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Unit 1 - Nature of Psychology

The document provides an overview of key concepts in the field of psychology. It discusses that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It explores major issues like nature vs nurture, free will vs determinism. It summarizes several influential schools of thought like structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and humanistic psychology. Founders like Wundt, James, Freud, Watson, and Maslow are discussed in relation to how they shaped the development of psychology.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
170 views6 pages

Unit 1 - Nature of Psychology

The document provides an overview of key concepts in the field of psychology. It discusses that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It explores major issues like nature vs nurture, free will vs determinism. It summarizes several influential schools of thought like structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and humanistic psychology. Founders like Wundt, James, Freud, Watson, and Maslow are discussed in relation to how they shaped the development of psychology.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT 1: NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY the view that conscious experience is inseparable from

the physical brain.


PSYCHOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF
BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES.

Behavior includes all our outward or overt actions and


reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and
movement. MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN
• The term mental processes refers to all the PSYCHOLOGY HISTORY AND PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds, such as
thinking, feeling, and remembering. FREE WILL EARLY NOTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
The belief that behavior is caused by a person's
GENERAL POINTS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY independent decisions is known as free will. PLATO
argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds of
How is a Rubik's cube comparable to humans? DETERMINISM knowledge are innate or inborn. (Nativist View)
IT DEPENDS. the idea that everything that happens has a
cause, or determinant, that someone could ARISTOTLE
 Confidence in the conclusions should depend on observe or measure. believes that each child. is born as an "empty. slate" (in
the strength of evidence. Latin, a tabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily
 Progress depends on good measurement. NATURE VS NURTURE acquired through. experience. (Philosophical Empiricism)

How do differences in behavior relate to RENE DESCARTES


differences in heredity and environment? body and mind are fundamentally different things that the
The nature-nurture issue shows up in body is made of a material substance, whereas the mind
various ways throughout psychology, and it (or soul) is made of an immaterial or spiritual substance.
seldom has a simple answer. (Dualism)

Nature THOMAS HOBBES


 Genes and Hereditary Factors The mind and body aren't different things. (Monism)
 physical appearance
 personality characteristics PSYCHOLOGY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

Environmental Variables WUNDT AND STRUCTURALISM


 childhood experiences
 how we were raised Structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal was
 social relationships to identify the basic elements or structures of
psychological experience.
 surrounding culture
Proponents: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchner
Method: Introspection
DUALISM
Application: Precursors of sensation and perception
the mind is separate from the brain but somehow
studies, unconscious.
controls the brain and therefore the rest of the
body.
JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM
MONISM
Functionalism aimed to understand why animals and The Gestalt of a sound in Gestalt theory, the "Reinforcement is the foundation of new behaviorism"
humans have developed the particular psychological whole (in this case, the collective notes of a
aspects that they currently possess (Hunt, 1993). song) different from the dividual parts (that is the HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
The main inquiry is to determine those aspects that notes).
developed fitness and adaption. Some psychologists began to form their own ideas that
Proponents: William James (Charles Darwin) IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936) Russian emphasized personal control, intentionality, and a true
Method: Naturalistic method and experimentation. physiologist and learning theorist famous for the predisposition for "good" as important for our self-
Application: Evolutionary psychology, I0, developmental discovery of classi cal conditioning, in which concept and our behavior.
psych. learning occurs through association, Humanism is a perspective within psychology that
FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY  In 1906, the classic studies on animal emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all
learning of Russian physiologist Ivan humans.
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach to Pavlov fueled a move in psychology Proponents: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
understanding human behaviour that focuses on the role toward an interest in observable
of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. behaviors and away from the self-
Proponent/s: Sigmund Freud (followed by Karen examination of inner ideas and
Horney, Erik Erickson) experiences.
Method: These explorations are revealed through talk  Pavlov's emphasis on things we can see
therapy and dream analysis in a process called (rather than mental processes) quickly
psychoanalysis. caught on in the United States.
Application: Clinical psychology, Child development
JOHN B. WATSON AND BEHAVIORISM
EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE AND ASSOCIATIONISM
"Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a
Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular purely objective experimental branch of natural
situation become more likely to occur again in that science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
situation, and responses that produce a discomforting control of human behavior" (Watson, 1913).
effect become less likely to occur again in that situation SELF-ACTUALIZATION
(Gray, 2011, p. 108-109) Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is Morality, Problem-solving, Acceptance of facts,
based on the premise that it is not possible to Creativity
Stimulus Response (S-R) Theory objectively study the mind, and therefore that ESTEEM NEEDS
psychologists should limit their attention to the Independence, Self-respect, Confidence,
GESTALT study of behavior itself. Achievement
Proponent: John B. Watson LOVE/BELONGING NEEDS
Gestalt psychology was a psychological perspective Friendship, Love, Intimacy, Affection
that emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of SAFETY NEEDS
information into meaningful wholes. Security of Resources, Employment, Family,
Health
Gestalt psychologists suggested that adding the PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
individual elements of an experience together creates Water, Food, Sleep, Sex, Breathing
something new and different-that the whole is different Reinforcement states that the consequences of
from the sum of its parts. a behavior determine whether it will he more or COMPUTERS AND THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION
Proponents: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler Method: less likely to occur again.
observation of sensory and perceptual phenomena
Application: Sensation and perception, Gestalt therapy OPERANT CONDITIONING AND BF SKINNER
Information Processing Theory - Computer Analogy human-computer interactions) consult for
businesses. These psychologists help select employees, evaluate
Cognitive psychology employee performance, and examine he effects of
Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies different working conditions on behavior. They may also
mental processes, including perception, thinking, DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY work to design equipment and environments that improve
memory, and judgment. employee performance and reduce accidents.
These psychologists conduct research on the
Cognitive neuroscience was birthed by the marriage of cognitive, emotional, and social changes that PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
cognitive psychology (the science of mind) and occur across the lifespan. These psychologists study people and the differences
neuroscience (the science of brain). among them. The goal is to develop theories that explain
Many works in research settings, although others the psychological processes of individuals, and to focus
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES AND RELATED work in schools and community agencies to help on individual differences.
CAREERS improve and evaluate the effectiveness of
intervention programs such as Head Start. Most work in academic settings, but the skills of
BIOPSYCHOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE personality psychologists are also in demand in business
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY for instance, in advertising and marketing. PhD programs
This field examines the physiological bases of behavior in personality psychology are often connected with
in animals and humans by studying the functioning of Forensic psychologists apply psychological programs in social psychology.
different brain areas and the effects of hormones and principles to understand the behavior of judges,
neurotransmitters on behavior. lawyers, courtroom juries, and others in the SCHOOL AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
criminal justice system.
Most biopsychologists work in research settings for This field studies how people learn in school, the
instance, at universities, for the federal government, and Forensic psychologists work in the criminal effectiveness of school programs, and the psychology of
in private research labs. justice system. They may testify in court and may teaching.
provide information about the reliability of
CLINICAL AND COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY eyewitness testimony and jury selection School psychologists work in elementary and secondary
schools or school district offices with. students, teachers,
These are the largest fields of psychology. The focus is HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY parents, and administrators. They may assess children's
on the assessment, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of psychological and learning problems and develop
mental disorders. Health psychologists are concerned with programs to minimize the impact of these problems.
understanding how biology, behavior, and the
Clinical and counseling psychologists provide therapy to social situation influence health and illness. SOCIAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
patients with the goal of improving their life experiences.
They work in hospitals, schools, social agencies, and Health psychologists work with medical This field examines people's interactions with other
private practice. Because the demand for this career is professionals in clinical settings to promote better people. Topics of study include conformity, group
high, entry to academic programs is highly competitive. health, conduct research, and teach at behavior, leadership, attitudes, and personal perception.
universities.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Many social psychologists work in marketing, advertising,
INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL AND organizational, systems design, and other applied
This field uses sophisticated research methods, including ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY psychology fields.
reaction time and brain imaging, to study memory,
language, and thinking of humans. Industrial-organizational psychology applies SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
psychology to the workplace with the goal of
Cognitive psychologists work primarily in research improving the performance and well-being of This field studies the psychological aspects of sports
settings, although some (such as those who specialize in employees. behavior. The goal is to understand the psychological
factors that influence performance in sports, including the breathes at the computer and surrounds himself
role of exercise and team interactions. with computer games, junk food, and science-
Sports psychologists work in gyms, schools, professional fiction gadgets—characteristics that add up to a
sports teams, and other areas where sports are very masculine ambiance.
practiced. EXPLANATION
Based on her observations, the
psychologist might try to come up with a
tentative explanation, such as “women
feel they do not belong in such
stereotypically masculine surroundings.”

PREDICTION
If we want more women to go into To better understand the process of the scientific
computer science, we must do something method, look at the following example:
to change either the environment or the
perception of the environment typically • Observation: My toaster doesn’t work.
associated with this field. • Question: Is something wrong with my electrical outlet?
• Hypothesis: If something is wrong with the outlet, my
CONTROL coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it.
 The focus of control, or the • Experiment: I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
modification of some behavior, is to • Result: My coffeemaker works!
change a behavior from an • Conclusion: My electrical outlet works, but my toaster
undesirable one (such as women still won’t toast my bread.
avoiding a certain academic major) to • Refine the hypothesis: My toaster is broken.
a desirable one (such as more
equality in career choices). From this point, the process would be repeated with a
UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGICAL  It is suggested that changing the image of refined hypothesis.
PERSPECTIVES computer science may help increase the
ANALYZING HUMAN EXPERIENCE: PSYCHOLOGY number of women choosing to go into this
AS A SCIENCE field.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY PSCYHOLOGY IS A SCIENCE BECAUSE IT


 Description: What is Happening? USES SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
 Explanation: Why is it Happening?
 Prediction: When will it Happen Again? THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Control: How Can it be changed?
The scientific method is a process for gathering
A PSYCHOLOGIST WONDER WHY SO MANY data and processing information. It provides well-
COMPUTER SCIENTISTS SEEM TO BE defined steps to standardize how scientific
MALE? knowledge is gathered through a logical, rational
problem-solving method.
DESCRIPTION
The psychologist observes and notes that many “non-
techies” stereotypically perceive the life and environment This is an example of how scientific method is applied in
of a computer scientist as someone who lives and human functioning.
- Electronically
- Verbally CORRELATION DOES NOT INDICATE CAUSATION.
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of
data from a sample (subset of individuals) from a Cause and effect relationship
Approaches to research larger population. - changes in one variable cause the changes in
 Case Study the other variable; can be determined only through an
 Naturalistic Observation Archival Research experimental research design.
 Archival Studies - uses past records or data sets to Confounding variable
 Correlational answer various research questions, or to search - unanticipated outside factor that affects both
 Experimental for interesting patterns or relationships. (For variables of interest, often giving the false impression that
example: hardcopy or electronically) changes in one variable causes changes in the other
Case Study/Descriptive Study variable.
Correlational Research
Advantages: • A correlation is an association or relationship in Example: As ice-cream sales increase, so does the
- Clinical or case studies focus on one individual. the occurrence of two or more events. verall rate in crime. A relationship exists between ice-
- The studied individual is typically in an extreme or • For example, if one twin has hyperactivity, a creama nd crime but is it correlation or does one cause
unique psychological circumstance that differentiates correlation will tell us the likelihood that the other the other? In this example, temperature is a confounding
them for the general public. twin also has hyperactivity. "e likelihood or variable. As the temperature increases, ice-cream sales
Disadvantages: strength of a relationship between two events is increase and people are more likely to be outside
Difficult to generalize results to the larger population. called a correlation coefficient. increasing crime rates.
Example: • A correlation coefficient is a number that
Genie was studied by psychologists after she was found indicates the strength of a relationship between EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
at age 13, having suffered severe abuse and social two or more events: the closer the number is to –
isolation. Psychologists were interested in the effect 1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the  The scientific method is an approach of gathering
social isolation had on her development. relationship. information and answering questions so that errors
and biases are minimized.
Naturalistic Observations  An experiment is a method of identifying cause and
effect relationships by following a set of rules and
Advantage: guidelines thath minimize the possibility of error,
- Observation of bahavior in its natural setting bias, and chance occurences.
- To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors it is
proven effective. How to conduct an experiment?
- Naturalistic behavior is generally hidden under scrutiny
or observation. 1. (ASK) DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS
Disadvantages: - A hypothesis is an educated guess about
Observer bias - when observations may be skewed to some phenomenon and is stated in precise, concrete
align with observer expectations. language to rule out confusions or error in the meaning of
Considerations: its terms.
Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help 2. IDENTIFY VARIABLES
eliminate observer bias. Independent Variable - is a treatment or
something that the researcher controls or manipulates.
Surveys Dependent Variable - is one or more of the
subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the
A list of questions that can be delivered in many ways: potential effects of the treatment or independent variable.
- Paper and pencil
responsibe for detecting and removing or
3. CHOOSE RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS correcting these consequences.
- Random selection means that each participant Ethics : Research involving animal subject
in a simple population has an equal chance of being
selected for the experiment. - 90%of psychological research involving animal
4. ASSIGN PARTICIPANTS subjects uses rodents or birds.
- Control Group is composed of participants - Animals make good substitutes because many
who undergo all the same procedures as the of their basic processes are sufficiently similar to
experimental participants except that the control thos in humans.
participants do not receive the treatment. - Animals are used when the reseach would be
- Experimental Group is composed of those unethical in human participants.
who receive the treatment. - Researchers must still aim to minimize pain or
5. MANIPULATE distress.
- manipulate the independent variable by
administering the treatment (or one level of the
treatment) to the experimental group.

A double-blind procedure means neither


participants nor researchers know which group is
receiving which treatment.
6. ANALYZE
Statistical procedures are used to determine
whether differences observed in dependent variables
(behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment)
or to error or chance occurence.
It shows if the result occured by chance.

ETHICS IN CONDUCTING PSYCHOLOGICAL


RESEARCH

1. Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed


against the study’s value to science. In other words,
people come first, research second.
2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed
decision about participation.
3. Deception must be justified.
4. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.
5. Participants must be protected from risks or told
explicity of risks.
6. Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true
nature of the study and expectations of results.
7. Data must remain confidential.
8. If for any reason a study results in undesirable
consequences for the participants, the researcher is

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