Eclipse80i microscope equipped with a digital image
acquisition system was used for the RL-OM observations, whereas SEM-EDS analyses were
performed using a LEO EVO50XVP electron microscope coupled with a X-max Silicon drift
EDS detector (Oxford Instruments, Oxford, UK), equipped with a Super Atmosphere Thin
Window. Operating conditions were: 15 kV accelerating potential, 500 pA probe current
and 8.5 mm working distance.
The characterization of plasters underlaying pictorial layers was performed on thin
sections using a Zeiss Axioskop 40 transmitted-light optical microscope (TL-OM).

5. Results
5.1. The Cave and Its Speleological Context
The search for other caves in the surrounding area produced, as a first result, only
20 records in about 80 square kilometers. The density of caves appears clearly higher along
the steeper strips corresponding to the border scarps, straight lines that can be found near
the town of Cassano delle Murge (the northern one) and South of Santeramo in Colle (the
more imposing southern one). This can be explained not only by the flat topography in the
top of the plateau, which certainly limits the intersection of cavities, but also by the actions
of human, for the wider use of the land, which often implies the closure of vertical inlets
and sinkholes and disposal in cavities of the stones extracted from the crops.
The Sant’Angelo cave is very close to the surface, and its entrance has been modified
by man and inserted into the structure of the adjacent building (Figures 4 and 5). The
entrance leads directly to the main corridor, from which all the others depart. Due to
the abundance of both chemical and clastic deposits, the bedrock is hardly visible in the
cave (Figure 1c,d). The speleothems, whose size ranges from recent cannulae to imposing
columnar complexes that join the vault and floor as irregular “pillars” (Figures 1d and 4),
are due to a sequence of deposition events. According to the current model of speleothems’
evolution, the largest complexes originated from stalactite–stalagmite pairs that, thanks to
the concurrence of intense water supplies and a sufficiently long time, first joined vertically
and finally fused horizontally. The main coarse clastic deposit (boulders) is correlated
with the upward migration of the ceiling, in vadose conditions, due to the progressive
detachments of slabs, and this sediment is the base of the current walking surface, as well
as (apparently) of the largest speleothems. In general, and in particular also in some caves
of the Murge, the survey of speleothems and joints allows to identify both the structural
factors that in the past have geometrically driven the speleogenesis, and any deformation
in progress due to instability or tectonics [51]. Although the limestone rock mass is rich in
joints, in this cave, there is only a limited area (in the NW wall) that shows recent fractures
affecting the calcite coating.
It is expected, as it is evident in the topography, that the current morphological evolu-
tion of the cavity and its processes are no longer supported by an active hydrogeological
basin tributary, nor by water flow through its passages. On the surface, one can find only a
limited feeding rock mass, corresponding with the slightly depressed area above the cave,
hypothetically a small doline (Figure 5).
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 and any deformation in progress due to instability or tectonics [51]. Although the lime- 9 of 20
stone rock mass is rich in joints, in this cave, there is only a limited area (in the NW wall)
that shows recent fractures affecting the calcite coating.

Figure5.5. The
Figure The 3D
3D model
model of
of the
the complex
complex structure
structure of
of Iazzo
Iazzo Sant’Angelo
Sant’Angelo showing
showing the
the connection
connection between
between the
the cave
caveand
andthe
the
buildings and the rock thickness over the cavity. It is evident that a chimney rises up toward the ground level.
buildings and the rock thickness over the cavity. It is evident that a chimney rises up toward the ground level.

It is
A expected, asfeature
characteristic it is evident
of theinrocky
the topography,
outcrop, both that the current
external morphological
and internal evo-
to the cavity,
lution of the cavity and its processes are no longer supported by
is the structural one, which is also crucial for the subsequent geomechanical analysis. The an active hydrogeological
basin tributary,
presence of somenor by water(joints)
structures flow through
can onlyits bepassages.
deduced On from thethe
surface,
alignment one can findpoints
of drip only
a limited
in the vault, feeding rock mass,
materialized corresponding
by stalactites with the
or cannulae; slightly
in those depressed
cases, area to
it is possible above
inferthethe
cave, hypothetically
direction but not the dip a small doline
of such (Figure
joints, unless 5). one can also deduce its path on the wall. For
A characteristic
the purpose featureand
of a structural of the rocky outcrop,
geomechanical both external
investigation, theandsurveyinternalwas to the cavity,
extended not
is theto
only structural
the limited one,limestone
which is also crucial
surfaces notfor the subsequent
coated by speleothems geomechanical
in the cave, analysis.
but also Theto
presence
small of some
outcrops structures
outside (joints)
it, where can only
possible, be deduced
with the limits from the alignment
imposed by the soil of drip
cover,points
such
in the
as alongvault,
the materialized
access road and by stalactites
in a smallor digcannulae;
in the rock.in those
The cases, it is possible
data collected indoorsto infer
and
outdoors
the direction appear in agreement,
but not the dip of such withjoints,
a clearunless
prevalence
one can ofalso
the deduce
NNW–SSE directions
its path on the and
wall.a
dip in the
For the SW sector.
purpose of a structural and geomechanical investigation, the survey was extended
not only to the limited limestone surfaces not coated by speleothems in the cave, but also
5.2. The 3D
to small Cave Model
outcrops outside it, where possible, with the limits imposed by the soil cover,
such The 3D cave
as along themodel
accessintegrates
road andthe in information
a small dig in thatthehas beenThe
rock. obtained by the traditional
data collected indoors
survey since it allows to identify how the cavity develops:
and outdoors appear in agreement, with a clear prevalence of the NNW–SSE directions the environment is divided into
three
and amaindip incorridors, all easily accessible.
the SW sector.
The subdivision is due to massive columnar structures (Figure 4), formed over a long
time,
5.2. Thethat3Dserve
Cave as a support for the vault but also testify to the concentration of dripping
Model
percolation along
The 3D cave model at least integrates
three mainthe directions
informationparallel
thattohaseach other
been and related
obtained by the to tradi-
bands
of structural weakness. The walkable area of the cave is about 190 m 2 , considering the areas
tional survey since it allows to identify how the cavity develops: the environment is di-
high
videdenough
into three to allow human passage
main corridors, andaccessible.
all easily excluding inaccessible areas where stalactites,
walls,Thecolumns and collapsed material are present.
subdivision is due to massive columnar structures It is also possible
(Figure 4), to estimate
formed over the volume
a long
of the void of the cave at about 510 m 3 , excluding the concretions and the detrital fan.
time, that serve as a support for the vault but also testify to the concentration of dripping
The cross-sections
percolation along at leastalong threethe
main 3Ddirections
model provide parallel indications
to each other about andthe vaulttoand
related bandsthe
ground level. In fact, they show that the rock thickness (1.5–5
of structural weakness. The walkable area of the cave is about 190 m , considering the m) is smaller 2 in the area near
the
areasentrance
high enoughand it increases towardspassage
to allow human the moreand internal areas inaccessible
excluding according toareas the conformation
where stal-
of the cave (Figure 5). However, there are some chimneys
actites, walls, columns and collapsed material are present. It is also possible to that rise up toward theestimate
ground
level; in particular, one of them in the central corridor rises
the volume of the void of the cave at about 510 m3, excluding the concretions and up to a height of about 1 mtheon
the outside.
detrital fan.
5.3. Geomechanical Survey and Cave Stability Assessment
Four main discontinuity sets were identified on the rock mass, generally associated
with the tectonic evolution of the study area. Details on the attitudes and relative weights
of the sets identified from the integrated approach are summarized in Figure 6.
 5.3. Geomechanical Survey and Cave Stability Assessment
Four main discontinuity sets were identified on the rock mass, generally
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 with the tectonic evolution of the study area. Details on the attitudes and
10 of 20 relati

of the sets identified from the integrated approach are summarized in Figure 6

Figure 6. (a) Pole density plot—lower hemisphere, Schmidt equal area stereographic projection.
Figure 6. (a) Pole density plot—lower hemisphere, Schmidt equal area stereographic pr
(b) Rose diagram showing direction and count (total number) for the discontinuities measured
Rose diagram showing direction and count (total number) for the discontinuities mea
(fractures and bedding planes).
tures and bedding planes).
In particular, bedding planes show a generalized E–W orientation, ranging from hori-
zontal to 15 degrees SSE-dipping. The main discontinuities exhibit the typical NW–SE and
In particular, bedding planes show a generalized E–W orientation, ranging
NE–SW orientations, while E–W and N–S orientations are subordinate. Each of them dips
izontal
more thanto6015 degrees
degrees, exceptSSE-dipping.
for an extensiveTheclosedmainfracturediscontinuities exhibit the typic
of 130/40 (dip direction/dip).
and NE–SW
The rebound orientations,
hardness while
index of the rock E–W anddetermined
mass was N–S orientations are subordinate.
using a spring-driven steel Ea
hammer (the Schmidt hammer) for estimating the uniaxial
dips more than 60 degrees, except for an extensive closed fracture of 130/40compressive strength (UCS)
and the tangential Young’s modulus (Et) of intact rock bridges and discontinuity walls.
tion/dip). The rebound hardness index of the rock mass was determined usin
A standard L-type hammer, with 0.735 Nm impact energy, was used for the in situ mea-
driven
surements steel
[52]. hammer
The UCS and (the Schmidt
Et values hammer)
were obtained fortheestimating
using the uniaxial
equations proposed by co
strength (UCS)
Sachpazis [53], andthey
because therefer
tangential
to carbonate Young’s
rock masses modulus (Et)found
such as those of intact rock bridge
in the study
site. For the rock bridges, UCS and Et vary respectively from 61.18 to 104.08 MPa, with
continuity walls. A standard L-type hammer, with 0.735 Nm impact energy, w
mean 74.05 MPa, and from 27.38 to 43.47 GPa, with mean 32.21 GPa. For the discontinuity
the
walls,inUCS
situandmeasurements [52].from
Et vary respectively The18.28
UCS to and
61.18,Et values
with mean were obtained
35.44 MPa, and fromusing the
proposed
11.29 to 27.38 byGPa,
Sachpazis
with mean[53],17.72because they refer
GPa. According to the toGSIcarbonate
classificationrock masses
system, a suc
Geological
found in theStrength
studyIndex
site.falling
For thein the range
rock 60–70 was
bridges, UCS assigned
and Et to vary
the rock masses
respectively fro
cropped out in the study site. With regard to the RMR1989 system, the rating index was 61.
104.08 MPa, with mean 74.05 MPa, and from 27.38 to 43.47 GPa, with mean 32.2
Rock mass conditions and classifications clearly indicated that the rock mass is good
the
and discontinuity
moderately jointed, walls,
evenUCSthough andforEt vary
each jointrespectively from 18.28
set, it was impossible to 61.18,
to measure the with m
MPa, and from
discontinuity 11.29 which
persistence, to 27.38mainlyGPa, with
affects themean
rock mass17.72 GPa. According to the GS
strength.
tion system, a Geological Strength Index falling in the rangefor60–70
Kinematic analysis was carried out by means of graphical approaches detecting
was assig
geometrically possible instability mechanisms [54–56]. The Rocscience’s Dips 7.0 and
rock
Unwedgemasses cropped
software outtoinperform
were used the study site. With
kinematic analysisregard to the
of the cave RMR1989
stability for foursystem
index
differentwas 61. inside the cave (Figure 7). The potential for planar sliding, wedge sliding,
sections
Rock
flexural mass
toppling andconditions
direct toppling and classifications
failure clearlyassuming
modes was evaluated indicated that the rock m
full persistence
for the discontinuity sets measured.
and moderately jointed, even though for each joint set, it was impossible to m
For each section, deterministic analysis and factor of safety were carried out on about
discontinuity
80 combinations persistence, which
of the 4 joint sets mainly
measured. Theaffects the rock
design seismic mass strength.
coefficient used in the
pseudo-static stability analysis was 0.1. Potential failure modes were identified,approaches
Kinematic analysis was carried out by means of graphical most of fo
which are attributable
geometrically to wedge
possible sliding and
instability block toppling
mechanisms from theThe
[54–56]. caveRocscience’s
sidewalls and Dips 7
falling from the roof (roof collapse). According to Palmström [57], the sections considered
wedge software were used to perform kinematic analysis of the cave stabili
potential unstable rock blocks exhibit polyhedral shape and volumes generally less than
1 m3 and only occasionally between 2 and 4 m3 . Figure 8 shows, by way of example, some
results obtained for section 4.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 11 of 20

5.4. Wall Rock Paintings: Materials and State of Conservation

After the in situ observation, all the paintings (Figure 2) in the Sant’Angelo crypt
appeared seriously damaged due to both environmental and anthropic causes. Some scenes
were fragmentary, lacking cohesion or detached, owing to clear problems of dampness, but
in some cases, i.e., in the case of the “St. Michael the Archangel slaying the dragon” painting,
the main scenes were lacking due to the removal of the pictorial film for vandalism, so only
the preparatory mortar layer and the frame of the original painting is preserved (Figure 2c).
The “Descent of the Holy Spirit and Christ Pantocrator” painting appeared affected by
large and numerous losses, mainly in correspondence to the most recent pictorial layer
(Figure 2a), highlighting the older underlying pictorial layer. Instead, the painting “The
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Virgin and the Child flanked by the St. John and the St. Michael” showed an almost 11 of 21
complete superficial pictorial layer, but it appeared covered by a dark deposit, making
difficult the reading of the depicted subject (Figure 2b). There was also a clear presence
of plants,sections
different fungi and molds,
inside theand
cavethe decorations
(Figure 7). Thewere affected
potential for by craquelure,
planar sliding, losses
wedgeofslid-
the
paintflexural
ing, layers and deposition
toppling of secondary
and direct topplingsurface deposits,
failure modes which
was influenced
evaluated the rendering
assuming full per-
of chromatic features and the depicted
sistence for the discontinuity sets measured. scene (Figure 9).

Figure 7. Section
Figure 7. Section traces
tracesused
usedfor
forthe
thekinematic
kinematicanalysis
analysisofof
thethe cave
cave stability
stability depicted
depicted on the
on the 3D model,
3D model, herehere shown
shown as a
as a map
map from the top view.
from the top view.

For each section, deterministic analysis and factor of safety were carried out on about
80 combinations of the 4 joint sets measured. The design seismic coefficient used in the
pseudo-static stability analysis was 0.1. Potential failure modes were identified, most of
which are attributable to wedge sliding and block toppling from the cave sidewalls and
falling from the roof (roof collapse). According to Palmstrӧm [57], the sections considered
potential unstable rock blocks exhibit polyhedral shape and volumes generally less than
1 m3 and only occasionally between 2 and 4 m3. Figure 8 shows, by way of example, some
results obtained for section 4.
Geosciences 2021,
2021, 11,
11, 382
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20
21

(c)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Examples of potential
Examples of potential instability
instabilityanalysis
analysisof
ofthe
therock
rockmasses
massesofofthe
theSant’Angelo
Sant’AngeloininCriptis
CriptisCave
Cavealong
along the
the section
section 4.
4. (a) kinematic analysis of wedge and (b) direct toppling failures using stereographic projections; (c) deterministic analysis
(a) kinematic analysis of wedge and (b) direct toppling failures using stereographic projections; (c) deterministic analysis
for the joint combination 1, using the Unwedge program, based on Goodman-Shi key block theory.
for the joint combination 1, using the Unwedge program, based on Goodman-Shi key block theory.
 the painting “The Virgin and the Child flanked by the St. John and the St. Michael”
showed an almost complete superficial pictorial layer, but it appeared covered by a dark
deposit, making difficult the reading of the depicted subject (Figure 2b). There was also a
clear presence of plants, fungi and molds, and the decorations were affected by craque-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 13 of 20influ-
lure, losses of the paint layers and deposition of secondary surface deposits, which
enced the rendering of chromatic features and the depicted scene (Figure 9).

FigureFigure 9. Degradation
9. Degradation effects
effects onon thesurface
the surfaceof
of wall
wall paintings
paintingsininthethe
Sant’Angelo crypt:
Sant’Angelo (a) losses
crypt: and calcite
(a) losses and deposits on the on
calcite deposits
surface of “Descent of the Holy Spirit and Christ Pantocrator” painting; (b) dark deposit on the surface
the surface of “Descent of the Holy Spirit and Christ Pantocrator” painting; (b) dark deposit on the surface of “The of “The Virgin andVirgin
theChild
and the Child flanked
flanked by
bythe
theSt.
St.John
Johnand thethe
and St. St.
Michael” painting.
Michael” painting.
The laboratory investigation of painted fragments showed the occurrence of one
The laboratory
single, investigation
variable thick, preparatoryof painted
plaster fragments
layer showed
beneath each the cycle.
pictorial occurrence of one sin-
The analysis
gle,by
variable
TL-OMthick, preparatory
highlighted plaster
a plaster layer by
composed beneath each pictorial
cryptocrystalline cycle.
calcite Theand
binder analysis
an by
TL-OM highlighted
aggregate a plaster by
mainly composed composed
carbonateby cryptocrystalline
rock fragments and minor calcite binder
quartz andand an aggre-
feldspars
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEERgate
REVIEW
(Figure
mainly10a). Lime lumps
composed (non-hydrated
by carbonate rockCaO) are alsoand
fragments present
minorin addition
quartz and 14 of 21 (Fig-
to cocciopesto
feldspars
fragments which testify to the hydraulic character of the plasters (Figure 10b).
ure 10a). Lime lumps (non-hydrated CaO) are also present in addition to cocciopesto frag-
ments which testify to the hydraulic character of the plasters (Figure 10b).

Figure 10. Transmitted-light

Figure 10. Transmitted-light optical
optical microscope
microscope microphotographs
microphotographs in thin sections
in thin sections showing:
showing: (a)
(a) the preparatory mortar
the preparatory mortar
composed by cryptocrystalline calcite binder and the aggregate consisting of carbonate rock fragments and minor quartz
composed by cryptocrystalline calcite binder and the aggregate consisting of carbonate rock fragments and minor quartz
and feldspars, and (b) lime lumps and cocciopesto fragments to increase the hydraulic properties of preparatory mortars.
and feldspars, and (b) lime lumps and cocciopesto fragments to increase the hydraulic properties of preparatory mortars.

The
The analysis
analysisof
ofpictorial
pictoriallayers
layersfrom
fromallallthe
thepaintings
paintings showed,
showed, asasexpected,
expected,thethe
useuse
of
common
of commonmineral pigments
mineral suchsuch
pigments as red
asand
red yellow ochre,ochre,
and yellow carboncarbon
black and
blackcalcium white,
and calcium
often
white,admixed with each
often admixed other
with eachtoother
produce the desired
to produce hue (Figure
the desired 11b). Only
hue (Figure one
11b). sample
Only one
showed the presence
sample showed of cinnabar
the presence in addition
of cinnabar to the iron
in addition pigment
to the of the of
iron pigment redthe
layer. A com-
red layer. A
prehensive characterization of mortars and pigments of painted fragments
comprehensive characterization of mortars and pigments of painted fragments from the from the wall
paintings in Sant’Angelo
wall paintings cryptcrypt
in Sant’Angelo is theistopic of a separate
the topic paperpaper
of a separate [7]. [7].
 The analysis of pictorial layers from all the paintings showed, as expected, the use of
common mineral pigments such as red and yellow ochre, carbon black and calcium white,
often admixed with each other to produce the desired hue (Figure 11b). Only one sample
showed the presence of cinnabar in addition to the iron pigment of the red layer. A com-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 prehensive characterization of mortars and pigments of painted fragments from 14 ofthe
20 wall
paintings in Sant’Angelo crypt is the topic of a separate paper [7].

Figure 11. (a) Paint fragment with a thick brown–yellowish crust. (b) RL-OM microphotograph of a paint fragment in the
Figure 11. (a) Paint fragment with a thick brown–yellowish crust. (b) RL-OM microphotograph of a paint fragment in the
cross-section showing a red pictorial layer composed by an admixture of red ochre and carbon pigments overlayered by a
cross-section showing a red pictorial layer composed by an admixture of red ochre and carbon pigments overlayered by
single calcite incrustation layer. (c) Paint fragment showing multilayer lamellar crusts on the surface of the pictorial layer.
a single calcite incrustation layer. (c) Paint fragment showing multilayer lamellar crusts on the surface of the pictorial
(d) RL-OM microphotograph of a paint fragment in the cross-section showing a red pictorial layer overlayered by several
layer. (d) RL-OM microphotograph of a paint fragment in the cross-section showing a red pictorial layer overlayered by
calcite incrustation layers.
several calcite incrustation layers.
On the surface of the latest pictorial layer, all the samples showed one or more
differently thick incrustation coats composed of secondary products related to the physical
decay and chemical alteration phenomena linked to the karst activities inside the cave and
to the effects of typical environmental degradation (Figure 11). With the naked eye and
under a stereomicroscope, these surface deposits generally appeared as compact brown to
yellowish crusts, covering the pictorial layers without producing any chemical alteration
and physical disaggregation on their constituting materials (Figure 11a).
In some cases, encrustation layers were observed on the surface of each pictorial cycle,
while in other cases, only a single surface layer of encrustation was observed. The crusts
appeared white, opaque and extremely compact under RL-OM (Figure 11b). Sometimes,
however, a less compact surface crust layer showing lamellar morphology was detected
(Figure 11c). In detail, sample CR11 from the wall painting of “Descent of the Holy Spirit
and Christ Pantocrator” showed a secondary crust formed by the overlapping of three
layers very similar to each other in terms of color, transparency and hardness, and showing
vertical and beige–yellowish fractures (Figure 11d).
The chemical analyses performed by SEM-EDS revealed, in all the investigated sam-
ples, the presence of a surface encrustation composed almost exclusively by calcium and
oxygen, attributable to calcite (Figure 12a), in addition to minor chlorine, potassium,
sodium, phosphorus and sulfur, which can be related to common soluble salts, namely
sulphates, phosphates and chlorides.
 showing vertical and beige–yellowish fractures (Figure 11d).
The chemical analyses performed by SEM-EDS revealed, in all the investigated sam-
ples, the presence of a surface encrustation composed almost exclusively by calcium and
oxygen, attributable to calcite (Figure 12a), in addition to minor chlorine, potassium, so-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 dium, phosphorus and sulfur, which can be related to common soluble salts, namely
15 of 20 sul-
phates, phosphates and chlorides.

Figure 12. (a) SEM-BSD (back-scattered detector) image (left) of a thick surface encrustation composed almost exclusively
Figure 12. (a) SEM-BSD (back-scattered detector) image (left) of a thick surface encrustation composed almost exclusively
by calcium and oxygen (EDS graph on the right). (b) SEM-BSD image (left) showing the presence of secondary phases in
by calcium and oxygen (EDS graph on the right). (b) SEM-BSD image (left) showing the presence of secondary phases in
the preparatory plaster layers composed by chlorine, potassium, sodium and sulfur (EDS graph on the right).
the preparatory plaster layers composed by chlorine, potassium, sodium and sulfur (EDS graph on the right).
Contrary to the pictorial layers, the preparatory plasters underlying the paintings
showed more significant chemical and physical degradation effects. They generally ap-
peared powdery and incoherent under OM, whereas SEM-EDS chemical analyses disclosed
the presence of relatively high quantities of chlorine, sulfur, phosphate, sodium and
potassium, suggesting a more significant formation (if compared to the pictorial layers
and encrustations) of common soluble salts, mainly composed by potassium chloride
(Figure 12b).

6. Discussion and Conclusions

The detailed geomorphological study performed herein pointed out the morphological
setting and processes that involve the cave and provided significant updates for the fruition
and for the conservation of the cultural heritage site. The field surveys and the cave forms
show their correspondence with the polycyclic model of the Apulian karst. Processes
typical of the vadose zone are evident and predominant here, whereas no form has been
recognized that would suggest a phreatic phase in the past. Nowadays, the evolution of
the “cave plus surface” system has undergone two simultaneous processes, not necessarily
having the same intensity or continuity. First, the degradation of the surface, that proceeds
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 16 of 20

with its lowering, which would lead it towards the cave. Second, the vault of the cave
has evidently undergone a “migration” upwards, due to progressive roof failures that
contributed to the cave filling, together with the calcite precipitation, leading over time to a
reduction in the volume of the original voids together with their displacement towards
the overlying surface. On the other hand, despite the advanced degree of evolution of its
speleogenesis, and despite the reduced thickness of the rock of its vault, only a limited area
of the western side shows fractures that can suggest instability of the rock mass. Some
boulders made of speleothems fragments have no clear origin, due to the long history of
human actions in the cave, and it is more possible that they were moved by man rather
than by previous tectonic or seismic events.
The 3D cave model, derived from TLS, greatly improved the old cave plan with more
accurate measurements of the length of the walkways, of the heights of the vaults, of the
surfaces and of the relation with the ground level. The cave is not very deep and has
close relations with the countryside above, as evidenced by the intense dripping and the
presence of many roots, especially near the entrance. The rooms closest to the entrance
are those richest in cultural evidence due to the presence of paintings, of the altar and of
a lot of graffiti, and this is the area where the visitors stay longer to admire the heritage
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
contained in the cave (Figure 13).

Figure
Figure 13.
13. The
The 3D3D model
model of
of the
the biggest
biggest room
room close
close to
to the
the entrance:
entrance: the
the altar
altar is
is visible
visible on
on the
the right
right while
while the
the ceiling
ceiling with
with
paintings is visible on the left.
paintings is visible on the left.
The 3D
The 3D cave
cave model
model allowed
allowed to
to reconstruct
reconstruct the
the relationship
relationship between
between the
the ground
ground andand
the underground levels. The cross-sections highlight that the cave vault, although
the underground levels. The cross-sections highlight that the cave vault, although very very
regular, somewhere
regular, somewhere presents
presentschimneys
chimneysthatthatdevelop
developupwards.
upwards.These
Thesefeatures, a few
features, tens
a few of
tens
centimeters wide, correspond to areas where the vault rock thickness is very small.
of centimeters wide, correspond to areas where the vault rock thickness is very small. This This
can define
can define areas
areas on
on the
the ground
groundforbidden
forbiddentotopeople
peopleininorder toto
order avoid damage
avoid damage and stress
and on
stress
the cave vault. Moreover, the stability analysis showed that block failures are structurally
on the cave vault. Moreover, the stability analysis showed that block failures are structur-
controlled and kinematically permissible with wedge sliding, toppling and roof collapse,
ally controlled and kinematically permissible with wedge sliding, toppling and roof col-
where in the case of loading, the direction of movement is vertically downwards, but at the
lapse, where in the case of loading, the direction of movement is vertically downwards,
moment, there is no evidence of fully persistent discontinuities. We have to also consider
but at the moment, there is no evidence of fully persistent discontinuities. We have to also
that the rock mass is good and not disturbed in an environment with a low in situ stress
consider that the rock mass is good and not disturbed in an environment with a low in
situ stress state. Small signs of spalling mechanisms from the roof are restricted to the
sector in which the cave vault is higher (Figure 5), but shear failures were not recorded.
Furthermore, types and patterns of discontinuities found in the cave are similar to
those measured previously in the surrounding area, thus new joints due to changes of
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 17 of 20

state. Small signs of spalling mechanisms from the roof are restricted to the sector in which
the cave vault is higher (Figure 5), but shear failures were not recorded.
Furthermore, types and patterns of discontinuities found in the cave are similar to
those measured previously in the surrounding area, thus new joints due to changes of
stresses or high-stress concentrations in the rock mass were not detected, even though the
roof and sidewalls of the cave are covered by calcite concretions which may hide traces
of discontinuities.
The archaeometry investigation of the paintings allowed the characterization of raw
materials used for paintings and preparatory layers, as well as degradation products,
essential information for any kind of intervention aiming at the conservation and the
restoration of these artworks.
The investigation of pictorial layers indicated the use of very ordinary pigments: red
and yellow ochres, carbon black and calcium white, often admixed with each other to
produce a desired hue. The use of these mineral pigments is very common in rupestrian
paintings and their finding is not a surprise. On the contrary, the presence of cinnabar, in
association to red ochre in some red pigment samples, indicates the particular richness
of the site at the time of the paintings’ execution, and confirms the necessity of their
preservation through a conservation management strategy for the full fruition of the cave
in the future. Unfortunately, at the moment, the rock wall paintings in the Sant’Angelo
cave show a generally poor conservation state due to detachments, deposition of secondary
phases on the surface of paintings, i.e., calcite crusts, which modify the chromatism of the
scenes, or soluble salts such us chlorides, sulfates and phosphates inside the painting layers.
These are mainly due to the presence of water on the cave walls, a phenomenon which is
particularly critical during the winter. Thus, the significant dampness is the primary source
of decay in the crypt, by providing an ideal setting for the migration of salts from the floor
and from outside the walls and causing decay effects such as detachments and deposition
of secondary phases. However, problems also arise due to the presence of microflora, fungi
and molds.
Overall, degradation of paintings in the Sant’Angelo crypt thus originates from physi-
cal (mainly due to dampness and capillary rise of water), biological (due to the different
micro- and macro-flora that are always active) and chemical (reaction of painting materials
with chemical and biological environment) causes, so specific actions are necessary to
preserve the memory of this important site for the next generations.
In conclusion, the results obtained in the present study allowed:
• To obtain a deeper understanding of the geological and speleological environment
and active processes in which the Sant’Angelo in Criptis cave church is located.
• To obtain a 3D model of the cave which greatly improves the old cave plan and
provides accurate measurements of the length of the walkways, of the heights of the
vaults, of the surfaces and of the relation with the ground level.
• To evaluate the stability of the cave and its structural assessment.
• To characterize materials used for wall paintings present in the cave, degradation
forms and to identify the related processes of degradation acting in the cave.
All these goals underline the importance of modern multidisciplinary approaches
in the study geo-cultural heritage sites, such as Sant’Angelo in Criptis is. This is due
to the complexity and variety of the scientific issues involved, which require joint and
complementary competences and analytical methodologies. The results obtained here
will contribute to the elaboration of the best methods for the long-lasting preservation,
restoration and fruition of geo-cultural heritage sites. Lastly, the spread of the scientific
results obtained represents an essential part of the benefits guaranteed by this kind of study,
making the community aware of the importance of conservation; in addition, it acts as a
catalyst for the sustainable fruition, of our geo-cultural heritage.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 382 18 of 20

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G., G.F.A., G.F.,V.I., A.M. and D.P.; methodology, A.G.,
G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; software, A.G., G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; valida-tion, A.G.,
G.F.A, G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; formal analysis, A.G., G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; investigation,
A.G., G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; resources, A.G., G.F.A., A.M. and D.P.; data curation, A.G.,
G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.G., G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and
D.P.; writing—review and editing, A.G., G.F.A., G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; visualization, A.G., G.F.A.,
G.F., V.I., A.M. and D.P.; supervision, A.G.; project administration, A.G.; funding acquisition, A.G.,
G.F.A., A.M. and D.P.; A.G., G.F.A., A.M. and D.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Caripuglia Foundation, research project “La grotta di
Sant’Angelo in Criptis a Santeramo in Colle (BA): studio dello stato di conservazione e valutazione
della stabilità”.
Acknowledgments: The present study would not have been possible without the financial support
of the Caripuglia Foundation, which we thank. Particular thanks are due to Franco dell’Aquila, who
was the first to submit the issues relating the Sant’Angelo in Criptis cave church to the attention of the
researchers involved in this work, and for providing extensive information and valuable suggestions
to fulfill the present study. We would like to express our gratitude to the Authority for the cultural
heritage for Apulia and to the Santeramo in Colle Municipality, owner of the site, for the permission
to carry out our research. Thanks also to Luca Antonio Dimuccio for his friendship and precious
help and suggestions during the field work. Last but not least, we are grateful to Antonio La Selva
and the entire staff of the Santeramo in Colle “Don Ignazio Fraccalvieri” Archeoclub, a non-profit
organization, who continuously gave their assistance during the field investigations performed in
the cave, and permitted us to access their conspicuous historical and photographic archive.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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